**Social Distancing Law Project**

**Michigan Department of Community Health**

**Assessment of Legal Authorities**

**[Introduction]{.underline}**

This report provides an assessment of Michigan's legal readiness to
address pandemic influenza. This assessment includes both legal
authority for pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical (social distancing)
measures. As set out in the CDC's *Interim Pre-pandemic Planning
Guidance*[^1], at the beginning of an influenza pandemic, the most
effective mitigation tool (i.e., a well-matched pandemic strain vaccine)
will probably not be available. Therefore, Michigan must be prepared to
face the first wave of the pandemic without vaccine and, possibly,
without sufficient quantities of influenza antiviral medications.
Instead, Michigan must rely on an early, targeted, layered application
of multiple, partially effective, non-pharmaceutical measures. These
include restrictions on the movement of people and "social distancing
measures" to reduce contact between individuals in the community,
schools, and workplace.

This report focuses on the ability of Michigan to implement social
distancing measures to prevent and control the spread of pandemic
influenza, both when an emergency has been declared and in the absence
of a declared emergency. Communicable disease surveillance,
investigation, or outbreak control may involve the following potential
public health procedures or social distancing measures, based upon the
current Michigan Department of Community Health All Hazards Response
Plan and Pandemic Influenza Plan:

-   Travel alerts, warnings, or bans

-   Communicable disease surveillance at borders

-   Border closures

-   Individual or group isolation

-   Individual or group quarantine

-   Altered work schedules or environmental controls to be enacted in
    workplaces

-   Cancellation of public gatherings

-   Identification of buildings for community isolation or quarantine

-   Monitoring of isolated or quarantined individuals or groups

In its Pandemic Influenza Plan, MDCH addresses social distancing and
other measures to be implemented, as appropriate, for each WHO phase /
federal government response stage of a pandemic. MDCH's current plan
(Draft 3.1, May 2007) is posted on the Internet at
[http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mdch/MDCH_Pandemic_Influenza\
\_v_3.1_final_draft_060107_2\_\_198392_7.pdf](http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mdch/MDCH_Pandemic_Influenza%0B_v_3.1_final_draft_060107_2__198392_7.pdf).
Social distancing interventions can and should be undertaken
voluntarily. However, this report covers establishment and enforcement
of social distancing means by state and local authorities if necessary
to protect public health. This report also covers inter-jurisdictional
cooperation and mass prophylaxis readiness.

**Project Team for Michigan's\
[Social Distancing Law Project]{.underline}**

Michigan Department of Community Health:

Denise Chrysler, J.D., Project Lead, Director, Office of Legal Affairs.

Deborah Garcia-Luna, J.D., Project Co-Lead, Legal Analyst, Office of
Legal Affairs.

Katherine Allen-Bridson, RN, BSN, CIC, Border Health Project Coordinator

Peter Coscarelli, Acting Manager, Support Services Unit, Office of
Public Health Preparedness

Karen Krzanowski, M.A., M.P.H., State and Federal Policy Specialist and
Emergency Management Coordinator, Office of Public Health Preparedness

Corinne Miller, PhD, Director and State Epidemiologist, Bureau of
Epidemiology

Mary Grace Stobierski, DVM, MPH, Manager, Infectious Disease
Epidemiology Section

Eden V. Wells, MD, MPH, Medical Epidemiologist, Bureau of Epidemiology

Marie Parker, Executive Secretary, Office of Legal Affairs, in charge of
assembling report and logistics

Michigan Department of Attorney General:

Robert Ianni, J.D., Division Chief, Tobacco and Special Litigation
Division; Director, Homeland Security

Ronald J. Styka, J.D., Division Chief, Community Health Division

Federal Quarantine Station:

Gabriel J. Palumbo, MBA, MPH, Officer in Charge, CDC Detroit Quarantine
Station

**[Assessment of Legal Authorities]{.underline}**

The following definitions apply to terms used in this report:

1.  "Jurisdiction" refers to Michigan, which is one of the 18
    jurisdictions selected for review in the study.

2.  "Legal authority" means any provision of law or regulation that
    carries the force of law.

3.  "Procedures" means any procedures established by the jurisdiction
    relating to the legal question being researched, regardless of
    whether the procedures have the force of law.

4.  "Restrictions on the movement of persons" means any limit or
    boundary placed on the free at-will physical movement of adult
    natural persons in the jurisdiction.

5.  "Closure of public places" means an instruction or order that has
    the effect of prohibiting persons from entering a public place.
    "Public place" means a fixed space, enclosure, area, or facility
    that is usually available for entry by the general public without a
    specific invitation, whether possessed by government or private
    parties.

6.  "Curfew" means an order or regulation prohibiting persons from being
    in certain public places at certain times.

7.  "Person" \[unless indicated otherwise\] means a natural person,
    whether or not individually identified.

8.  "Public health emergency" means any acute threat, hazard, or danger
    to the health of the population of the jurisdiction, whether
    specific or general, whether or not officially declared.

9.  "Superior jurisdiction" means the federal government in respect to a
    state, or a state in respect to a locality.

10. "Inferior jurisdiction" means a state in respect to the federal
    government, or a locality in respect to a state government.

[Exclusions]{.underline}:

1.  This assessment excludes federal law.

2.  This assessment excludes the closure of schools, which will be
    covered by another project of the CDC Public Health Law Program.
    However, the issue of school closures will likely come up during
    discussions at the legal consultation meetings in response to the
    overall fact pattern. The CDC Public Health Law Program will make
    the results of the CDC project on school closure available for the
    Legal Consultation Meeting associated with this project.

# I. Restrictions on the Movement of Persons

## A. Legal powers/authorities to restrict movement of persons during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- What legal powers or authorities exist that could enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for any restrictions on the movement of persons during a declared public health emergency? List all legal powers, authorities, and procedures (including but not limited to police powers, umbrella powers, general public health powers, or emergency powers or authorities) that could be used to authorize specific movement restrictions. (Examples: state's legal powers, authorities, or doctrines for quarantine (see also subsection I-C below), isolation, separation, or other orders for persons to remain in their homes.)

> The Michigan Emergency Management Act, 1976 PA 390, MCL 30.401 [*et
> seq*.]{.underline}, provides for planning and response to disasters
> and emergencies within the state. The Emergency Management Act
> distinguishes between a disaster and emergency as follows: a disaster
> is defined as "an occurrence or threat of widespread or severe damage,
> injury, or loss of life or property resulting from a natural or
> man-made cause, including but not limited to, ...radiological
> incident, ...epidemic, air contamination...." MCL 30.402(e). An
> emergency is defined as "any occasion or instance in which the
> governor determines state assistance is needed to supplement local
> efforts and capabilities to save lives, protect property and the
> public health and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a
> catastrophe in any part of the state." MCL 30.402(h). The governor is
> required to issue an executive order or proclamation declaring a state
> of disaster or emergency if she finds a disaster or emergency has
> occurred or the threat of a disaster or emergency exists.
>
> *This question includes all provisions of law or procedure that:*

### Regulate the initiation, maintenance, or release from restrictive measures, including, but not limited to:

#### Who can declare or establish such restrictions?

> In a declared state of emergency the governor "is responsible for
> coping with dangers to this state or the people of this state
> presented by a disaster or emergency." MCL 30.403(1). Among the
> express powers, is the authority to "utilize the available resources
> of the state and its political subdivisions, and those of the federal
> government made available to the state, as are reasonably necessary to
> cope with the disaster or emergency." MCL 30.405(1)(b). The governor
> is also authorized to "prescribe routes, modes, and destinations of
> transportation in connection with an evacuation," to "control ingress
> and egress to and from a stricken or threatened area, removal of
> persons within the area, and occupancy of premises within the area"
> and to "suspend a regulatory statute, order or rule prescribing the
> procedures for conduct of state business...except for criminal process
> and procedures." MCL 30.405(1)(a), (f), (g). In addition to those
> powers expressly granted under the Emergency Management Act, the
> governor may "direct all other actions which are necessary and
> appropriate under the circumstances." MCL 30.405(1)(j).

#### Who can enforce such restrictions?

> If the declaration is of a public health emergency, the governor may
> direct the Michigan Department of Community Health (MDCH) to
> coordinate all matters pertaining to the response of the state to a
> public health emergency. MCL 30.408. Accordingly, the MDCH director or
> his or her designee could issue an order for quarantine. In addition,
> should the governor issue the order, enforcement could be by any law
> enforcement officer, since a violation of the governor's emergency
> orders is a misdemeanor. MCL 30.405(2).

#### What are the legal powers and authorities for group quarantine?

> Under the Emergency Management Act, the governor has broad power to
> issue such orders which are "necessary and appropriate under the
> circumstances." Thus, if necessary and appropriate, a group quarantine
> order may be issued. Anyone violating the order would be guilty of a
> misdemeanor.

#### What are the legal powers and authorities for area quarantine?

> The governor has broad authority under the Emergency Management Act to
> eliminate any obstacles to implementation of necessary population
> control measures in a public health emergency.

#### What are the penalties for violating movement restrictions?

> A violation of an executive order issued by the governor following the
> declaration of a disaster or emergency is punishable as a misdemeanor.
> MCL 30.405(2). In such circumstances, the maximum penalty is 90 days
> in jail and/or a fine of \$500. MCL 750.504.

### Provide any due process measures for a person whose movement is restricted.

> Because a violation of an order is a criminal offense, all due process
> measures attendant to a deprivation of liberty attach to an individual
> who violates an executive order restricting movement. In addition, any
> individual who can demonstrate the requisite standing could bring a
> civil action to challenge the propriety of the declaration or the
> application of the executive order to the petitioner.

### Relate to how long such measures can last, whether and how they can be renewed, and the authority/process/notice requirements for ending the measures.

> The Emergency Management Act provides that the governor's declaration
> of an emergency or disaster can last for up to 28 days. After 28 days,
> any extension would require a joint resolution of both houses of the
> legislature. MCL 30.403.

### May create liability for ordering the restriction of movement of persons.

> Any order that results in an illegal arrest or deprivation of civil
> rights is actionable under state or federal law. As a general rule,
> civil liability is limited under state law by governmental immunity.
> Health officials rendering services during a declared emergency are
> "not liable for an injury sustained by a person by reason of those
> services, regardless of how or under what circumstances or by what
> cause those injuries are sustained," willful acts and omissions
> excepted. MCL 30.411.

### Would otherwise tend to limit the legal basis of the jurisdiction.

> None known.

## B. Sufficiency of powers/authorities -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to restrict the movement of persons during a [declared]{.underline} emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> The Emergency Management Act is broad and provides sufficient
> authority for the governor to issue any order necessary to restrict
> movement of persons during an emergency or disaster.

### Uncertainties?

> None known.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to restrict the movement of persons? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to movement restrictions.)

> As discussed under "D" (page 7) below, the penalty for violating an
> order of MDCH's director is a misdemeanor punishable by six months in
> jail and/or a fine of \$200. Violating the governor's order is
> punishable by 90 days in jail and/or a fine of \$500. Michigan's
> legislature might consider increasing the jail term for violating an
> order of the governor to six months. In Michigan, if the penalty for a
> misdemeanor is greater than 92 days imprisonment, law enforcement can
> arrest based on reasonable cause. If the penalty is 92 days or less,
> then law enforcement must obtain an arrest warrant or have witnessed
> the violation. MCL 764.15(1)(d).

## C. Legal powers/authorities specifically related to [quarantine enforcement]{.underline} -- Specifically related to quarantine orders, identify all state and/or local powers and authorities to enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for enforcement of quarantines during a public health emergency. 

### What are the legal powers and authorities authorizing law enforcement to enforce quarantine orders issued by the jurisdiction?

> The Emergency Management Act provides criminal penalties for any
> violation of an emergency executive order. Accordingly, any law
> enforcement officer may be called upon to enforce the order. In
> addition the governor may ask the attorney general to seek civil
> enforcement. State agencies, such as MDCH may be directed to take
> administrative action to enforce the order.

### What are the legal powers and authorities prohibiting or inhibiting the use of law enforcement to enforce a quarantine order issued by the jurisdiction?

> None known.

### What are the legal powers and authorities authorizing law enforcement to enforce a federal quarantine order?

> If a violation of the federal order is subject to a criminal penalty,
> law enforcement officers in the state of Michigan may assist in the
> enforcement of the order.

### What are the legal powers and authorities prohibiting or inhibiting the use of law enforcement to enforce a federal quarantine order?

> The only question will be whether the officer is enforcing a criminal
> law of the United States.

### What are the legal powers and authorities prohibiting or inhibiting the use of law enforcement to assist the federal government in executing a federal quarantine order?

> If a violation of the federal order is subject to a criminal penalty,
> law enforcement officers in the state of Michigan may assist in the
> enforcement of the order. In this regard, the Michigan Attorney
> General has opined that peace officers of the state may enforce
> violations of federal laws and regulations, at least when a criminal
> penalty attaches. OAG, 1967-1968, No 4631, p 194 (March 5, 1968).
> However, Michigan law provides no authority for law enforcement
> officers to enforce federal civil quarantine orders.
>
> Potentially, if the governor declares a state of emergency or
> disaster, she can issue an executive order expanding the powers of the
> various police agencies to assist federal and state agencies in
> enforcing quarantine and isolation orders (MCL 30.405). Alternatively,
> this gap might be addressed by developing a process to appoint local
> and state police federal agents (much as they are sometimes appointed
> deputy marshals), in which case they would be acting pursuant to their
> federal appointment and authority. The governor or the MDCH could also
> accomplish enforcement by issuing quarantine orders that mirror the
> federal government's. State and local police could then enforce a
> violation of the governor's or MDCH's orders as a criminal act.

## D. Sufficiency of powers/authorities to enforce quarantine -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to enforce quarantine orders and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> The most prominent gap is the lack of authority by law enforcement to
> enforce a quarantine order, short of making an arrest. Law enforcement
> may benefit by the passage of legislation giving law enforcement
> specific authority to enforce public health orders for communicable
> diseases. Public health also needs to explore the options available
> for law enforcement in the manner of enforcement of public health
> orders. An individual who is ordered into isolation because he is ill
> would be taken to a treatment facility, however, the noncompliant
> subject of a quarantine order is another question. If police officers
> arrest and incarcerate people violating quarantine or round up and
> detain people who refuse an order not to congregate they will likely
> undo the effects the social distancing measures were intended to bring
> about.

### Uncertainties?

> None known.

### Are there any other legal provisions not previously listed in I-C above that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to restrict the movement of persons? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to quarantine.)

> None known.

## E. Legal powers/authorities to restrict movement of persons [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared public health emergency -- What legal powers or authorities exist that could enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for any restrictions on the movement of persons in the absence of a declared public health emergency? List all legal powers, authorities, and procedures that could be used to authorize specific movement restrictions in the absence of an emergency declaration. (Examples: the state's legal powers, authorities, or doctrines for quarantine, isolation, separation, or other orders for persons to remain in their homes.)

> MDCH has broad and flexible powers to protect the public health,
> welfare and safety of persons within the state. These powers are set
> out in the Public Health Code, which is to be liberally construed for
> the protection of the health, safety, and welfare of the people of
> Michigan. MCL 333.1111(2). MDCH is required to generally supervise the
> interests of the health and life of Michigan's residents, implement
> and enforce public health laws, prolong life, and promote public
> health through organized programs. It is also specifically responsible
> for preventing and controlling disease; making investigations and
> inquiries as to the cause of disease, especially of epidemics; and the
> causes, prevention, and control of environmental health hazards,
> nuisances, and courses of illness. MDCH may exercise authority to
> safeguard properly the public health, prevent the spread of diseases
> and the existence of sources of contamination, and implement and carry
> out the powers and duties vested by law in the department. MCL
> 333.2226(d).
>
> Michigan's Supreme Court has long recognized the authority of health
> officers to issue reasonable orders or regulations to control the
> spread of disease under their general statutory authority to prevent
> the spread of infection. *People v Board of Education of City of
> Lansing*, 224 Mich 388 (1923) (local board of health has authority to
> issue regulation to exclude unvaccinated children from schools, over
> the objection of the school board, while 17 cases of smallpox still
> existed in the city), *Rock v Carney*, 216 Mich 280 (1921) (health
> officer has quarantine power when sufficient reasonable cause exists
> to believe that a person is afflicted with a venereal disease).
>
> In addition to a general grant of authority, the Public Health Code
> grants the state health director specific power to issue orders to
> address an emergency, as described in "1" (pages 9-10) below.
>
> Most public health activities, including the prevention and control of
> communicable diseases, are carried out by Michigan's 45 local health
> departments. Local health departments, acting through their local
> health officers, hold the general powers described above. Further,
> both state and local health departments are granted "powers necessary
> or appropriate to perform the duties and exercise the powers given by
> law ... and which are not otherwise prohibited by law." MCL
> 333.2221(2)(g), MCL 333.2433(2)(f). Local health officers are also
> authorized to issue emergency orders, warning notices, and bring court
> actions, concerning residents within their jurisdictions. The
> organization and powers of local health departments are set out in MCL
> 333.2401 -- 333.2498.

*This question includes all provisions of law or procedure that:*

### Regulate the initiation, maintenance, or release from restrictive measures, including, but not limited to: 

#### Who can declare or establish such restrictions?

> If the state health director determines that conditions anywhere in
> the state constitute a menace to the public health, she is authorized
> to take full charge of the administration of applicable state and
> local law, rules, regulations, and ordinances. MCL 333.2251(3).
> Additionally, the Public Health Code grants the state health director
> (and local health officers) power to issue the following orders to
> address an emergency:

-   **Imminent Danger Orders**. Upon determining that an "imminent
    danger" to the health or lives of individuals exists in this state,
    the director shall inform the individuals affected by the imminent
    danger and issue an order. The order shall be delivered to a
    "person" authorized to avoid, correct, or remove the imminent danger
    or be posted at or near the imminent danger. MCL 333.2251(1).
    "Person" includes an individual, any type of legal entity, or a
    governmental entity. MCL 333.2251(4)(b). "Imminent danger" is
    defined as "a condition or practice \[that\] could reasonably be
    expected to cause death, disease, or serious physical harm
    immediately or before the imminence of the danger can be eliminated
    through enforcement proceedings otherwise provided." MCL
    333.2251(4)(a). In her order, the director shall incorporate her
    findings and require immediate action necessary to avoid, correct,
    or remove the imminent danger. The order may specify action to be
    taken or prohibit the presence of individuals in locations or under
    conditions where the imminent danger exists, except individuals
    whose presence is necessary to avoid, correct, or remove the
    imminent danger

-   **Orders to Control an Epidemic.** Upon determining that the control
    of an epidemic is necessary to protect the public health, the
    director, by emergency order may prohibit the gathering of people
    for any purpose and may establish procedures to be followed during
    the epidemic to insure continuation of essential public health
    services and enforcement of health laws. MCL 333.2253. "Epidemic"
    means "any increase in the number of cases, above the number of
    expected cases, of any disease, infection, or other condition in a
    specific time period, area, or demographic segment of the
    population." R 325.171(g).

-   **Orders to Abate a Nuisance.** The director may issue an order to
    avoid, correct, or remove, at the owner's expense, a building or
    condition that violates health laws or which the director reasonably
    believes to be a nuisance, unsanitary condition, or cause of
    illness. MCL 333.2455.

> Finally, the Public Health Code provides for the involuntary detention
> and treatment of individuals with hazardous communicable disease. MCL
> 333.2453(2). Upon a determination by a representative of MDCH (or the
> local health department) that an individual is a "carrier" and is "a
> health threat to others," MDCH's representative shall issue a warning
> notice to the individual requiring the individual to cooperate with
> MDCH or the local health department in efforts to prevent or control
> transmission of "serious communicable diseases or infections." The
> warning notice may also require the individual to participate in
> education, counseling, or treatment programs, and to undergo medical
> tests to verify the person's status as a carrier.
>
> A "carrier" is "an individual who serves as a potential source of
> infection and who harbors or who the department reasonably believes to
> harbor a specific infectious agent or a serious communicable disease
> or infection, whether or not there is present discernible disease."
> MCL 333.5201(1)(a). "Health threat to others" means that the
> individual "has demonstrated an inability or unwillingness to conduct
> himself or herself in such a manner as to not place others at risk of
> exposure to a serious communicable disease or infection." MCL
> 333.5201(1)(b).
>
> A warning notice:

-   Must be in writing (may be verbal in urgent circumstances, followed
    by a written notice within 3 days).

-   Must be specific and individual, cannot be issued to a class of
    persons.

-   Must require the individual to cooperate with the health department
    in efforts to control spread of disease.

-   May require the individual to participate in education, counseling,
    or treatment programs, and to undergo medical tests to verify
    carrier status.

-   Must inform the individual that if the individual fails to comply
    with the warning notice, the health department shall seek a court
    order.

> If the individual fails or refuses to comply with the warning notice,
> the health department must petition the circuit court (family
> division) for an order requiring testing, treatment, education,
> counseling, commitment, isolation, etc., as appropriate.
>
> In an emergency, the health department may go straight to court
> (without first issuing a warning notice). Upon filing of affidavit by
> the health department, the court may order that individual be taken
> into custody and transported to an appropriate emergency care or
> treatment facility for observation, examination, testing diagnosis,
> treatment, or temporary detention. The court's emergency order may be
> issued *ex parte*; however, the court must hold a hearing on the
> temporary detainment order within 72 hours (excluding weekends and
> holidays).

#### Who can enforce such restrictions?

> MDCH would need to rely on law enforcement and courts to enforce its
> orders. Violation of an order of the director is a misdemeanor,
> punishable by six months in jail or \$200, or both. MCL 333.2261. In
> Michigan, if the penalty for a misdemeanor is greater than 92 days
> imprisonment, law enforcement can arrest based on reasonable cause
> (i.e., without an arrest warrant or witnessing the violation),
> pursuant to MCL 764.15(1)(d).
>
> While violation of the director's order is a misdemeanor, there is no
> parallel provision in the Public Health Code for violation of a local
> health officer's order. State law provides that a violation of a local
> health regulation is a misdemeanor. Therefore, this gap can be
> addressed by each local government adopting a regulation requiring
> persons to comply with a lawful order of the local health officer.
> Failure to comply with an order of the local health officer would be a
> violation of the regulation and punishable as a misdemeanor under
> state law. In some circumstances, a local health department may be
> able to seek enforcement under a provision of the Public Health Code
> that states it is a misdemeanor to willfully oppose or obstruct a
> representative of MDCH, the state or a local health officer, or any
> other person charged with enforcement of a health law in the
> performance of that person's legal duty to enforce that law. MCL
> 333.1291.
>
> Finally, MDCH (and local health officers) can go to court to seek
> enforcement of its orders. MCL 333.2251(2), MCL 333.2451(2). The court
> could punish civilly or criminally via contempt. MDCH (and local
> health officers) may also maintain injunctive action "to restrain,
> prevent, or correct a violation of a law, rule, or order which the
> department \[local health officer\] has the duty to enforce or to
> restrain, prevent, or correct an activity or condition which the
> department believes adversely affects the public health." MCL
> 333.2255, MCL 333.2465.

#### What are the legal powers and authorities for group quarantine?

> "Group quarantine" is not explicitly addressed in the Public Health
> Code. However, MDCH's director and local health officers have the
> authority to issue an imminent danger order, and require "group
> quarantine" as action required to avoid, correct, or remove the
> imminent danger. Alternatively, the director or local health officer
> could issue an emergency order to control an epidemic and require
> group quarantine as a procedure to be followed during the epidemic.

#### What are the legal powers and authorities for area quarantine?

> "Area quarantine" is not explicitly addressed in the Public Health
> Code. However, MDCH's director and local health officers have the
> authority to issue an imminent danger order, and require "area
> quarantine" as action required to avoid, correct, or remove the
> imminent danger. Alternatively, the director or local health officer
> could issue an emergency order to control an epidemic and require area
> quarantine as a procedure to be followed during the epidemic.

#### What are the penalties for violating movement restrictions?

> Violation of the order of MDCH's director is a misdemeanor, punishable
> by six months imprisonment, \$200 fine, or both.

### Provide any due process measures for a person whose movement is restricted.

> Both the U.S. and the Michigan Constitution prohibit depriving a
> person of liberty without due process of law. Const 1963, Art I, § 17.
> Due process is flexible; what process is due depends on the nature of
> the proceedings, the risks and costs involved, and the private and
> governmental interests affected. *By Lo Oil Co v Dept of Treasury*,
> 267 Mich App 19 (2005).
>
> There are no statutory provisions, rules, or procedures with regard to
> the process for review of imminent danger orders or orders to control
> an epidemic. Fundamental fairness requires that orders directed toward
> individuals must be served on the individuals and orders directed
> toward groups or the general public must be sufficiently publicized to
> provide notice to individuals of required or prohibited conduct.
>
> Violation of an order by MDCH's director is a criminal offense. Thus,
> all due process measures attendant to a deprivation of liberty attach
> to a person who violates an order of the director that restricts
> movement. In addition, any person who can demonstrate the requisite
> standing could bring a civil action to challenge the propriety of the
> director's order or the application of the order to the petitioner.
>
> The Public Health Code sets out procedures for enforcement of a
> warning notice issued by MDCH's director or a local health officer
> against a carrier who is a health threat to others. The individual has
> the right to an evidentiary hearing and the health department must
> prove the allegations by clear and convincing evidence. Before
> committing an individual to a facility, the court must consider the
> recommendation of a commitment panel, and the commitment order must be
> reviewed periodically. An individual who is the subject of either
> emergency proceedings or a petition on a warning notice has the right
> to counsel at all stages of proceedings. An indigent individual is
> entitled to appointed counsel. The individual also has the right to
> appeal and review by the Michigan Court of Appeals within 30 days. MCL
> 333.2453(2), MCL 333.5201 -- 333.5207

### Relate to how long such measures can last, whether and how they can be renewed, and the authority/process/notice requirements for ending the measures.

> There is no time limit on any of the state or local health officers'
> orders; nor is there a renewal requirement. The health officer who
> issued an emergency order would be responsible for monitoring the
> conditions that warranted the order, and respond as appropriate by
> modifying or rescinding the order as conditions change. Notice of any
> modifications, or rescission, would need to be sufficient to
> reasonably notify individuals or groups who are subject to the order.

### May create liability for ordering the restriction of movement of persons.

> MDCH and its employees and volunteers have governmental immunity from
> tort damages when engaged in a governmental function, absent "gross
> negligence" that is the proximate cause of the injury or damage. MCL
> 691.1407. Note: this section does not apply with respect to providing
> medical care or treatment to a patient with some exceptions. However,
> if an emergency were declared, the Emergency Management Act, MCL
> 30.411, would provide protection from liability. Additionally, MDCH's
> director, or an employee or representative of MDCH is not personally
> liable for damages sustained in the performance of departmental
> functions, except for wanton and willful misconduct. MCL 333.2228. The
> same provision applies to local public health. MCL 333.2465(2).

### Would otherwise tend to limit the legal basis of the jurisdiction.

> None known.

## F. Sufficiency of powers/authorities -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to restrict the movement of persons [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> Staff from MDCH and local health departments have participated in
> several activities to evaluate the sufficiency of the authorities and
> powers to restrict the movement of persons in the absence of a
> declared emergency. These activities include participation in the
> Turning Point Collaborative[^2], table top and other facilitated
> exercises, and a roundtable discussion by a group of public health and
> legal experts on Michigan law. For the most part, the consensus of
> both state and local public health is that the Public Health Code
> provides broad and flexible powers that are sufficient for prompt and
> effective response to a public health emergency. While it is tempting
> to seek legislation that authorizes specific measures that might be
> imposed, there is a risk that public health's authority would be
> narrowed by too much specificity and detail under the principle
> *expressio unius est exclusio alterius* (the express mention of one
> thing implies the exclusion of all others).
>
> As discussed above, one gap in enforcing restrictions of movement is
> the lack of a criminal penalty for violation of an emergency order of
> a local health officer. Another potential gap is the absence of
> provisions for due process where orders issued by MDCH or local health
> officers deprive individuals of liberty. This could be addressed
> either through legislation or by MDCH promulgating rules consistent
> with Michigan's Administrative Procedures Act. MCL 24.231 *et seq*.
> However, care is essential in establishing procedures to avoid binding
> the state and local health departments to a process or procedures
> beyond legal requirements that unnecessarily restrict their ability to
> act promptly and effectively to protect the public health.
>
> While MDCH has addressed most social distancing measures in its
> Pandemic Influenza Plan, it has not addressed mass transit usage
> limits. MDCH needs to review this for inclusion as a potential social
> distancing measure to reduce spread of disease from close proximity of
> individuals typical of crowded mass transit.

### Uncertainties?

> Under Michigan's Constitution, Michigan's public universities
> constitute a "branch" of state government, autonomous within their own
> spheres of authority. Const 1963, Art VIII, §§ 5, 6, *National Pride
> at Work, Inc v Governor*, 274 Mich App 147 (2007), and cases cited
> therein. University governing boards might question whether the state
> health department has authority to issue orders that affect the
> operation of the university, such as orders to quarantine dorm
> students or prohibit class attendance. However, universities are not
> exempt from all regulation. MDCH needs to obtain advice from the
> Department of Attorney General regarding the parameters of its
> authority over university campuses, and the authority (if any) of
> local health departments. MDCH should engage the universities to
> develop memoranda of understanding and procedures for coordinating an
> effective response to pandemic influenza or other disease outbreaks.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to restrict the movement of persons? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to movement restrictions.)

> While MDCH is authorized to implement its police and statutory powers,
> there are limits on the exercise of these powers. These limitations
> include constitutional rights to substantive and procedural due
> process and equal protection under the laws. MDCH must act in good
> faith, and must not abuse its discretion in restricting the movement
> of individuals.
>
> In *Rock v Carney*, *supra*, the Michigan Supreme Court upheld the
> authority of public health boards to determine what constitutes a
> dangerous communicable disease and take measures to prevent the
> spread. However,
>
> the method adopted or exercised to prevent the spread thereof must
> bear some true relation to the real danger, and be reasonable, having
> in mind the end to be attained, and must not transgress the security
> of the person beyond public necessity.

216 Mich 280, 296.

> In the *Rock* case, the Supreme Court held that the health officer
> abused his discretion by refusing home isolation and placard notice
> for a young woman with venereal disease, and instead removed the woman
> from her home and committed her to a hospital for twelve weeks.
>
> Other limitations on exercising authority to restrict movement of
> persons:
>
> **Tribal boundaries, tribal entities.** MDCH is in the process of
> drafting provisions for its pandemic influenza plan that address
> limitations on the exercise of authority on Indian land or concerning
> federally recognized tribes. Its All Hazards and Pandemic Influenza
> Plans currently provide:

-   **State-Tribal Borders:** Public health emergencies occurring on
    tribal land are the responsibility of the tribal organization. Some
    Mutual Aid Agreements (MAAs) have been developed between local or
    state health or emergency agencies and tribes. In instances where
    pre-arranged MAAs have not been developed, Local or State Health
    organizations may provide services on tribal land *[upon the
    invitation of the tribe.]{.underline}* (Emphasis in original).

> **Foreign Diplomats:** In Attachment 18 of its Pandemic Influenza
> Plan, MDCH addresses its limitations to impose quarantine or other
> restrictions on foreign diplomats and their families and honorary
> counsels, and procedures to be followed in the event of a disease
> outbreak. Attachment 18 is attached to this assessment as Appendix 2.
>
> **Federal land, including military bases and V.A. hospitals.** MDCH
> needs to research and address limits on its jurisdiction over federal
> lands. MDCH needs to coordinate with federal authorities to develop
> procedures and emergency communications protocol in the event of a
> pandemic influenza or other disease outbreak.

# II. Curfew

## A. Legal powers/authorities for curfew during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- What legal power, authorities, or procedures exist that that could enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for curfew during pandemics, when a public health emergency has been declared?

### What are the powers and authorities to institute curfews? Can local governments institute their own curfews under state and/or local law?

> The governor is specifically empowered to proclaim a state of
> emergency and designate the area involved "\[d\]uring times of great
> public crisis, disaster, rioting, catastrophe, or similar public
> emergency within the state, or reasonable apprehension of immediate
> danger of a public emergency of that kind, when public safety is
> imperiled." After making the proclamation or declaration, the governor
> may promulgate reasonable orders, rules, and regulations necessary to
> protect life and property or bring the emergency situation with the
> affected area under control. The orders, rules, and regulations, may
> include curfew, as well as other measures. MCL 10.31.
>
> Additionally, under the Emergency Management Act the governor has
> broad power to take any action that is necessary and appropriate
> during a declared emergency or disaster and may issue a curfew order.
> Local governmental units may declare a local state of emergency and
> take action to "provide for the health and safety of persons and
> property...." Notice is required. The Emergency Management Act
> provides that the order shall be" disseminated promptly by means
> calculated to bring its contents to the attention of the general
> public." MCL 30.403. The order must also be filed with the secretary
> of state.

### Who can order curfew, and, if different, who makes the decision to institute curfew?

> Under the Emergency Management Act, the governor would issue the
> order. The chief executive official of the county or municipality
> would issue local orders. MCL 30.410.

### What is the process for mobilizing public health/law enforcement of curfew?

> There is no process set out in the Emergency Management Act for
> mobilizing public health/law enforcement of curfew. The director of
> the State Police is charged with implementing the orders and
> directives of the governor. MCL 30.407.

### Who can enforce curfew?

> Again, because violations of the governor's emergency orders are
> misdemeanors, any law enforcement officer may enforce the order.

### Penalties for violating curfew?

> Penalties are 90 days imprisonment, or \$500, or both. MCL 10.33, MCL
> 30.405(2), MCL 750.504.

### How long can a curfew last?

> The curfew order could remain in effect for 28 days unless extended by
> joint resolution of the legislature.

### How can it be renewed?

> A curfew order can be renewed only by joint resolution of the
> legislature.

### Describe the authority/process/notice requirements for ending a curfew.

> The governor may rescind the order at any time. This can be done
> through issuance of an executive order in which case prompt public
> notice is required.

## B. Sufficiency of powers/authorities -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to institute or maintain curfew during a [declared]{.underline} emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities.

### Potential gaps?

> None known.

### Uncertainties?

> None known

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to institute or maintain curfew? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to curfew.)

> None known.

## C. Legal powers/authorities for curfew [in the absence]{.underline} of declared public health emergency -- What legal power, authorities, or procedures exist that that could enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for curfew during pandemics, in the absence of a declared public health emergency?

### What are the powers and authorities to institute curfews? Can local governments institute their own curfews under state and/or local law?

> MDCH's Director, or local health officers within their jurisdictions,
> could order curfew under their broad authority, provided curfew is a
> reasonable measure to address an imminent health danger or to control
> an epidemic. MCL 333.2251, 333.2253, 333.2451, 333.2453. However, a
> state or local health officer's authority does not include issuing
> orders (such as curfew) as general safety measures to manage
> disturbances or protect property.

### Who can order curfew, and, if different, who makes the decision to institute curfew?

> MDCH's director would make the decision to institute curfew, and would
> issue an order imposing curfew that could cover all or any area of the
> state. The local health officer would make the decision and issue an
> order imposing curfew for the local health department's jurisdiction.

### What is the process for implementing curfew?

> The Public Health Code does not set out a process, and one has not
> been developed by MDCH.

### What is the process for mobilizing public health/law enforcement of curfew?

> The Public Health Code does not set out a process, and one has not
> been developed by MDCH.

### Who can enforce curfew?

> Any law enforcement officer could enforce curfew imposed by an order
> of MDCH's director since it is a misdemeanor to violate an order of
> MDCH. MCL 333.2261. There is no parallel provision for violation of a
> local health officer's order, so enforcement would most likely depend
> on local regulations.

### Penalties for violating curfew?

> Violation of an order of MDCH is a misdemeanor punishable by six
> months in jail, a fine of \$200, or both.

### How long can a curfew last?

> There is no time limit on any of the state or local health officers'
> orders.

### How can it be renewed?

> There is no renewal requirement.

### Describe the authority/process/notice requirements for ending a curfew.

> If the state or a local health officer has the authority to impose
> curfew, then they have the authority to modify or end curfew. The
> health officer who issued an emergency order would be responsible for
> monitoring the conditions that warranted the order, and respond as
> appropriate by modifying or rescinding the order as conditions change.
> Notice of any modifications, or rescission, would need to be
> sufficient to reasonably notify individuals or groups who are subject
> to the curfew.

## D. Sufficiency of powers/authorities -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to institute or maintain curfew [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities.

### Potential gaps?

> No known gaps in powers or authorities. However, MDCH does not address
> the use of curfew as a public health measure in its All Hazards
> Response Plan or any of its other plans. MDCH's response plans should
> be reviewed for possible inclusion of curfew.

### Uncertainties?

> None known.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to institute or maintain curfew? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to curfew.)

> As discussed in I above, exercise of state and local health authority
> must be in good faith, reasonable, and consistent with constitutional
> rights to substantive and procedural due process and guarantees of
> equal protection.

# III. Inter-jurisdictional Cooperation and Restricting Movement of Persons

## A. Legal provisions/procedures for inter-jurisdictional cooperation on restricting the movement of persons during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- What provisions or procedures under law apply to giving and receiving assistance and otherwise working with other jurisdictions regarding restrictions of movement of persons during a declared public health emergency?

### Provisions or procedures governing the relationships among superior jurisdictions? Among inferior jurisdictions?

> The Michigan Emergency Management Act, and plans thereunder, contain
> provisions requiring or authorizing inter-jurisdictional cooperation
> among superior jurisdictions and inferior jurisdictions.
>
> The Emergency Management Act authorizes the governor to enter into a
> reciprocal aid agreement or compact with another state, the federal
> government, or a neighboring state or province of a foreign country,
> with the following limitations:
>
> A reciprocal aid agreement shall be limited to the furnishing or
> exchange of food, clothing, medicine, and other supplies; engineering
> services; emergency housing; police services; the services of the
> national guard when not mobilized for federal service or state defense
> force as authorized by the Michigan military act, ... MCL 32.501 to
> 32.851 ... and subject to federal limitations on the crossing of
> national boundaries by organized military forces; health, medical, and
> related services; fire fighting, rescue, transportation, and
> construction services and equipment; personnel necessary to provide or
> conduct these services; and other necessary equipment, facilities, and
> services. A reciprocal aid agreement shall specify terms for the
> reimbursement of costs and expenses and conditions necessary for
> activating the agreement. The legislature shall appropriate funds to
> implement a reciprocal aid agreement.
>
> MCL 30.404(3).
>
> The Emergency Management Act requires the emergency management
> division of the state police to prepare and maintain a comprehensive
> emergency management plan that covers mitigation, preparedness,
> response, and recovery for the state. MCL 30.407a. The Emergency
> Management Act further requires the director of each department of
> state government to participate in emergency planning for the state,
> serve as emergency management coordinator for his or her respective
> department, and provide an annex to the Michigan emergency management
> plan providing for the delivery of suitable emergency management
> activities. MCL 30.408. The Michigan emergency management plan
> describes the roles, responsibilities, and assignments of state
> departments, and provides the framework for state and local entities
> to work together under an incident command structure to address
> various types of emergencies. Under the emergency management plan,
> MDCH is the lead agency responsible for public health and mental
> health issues. Assigned responsibilities include:

-   Coordinate the investigation and control of communicable disease and
    provide laboratory support for communicable disease diagnostics.

-   Coordinate the allocation of medications essential to public health,
    including acquisition of medications from federal pharmaceutical
    stockpiles.

-   Issue health advisories and protective action guides to the public.

-   Coordinate appropriate medical services, providing support to
    hospitals, pre-hospital and alternate care settings in the medical
    management of mass casualty incidents.

-   Provide technical assistance in the coordination of emergency
    medical services.

-   Coordinate with local health departments, community mental health
    agencies, and state operated inpatient facilities.

-   Provide liaison to federal emergency health and medical programs and
    services.

-   Coordinate with the National Disaster Medical System.

-   Ensure health facilities have emergency procedures.

> As required by the Emergency Management Act, MDCH has provided and
> continuously updates response plans and annexes related to protecting
> the public's health. With regard to communicable disease, these
> include the Strategic National Stockpile Support Plan, Mass Fatality
> Plan, MDCH's All Hazards Response Plan, Communicable Disease Annex,
> and the Pandemic Influenza Plan. Module IX of the MDCH All Hazards
> Response Plan, Communicable Disease Annex, and Pandemic Influenza
> Response Plan address International and Border Travel Issues. Of note,
> many of the actual actions would be federal, although the MDCH
> director could implement orders to control intra-state movement, or
> recommend to the governor various actions. Public health procedures
> included in the plans include communicable disease surveillance at
> borders and travel alerts, warnings or bans.
>
> The Emergency Management Act also promotes assistance during a
> disaster or emergency among local units of government. It provides
> that municipalities and counties may enter into mutual aid or
> reciprocal aid agreements or compacts with other counties,
> municipalities, public agencies, federally recognized tribal nations,
> or private sector agencies, or all of these entities. A compact
> entered into under this provision is limited to the exchange of
> personnel, equipment, and other resources in times of emergency,
> disaster, or other serious threats to public health and safety. The
> arrangements shall be consistent with the Michigan emergency
> management plan. MCL 30.410(2).
>
> There are no provisions or procedures for inter-jurisdictional
> cooperation that specifically cover restrictions on the movement of
> persons during a public health emergency. However, there are numerous
> agreements for mutual aid or assistance that facilitate response to a
> public health emergency and could provide resources to implement
> social distancing measures if needed. These include provisions for
> sharing personnel, equipment, data, providing notification of disease
> threats, and providing facilities for treatment or mass prophylaxis.
>
> These agreements include:

-   **Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC).** In 2001,
    Michigan adopted EMAC, which allows Michigan to operate as a part of
    the Interstate Mutual Aid Compact. See MCL 3.1001 (covering
    personnel) and MCL 3.991 (covering equipment). Consequently, once an
    emergency has been declared, Michigan has the authority to assist
    other states in an emergency and seek assistance from other states.
    This is of particular importance because the Interstate Mutual Aid
    Compact gives the state providing assistance a right to seek
    compensation for the services/assistance that it provides to the
    requesting state.

-   **Michigan Emergency Management Assistance Compact (MEMAC).** Under
    the Emergency Management Act, MCL 30.410(2), Michigan has developed
    a mutual aid agreement for adoption by local units of governments
    known as the Michigan Emergency Management Assistance Compact that
    may be found at
    <http://www.michigan.gov/documents/MEMACFINAL7-3-03_69499_7.pdf>
    MEMAC is entered into between the Michigan State Police Emergency
    Management and Homeland Security Division on behalf of the State of
    Michigan, and by and among each county, municipality, township,
    federally recognized tribal nation and interlocal public agency that
    executes the agreement and adopts its terms and conditions. MEMAC is
    designed to help Michigan's local governments share vital public
    safety services and resources more effectively and efficiently.
    MEMAC covers serious threats to public health and safety of
    sufficient magnitude that the necessary public safety response
    threatens to overwhelm local resources and requires mutual aid or
    other assistance. Typically, there would be a local, state or
    federal declaration of emergency or disaster; however, a declaration
    is not required.

    -   There are 1,858 local governments in the State of Michigan.[^3]
        This includes 83 counties, 1,242 townships, 272 cities, and 261
        villages. As of July 25, 2007, the number of local governments
        that have adopted resolutions to participate in MEMAC is 104,
        including:

        -   Counties -- 25 (30%)

        -   Townships -- 41 (3%)

        -   Cities -- 32 (18%)

        -   Villages -- 6 (2%)

> See Appendix 3 for a list of local jurisdictions within Michigan that
> participate in MEMAC.

-   **Mutual Aid Agreements within Regional Medical Biodefense
    Networks**. The State of Michigan has organized eight (8) regional
    medical biodefense networks that include hospitals, medical control
    authorities, life support agencies, and other health care
    facilities. As part of their disaster planning objectives, the
    regions have been working to develop mutual aid agreements. To date,
    regions 1, 5 and 8 have adopted agreements. The other five regions
    continue to work on this.

-   **Mutual Aid Agreements among Local Health Departments.** There are
    45 local health departments in the State of Michigan, including:

    -   30 single-county health departments

    -   14 multi-county, district health departments

    -   1 city health department

> In addition to their participation in MEMAC, by virtue of their
> governing entity's participation, some local health departments have
> also executed mutual aid agreements with neighboring local health
> departments. These agreements vary widely in terms of their scope and
> content. For example, the Southeast Michigan Local Health Department
> Mutual Aid Consortium Agreement is a relatively comprehensive mutual
> aid agreement. It was designed for participation by seven
> single-county health departments and one city health department.

-   **Mutual Aid for Police Assistance.** Under MCL 123.811 *et
    seq*.**,** two or more counties, cities, villages, or townships,
    whether adjacent to each other or not, may enter into agreements to
    provide mutual police assistance to one another in case of
    emergencies. (Individuals preparing this report do not know the
    extent of agreements between law enforcement agencies under this
    law).

### Provisions or procedures governing the relationships between superior and inferior jurisdictions? (Include relationships among all levels of government and the federal government. See also section I-C above specifically related to quarantine orders.) 

> The Emergency Management Act requires that the Department of State
> Police establish an emergency management division for the purpose of
> coordinating within the state the emergency management activities of
> county, municipal, state, and federal governments. The division is
> responsible for the Michigan emergency management plan, shall propose
> and administer statewide mutual aid compacts and agreements, and shall
> cooperate with the federal government and any public or private agency
> or entity in achieving emergency management activities. MCL 30.407a.

### What is the legal authority of the jurisdiction to accept, utilize, or make use of federal assistance? 

> The Emergency Management Act provides that "upon declaring a state of
> disaster or emergency, the governor may seek and accept assistance,
> either financial or otherwise, from the federal government, pursuant
> to federal law or regulation." MCL 30.404(2). Further, the emergency
> management division of the State Police "shall receive available state
> and federal emergency management and disaster related grants-in-aid
> and shall administer and apportion the grants according to
> appropriately established guidelines to the agencies of this state and
> local political subdivisions." MCL 30.407a.
>
> The Emergency Management Act also states that the governor may enter
> into a reciprocal aid agreement or compact with the federal
> government, subject to the limitations described in 1, above (page
> 20). MCL 30.404(3).

## B. Sufficiency of powers/authorities to cooperate with other jurisdictions during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to cooperate with other jurisdictions during a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps? 

> There are liability, workers compensation, and reimbursement questions
> outstanding. Current emergency response plans for communicable disease
> do not include provisions for limiting the usage of mass transit.

### Uncertainties? 

> Liability, workers compensation, and reimbursement questions.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to cooperate with other jurisdictions? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to inter-jurisdictional cooperation.) 

> The approval of the state administrative board is required for the
> governor to enter into a reciprocal aid agreement or compact under the
> Emergency Management Act, MCL 30.404(3).

## C. Legal provisions/procedures for inter-jurisdictional cooperation on restricting the movement of persons [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared public health emergency -- What provisions or procedures under law apply to giving and receiving assistance and otherwise working with other jurisdictions regarding restrictions of movement of persons in the absence of a declared public health emergency? 

### Provisions or procedures governing the relationships among superior jurisdictions? Among inferior jurisdictions?

> Subject to provisions of general law, the Michigan Constitution
> authorizes the state, any political subdivision, any governmental
> authority, or any combination thereof to enter into agreements for the
> performance, financing or execution of their respective functions,
> with any one or more of the other states, the United States, the
> Dominion of Canada, or any political subdivision thereof unless
> otherwise provided in Michigan's Constitution. Const 1963, Art III, §
> 5. Additionally, any unit of government is authorized to enter into an
> interlocal agreement under Michigan's Urban Cooperation Act, MCL
> 124.501 *et seq*., to exercise jointly with any other public agency of
> this state, another state, a public agency of Canada, or with any
> public agency of the U.S. government any power, privilege, or
> authority that the agencies share in common and that each might
> exercise separately. MCL 124.504.
>
> The Public Health Code authorizes both the state and local health
> departments to "\[e\]nter into an agreement, contract, or arrangement
> with governmental entities or other persons necessary or appropriate
> to assist the department in carrying out its duties and functions."
> MCL 333.2226(c), MCL 333.2435(c)(e).
>
> Under PA 89 of 1935, MCL 798.101 *et seq*., the governor has the power
> to enter into interstate compacts with other states to address
> criminal behavior. The governor is authorized to enter into agreements
> or compacts with other states, for cooperative effort and mutual
> assistance in the prevention of crime and in the enforcement of the
> penal laws and policies of the contracting states and to establish
> agencies, joint or otherwise, as may be deemed desirable for making
> effective such agreements and compacts. MCL 798.103. The intent and
> purpose of this act is to grant to the governor administrative power
> and authority if and when conditions of crime make it necessary to
> bind the state in a cooperative effort to reduce crime and to make the
> enforcement of the criminal laws of agreeing states more effective.
> Any interstate compact must not be inconsistent with the laws of
> Michigan, the agreeing states, or of the United States.
>
> Agreements may be developed and implemented under these laws, whether
> or not an emergency has been declared. Additionally, with the
> exception of EMAC, all of the agreements described in Section III on
> inter-jurisdictional cooperation may be implemented in the absence of
> a declared public health emergency, as well as during a declared
> emergency. With regard to state and local health departments,
> declaration of an emergency or disaster does not relieve any state or
> local official, department head, or agency of its normal
> responsibilities. Nor does declaration limit or abridge the power,
> duty, or responsibility of the chief executive official of a county or
> municipality to act in the event of a disaster or emergency except as
> expressly set forth in the Michigan Emergency Management Act. MCL
> 30.417(e),(f). However, if the governor has declared an emergency or
> disaster, each state department and agency must cooperate with the
> state's emergency management coordinator and perform the services that
> it is suited to perform in the prevention mitigation, response to, or
> recovery from the emergency or disaster, consistent with the state
> emergency management plan. MCL 30.408.
>
> Current agreements among superior or inferior jurisdictions include:

-   **Great Lakes Border Health Initiative (GLBHI).** MDCH is a member
    of the GLBHI, along with the state health departments of Minnesota,
    New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, and the Ontario
    Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care. GLBHI is funded by the
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Early Warning
    Infectious Disease Surveillance (EWIDS) project, and aims to
    formalize relationships between U.S. and Canadian public health and
    emergency preparedness agencies responsible for communicable disease
    tracking, control and response. The member jurisdictions of
    Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Wisconsin, and Ontario have entered
    into a data sharing agreement, which is intended to improve early
    warning and infectious disease surveillance by facilitating the
    sharing of infectious disease information and establishing a
    protocol for communications. Ohio and Pennsylvania are expected to
    join the agreement once outstanding questions have been answered.
    Mutual assistance agreements for equipment, specialized personnel,
    and services may be developed in the future.

-   **Agreements with Indian Tribes.** A Memoranda of Understanding has
    been signed between one of Michigan's local health departments and a
    federally-recognized tribe to use a tribal facility as a Strategic
    National Stockpile dispensing facility. Two of Michigan's federally
    recognized tribes (Sault St. Marie Chippewa and Bay Mills Indian
    Community) have entered into mutual assistance agreements with the
    Chippewa County Health Department regarding notification of an
    occurrence of disease that may cause widespread illness. The
    Chippewa County Health Department and the Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of
    Chippewa Indians have also signed a mutual aid agreement regarding
    use of tribal property to provide mass health care in an emergency.

### Provisions or procedures governing the relationships between superior and inferior jurisdictions? (Include relationships among all levels of government and the federal government. See also section I-C above specifically related to quarantine orders.) 

> Under the Public Health Code, MDCH and local health departments have
> concurrent authority over the prevention and control of diseases
> within the local health department's jurisdiction. Both have powers to
> issue emergency orders and take other action as appropriate to address
> an imminent danger, epidemic, or other public health emergency. In
> exercising their authority, the state and local health departments
> must cooperate and coordinate their responses. MDCH has jurisdiction
> statewide. If MDCH's director determines that conditions anywhere in
> the state constitute a menace to the public health, she has the
> authority to take full charge of the administration of applicable
> state and local health laws, rules, regulations, and ordinances. MCL
> 333.2251(3). Further, while disease prevention and control programs
> are primarily the responsibility of local public health, MDCH's
> director can take primary responsibility as warranted by
> circumstances. MCL 333.2235(2).

### What is the legal authority of the jurisdiction to accept, utilize, or make use of federal assistance?

> MDCH and local health departments are authorized to receive grants
> from the federal government, in accordance with the law, rules and
> procedures of the state (and local governing unit with regard to local
> health departments). MCL 333.2226(e), 333.2435(e). As discussed above,
> the Public Health Code authorizes both the state and local health
> departments to enter into an agreement, contract, or arrangement with
> other governmental entities, which would include the federal
> government.

## D. Sufficiency of powers/authorities to cooperate with other jurisdictions [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to cooperate with other jurisdictions in the absence of a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> None

### Uncertainties?

> With the exception of EMAC, individuals preparing this report do not
> know whether Congress has given its consent to the state entering into
> agreements with other states or provinces. Further, it is not always
> clear when Congressional consent is required.
>
> Individuals preparing this report do not know the extent of
> inter-jurisdictional agreements that concern law enforcement and the
> existence of other agreements not discussed in this report that are
> relevant to inter-jurisdictional cooperation regarding a serious
> communicable disease outbreak.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's legal basis to cooperate with other jurisdictions? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to inter-jurisdictional cooperation.)

> None known.

## E. Interagency/inter-jurisdictional agreements on restricting movement of persons -- Where available, identify and provide copies of all interagency and inter-jurisdictional agreements (both interstate and intrastate) relating to restrictions on the movement of persons during public health emergencies and the enforcement of such restrictions

As discussed above, there are no provisions or procedures for
inter-jurisdictional cooperation that specifically cover restrictions on
the movement of persons during a public health emergency. However, the
laws and agreements discussed above would facilitate response to a
public health emergency and could provide resources to support social
distancing measures if needed.

# IV. Closure of Public Places 

## A. Legal powers/authorities to order closure of public places during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- What are the powers, authorities, or procedures to enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for closure by state or local officials of public places (e.g., public facilities, private facilities, and business) during a declared public health emergency? For each of the jurisdiction's legal powers, authorities, and procedures including, but not limited to, umbrella, general public health, or emergency powers or authorities, that could be used to authorize, prohibit, or limit closure, please address the following issues: 

### What are the powers and authorities authorizing closure? 

> The governor is empowered to declare a disaster or emergency under
> circumstances where there is the threat or occurrence of widespread
> loss of life or injury. If the declaration involves a health
> emergency, an important component of mitigation would be limiting the
> exposure of well persons to those carrying the disease. Inasmuch as
> people may be infectious before they are symptomatic, closing places
> where large numbers of people gather in close proximity to one another
> may be the single most effective mitigation measure to be undertaken
> by the department. Accordingly, the governor, under the authority of
> the Emergency Management Act to direct such action "which are
> necessary and appropriate under the circumstances," may order the
> closure of public places and cancellation of public gatherings if the
> closures and cancellations are needed to protect the public health
> from spread of pandemic influenza.

### What are the powers and authorities prohibiting closure? 

None known. But, there may be compensation issues.

### Who can declare or establish closure? 

> Under the Emergency Management Act, such orders are issued by the
> governor.

### Who makes the decision to close a public place? 

Same as above.

### What is the process for initiating and implementing closure? 

> No specific process is provided in the Emergency Management Act once a
> declaration is made.

### What is the process for enforcing closure and who enforces it? 

> Violations of executive orders are crimes and may be enforced by any
> law enforcement officer.

### What are the penalties for violating closure? 

Violation is a misdemeanor punishable by 90 days jail, a \$500 fine, or
both.

### What are the procedural and due process requirements for closure? 

> The requirements depend on whether an order requiring closure is
> considered a "taking" of property, requiring due process and
> compensation. See D.1. below (pages 32-33).

### Is compensation available for closure? If so, what is it? 

> Not specifically provided. But some question exists. See MCL 30.406,
> which addresses compensation for property and services, providing
> "compensation for property shall be paid only if the property is taken
> or otherwise used in coping with a disaster or emergency and its use
> or destruction is ordered by the governor or the director. A record of
> all property taken or otherwise used under this act shall be made and
> promptly transmitted to the office of the governor."

### How long can a closure last? 

28 days unless extended by joint resolution of the legislature.

### How can it be renewed? 

By joint resolution of the legislature.

### Describe the authority/process/notice requirements for ending a closure. 

> If ended by executive order, notice of termination is same as order of
> closure; by such means calculated to bring it to the attention of the
> general public.

## B. Sufficiency of powers/authorities to authorize closure of public places during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to authorize closure of public places during a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps? 

Compensation is the main question.

### Uncertainties? 

Same as above.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's authority to close public places? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to closure.) 

None known.

## C. Legal powers/authorities to order closure of public places [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared public health emergency -- What are the powers, authorities, or procedures to enable, support, authorize, or otherwise provide a legal basis for closure by state or local officials of public places (e.g., public facilities, private facilities, and business) in the absence of a declared public health emergency? For each of the jurisdiction's legal powers, authorities, and procedures that could be used to authorize, prohibit, or limit closure, please address the following issues: What are the powers and authorities authorizing closure? 

### What are the powers and authorities prohibiting closure?

> None known. There may be compensation issues.

### Who can declare or establish closure? 

> MDCH's director and local health officers have the authority to issue
> an imminent danger order, and require closure of public places as
> action required to avoid, correct, or remove the imminent danger.
> Alternatively, the director or local health officer could issue an
> emergency order to control an epidemic and require closure of public
> places as a procedure to be followed during the epidemic.

### Who makes the decision to close a public place?

> MDCH's director or the local health officers for their own
> jurisdictions.
>
> The MDCH Pandemic Plan as well as the Michigan Pandemic Influenza
> State Operational Plan addresses the potential closure of public
> places in a moderate (1957-like) or severe pandemic:

-   School dismissals or closures (including daycares and colleges and
    universities

-   Faith-based organizations

-   Closure of public and private facilities

-   Dismissal of entertainment activities/sports venues, etc

-   Canceling of public gatherings

### What is the process for initiating and implementing closure?

> No specific process is set out in the Public Health Code. The process
> is the same as for issuing any other emergency order.

### What is the process for enforcing closure and who enforces it?

> Violation of the orders of MDCH's director is a misdemeanor,
> enforceable by any law enforcement officer. Additionally, MDCH (and
> local health officers) can go to court to seek enforcement of its
> orders. MCL 333.2251(2), MCL 333.2451(2). The court could punish
> civilly or criminally via contempt. MDCH (and local health officers)
> may also maintain injunctive action "to restrain, prevent, or correct
> a violation of a law, rule, or order which the department \[local
> health officer\] has the duty to enforce or to restrain, prevent, or
> correct an activity or condition which the department believes
> adversely affects the public health." MCL 333.2255, MCL 333.2465.

### What are the penalties for violating closure?

> Violation of an order of MDCH's director is a misdemeanor, punishable
> by six months in jail or \$200, or both. MCL 333.2261. Enforcement and
> penalties for violation of a local health officer's order depends on
> local law.

### What are the procedural and due process requirements for closure?

> As discussed under "gaps" below (pages 32-33), MDCH needs to consult
> with the Department of Attorney General on constitutional parameters.

### Is compensation available for closure? If so, what is it?

> No. This issue needs to be reviewed and addressed as a legal and a
> policy issue.

### How long can a closure last?

> There is no time limit on any of the state or local health officers'
> orders; nor is there a renewal requirement. The health officer who
> issued an emergency order would be responsible for monitoring the
> conditions that warranted the order, and respond as appropriate by
> modifying or rescinding the order as conditions change. Notice of any
> modifications, or rescission, would need to be sufficient to
> reasonably notify individuals or groups who are subject to the order.

### How can it be renewed?

> See answer to 9 above. There is no renewal requirement.

### Describe the authority/process/notice requirements for ending a closure.

> Closure is ended the same way it is commenced. An order is issued
> terminating the prior order closing public places, with notice
> sufficient to reasonably notify the public.

## D. Sufficiency of powers/authorities to authorize closure of public places [in the absence]{.underline} of a declared public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to authorize closure of public places in the absence of a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> Closing public places, and related prohibitions on gatherings, raise
> several issues under the United States and Michigan Constitutions.
> Under the Michigan Constitution, these include:

-   No person shall be deprived of liberty or property without due
    process of law. Const 1963, Art I, §17.

-   Freedom of assembly, free speech, and religion. Art I §§3, 4, 5.

-   Eminent domain; private property shall not be taken for public use
    without just compensation. Const 1963, Art X, §2

> MDCH will need to obtain legal advice from the Department of Attorney
> General on constitutional parameters for closing public places,
> prohibiting gatherings, and measures to restrict movement. Procedures
> and process need developed based both on legal and policy
> considerations.

### Uncertainties?

> See answer above.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's authority to close public places? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to closure.)

> Only those already noted.

# V. Mass Prophylaxis Readiness

## A. Legal powers/authorities for issuance of blanket prescriptions and use of other mass prophylaxis measures during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- If it became necessary during a declared public health emergency to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures to enable emergency mass distribution of medical countermeasures (e.g., antivirals, vaccines), what legal powers, authorities, and procedures could enable, support, authorize or otherwise provide a legal basis for doing so? List all legal powers and authorities, policies, and procedures that could be used to authorize blanket prescriptions or other mass prophylaxis measures. For each of the powers and authorities listed, please address: 

### Who would make the decision to issue the blanket prescriptions or use other mass prophylaxis measures? 

> In a declared state of emergency the governor can suspend the
> regulatory statutes and regulations that would in any way hinder or
> delay necessary action in coping with the emergency or disaster. MCL
> 30.405(1)(a). The governor is further authorized to utilize all
> available resources of the state government and each political
> subdivision of the state as reasonably necessary to cope with the
> emergency or disaster. MCL 30.405(1)(b). Under a declared state of
> disaster or emergency the governor could authorize a suspension of the
> statutory and regulatory requirements for prescriptions. The governor
> could directly authorize for mass prescribing and dispensing of
> vaccines, antivirals and other medications by others such as nurses,
> dentists, veterinarians and Emergency Medical Technicians (EMT).

### Who has the authority to issue the blanket prescriptions or order the use other mass prophylaxis measures?

> Under the Emergency Management Act, the power to order the use of mass
> prophylaxis is given to the governor. Since the governor does not meet
> the licensing requirements for a "prescriber," she cannot issue
> blanket prescriptions unless she suspends the statutory and regulatory
> requirements for prescriptions. The Director of MDCH also has the
> legal authority to order the use of mass prophylaxis, and the Chief
> Medical Executive for MDCH has the authority to issue blanket
> prescriptions. Under the Michigan Emergency Management Plan (MEMP),
> which is consistent with the National Response Plan, MDCH is the lead
> agency for Emergency Support Function (ESF) #8. ESF #8 concerns the
> public health and mental health needs of the community, and includes
> coordinating the allocation of medications essential to public health
> and appropriate medical services. Thus, decisions regarding mass
> prophylaxis will most likely be made by the MDCH Director, with advice
> from the Chief Medical Executive, in addition consultation from the
> OPHP Director, the State Epidemiologist, and other Executive Staff or
> subject matter experts.

### How would the countermeasures be distributed?

> The Emergency Management Act does not specifically address
> distribution of countermeasures. However, detailed distribution plans
> for countermeasures for each federal stage/WHO phase are part of the
> MDCH Pandemic Influenza Plan and the MDCH Strategic National Stockpile
> Plan. Response includes:

-   Receipt, storage and distribution of Strategic National Stockpile to
    local jurisdictions (carried out by MDCH's Office of Public Health
    Preparedness, as set out in the SNS Plan)

-   Coordinating local health department mass vaccination clinics

    Monitoring of antiviral or vaccine administration with the Michigan
    Care Improvement Registry (MCIR)[^4]

    Monitoring of vaccine administration with MCIR

    Monitoring of adverse effects (VAERS, AERS)

-   Dispensing of antibiotics for post-exposure prophylaxis (CME's
    Standing Orders/ local medical directors Standing Orders) from
    bioterror or communicable disease agent

-   Dispensing of KI in a nuclear emergency

-   Dispensing chemical or biological agent remedies

    MEDDRUN is a state resource

    Chempack is a federal resource for chemical response

> Distribution will depend upon the event. Mobilization of the SNS
> requires a Governor's Order, but local and state resources have to be
> depleted first. Before that MEDDRUN and CHEMPACK can be mobilized
> emergently within the first 24-48hours of an event. SNS Plans and the
> MEPPP address the procedures for such counter measures. Mass
> Dispensing Plans and Mass Vaccination Plans are outlined for every
> Local Health Department. Vaccine and antiviral countermeasure
> distribution plans are in place within the SNS Plan for Pandemic
> influenza, and distribution will occur pre-event; that is, in WHO
> Phases 4 and 5, so as to pre-position resources.

## B. Sufficiency of authorities/procedures to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures during a [declared]{.underline} public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures during a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps? 

> None known.

### Uncertainties? 

> None known.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's authority to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to blanket prescriptions/mass prophylaxis.) 

> None known.

## C. Legal powers/authorities for issuance of blanket prescriptions and use of other mass prophylaxis measures [in the absence of]{.underline} a declared public health emergency -- If it became necessary in the absence of a declared public health emergency to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures to enable emergency mass distribution of medical countermeasures (e.g., antivirals, vaccines), what legal powers, authorities, and procedures could enable, support, authorize or otherwise provide a legal basis for doing so? List all legal powers and authorities, policies, and procedures that could be used to authorize such blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures. For each of the powers and authorities listed, please address: 

### Who would make the decision to issue the blanket prescriptions or use other mass prophylaxis measures?

> State and local public health would operate under the authority of the
> Public Health Code. The director of MDCH, and the local health
> officers, would make the decision whether to use mass prophylaxis
> measures, in consultation with the chief medical executive or medical
> director. If MDCH's director is not a physician, the director must
> designate a physician as chief medical executive who is responsible to
> the director for the medical content of policies and programs. MCL
> 333.2202(2). Similarly, if a local health officer is not a physician,
> a physician must be appointed as medical director "responsible for
> developing and carrying out medical policies, procedures, and standing
> orders and for advising the administrative health officer on matters
> related to medical specialty judgments. R 325.13001.

### Who has the authority to issue the blanket prescriptions or order the use other mass prophylaxis measures?

> The director of MDCH, and the local health officer for his or her
> jurisdiction, have the authority to order the use of mass prophylaxis
> measures. Most likely, this would be done as an emergency order to
> respond to an imminent threat or danger to the public health or as an
> emergency order to address an epidemic. MCL 333.2251, 333.2253,
> 333.2451, 333.2453. If the state or local health officer is not a
> physician, blanket prescriptions would need to be issued by the chief
> medical executive or medical director. Standing orders for
> prescriptions and protocols for administering are already in place for
> pandemic influenza for mass dispensing sites. When MDCH approves a
> mass immunization program to be administered in the state, health
> personnel employed by a governmental entity who are required to
> participate in the program, or any other individual authorized by the
> director or a local health officer to participate in the program
> without compensation, are not liable to any person for civil damages
> as a result of an act or omission causing illness, reaction, or
> adverse effect from the use of a drug or vaccine in the program,
> except for gross negligence or willful and wanton misconduct. MCL
> 333.9203(3)

### How would the countermeasures be distributed?

> Mass vaccination clinics, Points of Distribution sites- see local and
> State Mass Dispensing/ Vaccination and the SNS plans

## D. Sufficiency of authorities/procedures to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures [in the absence of]{.underline} a declared public health emergency -- Discuss the sufficiency of the authorities and powers to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures in the absence of a declared public health emergency, and any potential gaps or uncertainties in those powers and authorities. 

### Potential gaps?

> None known.

### Uncertainties?

> None known.

### Legal provisions that could inhibit, limit, or modify the jurisdiction's authority to issue blanket prescriptions or order the use of other mass prophylaxis measures? (Examples: state administrative practice acts, specific provisions in law related to blanket prescriptions mass prophylaxis.)

> The Public Health Code recognizes the right of individuals to refuse
> medical treatment, testing, or examination based on religious beliefs.
> MCL 333.5113. This right is not absolute, however, and a court may
> impose certain conditions on a carrier of a serious communicable
> disease who is a health threat to others under Part 52 of the Public
> Health Code, MCL 333.5201 *et seq.*

**Conclusion**

Michigan has many laws, response plans, and agreements in place for
effective response to pandemic influenza, including pharmaceutical and
social distancing measures. Completing this assessment has been valuable
to identify areas of law that require further research, discussion, and
development of process and procedures. This is especially true for
social distancing measures that implicate constitutional rights of due
process, freedom of religion, freedom of speech and assembly, and
compensation for private property taken for the common good.
Participating in this project has also emphasized the importance of
policy and ethical considerations, as well as legal issues, in
planning/implementing response measures to pandemic influenza. For
example, the closure of businesses results in loss of income to the
business owner. This raises legal - as well as policy and ethical
questions - about the burden on the business owner for the common good.
Similarly, the single mother without sick leave bears the burden of loss
of income by home quarantine because she happened to be on a plane with
sick passengers.

Completing this assessment has also helped identify potential gaps in
response plans involving particular measures (such as mass transit
limitations and curfew) and highlighted some logistical challenges (such
as enforcement of measures). From this assessment it appears that
several areas need to be pursued further with other government partners,
namely implementation of social distancing measures involving
Michigan\'s constitutionally created universities, on federal lands, and
on Indian land.

# VI. Other Issues 

## A. Other resources (legal powers and authorities, plans, policies or procedures, etc.) that your state might employ or rely upon to assist in pandemic response and the implementation of social distancing measures and/or mass prophylaxis readiness?

In addition to resources described above, the Attorney General's Office
is completing a bench book covering public health emergencies.

MDCH's Director issued a memorandum in July 2004 explaining to health
care providers that the HIPAA privacy rule does not impact state law
requiring that identifiable patient information be provided to public
health staff related to the prevention and control of serious
communicable disease. This memorandum is in both hard copy and
electronic form and widely available to assist public health staff
address concerns or refusal to provide requested health information
based on HIPAA.

## B. Other such resources (e.g., laws, regulations, or policies; money, personnel, research, training) you do not currently have but would like to have? If so, what are they?

It appears that all levels of government have concerns about the
source(s) of funding to implement restrictions on movement and social
distancing measures.

## C. Anything unique to your state in terms of pandemic preparedness and response measures related to social distancing or mass prophylaxis? 

Michigan has the second highest person volume crossing (after New York)
from Ontario to the United States, including three bridges and one
tunnel. In addition to entry through the U.S./Canadian border, Michigan
has four international airports.

# VII. Table of Authorities 

Attach a Table of Authorities as an appendix to the report, listing
citations for all relevant legal authorities or procedures, including
statutes, regulations, case law, Attorney General opinions, etc. Please
list the code section or citation, followed by the text and a hyperlink,
if available.

A Table of Authorities is provided as Appendix 1.

**TABLE OF AUTHORITIES**

Cases

*By Lo Oil Co v Dept of Treasury*,\
267 Mich App 19 (2005) 12

*National Pride at Work, Inc v Governor*,\
274 Mich App 147 (2007) 14

*People v Board of Education of City of Lansing*,\
224 Mich 388 (1923) 8

*Rock v Carney*,\
216 Mich 280 (1921) 8, 15

Statutes

MCL 10.31 16

MCL 10.33 17

MCL 123.811 *et seq*. 23

MCL 124.501 *et seq*. 24

MCL 124.504 24

MCL 24.231 *et seq*. 14

MCL 3.1001 21

MCL 3.991 21

MCL 30.401 [*et seq*.]{.underline}, Michigan Emergency Management Act,
1976 PA 390 3

MCL 30.402(e) 4

MCL 30.402(h) 4

MCL 30.403 5, 16

MCL 30.403(1) 4

MCL 30.404(2) 23

MCL 30.404(3) 20, 23, 24

MCL 30.405 7

MCL 30.405(1)(a) 32

MCL 30.405(1)(b) 4, 32

MCL 30.405(1)(f) 4

MCL 30.405(1)(g) 4

MCL 30.405(1)(j) 4

MCL 30.405(2) 4, 5, 17

MCL 30.406 29

MCL 30.407 16

MCL 30.407a 20, 23

MCL 30.408 20, 25

MCL 30.410 16

MCL 30.410(2) 21

MCL 30.411 5, 13

MCL 30.417(e),(f) 25

MCL 333.1111(2) 8

MCL 333.1291 11

MCL 333.2202(2) 35

MCL 333.2221(2)(g) 9

MCL 333.2226(c) 24

MCL 333.2226(d) 8

MCL 333.2226(e) 26

MCL 333.2228 13

MCL 333.2235(2) 26

MCL 333.2251 17, 35

MCL 333.2251(1) 9

MCL 333.2251(2) 11, 30

MCL 333.2251(3) 9, 26

MCL 333.2251(4)(a) 9

MCL 333.2251(4)(b) 9

MCL 333.2253 10, 17, 35

MCL 333.2255 11, 31

MCL 333.2261 11, 18, 31

MCL 333.2401 -- 333.2498 9

MCL 333.2433(2)(f) 9

MCL 333.2435(c)(e) 24

MCL 333.2435(e) 26

MCL 333.2451 17, 35

MCL 333.2451(2) 11, 30

MCL 333.2453 17, 35

MCL 333.2453(2) 10, 13

MCL 333.2455 10

MCL 333.2465 11, 31

MCL 333.2465(2) 13

MCL 333.5113 36

MCL 333.5201 -- 333.5207 13

MCL 333.5201 *et seq.* 36

MCL 333.5201(1)(a) 10

MCL 333.5201(1)(b) 10

MCL 333.9203(3) 35

MCL 333.9207 33

MCL 750.504 5, 17

MCL 764.15(1)(d) 6, 11

MCL 798.101 *et seq*. 25

MCL 798.103 25

Other Authorities

OAG, 1967-1968, No 4631, p 194 (March 5, 1968) 7

Rules

R 325.13001 35

R 325.171(g) 10

Constitutional Provisions

Const 1963, Art I §§3, 4, 5 32

Const 1963, Art I, § 17 12, 32

Const 1963, Art III, § 5 24

Const 1963, Art VIII, §§ 5, 6 14

Const 1963, Art X, §2 32

[^1]: *Interim Pre-pandemic Planning Guidance: Community Strategy for
    Pandemic Influenza Mitigation in the United States -- Early,
    Targeted, Layered Use of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions*, which can
    be found at\
    <http://www.pandemicflu.gov/plan/community/community_mitigation.pdf>

[^2]: The Michigan Association for Local Public Health obtained an
    assessment of Michigan laws through the Turning Point Collaborative.

[^3]: This number excludes school districts, intermediate school
    districts, planning and development regions and special districts
    and authorities. This information is from the *Michigan Manual*, p.
    711.

[^4]: Effective April 4, 2006, Michigan amended its law that created the
    Michigan Child Immunization Registry to expand it to a "care
    improvement registry" that could include immunization information on
    adults and be used during in an emergency to monitor antiviral or
    vaccine administration. MCL 333.9207.