# Session No. 15

### Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management

### 

### Session Title: Emergency Medical Care and Triage

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

15.1 Identify the nature of injuries that result from disaster and the
need for emergency medical assistance.

15.2 Describe how people care for the injured and review other issues to
consider regarding the medical aspects of disaster response.

15.3 Understand the importance, processes and ethics of triage.

4.  Underscore the need for Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT),
    along with their means of operation.

15.5 Introduce the class project or individual writing assignment.

**Scope:**

This session explores the emergency medical function in disaster
response operations. After explaining the types of injuries that result
from disasters, the professor discusses typical behavioral patterns of
victims and medical personnel. The nature of triage is examined, along
with its steps for implementation and ethical dilemmas. Disaster Medical
Assistance Teams (DMAT) are discussed, including their purpose and
method of operation. The class concludes with a group debate about the
ethics of triage or with the professor reviewing expectations for a
written assignment about the advantages and disadvantages of triage. If
desired, the professor may wish to hand out and discuss information
about basic first aid and public health knowledge as all emergency
managers and responders should be able to care for those who have been
wounded in a disaster.

**Session Requirements:**

1.  Instructor Reading:

> Brillman, Judith C., David Doezemma, Dan Tandberg, David P. Sklar,
> Kathleen D. Davis, Shelby Simms, Betty J. Skipper. 1996. "Triage:
> Limitations in Predicting Need for Emergent Care and Hospital
> Admission." *Annals of Emergency Medicine* 27 (4): 493-500.
>
> CERT Training Manual.
> <http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/CERT/mtrls.asp>. Federal Emergency
> Management Agency: Washington, D.C.
>
> Champion, Howard R., William J. Sacco, Patricia S. Gainer and Susan M.
> Patow. 1988. "The Effect of Medical Direction on Trauma Triage."
> *Journal of Trauma* 28 (2): 235-239.
>
> Cook, S. and D. Sinclair. 1997. "Emergency Department Triage: A
> Program Assessment Using the Tools and Continuous Quality
> Improvement." *Journal of Emergency Medicine* 15 (6): 889-894.
>
> Dececco, Joe. 1986. "Is Triage Ethical?" *Emergency* (April): 60-63.
>
> Leibovici, Dan, Ofer N. Gofrit, Raphael J. Heruti, Shmuel C. Shapira,
> Joshua Shemer, and Michael Stein. 1997. "Interhospital Patient
> Tranfer: A Quality Improvement Indicator for Prehospital Triage in
> Mass Casualties." *American Journal of Emergency Medicine* 15 (4):
> 341-344.
>
> Mayer, Thom A. 1997. "Triage: History and Horizons." *Topics in
> Emergency Medicine* 19 (2): 1-11.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Caring for the Injured, Dead and
> Distraught." *Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics
> for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Noji, E.K. 1997. *The Public Health Consequences of Disasters*. New
> York: Oxford University Press.
>
> O'Halloran, Philip. 1989. "Triage: Issues and Ethics." *Emergency*
> (February): 45-47.
>
> Oregon 1 Disaster Medical Assistance Team. 2001. "Oregon Disaster
> Medical Team Standard Operating Proceedure."
> <http://www.odmt.org/procedures.html>.
>
> Pepe, Paul E. and Vladimir Kvetan. 1991. "Field Management and
> Critical Care in Mass Disasters." *Critical Care Clinics* 7 (2):
> 401-420.
>
> Pryor, John P. 2003. "The 2001 World Trade Center Disaster."
> *International Journal of Disaster Medicine* 1: 6-18.
>
> Quarantelli, E.L. 1983. *Delivery of Emergency Medical Services in
> Disasters*. New York: Irvington.
>
> Quarantelli, E.L. 1970. "The Community General Hospital: Its Immediate
> Problems in Disasters." *American Behavioral Scientist* 13: 381-391.
>
> Shoaf, Kimberly I., Loc H. Ngyyen, Harvinder R. Sareen, Linda B.
> Bourque. 1998. "Injuries as a Result of California Earthquakes in the
> Past Decade." *Disasters* 22 (3): 218-235.
>
> Tierney, Kathleen J. 1985. "Emergency Medical Preparedness and
> Response in Disasters: The Need for Interorganizational Coordination."
> *Public Administration* *Review* (Special Issue): 77-84.
>
> U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2001. "Emergency
> Response: Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMATs) and Disaster
> Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORTs)."
> <http://www.hhs.gov/new/press/2001pres/20010911c.html>.

1.  Student Readings:

> Auf der Heide, Erik. 1987. "Triage," chapter 8 in *Disaster Response:
> Principles and Practices for Coordination*,
> <http://www.coe-dmha.org/dr/flash.htm>.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Caring for the Injured, Dead and
> Distraught." *Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics
> for Resilience*. New York: Wiley.
>
> Shoaf, Kimberly I., Loc H. Ngyyen, Harvinder R. Sareen, Linda B.
> Bourque. 1998. "Injuries as a Result of California Earthquakes in the
> Past Decade." *Disasters* 22 (3): 218-235.

3\. Transparencies:

> Types of Injuries Sustained on 9/11
>
> What to Expect and Consider
>
> Classification of Burns
>
> Triage Categories
>
> Disaster Medical Assistance Teams

4\. Handouts:

Questions about Triage

Head to Toe Assessments

Basic First Aid and Public Health Principles

**Remarks:**

1\. Because emergency medical care in disasters can be a very technical
subject, the professor may want to rely on guest speakers to teach
portions of the material in this session. Experts in this area may
include fire fighters, emergency medical technicians, nurses, doctors or
hospital risk managers and administrators. One of these individuals
could serve as a guest speaker, or several may be invited into the
classroom for a panel-type question and answer session. If the latter
activity is undertaken, the professor may want to have students write
down questions about emergency medical response and turn them in before
the class begins. The professor should also be aware that some students
may also provide unique perspectives as they might have responded to
medical emergencies in the past.

2\. The professor should reiterate that emergent groups are typically
the first people to provide emergency medical care to disaster victims
(until fire and ambulance services arrive). Emergent groups also provide
medical assistance for longer periods of time in large disasters that
outstretch official medical resources.

3\. The professor may want to obtain a triage card from a fire fighter
or paramedic in order to visually illustrate the different categories of
triage.

4\. During the session, students must understand the controversy
surrounding triage. While some argue that limited resources are best
utilized when they help the most people possible, others assert that
triage is an inhumane or unethical approach to medical care. The
professor should have tact in approaching this subject, and ensure that
both sides of the argument are given attention and equal consideration.

5\. The professor may want to illustrate the unique relation of triage
to the EMT Oath (See Dececco 1986, 61-63).

6\. The professor may want to discuss the Emergency Medical System (a
computer program to track disease symptoms, bed availability and
personnel resources). This can be viewed at
[www.EMSytem.com](../www.EMSytem.com).

7\. Inviting a local member of a DMAT team to visit as a guest speaker
would be an excellent way to introduce students to this organization.

8\. The professor could utilize a group debate or individual writing
assignment to ensure that the students understand the pros and cons of
triage. It is advisable to do one or the other -- not both.

9\. Because disasters recur and produce secondary hazards (e.g.
aftershocks, fires, broken glass, etc.), anyone involved in disaster
response should have basic first aid knowledge and skills. Emergency
workers might be put in a situation where they will be required to treat
themselves or others (e.g., those completing damage assessments might be
injured by a building that collapses upon them). Although this is more
of a training issue rather than an academic topic, the professor may
wish to distribute and refer to the handouts \"Head to Toe Assessments\"
and \"Basic First Aid and Public Health Principles.\"

**Objective 15.1 Identify the nature of injuries that result from
disaster and the need for emergency medical assistance.**

**Requirements:**

**Present the following information as a lecture.**

I. **Injuries are common to most emergencies and disasters**.

> A. **Some emergency situations** may **produce a small number** of
> injuries.
>
> 1\. **A collision on the freeway** may hurt **one or two drivers**
> only.
>
> 2\. **An apartment fire**, for example, may result a **handful of
> people** (e.g. half a dozen) that require emergency medical care.
>
> B. **Other disaster events generate larger numbers** of persons who
> need medical attention.
>
> 1\. The **Hyatt Skywalk** collapse resulted in at least **188
> injuries** (Waugh 1988, 128).
>
> 2\. **At least 1,103 people** were treated in area hospitals after the
> 2001 **World Trade Center disaster** (Pryor 2003, 9).
>
> 3\. **Between 8,000 and 11,000 individuals sought medical care**
> following the 1994 **Northridge earthquake** (Shoaf et. al. 1998,
> 233).
>
> 4\. Note: these numbers **may not reflect that actual number of people
> who required emergency medical care** (because these **statistics are
> difficult to obtain** and **could be inaccurate** as some victims
> **take care of their own injuries**).
>
> 5\. Regardless, it is obvious that **disasters create enormous medical
> challenges**. For instance, "**From 1975 to 1994, natural hazards . .
> . injured some 100,000 in the United States and its territories**"
> (Mileti 1999, 4).

II\. **Injuries resulting from disaster will vary in terms of
seriousness**.

> A. The **nature of the injury** in a disaster is a result of a
> **myriad of variables** (Shoaf et. al. 1998):
>
> 1\. The **magnitude of the hazard agent**.
>
> 2\. The **location of the victim** at the **time of the disaster**.
>
> 3\. The **availability and performance of protective structures**.
>
> 4\. The **age, gender and prior health status** of the disaster
> victim.
>
> B. As a result, **some** **wounds** **will be minor**.
>
> 1\. For example, victims might receive **superficial cuts** from
> **broken glass**.
>
> C. **Other injuries** will be very **serious or even
> life-threatening**.
>
> 1\. Individuals could be **crushed under a collapsed building,
> damaging vital internal organs**.

III\. It is necessary to recognize that **different types of disasters
produce different types of injuries**.

> A. **Flooding will produce hypothermia** if victims are in water for
> an excessive amount of time.
>
> B. **Earthquakes and tornadoes cause lacerations** (from debris) **and
> fractures** (from blunt force trauma).
>
> C. **Fires** are associated with **burns and respiratory problems**.
>
> D. A **chemical release** at a factory may **disable one's nervous
> system**.
>
> E. **A terrorist attack involving biological weapons** may produce
> **flu-like symptoms** which can worsen over time and lead to death.

IV\. **Most** **disasters will generate a plethora of injuries
however**.

> A. For instance, out of a total of **790 victims of the 9/11 terrorist
> attack,** the following problems were treated (Pryor 2003, 9) (show
> and discuss Types of Injuries transparency):
>
> [Injury Number Percentage]{.underline}
>
> Inhalation 387 49
>
> Ocular (eye irritation) 204 26
>
> Sprain or strain 110 14
>
> Laceration 110 14
>
> Contusion 98 12
>
> Fracture 46 6
>
> Burn 39 5
>
> Closed head trauma 14 2
>
> Crush 8 1

V. It is important to note that **ordinary citizens** **are not the only
ones at risk of injury**.

> A. "**35 fire fighters received medical treatment** during and after
> the **\[MGM\] fire**" (Ruchelman 1988, 109).
>
> B. **35% of the people treated** after the World Trade Center collapse
> included **emergency medical technicians, police officers and fire
> fighters** (Pryor 2003, 9).
>
> C. **Emergency responders work in very dangerous circumstances; they
> also require medical attention because of on-the-job injuries**.

**Objective 15.2 Describe how people care for the injured and review
other issues to consider regarding the medical aspects of disaster
response.**

**Requirements:**

**Present the following information as a lecture.**

**I. Fire fighters, emergency medical technicians, nurses, doctors and
others involved in emergency management should know what to expect
during the medical response (show "What to Expect and Consider"
transparency).**

A. There may be **multiple waves of disaster victims**.

> 1\. Many people will be **injured when the disaster strikes** while
> others will be **injured when response and recovery operations** **are
> underway**.
>
> 2\. The **terrorist attacks on 9/11 illustrate these waves** clearly.
>
> a\. **"The impact of the aircraft into the towers undoubtedly caused
> hundreds of casualties and injuries. . . . This first wave also
> included a few patients that were burned when ignited jet fuel filled
> elevator shafts and engulfed the occupants. . . . Along with the burn
> victims, many people outside the building were hit by falling
> debris"** (Pryor 2003, 13).
>
> b\. **"The collapse caused a second wave of injuries to civilians and
> rescue workers around the periphery of the collapsed zone"** (Pryor
> 2003, 13).
>
> c\. **"Lastly, those injured in the subsequent rescue effort
> represented a third wave of injuries that continued at a low rate for
> several months"** (Pryor 2003, 13).
>
> B. Victims will be **treated by emergent groups first** and then by
> **professional medical personnel**. In many cases, **volunteers and
> medical personnel will work side by side to meet emergency medical
> needs**.
>
> 1\. After the **Hyatt skywalk collapse**, **"hotel staff and doctors
> attending the dance or social functions in the hotel responded by
> moving the crowd away from the debris, removing the casualties not
> buried in the rubble, and establishing . . . \[a first\] aid station .
> . . "** (Waugh 1988, 119).
>
> 2\. Later on, **"Paramedics, police, and fire service personnel from
> all over the city and from surrounding communities responded quickly
> thereafter"** (Waugh 1988, 119).
>
> 3\. "**A group of twenty radiologists from St. Luke's Hospital in the
> city and volunteers who were in or near the hotel or attracted by the
> initial media reports organized the first response**." (Waugh 1988,
> 119).
>
> 4\. **"The ad hoc response by hotel staff and medical personnel
> on-site has been credited with much of the success of the initial
> rescue effort"** (Waugh 1988, 119).
>
> C. Medical personnel **will show up in large quantities** or even in
> **over-abundance**.
>
> 1\. In the response to the Hyatt Skywalk collapse, "**An estimated 250
> police, 250 fire personnel, and over one hundred paramedics were
> joined by volunteers from hospitals, civic organizations, and other
> groups. Hospital staffs were similarly bolstered by off-duty personnel
> as news of the event spread. All together, an estimated one thousand
> personnel exclusive of the hospital staffs, were involved directly in
> the search for, transport, and treatment of casualties**" (Waugh 1988,
> 119).
>
> 2\. In another case, **"Forty-two percent (95) of the participants in
> the disaster response were already at the hospital when the tornado
> struck. Another 18 percent (40) were contacted by switch-board
> operators and others at the hospital and were requested to report to
> duty, while fully 40 percent (89) of those involved reported to the
> hospital voluntarily after learning of the disaster"** (Stallings
> 1975, 49).
>
> 3\. One hospital employee after 9/11 recalled **"one of our problems
> was crowd control as so many of our medical professionals gravitated
> to the emergency department to observe and offer their services"** (in
> Pryor 2003, 14).
>
> D. **There may be several legal liabilities associated with medical
> responses to disasters.**
>
> 1\. **Well-intentioned volunteers may inadvertently injure or kill
> victims requiring medical treatment** (e.g. extracting an individual
> from debris could lead to a more severe back injury for the victim).
>
> a\. It is therefore **important to transfer the medical function to
> knowledgeable and skilled workers** when and if the situation permits.
>
> b\. Note: There are now many **"Good Samaritan" laws** to **protect
> individuals who do all they can to assist those who are wounded in
> accidents and disasters. However, this varies in local and state
> laws.**
>
> 2\. **Because of the chaotic nature** of disasters (e.g. many patients
> and many volunteers), it is **difficult to ensure** that even
> **working professionals who volunteer medical services** always have
> **sufficient qualifications**. This can **result in malpractice
> lawsuits** if a victim does not receive necessary medical care.
>
> a\. It is therefore **necessary to check the credentials** of medical
> personnel **on site or at the hospital**.
>
> b\. One way to accomplish this is to **have emergency medical
> technicians, nurses, and doctors check-in** **at a specified
> location** (e.g., incident command post, staging area, nurses desk,
> waiting room). Those verifying credentials will then **obtain
> information about training, education, prior experience, current
> employment, work record, position/title**, **and area of
> specialization**.
>
> c\. At this point, the **collected data can be stored and sorted to
> facilitate selection of needed knowledge and skills**.
>
> d\. For instance, at St. Vincent's hospital after the 9/11 terrorist
> attack, "**personnel were pooled into ready rooms, one for surgeons,
> physicians, nurses, etc. When a particular talent was needed,
> supervisors in these ready rooms were contacted**" (Pryor 2003, 13).
>
> E. The complex **nature of disaster will pose other challenges** for
> medical personnel.
>
> 1\. Victims will **not only be brought to hospitals by ambulance**
> while or after **paramedics discuss the patient's status with the
> hospital**. Many patients will be **self-referred (walking wounded) or
> brought in by others without advanced notification**. As a result,
> some **hospitals may be overwhelmed** with patients.
>
> a\. "**If medical care and transportation are not furnished promptly
> by official emergency organizations, victims do not usually sit idly
> by and await its arrival. Instead, they get themselves to the hospital
> by the most expedient means available. Often, they will go to the
> nearest hospital, the one with which they are most familiar, or the**
> **one in which they have the greatest trust. Field disaster first-aid
> stations are often bypassed, either because their location is unknown,
> or because for many people 'first aid' is seen as an inferior level of
> medical care**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 6-7).
>
> b\. After the Hyatt skywalk collapse, "**seventy-five cabs volunteered
> their services for the transport of casualties and emergency
> personnel**" (Waugh 1988, 119).
>
> c\. During the response to the 1983 Coalinga Earthquake "**Only 7 of
> the 38 casualties arriving at the Coalinga District Hospital in the
> first hour came by ambulance. The rest came by private car or on foot.
> The most seriously injured victim arrived in the vehicle of a local
> physician**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 7, citing Seismic Safety Committee
> 1983, 83 and Kallsen 1983, 25).
>
> d\. When a tornado struck Edmonton (Alberta, Canada), "**Out of more
> than 300 injured victims, 30% were transported to the hospital by a
> family member, 20% were taken by a stranger, 18% arrived by bus, and
> 16% were conveyed by ambulance**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 7, citing
> Scanlon 1988).
>
> e\. In another case, "**Police loaded 26 injured persons into three
> non-ambulance vehicles, and these were the first to arrive at the
> hospital**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 6, summarizing Quarantelli 1983, 70).
>
> f\. "Dr. Kevin Chason of Mount Sinai Hospital highlighted two
> recurring problems in hospital responses to disaster, ' . . . **there
> was communication breakdown between the city's disaster operations and
> the hospitals, so we were in the dark as to what was coming our way. .
> .**'" (Pryor 2003, 14).
>
> g\. "**Hospitals rarely have an accurate picture of the total scope of
> impact, victim dispersal or rapid alert**" (Quarantelli 1970 as
> summarized by Mileti, Drabek and Haas 1975, 84).
>
> h\. "**Lack of a communication system also resulted in an uneven
> distribution of the load among hospitals and in hospitals not knowing
> how many casualties to expect**" (Eldar 1981, 114).
>
> i\. In another case, "**90% of 140 casualties were taken to one
> hospital out of 17 in the community. The remaining 15 were distributed
> among three other hospitals**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 9 citing Golec
> 1977, 172).
>
> j\. It is thus imperative that **paramedics and hospitals contact each
> other to ensure** that the **distribution of patients does not
> over-burden any single medical care facility**.
>
> 2\. **Responders from one organization may inadvertently interfere
> with the medical operations of another**.
>
> a\. "**Helicopters were also used to deliver breathing-apparatus
> bottles. . . .However, helicopters also contributed to certain
> problems. . . . Rotor wash was responsible for blowing loose debris
> and blankets above the rescue treatment areas**" (Ruchelman 1988,
> 108).
>
> 3\. In major disasters, **field hospitals will be set up** to care for
> victims **in or around the impacted area, or outside the hospital**.
>
> a\. **After the collapse of the World Trade Center, John Pryor noted:
> "The fire and police departments set up a command center at the corner
> of Chambers Street and West Side Drive. A medical . . . area was also
> set up at this location. At approximately 11:30 am EST, 1 hour after
> the second tower collapse, this . . . area was staffed with
> approximately 30 emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics,
> one anesthesiologist, four medical physicians, one trauma surgeon . .
> . , three nurses and several medical students. . . . The Stuyvesant
> High School, which was situated on the corner of Chambers Street, was
> commandeered to provide a treatment area for minor injuries. . . .
> Similar . . . areas were set up throughout the city, including at the
> Ferry Terminal and Broadway and Reade Streets. As the day progressed,
> large field hospitals were set up at the Chelsea pier and the Jacob
> Javits center, both large entertainment complexes with wide-open
> indoor spaces" (Pryor 2003, 14-16).**
>
> b\. **Andrea Scheibner of Beth Israel Medical Center, stated "As
> victims arrived \[at the hospital\], things got chaotic. The
> \[emergency department\] filled up rapidly. . . . Stable patients were
> sent to makeshift areas of the hospital so that we could reserve the
> \[emergency department\] for the most critical patients"** (Pryor
> 2003, 14).
>
> 4\. Some **hospitals may have to be evacuated** during the disaster.
>
> a\. A **medical center became flooded** in Houston **after Tropical
> Storm Allison**.
>
> b\. This **created several logistical challenges** **to move the
> patients** to other hospitals (especially those on life support
> systems).
>
> 5\. **Richard Bievy, Director of the Kansas City Health Department,
> identified** **these and other problems** in the medical response to
> the Hyatt skywalk collapse:
>
> a\. "**Communication among doctors, paramedics, and ambulance
> personnel was inadequate because they lacked walkie-talkies, two-way
> radios and bullhorns, although some were borrowed from the police and
> fire units that responded**;
>
> b\. **Medical supplies, particularly oxygen, splints, and drugs, were
> in short supply initially, although that problem was solved when
> supplies arrived from other jurisdictions**;
>
> c\. **Ambulance drivers left their vehicles, slowing down the pickup
> line of casualties, because the drivers were curious about the
> conditions in the hotel**;
>
> d\. **Life Flight helicopters were withdrawn before all of the
> critically injured were transported**;
>
> e\. **Distribution of patients among area hospitals was inefficient
> and too few casualties were sent to the trauma unit at the Kansas
> University Medical Center; and**
>
> f\. **Ambulance reaction times were too slow, although the initial
> response times were very good, because of, among other things, the
> problem of establishing the one-way flow to and from the hotel
> entrance**" (in Waugh 1988, 120-121).

**Objective 15.3 Understand the importance, processes and ethics of
triage.**

**Requirements:**

**Present the following information as a lecture and discussion.**

I. **Mass emergencies and disasters will produce an extremely large
number of injuries**. In many cases, the number of **patients will far
exceed** the number and capacity of **medical personnel**.

> A. For this reason, emergency responders must **follow a systematic
> and efficient approach** to emergency medical care.
>
> B. This includes the **triage, initial treatment, and transport** of
> injured to hospitals for additional medical care (see CERT, Chapter
> 4).
>
> C. It may also necessitate the **handling of victims who have died**
> as a result of their injuries (Note: this will be covered in session
> 16).

II\. **Triage** is **an initial assessment and separation** of victims
for treatment **based on the severity of their injuries**.

> A. O'Halloran has noted (1989, 45) that **triage means to "choose,"
> and "was originally used as an agricultural system for discarding
> defective produce."**
>
> B. According to Auf der Heide (1989, 1), "**Triage comes from the
> French verb, trier, which means 'to sort.' It evolved, perhaps as
> early as Napoleon's time, as a technique for assigning priorities for
> treatment of the injured when resources were limited."**
>
> C. Mayer recognizes (1997, 1-2) both of these sources of the term, and
> states that **triage means to "'pick out or sift.' The term was first
> used in the late 1780s and, interestingly enough, initially referred
> to the sorting of rotten fruit from fresh fruit in French markets.
> Shortly, however, the word came to . . . mean \[the\] sorting \[of\]
> battlefield casualties, a process by which soldiers with mortal wounds
> were picked out to die and those with less serious injuries were
> selected for treatment. The concept of triage was initially applied to
> the battlefield not only to ensure that resources were not wasted on
> soldiers who were mortally wounded but also to help ensure that
> soldiers with minor injuries could be treated and returned to the
> front as quickly as possible, so that forces could be deployed at
> their maximal level."**
>
> D. Regardless of the meaning and source, the **goal of triage** is to
> **do the most good** for the **largest number of casualties** within
> the confines of **limited medical personnel**.
>
> E. Mayer states (1997, 2) that the purpose of triage is to "**to
> identify severity of illness and injury . . . so that patients are
> seen at the right place at the right time to receive the right level
> of care."**
>
> F. Mayer also lists **the five functions of triage** (1997, 3):
>
> 1\. **Identify severity of illness or injury**.
>
> 2\. **Provide appropriate stabilizing clinical and nonclinical
> supportive care**.
>
> 3\. **Communicate clinical and nonclinical information to other
> emergency providers to transition patient care appropriately**.
>
> 4\. **Provide the first, best opportunity for customer service to
> patients, families and the community**.
>
> 5\. **Act as an "ancillary lobby" for the hospital.**

III\. **Triage involves the evaluation, sorting and treatment** of those
injured in disasters.

> A. As the assessment takes place (see handout \"Head to Toe
> Assessment\"), the medical care provider **sorts the disaster victims
> (by attaching the tags)** into different groups **based on the extent
> of their injuries**.
>
> 1\. This **separation** is both **categorical and physical**.
>
> a\. The separation of victims into **categories helps paramedics and
> hospital staff know which patients are in the most need of medical
> care,** and **which patients can wait until those with more severe
> injuries are treated or until additional help arrives**.
>
> b\. The **CERT manual** designates **three categories** which include:

-   **"I" for immediate care**

-   **"D" for delayed care**

-   **and "DEAD" for the morgue**

> c\. There are **many other classification schemes** which are **more
> detailed and common** than the CERT method (show transparency):

  --------------- ------------------- ---------------- -------------------
  Number          Picture             Color            Word

  0               Cross               Black            Dead/dying

  I               Rabbit              Red              Immediate

  II              Turtle              Yellow           Delayed

  III             Ambulance with an   Green            Minor
                  "X" over it                          
  --------------- ------------------- ---------------- -------------------

> 2\. These **patients are then moved to different locations** based on
> the extent of the category and need for treatment. In other words,
> **there will be an area** (e.g., room, driveway, portion of the park,
> segment of the parking lot) **for the dead, immediate, delayed and
> minor injuries**.
>
> 3\. The **groups are then treated** according to their injuries:
>
> a\. The **dead will not receive any attention** until the emergency
> medical needs of others has been addressed (e.g., body identification
> and removal will occur later when the coroner arrives).
>
> b\. **Those with immediate needs will be treated first and sent to the
> hospital as soon as possible**.
>
> c\. **Those designated as delayed will receive treatment second** (at
> the scene, or at a field or regular hospital when the hospital is
> ready to admit additional patients).
>
> d\. **Those labeled as minor will be treated on site** **once the
> immediate and delayed patients have been treated**, and will be
> encouraged to **avoid going to the hospitals**.
>
> 4\. A **commonly made mistake** in triage is to **send people to the
> hospital that do not require extra medical care**.
>
> a\. **"Frykberg reported an over-triage rate of 80% among the 346
> patients treated during the Beirut Airport terrorist bombing in
> 1993"** (Pryor 2003, 14).
>
> b\. **The response to the Oklahoma City bombing indicated that "only
> 83 (11%) of the 759 survivors were injured severely enough to be
> hospitalized"** (Pryor 2003, 14).
>
> c\. **"Over-triage was also noted during the management of the 111
> patients from the Atlanta Olympic Park bombing in 1996"** (Pryor 2003,
> 14).
>
> d\. **After the World Trade Center collapse, "of the estimated 1103
> survivors that were treated at five hospitals, only 181 (16%) were
> injured severely enough to be hospitalized"** (Pryor 2003, 14).
>
> 5\. It is consequently **imperative** that the **medical care
> providers** in the field ensure that **triage has been performed
> accurately**.
>
> a\. "**Over triage can cause hospital emergency departments to be
> over-run with minimally injured patients, consuming resources and
> potentially delaying care to more severely injured patients**" (Pryor
> 2003, 14).

IV\. **Triage is a controversial** **approach** to mass emergency
situations.

> A. **Some scholars and practitioners regard it to be a very important
> and necessary procedure**.
>
> 1\. **Triage is regarded to be the "keystone" to effective medical
> care in mass casualty situations** (Bowers 1960, 59).
>
> 2\. "**The technique is considered by many to be essential for good
> disaster medical care**" (Auf der Heide 1989, 1).
>
> 3\. Many **hospitals, ambulance services and FEMA all advocate
> triage** in times of disaster.
>
> B. Others assert that **triage is unethical**.
>
> 1\. "**There is great variability among physicians, nurses, and even
> computer programs in correctly assessing level of acuity and
> severity**" (Mayer 1997, 9). Therefore, some patients may die because
> of **error and mistakes**.
>
> 2\. "Day to day field triage **decisions** are often **made by persons
> of limited medical background**" (Champion and Gainer 1988, 235).
>
> 3\. Triage may **go against EMT and physician oaths** of conduct to
> minimize suffering, care for the injured, and prevent death.
>
> 4\. "When a mass casualty situation occurs, **reordering priorities of
> patient treatment results in** a redefinition of the EMT's duties to
> certain patients, and signals **a shift in the rights of these
> patients**" (Dececco 1986, 60).
>
> 5\. "Time spent on one . . . **patient with severe injuries will
> deprive a number of (other) . . . patients with less severe but
> dangerous injuries of the emergency medical care** needed for
> survival" (Dececco 1986, 62).

**Objective 15.4 Underscore the need for Disaster Medical Assistance
Teams (DMAT), along with their means of operation.**

**Requirements:**

**Present the following information as a lecture.**

I.  In **major, wide-spread disasters**, **local resources** for triage
    and medical care **will be completely overwhelmed**. For this
    reason, **additional well-trained medical professionals will be
    required**. **The National Disaster Medical System (formerly under
    the United States Department of Health and Human Services and now
    under the Federal Emergency Management Agency), has instituted
    Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) for this purpose**.

    A.  According to **United States Department of Health and Human
        Services**, a DMAT is "**A group of professional and
        paraprofessional medical personnel (supported by a cadre of
        logistical and administrative staff) designed to provide
        emergency medical care during a disaster or other event**."

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    1.  The **mission** of the **Nevada 1** Disaster Medical Assistance
        team **helps one to understand the purpose of DMATs**:

> **"Provide essential emergency medical care and patient evacuation
> during times of natural or man-made disaster, or in time of national
> security emergency. We augment and aid local jurisdictions who are
> overwhelmed in managing patient care, and are committed to serve the
> citizens of the great State of Nevada and the United** **States of
> America as an emergency response team through teamwork,
> professionalism, and the ability to serve"
> (<http://www.nv1dmat.com/main.php>).**

2.  The team members include **doctors, nurses, paramedics, pharmacists
    and other health related professionals**.

3.  In order to participate as a team member, **these individuals must
    maintain the proper medical credentials (e.g., certificates and
    licenses).**

4.  They must also ensure that they **have the proper immunizations,
    health clearance forms and other documents** to ensure their safety
    and that of others**.**

5.  Team members also participate in **special drills and exercises to
    help train for medical operations**.

6.  For instance, in July 2000, a **disaster medical exercise (known as
    Operation Lone Star) was conducted in McAllen, Texas**.

> a\. Over **200 U.S Navy reserves, Texas Army National Guard members,
> Texas Department of Health workers and DMAT representatives
> participated in the 12-day operation**.
>
> b\. **Free medical and dental services** were provided to more than
> **5,600 local residents**.
>
> c\. The exercise enhanced skills **in patient transportation,
> distribution and medical care**, and increased **coordination of
> logistical support** as well.
>
> 6\. Note: **The DMAT concept** was **generated in 1995** as **local
> and state experts met with the DHHS to discuss the need to improve
> medical care** in disasters. There are now **80 DMATs** in the NDMS,
> which includes over 7,000 private medical and support personnel.

B.  **If local medical resources are stretched beyond limit**, a federal
    disaster is declared and **DMAT members** **are activated as federal
    (and, in some cases, state) employees**.

    1.  As such, they are **paid as temporary employees** of the federal
        (or state) government.

    2.  They are **also protected by the Federal Tort Claims Act** in
        case of a **malpractice claim**.

> C. DMAT teams are **capable of functioning for extended periods of
> time** and in difficult conditions.
>
> 1\. **They have their own supplies (medical equipment, drugs, food,
> water),** which can be replenished by the National Disaster Medical
> System.
>
> 2\. DMAT teams also **provide their own housing and field hospitals**
> (usually tents), thus allowing them to **act independently if the
> housing stock has been depleted** due to the disaster.

D.  **DMATs operate in the following manner**.

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1.  While working in their various places of employment, team members
    **maintain a 24/7 standby** notice.

2.  If a disaster occurs and requires deployment, **team members will be
    notified (via phone or page) where to report and at what time**.

3.  DMAT members will **leave for the scene no later than 12 hours after
    being notified**.

4.  Once at the disaster site, **DMATs will perform medical and
    non-medical procedures** (e.g., operations, inoculations, erecting
    tents, food preparation, repacking) **in accordance with established
    standards and in conjunction with commanding officer requests**.

5.  Every effort is made to allow members to **return home as soon as
    possible** (e.g., within two weeks).

6.  If needed, **other teams or members will be deployed and rotated to
    backfill or meet the demands** until emergency medical care is no
    longer needed.

    E.  An Example: After the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York, **at
        least five DMATs were activated** **to care for those injured in
        the incident**.

        1.  They provided **medical services at various clinics** within
            five blocks of the WTC site.

> 2\. These **DMATs played an important role in caring for some of the
> 6,408 injured victims and reducing the burden on local health care
> providers**.

**Objective 15.5 Introduce the class project or individual writing
assignments.**

**Requirements:**

**Conclude the class by engaging in a group debate or by outlining the
writing assignment (see handout).**

I. For the **group assignment**:

> A. **Divide the students into two groups**.
>
> B. **Ask one group to argue in favor of triage and the other to argue
> against it**.
>
> C. **Give the groups the handout of questions pertaining to triage.
> Ask the students to spend 10 minutes to develop arguments for or
> against triage (they may need to rely on the handout to assist them as
> they generate ideas)**.
>
> D. **Ask each group to identify a spokesperson, and have that
> individual present the group's findings to the class**.
>
> E. **Discuss the findings with the class after both sides have been
> presented**.

II\. For the individual **writing assignment**:

> A. **Distribute the handout to each student**.
>
> B. **Ask the students to write a 2-3 page paper (based on some or all
> of the questions in the handout).**
>
> C. **Review** **the questions in the handout**.
>
> D. **Determine if the students understand the assignment**.
>
> E. **Collect the papers the following class period**.

F.  **After grading the assignments, spend time discussing their
    thoughts on the matter when returning them to the students (in the
    subsequent session)**.

**Questions to be asked:**

**1. How do disasters produce injuries?**

**2. Do different types of disasters produce different injuries?**

**3. Who typically responds to the immediate medical needs of disaster
victims?**

**4. What should emergency personnel expect in terms of medical needs
and challenges after a disaster?**

**5. What is triage?**

**6. What are the goals of triage?**

**7. How is triage conducted?**

**8. Why is triage controversial?**

9.  **What is a DMAT?**

10. **Why are DMATs needed?**

11. **How do DMATs operate?**

Types of Injuries Sustained on 9/11

> [Injury Number Percentage]{.underline}
>
> Inhalation 387 49
>
> Ocular (eye irritation) 204 26
>
> Sprain or strain 110 14
>
> Laceration 110 14
>
> Contusion 98 12
>
> Fracture 46 6
>
> Burn 39 5
>
> Closed head trauma 14 2
>
> Crush 8 1

Taken from Pryor 2003, 9.

What to Expect and Consider

-   Multiple waves of victims

-   Victims treated first by emergent groups, then by trained
    professionals

-   Medical personnel will show up in large quantities

-   Legal liabilities

-   Need to verify qualifications

-   Self referred patients

-   No notice given before patient arrival

-   Overwhelmed hospitals

-   Possible need for hospital evacuation

-   Possible lack of supplies

Classification of Burns

+----------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------+
| **Cl           | **Skin Layers Affected**    | **Signs**             |
| assification** |                             |                       |
+----------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------+
| 1^st^ Degree   | -   Epidermis (superficial) | -   Reddened, dry     |
|                |                             |     skin              |
|                |                             |                       |
|                |                             | -   Pain              |
|                |                             |                       |
|                |                             | -   Swelling          |
|                |                             |     (possible)        |
+----------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------+
| 2^nd^ Degree   | -   Epidermis               | -   Reddened,         |
|                |                             |     blistered skin    |
|                | -   Partial destruction of  |                       |
|                |     dermis                  | -   Wet appearance    |
|                |                             |                       |
|                |                             | -   Pain              |
|                |                             |                       |
|                |                             | -   Swelling          |
|                |                             |     (possible)        |
+----------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------+
| 3^rd^ Degree   | -   Complete destruction of | -   Whitened,         |
|                |     epidermis and dermis    |     leathery, or      |
|                |                             |     charred (brown or |
|                | -   Possible subcutaneous   |     black)            |
|                |     damage (destroys all    |                       |
|                |     layers of skin and some | -   Painful or        |
|                |     or all underlying       |     relatively        |
|                |     structures)             |     painless          |
+----------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------+

Triage Categories

  ----------------- ------------------------- ------------- --------------
  Number            Picture                   Color         Word

  0                 Cross                     Black         Dead/dying

  I                 Rabbit                    Red           Immediate

  II                Turtle                    Yellow        Delayed

  III               Ambulance with an "X"     Green         Minor
                    over it                                 
  ----------------- ------------------------- ------------- --------------

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams

-   Operate under NDMS and FEMA

-   Made up of well-trained medical professionals

-   Activated as federal (or state) employees

-   Can function independently for extended periods of time

-   Are deployed and rotated as needed

-   Play an important role in reducing the burdens placed upon local
    medical care providers (e.g., 9/11 disaster in New York City)

Questions about Triage

1\. Are disasters different (in terms of medical care) than routine
emergencies? If so, how?

2\. How many victims are produced in major disasters?

3\. Will there be sufficient medical personnel to care for these victims
immediately?

4\. Is triage necessary? Why or why not?

5\. Will triage help response personnel provide adequate medical care to
the most number of people?

6\. What mistakes can make triage problematic or less effective?

7\. Are there ethical dilemmas inherent in triage? If so, what are they?

8\. Is it morally right to give medical treatment to some and not
others?

9\. Under what types of circumstances would one be justified in
prioritizing patient treatment?

10\. Can medical personnel avoid triage in disasters? If so, how?

Head to Toe Assessments

> In disasters that produce injuries, the medical care provider conducts
> a quick, but thorough head-to-toe assessment of the victim. This
> includes:
>
> 1\. Talking to the patient to see if they are alert and can convey the
> nature and extent of injuries.
>
> 2\. Looking at all parts of the body (e.g., head, neck, shoulders,
> chest, arms, abdomen, pelvis, legs and back) to identify obvious
> injuries.
>
> 3\. Listening to the sounds of the body or feeling for anything
> unusual.
>
> 4\. Taking vital statistics (e.g., pulse and respiration).
>
> 5\. Recording information about the victim on a tag and then attaching
> it to the body. Note: data may be written or otherwise noted on a tag
> (e.g., by ripping off a portion of the tag).

Basic First Aid and Public Health Principles

Everyone involved in disasters -- even those outside the medical
community (e.g. emergency managers, damage assessors, debris removal
contractors, crisis counselors, etc.) -- should have at least some
knowledge of basic first aid and public health principles. Anyone could
find him/herself or others in need of medical care because of the
dynamic and dangerous nature of disasters. For this reason, it is
imperative that people are able to identify and treat the most likely
injuries in a disaster (see CERT training manual).

> A. Opening the airway. At times, disaster victims may not be able to
> breathe because the tongue -- which is a muscle -- relaxes and blocks
> the passage or air. To remove this obstacle, the following steps
> should be taken:
>
> 1\. Position yourself at an arm's length from the victim, shake the
> victim and shout, "Can you hear me?"
>
> 2\. If the victim does not or cannot respond, place the palm of one
> hand on the victim's forehead.
>
> 3\. Place two fingers of the other hand under the chin and tilt the
> jaw upward while titling the head backward slightly.
>
> 4\. Place your ear over the victim's mouth, looking towards the
> victim's feet, and place a hand on the victim's abdomen.
>
> 5\. Look for chest rise.
>
> 6\. Listen for air exchange.
>
> 7\. Feel for abdominal movement.
>
> 8\. Repeat if necessary.
>
> B. Controlling bleeding. Individuals may be cut in a disaster. This
> bleeding may be arterial (spurting bleeding), venous (flowing
> bleeding) or capillary (oozing bleeding). If an adult loses 1/5 of his
> or her blood (approximately 1 liter), death may result. There are
> three methods to control bleeding:
>
> 1\. Place direct pressure over the wound by putting a clean dressing
> (e.g. a cloth) over the wound and pressing firmly. Maintain pressure
> on the dressing over the wound by wrapping the wound firmly with a
> pressure bandage. Note: A dressing is applied directly to the wound, a
> bandage holds the dressing in place.
>
> 2\. Elevate the wound above the heart (e.g., if the victim is laying
> on the floor, place the bleeding leg on a chair).
>
> 3\. Put pressure on the nearest pressure point to slow the flow of
> blood to the wound. Use the brachial point (on the inside of the arm
> near the bicep) for bleeding in the arm or the femoral point (above
> and at the top of the femur) for bleeding in the leg.
>
> C. Caring for Wounds. While or after bleeding has been controlled, it
> is necessary to clean wounds to prevent infection. Proper wound care
> requires the following:
>
> 1\. Control bleeding.
>
> 2\. Prevent secondary infection by irrigating wounds with sterile or
> purified water, flushing with a mild concentration of soap and water,
> and then irrigate with water again. Note: a bulb syringe is useful for
> irrigating wounds. In a disaster, a turkey baster may also be useful.
>
> 3\. Do not scrub the wound.
>
> 4\. Apply dressing and a bandage.
>
> 5\. In the absence of active bleeding, remove dressing, and check and
> flush wound at least every 4-6 hours.
>
> 6\. If there is active bleeding, redress over existing dressing and
> maintain pressure and elevation.
>
> 7\. Be aware of possible signs of infection:
>
> a\. Swelling around the wound site.
>
> b\. Discoloration.
>
> c\. Discharge from the wound.
>
> d\. Red striations from the wound site.
>
> D. Treating amputations. At times hazard agents will result in or
> require amputations. In order to treat amputations, the following
> steps must be taken:
>
> 1\. Control bleeding.
>
> 2\. Treat for shock (see below).
>
> 3\. Save tissue parts, wrapped in clean material and placed in a
> plastic bag, if available.
>
> 4\. Keep the tissue parts cool.
>
> 5\. Keep the severed part with the victim.
>
> E. Treating Impaled Objects. After a disaster, some victims may have
> foreign objects lodged in their bodies (e.g., as a result of flying
> debris). When a foreign object is impaled in the patient's body, it is
> necessary to:
>
> 1\. Immobilize the affected part of the body.
>
> 2\. Not attempt to move or remove the object, unless it is obstructing
> the airway.
>
> 3\. Try to control bleeding at the entrance wound without placing
> undue pressure on the foreign object.
>
> 4\. Clean and dress the wound. Wrap bulky dressings around the object
> to keep it from moving.
>
> F. Treating Factures, Dislocations, and Sprains. Disaster victims may
> also suffer from a variety of other injuries that necessitate special
> treatments.
>
> 1\. Fractures are cracks, chips or a complete breaking of the bone.
> Fractures may be closed (having no associated wound) or open (having a
> visible wound).
>
> a\. To treat a closed fracture, utilize a splint to immobilize the
> bones and joints above and below the injury.
>
> b\. Be sure to splint the injury in the position that you find it (do
> not try to realign bones).
>
> c\. The splint may be rigid (e.g., a board, metal strip, folded
> magazine or newspaper) or may be soft (e.g., towels, blankets, or
> pillows tied with bandaging materials or soft cloths.
>
> d\. Ensure that the splint is not so tight that it prevents
> circulation (check for skin color, warmth and sensation).
>
> e\. To treat an open fracture, do not draw exposed bones back into
> tissue. Do not irrigate wound. Cover wound. Splint fracture without
> disturbing wound. Place a moist 4" x 4" dressing over the bone end to
> keep it from drying out.
>
> 2\. A dislocation is an injury to the ligaments around a joint that is
> so severe that it permits a separation of the bone from its normal
> position in a joint.
>
> a\. Do not attempt to relocate a suspected dislocation.
>
> b\. Immobilize the joint until professional medical help arrives.
>
> 3\. Sprains involve a stretching or tearing of ligaments at a joint
> and is usually caused by extending the joint beyond its normal limits.
> Signs of a sprain include tenderness at injury site, swelling and/or
> bruising, restricted use or loss of use.
>
> a\. To treat a sprain, immobilize and elevate area affected.
>
> G. Treating Nasal Bleeding. Disasters may produce profuse bleeding
> from the nose as a result of blunt force to the nose, skull fracture,
> sinus infections, high blood pressure and bleeding disorders. To treat
> nasal bleeding, be sure to:
>
> 1\. Have the victim sit with the head slightly forward so that blood
> trickling down the throat will not be breathed into the lungs. Do not
> put head back.
>
> 2\. Pinch the nostrils together.
>
> 3\. Put pressure on the upper lip just under the nose.
>
> 4\. Ensure that the victim's airway remains open.
>
> 5\. Keep the victim quiet as anxiety will increase blood flow.
>
> H. Treating Burns. Depending on the type of hazard agent, people may
> be burned by heat, chemicals, electrical current and radiation. The
> severity of the burn depends on the temperature of the burning agent,
> the period of time that the victim was exposed, the area of the body
> that was affected, the size of the area burned, and the depth of the
> burn. There are three different classifications of burns (show
> transparency of burn classifications):

+-------------+-------------------------------+-----------------------+
| Cla         | Skin Layers Affected          | Signs                 |
| ssification |                               |                       |
+-------------+-------------------------------+-----------------------+
| 1^st^       | -   Epidermis (superficial)   | -   Reddened, dry     |
| Degree      |                               |     skin              |
|             |                               |                       |
|             |                               | -   Pain              |
|             |                               |                       |
|             |                               | -   Swelling          |
|             |                               |     (possible)        |
+-------------+-------------------------------+-----------------------+
| 2^nd^       | -   Epidermis                 | -   Reddened,         |
| Degree      |                               |     blistered skin    |
|             | -   Partial destruction of    |                       |
|             |     dermis                    | -   Wet appearance    |
|             |                               |                       |
|             |                               | -   Pain              |
|             |                               |                       |
|             |                               | -   Swelling          |
|             |                               |     (possible)        |
+-------------+-------------------------------+-----------------------+
| 3^rd^       | -   Complete destruction of   | -   Whitened,         |
| Degree      |     epidermis and dermis      |     leathery, or      |
|             |                               |     charred (brown or |
|             | -   Possible subcutaneous     |     black)            |
|             |     damage (destroys all      |                       |
|             |     layers of skin and some   | -   Painful or        |
|             |     or all underlying         |     relatively        |
|             |     structures)               |     painless          |
+-------------+-------------------------------+-----------------------+

> 1\. Guidelines for treating burns include:
>
> a\. Remove the victim from the burning source. Put out any flames and
> remove smoldering clothing unless it is stuck to the skin.
>
> b\. Cool skin or clothing, if they are still hot, by immersing them in
> cool water for not more than 1 minute or covering with clean
> compresses that have been wrung out in cool water.

-   Cooling sources include water from the bathroom or kitchen; a garden
    hose; and wet towels, sheets, or other cloths.

-   Treat all victims of third-degree burns for shock.

-   Note: Infants, young children, and older persons with severe burns,
    are more susceptible to hypothermia. Therefore, rescuers should use
    caution when applying cool dressings on such persons.

-   A rule of thumb is do not cool more than 15 percent of the body
    surface area (the size of one arm) at once. This will prevent
    hypothermia.

> c\. Cover loosely with dry (or moist, based on local protocols),
> sterile dressings to keep air out, reduce pain, and prevent infection.
>
> d\. Elevate burned extremities higher than the heart.
>
> e\. Do not use ice. Ice causes vessel constriction.
>
> f\. Do not apply antiseptics, ointments or other remedies.
>
> g\. Do not remove shreds of tissue, break blisters, or remove adhered
> particles of clothing (cut burned-in clothing around the burn only and
> do not pick or pull it from the body).
>
> h\. Watch for infections, which can be serious problems after someone
> is burned.
>
> I. Treating hypothermia. In some disasters, particularly flooding and
> others in cold climates, the body's temperature may drop below normal
> levels. This may be caused by cold air or water, inadequate food
> combined with inadequate clothing, and/or inadequate heat. For some
> patients, hypothermia may even occur on warm days.
>
> 1\. Symptoms of hypothermia include:
>
> a\. A body temperature of 95° Fahrenheit (37° Celsius) or less.
>
> b\. Redness or blueness of skin.
>
> c\. Numbness accompanied by shivering.
>
> d\. Slurred speech.
>
> e\. Unpredictable behavior.
>
> f\. Listlessness.
>
> 2\. To treat hypothermia, it is necessary to:
>
> a\. Remove wet clothing.
>
> b\. Wrap the victim in a blanket or sleeping bag and cover the head
> and neck.
>
> c\. Protect the victim against the weather.
>
> d\. Provide warm, sweet drinks and food to conscious victims.
>
> e\. Place the victim in a warm bath (only if they are conscious).
>
> J. Recognizing and Treating Shock. If the circulation of blood is weak
> or ineffective, shock will result (which will lead to the death of
> cells, tissues and organs). Signs of shock include rapid and shallow
> breathing, capillary refill longer than two seconds (e.g., blood is
> slow to return to the palm after being pressed), or failure to follow
> simple commands such as "Squeeze my hand." If this occurs, complete
> the following steps:
>
> 1\. If necessary, place a blanket or other material under the victim
> to provide protection from extreme ground temperatures (hot or cold).
> Position the victim on his or her back. Elevate the feet 6-10 inches
> above the level of the heart. Maintain an open airway.
>
> 2\. Control obvious bleeding.
>
> 3\. Maintain body temperature (Note: it may be wise to cover the
> victim with a blanket).
>
> 4\. Avoid rough or excessive handling of the victim's body.
>
> 5\. Do not let the victim eat or drink anything initially (as they may
> also be nauseated).
>
> K. Maintaining Hygiene. In a disaster, the presence of debris, smoke,
> dust and other contaminants make hygiene problematic. There are
> several steps that first responders and others can take to maintain
> proper hygiene:
>
> 1\. Wash hands frequently using soap and water. Hand washing should be
> thorough (at least 12-15 seconds) with an antibacterial scrub if
> possible.
>
> 2\. Wear latex gloves at all times. Change or disinfect gloves after
> examining and/or treating each patient. Under field conditions,
> workers can use rubber gloves that are sterilized between treating
> victims using bleach and water (1 part bleach to 10 parts water).
> Note: keep non-latex gloves handy at all times in case someone is
> allergic to latex gloves.
>
> 3\. Wear a mask and goggles. If possible, wear a mask that is rated
> "N95."
>
> 4\. Keep dressings sterile. Do not remove the overwrap from the
> dressings and bandages until use. After opening, use the entire
> dressing or bandage, if possible.
>
> 5\. Avoid contact with body fluids. Thoroughly wash areas that come in
> contact with body fluids with soap and water or diluted bleach as soon
> as possible.
>
> L. Maintaining Sanitation. In some disasters, sanitation is
> jeopardized because of broken water pipes and sewer lines, flood
> waters that mix with sewage treatment waters or chemicals from
> industrial plants, and the presence of standing water. To avoid
> associated illnesses, diseases or even death, one should:
>
> 1\. Control the disposal of bacterial sources (e.g., properly dispose
> of latex gloves, dressings, etc.)
>
> 2\. Put waste products in plastic bags, tying off the bags, and
> marking them as medical waste (e.g. biohazard). Keep medical waste
> separate from other trash, and dispose of it as hazardous waste.
>
> 3\. Bury human waste (i.e., when no latrines are present).
>
> 4\. Purify water for drinking, cooking and medical use by heating it
> to a rolling boil for 1 minute, or by using water purification tablets
> or unscented liquid bleach. The bleach/water ratios are 6 drops or 1/8
> teaspoon of bleach per gallon of water. Let the bleach/water solution
> stand for 30 minutes. If the solution does not smell or taste of
> bleach, add another six drops of bleach, and let the solution stand
> for 15 minutes before using.