## Chapter 10 

## Humanitarian Response and Natural Disasters 

### Chapter 10.1 Humanitarian Response

### Brief Description of the Sector

The United States has a long history of providing humanitarian
assistance to the victims of man-made and natural disasters, as well as
to development assistance programs aimed at improving food security for
vulnerable populations in developing countries. This assistance is
provided through USAID's Office of Food for Peace (FFP) of the Bureau
for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA), in
conjunction with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. private
voluntary organizations (PVOs). Resources are provided through the Food
for Peace Program (PL 480) Title II. In many developing countries
countries, these PVOs have often been in the forefront of those
providing both emergency relief to refugees and various forms of
development assistance that are oriented toward food security .[^1]

When disasters strike overseas, USAID's Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance (OFDA), another branch of DCHA, leads the response. OFDA can
draw upon a variety of assets in responding to disaster, including
stockpiles of relief commodities such as plastic sheeting, tents, and
water purification units. OFDA is also charged with working with host
governments to develop early warning systems and training programs to
strengthen local self-reliance in the face of disasters.

In the past, concern for the environment was seen as a luxury that need
not be addressed by those involved with emergency and refugee relief
programs. USAID's environmental regulations specifically exempt
emergencies and disaster relief operations from environmental review and
scrutiny.[^2] Experience, however, is leading to an awareness that human
suffering in emergency situations is often linked to adverse
environmental impacts, and that both can be lessened with early
attention and pre-planning. This new awareness grows out of the
recog-nition that the environmental damage caused by the disaster
itself---or by the disaster victims or the disaster response---can
worsen the condition of disaster victims, including refugees and
internally displaced persons (IDPs). This is particularly true when the
direct effects of environmental contamination threaten the health of an
already endangered refugee population.
![](media/image1.jpeg){width="1.8541666666666667in"
height="2.740972222222222in"}

The adverse impacts of large concentrations of displaced people and/or
their camps can also affect the local population of host communities and
countries. Often, in the case of both natural and man-made disasters,
refugees and IDPs flow into nearby areas where the local population may
also be facing difficulties, though perhaps not yet at the level of an
emergency. It is therefore imperative that those who aid disaster
victims ensure that potential environmental problems are anticipated and
that a mitigation action plan is followed.

### Potential Environmental Impacts of Programs in the Sector and Their Causes

The influx of disaster victims into an area can disturb ecosystems and
threaten the livelihoods of local communities. Environmental impacts of
emergency, refugee, resettlement and food aid programs may include:

-   **Deforestation.** Wood collection for firewood and construction
    materials can deforest large areas surrounding camps. The loss of
    forest and ground cover destabilizes watersheds, triggering or
    worsening soil erosion and flooding. Deforestation destroys animal
    habitats as well, causing loss of wildlife. Deforestation also
    reduces the local community's supply of fuel, timber, and non-timber
    forest products and undermines their efforts to manage their natural
    resources and parks.

-   **Water contamination and depletion.** Water resources that are not
    protected from refugee wastes and wastewater may become
    contaminated. Groundwater sources may also be depleted through
    excessive pumping.

-   **Environmental health deterioration**. Refugees in poorly designed
    and constructed camps can suffer from disease and accidents caused
    by insufficient or unsafe water supply; poor sanitation and waste
    disposal; poor drainage; hazardous terrain (including gullies and
    ravines); and uncontrolled disease vectors (such as insects and
    rodents).

-   **Changes in** **land use**. Agricultural production to meet the
    basic needs of refugees for food and income can lead to conflicts
    with local land users, changes in land-use patterns, cultivation of
    marginal areas, and encroachment on areas that are ecologically
    sensitive or high in biodiversity value, whether they are formally
    protected or not.

-   **Air pollution.** The burning of fuelwood (particularly green wood
    for cooking), as well as kerosene or other fuel oils, can release
    harmful smoke and cause acute respiratory infections.

-   **Poaching.** Poaching, particularly in protected areas, can
    decimate endangered species populations and disrupt local
    communities' revenue streams from commercial hunting ventures.

-   **Personal** **safety.** Deforestation of nearby areas often
    necessitates long journeys for wood collection. This exposes
    fuelwood collectors---who are most apt to be women and children---to
    assault and even kidnapping, especially when there are lawless or
    disputed territories near the camp.

-   **Health impacts from** **measures to protect food aid resources**
    **from contamination**. Treatment of stored food supplies may impair
    human health. For example, people working in food aid stores as well
    as those who consume the food may be endangered by chemical residues
    of treatment, such as the dust from phostoxin tablets used to
    fumigate storage areas and stored food.

### Sector Program Design---Some Specific Guidance

Preparedness is the key to a quick response to emergency relief and
disaster situations. Because of the urgency, a quick response capability
should be anchored in a series of clear operational directives. The
following precautionary operational steps will help to ensure an
environmentally sound response:

**Rapid Environmental Impact** **Assessment.** A Rapid Environmental
Impact Assessment (Rapid EIA)[^3] is a shorter impact assessment tool
specifically designed for disaster response. While not a substitute for
the EIA process normally applied to development programs and projects,
it requires less time and expertise, and can therefore better respond to
emergency conditions. A Rapid EIA can also be frequently and easily
updated to reflect the changing conditions at refugee and IDP camps.
Such assessments can be completed in a few hours by one person or within
1--2 days by a small group of people, none of whom need to be experts in
environmental assessment. The Rapid EIA includes a community assessment
tool designed to capture the needs, views and desires of the disaster
victims themselves. Rapid EIAs should be used in the first 90 to 120
days after a disaster strikes. Beyond that threshold, it is better to
perform a complete environmental assessment as part of the
recovery/rehabilitation process.

Rapid EIAs consist of seven sections, each of which helps planners
anticipate potential impacts and estimate the risk associated with them:

1.  **Context statement**. This short statement summarizes the facts of
    the disaster, perceived environmental issues, information sources,
    any needs for further assessment/data, and special environmental
    assistance needs (e.g., an oil spill, work in an area inhabited by
    an endangered species).

2.  **Identification of disaster-related factors with immediate impact
    on the environment**. This element lists and prioritizes factors
    requiring mitigation and identifies ways to mitigate or avoid
    environmental damage. Sample factors include the number of affected
    people, population density, the duration and the extent of the
    disaster, whether the victims are displaced or not, what resources
    are available, density of settlements, how people make a living, and
    social structures.

3.  **Identification of possible immediate environmental** **hazards**.
    This analysis details and prioritizes any significant immediate
    threats to lives and well-being---for example, a flood passing
    through a fertilizer factory and contaminating nearby ponds used for
    drinking water. The focus of this Rapid EIA element is on hazards
    which may have an immediate impact on the environment and need to be
    addressed without delay.

4.  **Identification of unmet basic needs**. This very important step
    identifies and prioritizes the unmet needs of the disaster victims,
    including refugees or IDPs, with their likely environmental impacts.
    An example would be the need for fuelwood to cook or to generate
    income and the deforestation that may result. The form rates the
    level of satisfaction of critical needs like water, shelter, fuel,
    food, health services and waste disposal.

5.  **Identification of potential environmental damage caused by**
    **possible relief activities**. This element captures the negative
    impacts of ongoing or planned activities, including agriculture,
    irrigation, livestock expansion, introduction of agrochemicals,
    water supply and sanitation, and healthcare services. The form also
    lists possible changes to these activities and mitigation steps that
    could be taken during either relief activities or recovery
    operations.

6.  **Synthesis action list**. This synthesizes the previous steps to
    prioritize critical environmental issues, determine actions to
    address these issues, and note issues which may require action after
    the relief phase is complete. The list specifies a deadline for
    completing each follow-up action and names the party responsible for
    completing the task.

7.  **The community** **Rapid EIA guideline**. This is a useful tool to
    collect information in a participatory way from a diverse group
    representative of the affected community. Ideally, it should be
    completed separately with different segments of the disaster victim
    community, assuring inputs from women and other disadvantaged groups
    (youths, elderly people, members of minority populations, people
    with handicaps, etc.). It collects data on environmental issues as
    they are perceived by the disaster victims and allows respondents to
    prioritize their environmental concerns---not only those stemming
    from the disaster, but those that contributed to it in the first
    place.[^4]

**Include competent environmental specialists in disaster and relief
teams:** Experience has shown that the most critical environmental
damage begins to accrue right from the outset of emergency situations.
The most acute of these problems relate to basic human needs for water,
sanitation and environmental health precautions. It is of fundamental
importance to ensure that competent staff is on hand to deal with these
problems, as well as provide advice to other team members attending to
the food, shelter, health care and organizational needs of disaster
victims.

![](media/image2.png)require giving attention to the natural environment
and to how it can more sustainably provide food, energy and building
resources. In longer-term refugee situations, fostering a degree of
self-reliance and independence from external food resources will also
require guidance about appropriate and durable land-use patterns that
are compatible with the local environment. Finally, specialists will be
needed to help plan and implement an effective program for the
environmental rehabilitation of host areas once the refugees begin to
return to their places of origin.

**Distribute and follow environmental guidelines for** **operational
planning.** The Sphere project---a multi-year project sponsored by NGOs,
the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, donor governments, and UN
agencies---has published *The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards
in Disaster Response*, an extensive treatise on the standards for water
and sanitation, nutrition, food aid, shelter and site planning, and
medical services needed to respond to humanitarian crises.[^5] The
*Environmental Guidelines* of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), the USAID/OFDA *Field Operations Guide (FOG) for
Disaster Assessment and Response*, and the UNEP/OCHA *Guidelines for
Environmental Assessment Following Chemical Emergencies* also provide
specific guidance for addressing the environmental dimensions of these
situations. Chapter III of the FOG provides specific guidelines for
assessments and responses related to water supplies, disease control,
site selection and planning, shelter, and sanitation and environmental
services. (See summary in sidebar, previous page.) Copies of these
documents should be issued to all emergency and disaster relief teams.

Additional technical guidance and best practices can be found in the
chapters on water and sanitation, forestry, agriculture and irrigation,
rural roads, solid waste, and medical waste in the present volume.

**Plan for long-term demands.** Camps may be used for years beyond their
expected lifetime. In anticipation of this possibility, players must
coordinate their activities with government and NGO staff to ensure
compliance with local laws and minimize environmental damage, especially
to sensitive and protected areas. Investments in infrastructure, such as
road improvement, riverbank protection, and construction of health
posts, should also benefit local communities. Develop an environmentally
sound long-term land use strategy involving activities such as
conversion of areas for agriculture or agroforestry. Begin planning for
rehabilitation activities as early as possible.

**Use** **food aid** **proactively to avoid dependency**: A full
discussion of the complexities of the issues surrounding food aid
dependency is beyond the scope of these *Guidelines*. In the recent
past, the issue has received considerable attention within the
humanitarian response community, and a much more integrated
approach---including food aid, food-for-work, cash and technical
assistance, and development-oriented food aid programs---has become
standard practice with both USAID- and UN-funded programs. A number of
fundamental principles can help ensure that food aid is used proactively
to move refugees, displaced persons and food-insecure people along the
continuum from relief to development. The principles include:

-   **Apply participatory approaches**. Helping people make
    environmental choices is a matter of information and motivation. In
    an emergency or relief situation, local community structures have
    often been weakened. Instituting a genuinely participatory approach
    to working with disaster victims and local communities---or, for
    that matter, with the people involved in development programs that
    are funded with food aid---can reinforce their resolve, both
    personal and collective, about their own capabilities, their
    prospects and their hopes.\
    \
    USAID, in its *Food Security Policy Paper,* emphasizes this need:
    "\...interventions must be designed and implemented on the basis of
    the same principles that guide sustainable development---capacity
    building, participation and sustainability" (USAID 1995). Building
    capacity and leadership is key to helping affected individuals and
    groups better understand the issues, build consensus, and negotiate
    the tradeoffs that are often required for them to adopt new
    behaviors in the face of new circumstances.\
    \
    In fast-paced humanitarian response settings, where environmental
    problems tell quickly on the people being assisted, participatory
    monitoring can be especially effective. A good network of leaders
    and spokespersons within the community, and regular meetings with
    them, can help track environmental health conditions on a timely
    basis. This can be critical to ensuring the health and well-being of
    vulnerable people.

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-   **Conduct agriculture and natural resource management training that
    is oriented toward food security**. Much of the discussion of
    agriculture and small-scale forestry in these *Guidelines* reflects
    the principle that environmentally sound activities can help to
    enhance food security by raising the productivity of smallholder
    farming and other land uses. Readers who are involved in longer-term
    aid to refugees and displaced persons should familiarize themselves
    with the principles of environmentally sound design for these
    activities. Sustainable production models should be used in
    developing food or fuelwood production activities among camp
    communities. This can also benefit the participants by giving them
    knowledge and skills they can apply once they return to their own
    lands.

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-   **Provide for environmental rehabilitation.** In the spirit of
    environmental justice, humanitarian response programs must include
    the resources and the time needed to rehabilitate damaged areas so
    that the local populations do not suffer from having hosted the
    disaster victims. Rehabilitation efforts can include camp cleanup;
    disposal of waste materials; closure of latrines; removal or
    conversion of housing and other infrastructure; and the development
    and implementation of plans for rehabilitating affected resources
    nearby (e.g., via soil and water conservation and revegetation).
    Rehabilitation efforts may extend for years after the refugees
    depart. In some instances, it may be necessary to work with
    development organizations to integrate technical expertise and
    approaches to rehabilitation into other community development
    initiatives.

#### Design and Operational Guidance

**Site selection.** Large population increases in areas with limited
natural resources may lead to conflict between disaster
victims---particularly refugees (or IDPs)---and host communities. Where
feasible, camps should be located away from local populations and should
be spaced at least 20km apart to minimize the environmental degradation
caused by camp activities. Camps should be at least 15km away from
ecologically sensitive or protected areas. Before the camp is set up,
planners need to understand the regular and seasonal land uses of the
potential area, including grazing, hunting and gathering, wildlife
migration, and encampment by nomadic communities. In some cases,
camp-related environmental impacts may be reduced by integrating
refugees or IDPs into local communities.

Areas with strong winds should not be chosen as camps. Winds damage
infrastructure and vegetation, and worsen erosion from deforestation.
The soil slope of the site should be between 2 and 6 percent. A 2
percent slope is the minimum recommended to achieve natural drainage. A
6 percent slope is the suggested maximum to prevent erosion from cleared
areas.

Camp planners must select a site with an adequate freshwater supply.
They should consider seasonal fluctuations, downstream water quality and
potential impacts on downstream users, as well as quantity requirements,
access, and the needs of local communities. Camps using groundwater
supplies must be aware of water table levels and drawdown effects.
Planners must also anticipate the long-term effects of deforestation or
overgrazing on the local watersheds.

  -------------- --------------------------------------------------------
  Site           
  selection,     
  design and     
  operations     
  issues         

  Site selection Spacing (away from population centers, environmentally
                 sensitive areas and other camps)

                 Area's regular and seasonal land uses

                 Local wind speed patterns

                 Slope of land

                 Water supply; effects of camp on watershed

                 Timber resources and effect of camp on them

                 Possible local use of camp school, hospital, cemetery
                 after refugees leave

  Site design    Proper design of roads (cambering, drainage) and
                 footpaths

                 Layout of garden plots (clustering plots, adding ground
                 cover)

                 Storage, household supply and fire prevention system

                 Proper design and siting of latrines

                 Using prefabricated or locally available construction
                 materials

                 Refugees' social customs

  Site operation Safe disposal of waste

                 Safe control of pests
  -------------- --------------------------------------------------------

Campsites need to have enough timber resources to meet fuel and shelter
requirements. Estimating these requirements and the available supply may
require input from forestry or biomass energy experts, as well as the
local population and representatives of the displaced people. Planners
should consult with host governments and NGOs to develop and manage
resource-use plans for designated camp areas. Planners should also
budget for wood-harvesting fees, since forestry activities in private or
government-managed forests may require royalties.

Planners should design refugee schools, hospitals and, if possible,
cemeteries so that the local population can use them after the camp
closes.

**Site design.** If new access roads are required, they should be
cambered, have proper drainage and follow contour lines. Drainage
ditches should be constructed to control rainwater; their outlets should
have control measures (such as check dams) for preventing high-volume or
high-velocity flows likely to cause gully erosion. Road gradients
greater than 10 percent should be avoided whenever possible. For more on
roads, see the rural roads chapter of these *Guidelines*.

Footpaths within the camp, like access roads, should be planned to
minimize erosion and potential accidents. Firebreaks should be included;
roads, for example, can act as firebreaks. The effects of soil
compaction over time should be anticipated in designing pathways and
roads.

Family residential and home gardening plots should be arrayed in
clusters to encourage communal cooking and energy conservation.
Households with family plots of 400m^2^ or larger should be encouraged
to cultivate trees and bushes for ground cover.

Sites should include storage facilities for fuel, fuelwood and food
supplies. Facilities will also require fire prevention measures and a
system for distributing supplies to households.

Latrines should be sited at least 30m from water sources to prevent
contamination of surface waters. Latrine bottoms should be at least 1.5m
above the water table to prevent groundwater contamination. Timber slabs
may be used in pit latrines for short-term, emergency facilities, but
concrete slabs should be used if latrines will be needed for more than a
few months. Concrete is easier to clean, lasts longer, and does not use
wood that is needed for shelters or home energy.

**Site construction.** If available, prefabricated structures or tents
should be used for shelters. Locally supplied materials should be used
whenever possible, particularly for communal spaces, offices, and
storage facilities. Always consider the refugees' social customs during
construction. Rwandan refugees in Tanzania, for example, refused to use
improved cookers because they had been built "in the wrong place" in
their huts. Somalian refugees in Kenya shunned improved stoves because
they were constructed in the shape of graves (UNHCR 2002a).

Areas should be left vegetated or replanted after construction to
stabilize the soil. Trees should be planted around family plots and in
areas susceptible to soil erosion.

**Camp operations.** Open water sources should be protected from
bathing, laundry and dishwashing. Incentive programs should be designed
to reward energy-efficient behavior. Camp enterprises (restaurants,
breweries, etc.) should be encouraged to use improved stoves and other
energy conservation measures. Plans to manage the use of natural
resources should be implemented as soon as refugees or IDPs arrive.

Systems should be in place for reusing or disposing of non-biodegradable
waste. If chemicals are used to control disease vectors (e.g., rats,
mosquitoes), all guidance on safe storage and use of pesticides must be
followed, as outlined in the chapters on safer pesticides and integrated
pest management in these *Guidelines*.

### Mitigation and Monitoring Issues

**Water and sanitation**

-   Protect water sources from siltation, erosion, human and livestock
    waste, contaminated surface waters, and rainwater runoff.

-   Do not divert surface water flows (e.g., rivers, streams) to the
    point where the remaining flows become stagnant.

-   Mitigate disease threats from stagnant water bodies and ponds by
    incorporating fisheries into the humanitarian project. Fish can
    generate income while controlling mosquito populations.

-   Use bed nets to protect against lice, mosquitoes, bedbugs and
    sandflies. Insecticide-treated nets are especially effective, but
    must be handled with care. [^6]

-   Mitigate erosion gullies by constructing a system of channels,
    bridges, culverts, and gabions (baskets of steel mesh filled with
    stones, used for erosion control along watercourses). These allow
    safe crossing, alleviate flooding and reduce erosion.

-   Promote contour trenching and watershed management efforts as
    income-generating activities for refugees and local communities.

-   Use wastewater for **multi-story gardens,** which recycle the water
    while growing food in a small space. These miniature gardens are
    constructed from deep tubular burlap bags filled with soil. A
    perforated funnel made from scrap tin cans is inserted into the
    center of the bag and packed with stones. Wastewater is then poured
    into the funnel, cleansed by the stones, and used to water
    vegetables, which emerge from small holes in the bag to grow at
    several levels ("stories") in the soil.

**Forest conservation**

-   Establish harvesting rules and harvest zones with clearly marked
    boundaries.

-   Allow area closures for natural regeneration whenever possible.

-   Mark specific trees with paint to prevent them from being harvested.

-   Plant tree species with the greatest potential for growth and seed
    production.

-   Designate specific tree stands for use in construction.

-   Train and equip park rangers to protect vulnerable areas and prevent
    poaching.

-   Transfer production responsibilities for tree seedlings to refugees
    and local community groups as early as possible.

-   Encourage tree planting on household plots first, to generate
    enthusiasm and develop tree-planting skills.

-   As camps are closing, emphasize to refugees the importance of
    leaving trees as a gift to their host community.

-   See the chapter on forestry and agroforestry in these *Guidelines*
    for additional guidance and mitigation measures.

**Energy-conserving activities**

> **Food supply**

-   Using pre-cooked, blended foods instead of beans for children under
    three reduces cooking time from 45min to 5min. Milled grains require
    only 25 percent of the energy needed to cook whole grains. If they
    cannot be milled in a central facility before distribution, milling
    facilities should be provided at the camp. Be aware, however, that
    milled grains require vitamin supplements for complete nutrition.

-   Use locally purchased, fresh foods instead of dried grains or
    pulses. Soy-fortified foods can be used to replace pulses.

> **Equipment supply**

-   Energy-saving cooking techniques include (1) pre-soaking whole
    grains, (2) steaming cereals and pulses before cooking, and (3)
    using infrared radiation to partially pre-cook grains.

-   Provide cooking pots with lids to reduce cooking times. Larger pots
    encourage communal cooking, which is energy-efficient.

-   Provide blankets and warm clothing in cool climates to reduce energy
    requirements for heating.

-   Create incentive programs to encourage the use of improved stoves,
    fireless cookers, insulated cooking pots, and solar cookers where
    cost-effective and socially acceptable.

> **Energy supply**

-   Use a water purification system instead of having families boil
    water.

-   Kerosene or other fuels can be used for cooking in lieu of firewood.

-   Firewood should be supplied to camp residents only when:

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-   insufficient fuelwood supplies exist within walking distance.

-   no other sources of fuel are available.

-   fuelwood collection is dangerous due to land mines, military attacks
    or potential sexual assaults.

-   other populations are dependent on the existing fuelwood supplies.

-   the source of the fuelwood to be supplied can be harvested
    sustainably over several years.

-   the distribution of fuelwood will be controlled and balanced by
    strong energy conservation measures.

**Water conservation**

-   Use self-closing water taps and covered water tanks to minimize
    evaporation and water leakage, as well as reducing the risk of
    contamination.

-   Use **ferrocement tanks** made of cement, chicken wire, and
    reinforcement bars (rerods) to collect rainwater runoff from
    shelters and buildings. Collecting rainwater also reduces the risk
    of flooding and soil erosion.

**Waste-minimizing activities**

-   Distribute food in bulk so refugees can reuse packaging.

-   Encourage refugees to reuse tins, containers and plastic bags. Tins
    can be used to raise tree seedlings and make stoves. Plastic bags
    can be woven into mats and baskets.

-   Organic solid waste should be composted for use in agriculture or
    kitchen gardening.

-   Treated wastewater can be used to irrigate home gardens, tree
    seedlings and areas vegetated for soil stability. (See discussion of
    multi-story gardens on p. 10--11.)

-   Waste can also be packed into termite mounds, where it is broken
    down into fertilizer for crops.

-   Consult the chapters on solid waste and on medical waste handling
    and disposal in these *Guidelines* for more information on this
    topic.

**Environmental Education.** Education helps refugees understand the
impact of their actions on the environment and also helps establish ties
to local communities. Information can be shared in classrooms; in
meetings of refugees or of joint refugee and local groups; and through
songs and theatrical productions. An added benefit is that refugees can
use their environmental management knowledge and skills after returning
home.

##  

## Chapter 10. 2 

## Natural Disasters

### Brief Description of Sector

The statistics that capture the frequency and magnitude of global
natural disasters are staggering. Since 1990, natural disasters have
killed an average of almost 1,300 people per week (Red Cross 2002). The
poorest countries of the world suffered 24.4 percent of the economic
toll from natural disasters between 1985 and 1999. Disasters cost these
countries 13.4 percent of their GDP, an unreasonably high proportion for
nations already plagued by myriad economic and financial ills
(Abramovitz 2001).

The United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UNDHA) defines a
disaster as "a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing
widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the
ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources" (UNDHA
2001). However, to group all disasters as "natural" disasters masks the
fact that many stem from *un*natural causes (IFRC and RCS 2002).
Improved disaster management requires people to identify the human-made
root causes of disasters and find the resolve to tackle them in a
sustainable manner.

There are multiple causes for the most sever natural hazards that
inflict Asia. Countries like Bangladesh, China, and India are the most
flood-prone; India, Philippines, and Thailand are more apt to experience
landslides, which are aggravated by deforestation; and Afghanistan,
Iraq, Iran, and Nepal lie adjacent to seismic zones are thus more
vulnerable to seismic events. In 2001 alone, flash floods struck parts
of Pakistan killing over 130 people, floods and typhoons have caused
more than US\$200 million in material losses in Vietnam, and an
earthquake that measures 7.7 on the Richter scale affected the state of
Gujarat in India, killing more than 20 000 people. As for the Near East,
land degradation, mostly in the form of desertification, is the chief
cause of natural disasters in the region. Drought in the region has
exacerbated the effects of desertification; drought-affected areas
impede the development of agricultural and water schemes, and ultimately
food production.

Disasters cause loss of lives and livelihoods, damage to infrastructure
and communications, interruption of economic activities, deterioration
of social networks, and increased disease outbreaks (GEO 2002). Costs
may be direct, through the loss of capital stock (including
infrastructure and inventories of materials); or indirect, through
decreases in the flow of goods and services, lost income, unemployment
and lower output from damaged assets. Secondary effects include declines
in economic growth and development as a result of debt, inflation, or
distribution of income for relief instead of investment (Anderson 2000).
The indirect costs of disasters, natural or unnatural, are the most
devastating to many livelihoods.

This section is divided into the following sub-sections: (1) an overview
of the environmental forces that fuel natural disasters or make them
worse; (2) specific policy guidance for program design in this sector;
and (3) a list of mitigation measures that could potentially reduce the
environmental, social and economic impacts of natural disasters.

### Environmental Forces That Fuel Natural Disasters

The aim of this section is to underscore the major environmental forces
adding to the frequency and intensity of natural disasters. These forces
are often caused or worsened by human mismanagement or the unsustainable
use of natural resources.

**Climate change** The general features of climate change---higher
temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and changes in the
frequency and intensity of some extreme climatic phenomena---act on both
human and natural systems. In Asia and the Near East, climate change
poses a major threat to the environmental systems on which communities
depend for survival.

The Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) projects that surface air temperatures will increase
1.4--5.8^o^C by 2100 (relative to 1990) and that "the balance of
evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate,"
though the relative importance of human activities vs. natural
variability is unclear (IPCC 2001a). The Second Assessment Report states
that in arid and semi-arid regions of Asia, water shortage may be
exacerbated by climate change. As for the natural disaster-related
projections, changes in climate in Asia may lead to: (i) an increase
precipitation intensity and could increase flood-prone area in temperate
and tropical Asia; (ii) drier conditions in arid and semi-arid Asia
during summer, which could lead to more severe droughts; and (iii) more
intense tropical cyclones, which combined with sea-level rise would
result in a greater risk of loss of life and properties .

**Environmental degradation**

Steady increases in deforestation, destruction of wetlands, removal of
large expanses of mangroves, overgrazing, poor crop cover, and
construction of river embankments, dams and channels are all culprits
undermining the natural hydrological cycle. In times of heavy rainfall,
forests, mangroves, floodplains, and wetlands absorb and collect water
and stabilize soils; their absence leads to excessive surface runoff.
The runoff clogs rivers and floodplains with soil and mud, leading to
disasters such as inundation, flash floods, severe erosion, land
subsidence and mudslides. The secondary effects are equally
serious---loss of farmland, contamination of water supplies, destruction
of homes and death of livestock. Ironically, the same activities that
may bring on floods and mudslides can also exacerbate a recurring
disaster in the Near East---drought. Deforestation and overgrazing
results in declining soil moisture, depleted groundwater sources, and
reduced rates of evapo-transpiration, which disrupts natural rainfall
patterns.

The spread of non-native vegetation---introduced or invasive
species---may raise the incidence of intense fires. Some of these
species are known to have high water requirements, which may increase
local vulnerability to both drought and fire. Timber residues ("lops and
tops") left by careless loggers may also feed or intensify forest fires.

### Sector Program Design---Some Specific Guidance

Policy change and technical measures must converge to address the gaps
and missing links in disaster preparedness. The following section
summarizes various policy tools that may be useful in minimizing the
impacts of disasters on local communities.

-   **Integrate** **disaster** **preparedness into** **related**
    **national development programs.** To date, most countries have
    focused on responding to disasters rather than mitigating
    them---that is, lessening or protecting against the effects of
    disasters ahead of time. Although relief efforts are crucial to
    saving lives, mitigation deserves at least comparable emphasis
    since, on average, \$1 invested in mitigation can save \$7 in
    disaster recovery costs (Abramovitz 2001). Unfortunately, funds for
    disaster recovery are often obtained by reducing funding to other
    budgeted programs, which undermines overall development performance.
    This situation also tends to leave insufficient resources for
    pre-planning and implementation of disaster mitigation measures.\
    \
    It is absolutely essential for the national government to recognize
    the development challenges that disasters impose. Once it realizes
    how disasters can turn back the clock on progress, the government
    can integrate disaster response policies into national development
    plans and strategies. These must include programs to prepare for,
    mitigate and prevent disasters. At the same time, the central
    government should devolve some disaster management authority to
    local municipalities, townships, wards or local communities. The
    mandate of local authorities should be expanded from that of solely
    responding to crises to monitoring potential disasters, managing
    public education initiatives, and galvanizing public and private
    action to minimize impacts in advance. Besides encouraging local
    input and buy-in, this devolution implies that both national
    governments and local authorities will follow a consistent set of
    rules and regulations for risk reduction (ISDR 2000).

-   **Promote regional disaster cooperation.** Countries with similar
    socio-economic levels in a sub-region are likely to be grappling
    with the same threats and vulnerability issues. The principal
    advantages of regional collaboration in disaster management
    activities are (1) the efficiencies made possible by cooperation in
    mitigation planning and (2) the potential savings of resources
    through economies of scale in responding to disasters.

-   **Establish public awareness and designated training centers.**
    Effective educational and outreach activities create a "culture of
    mitigation" that ultimately helps to build disaster-resistant
    communities (Electronic Debate for the World Summit on Sustainable
    Development 2002). One effective way to promote local participation
    is to enroll community members in disaster management training.
    Training institutions instruct enrollees on risk reduction measures
    that their communities can take.

> However, sSuch institutions do do not replace the need for clear and
> consistent public awareness campaigns. Campaigns should be tailored to
> local conditions and targeted toaimed at all sectors of society. A
> comprehensive campaign requires different types of messages and
> preparatory measures for target audiences such as the illiterate, the
> homeless, minority communities, youths, and the elderly.

-   **Explore the possibility of economic incentives for disaster
    reduction.** Economic incentives and disincentives are potentially
    powerful tools to raise community awareness about the consequences
    of certain land uses or environmental practices. (See the box to the
    right.)

-   **Invest in strategic partnerships.** Disaster mitigation policies
    should build on synergistic alliances between effective
    community-based civil society organizations (CSOs) and
    inter-governmental entities, such as the United Nations Development
    Programme (UNDP) or the International Federation of the Red Cross.
    The CSOs can provide a vital link between the interagency bodies,
    which coordinate the emergency phase, and multilateral financial
    institutions, which support long-term reconstruction (UNDP 2001).
    Fruitful partnerships may also be formed around a specific topic,
    such as chronic vulnerability; potential partners include government
    agencies, international NGOs, and local communities. For example,
    Vietnam's Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control (CCFSC) is a
    national effort with programs, plans, and measures for disaster
    reduction. CCFSC coordinates its activities with other relevant
    international organizations and its achievements have been
    recognized by the United Nations.

-   **Create and enforce hazard mitigation codes.** Regulatory
    approaches may involve enforcing hazard mitigation codes for
    infrastructure or restrictions on land use. These have had limited
    success in developing countries. However, if a community is willing
    to establish and enforce such regulations, model codes and standards
    can be helpful, especially when technical assistance is limited
    (ISDR 2002).

-   **Scrutinize harmful or misguided government policies.** A
    well-managed natural resource base---forests, swamps, upper
    catchment areas---helps to absorb the shocks of disasters and can
    even prevent the onset of some disasters. Conversely, certain
    government programs or initiatives undertaken without adequate
    impact assessment studies (e.g., the conversion of forest or swamps
    into agricultural settlements or the construction of homes on
    unstable hill slopes) may have devastating impacts on the ability of
    natural systems to lessen the immediate effects of disasters or to
    rebound over the longer term.

### Mitigation Measures---Guidance to Reduce Environmental, Social and Economic Impacts 

The following section outlines certain technological options and applied
activities for mitigating the damage caused by disasters. Guidance for
mitigating social and economic impacts is included, since they are often
inextricably linked to the environmental impacts of disasters. The list
of measures underscores the value of investing in "soft measures" that
emphasize planning for various types of adaptation and that address the
underlying causes of vulnerability, rather than relying on "autonomous
adjustments"---i.e., private adaptations that occur without government
intervention and are usually paid for privately.

-   **Focus on housing as part of the recovery process**. Post-disaster
    efforts are more effective in the long term if they are
    community-driven and adapted to local conditions. One entry point
    for community-driven mitigation is the construction of
    disaster-resistant housing. For families made destitute by typhoons
    and flooding, a new, more durable house may be the most
    time-efficient and cost-effective form of relief (IFRC and RCS
    2002). Often the use of traditional materials to construct homes is
    not sustainable; for example, the use of hardwoods contributes to
    increased rates of deforestation and erosion, which can worsen
    disasters. Thus communities, with the aid of NGOs (local or
    international) and donors, should experiment with more appropriate
    materials (concrete foundations, steel frames) and designs that can
    be maintained locally.

```{=html}
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```
-   **Implement effective early warning systems.** Advances in the
    science and technology of early warning systems have far outstripped
    the ability of responsible parties to deliver vital alerts to the
    public in disaster-prone locations. An added complexity is that the
    onset of drought---perhaps the continent's most pressing disaster
    challenge---is often extremely difficult to detect until major
    impacts, such as scarcity of water or failed crops, become evident.
    The publication *Living With Risk: A Global Review of Disaster
    Reduction Initiatives*, issued by the International Strategy for
    Disaster Reduction (ISDR) secretariat, identifies four prerequisites
    for effective early warning systems: (i) national leaders feel a
    responsibility to promote integrated early warning strategies; (ii)
    communities and NGOs are involved in disseminating messages, as well
    as operating and maintaining warning equipment; (iii) international
    cooperation is leveraged to finance national early warning
    capacities; and (iv) the technical skills to identify and monitor
    hazards are available.

-   **Emphasize vulnerability and capacity assessment.** Vulnerability
    and capacity assessments, like hazard assessments, employ methods
    that include the collection of primary data, monitoring, data
    processing, mapping, and application of social survey techniques.
    However, unlike hazard assessment activities, which are largely
    reserved for the scientific community, vulnerability and capacity
    assessments use methods that encourage community participation, such
    as community-based mapping (UNEP 2001).

-   **Encourage natural resource rehabilitation.** Many recent studies
    highlight the need for a stronger emphasis on restoring and
    rehabilitating ecosystems. This is one of the most effective ways to
    provide buffers for natural disasters and reduce their effects. As
    one researcher puts it, "the time has come to tap nature's
    engineering techniques---using the services provided by healthy and
    resilient ecosystems" (Abramovitz 2001). For example, dunes,
    forests, wetlands, and floodplains absorb floodwaters and help
    diminish violent winds; barrier islands and mangrove forests protect
    against coastal storms.

-   **Strengthen** **"sustainable livelihoods"** **approaches.**
    Sustainable livelihoods (SL) provide employment rooted in the
    productivity of the community, requiring minimal capital investment
    and placing minimal pressure on the environment. Environmental
    management is intrinsic to the SL approach. SL increases the
    resilience, or coping capacity, of a community toward
    environmentally related shocks, including disasters. SL involves the
    community in activities that not only safeguard the natural resource
    base upon which the population relies for survival, but may, in some
    cases, mitigate the onset and impacts of drought (PCDF 1995).
    Examples include use of renewable energy sources; soil management
    through intercropping, fallow cycling, and forest buffering; water
    harvesting; windbreak construction; and intercropping.

### Resources and References

#### Internet Sites Pertinent to the Environmental Dimension of Humanitarian Response:

-   In July 1997, the Sphere Project was launched by a group of
    humanitarian agencies. The project aims to improve the quality of
    assistance provided to people affected by disasters, and to enhance
    the accountability of the humanitarian system in disaster response.
    Sphere has developed a Humanitarian Charter and a set of universal
    minimum standards in core areas of humanitarian assistance: water
    supply and sanitation, nutrition, food aid, shelter and site
    planning, and health services. The Sphere Project Web site is
    <http://www.sphereproject.org/>.

-   The Environment Pages of the United Nations High Commissioner for
    Refugees (UNHCR) may be viewed at

-   The Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) is a
    USAID-funded activity that can be accessed at
    <http://www.fews.net/>about/index.cfm

-   USAID's Bureau for Humanitarian Response offers a series of postings
    on the Internet about its mission and organization which can be
    found at

-   Seventeen U.S. PVOs involved in food aid programs have joined
    together to form Food Aid Management, an advisory body to USAID's
    Food for Peace Programs. They offer a variety of services, including
    an Environmental Working Group and sponsorship of Regulation 216
    Training of Trainers Workshop opportunities for member organization
    staff and others. Reach them at\
    \
    FAM sponsors a free electronic mailing list (listserve) for those
    interested in food aid and environment issues. The FAM Resource
    Center also has a 1998 publication, available in PDF format, titled
    *Selected Bibliography of FSRC Resources on Environmental Issues.*
    Written by Jessica Graef, it is available on the Internet at
    <http://www.foodaidmanagement.org/pdfdocs/environmentwg/environmentbiblio.pdf>

-   ReliefWeb is a project of the United Nations Office for Coordination
    of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), and its Web site is intended to
    serve the information needs of the international humanitarian relief
    community. Its home page can be accessed at

-   The Benfield Hazard Research Centre in the Department of Geological
    Sciences at University College, London, carries out work in disaster
    studies that focuses on disaster mitigation and preparedness. It
    comprises research, project management, training, consultancy,
    information dissemination and education. The Center's Web site is
    <http://www.benfieldhrc.org/>

-   The International Organization for Migration Web site can be found
    at <http://www.iom.int/>.

-   The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) Web
    site can be found at [ttp://www.cred.be/](http://www.cred.be/)

#### References Related to Humanitarian Response Programs:

-   CARE (1999). *Tool Book:* *Integrating Environmental Considerations
    into Humanitarian Response* (draft work in progress). Atlanta, GA.
    20 pgs.

-   Chavasse, Desmond, Catherine Reed and Kathy Attawell (1999).
    *Insecticide-Treated Net Projects: Handbook for Managers*. London,
    England: Malaria Consortium. For a description and ordering
    instructions, see
    <http://www.liv.ac.uk/lstm/malaria/mcintroductions.htm#itnhandbook>

-   Hirsch, Brian, Carl Gallegos, Walter Knausenberger and Andrew Arata,
    with Michael McDonald (2002). *Programmatic Environmental Assessment
    for Insecticide-Treated Materials in USAID Projects in Sub-Saharan
    Africa.* USAID Bureau for Africa, Office of Sustainable Development.
    Washington, D.C.: USAID. <http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACP696.pdf>

-   Kelly, Charles (2001). *Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment: A
    Framework for Best Practice in Emergency Response.* Presented at
    Sharing Experience on Environmental Management in Refugee
    Situations: A Practitioner's Workshop, Geneva, 22--25 October 2001.
    University College, London, Benfield Greig Hazard Research Center:
    <http://www.bghrc.com/DMU/WorkingPapers/WorkingPaperNo3.pdf>

-   Kelly, Charles (2002). *Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment
    Guidelines.* Version 3. Developed by the Benfield Hazard Research
    Centre, Department of Geological Sciences, at University College,
    London, and CARE International, with funding from the Joint United
    Nations Environment Program/Office for the Coordination of
    Humanitarian Affairs Office, Geneva; Royal Norwegian Ministry of
    Foreign Affairs; and Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, USAID:
    <http://www.bghrc.com/DMU/REA/DREA3v1.pdf>

-   Sphere Project (1998). *The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum
    Standards in Disaster Response*. The Sphere Project and Oxfam
    Publishing. Switzerland:
    <http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook_index.htm>

-   USAID (n.d.). *Field Operations Guide for Disaster Assessment and
    Response (FOG Version 3.0).* Washington, D.C.: Bureau for
    Humanitarian Response, Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, in
    cooperation with and produced by the USDA Forest Service
    International Programs. <http://www.usaid.gov/ofda/fog/fog_v3.pdf>
    **\<Cannot find on Web\>**

-   USAID (1995). *Food Security Policy Paper.* Washington, D.C.: Bureau
    for Program and Policy Coordination.
    <http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/200/foodsec/foodsec.pdf>

-   

-   United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (UNHCR) (1996).
    *Environmental Guidelines.* Geneva: UNHCR. June. 49pgs. +
    appendices.
    <http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/+iwwBmeHA_w_wwwwnwwwwwwwhFqA72ZR0gRfZNtFqrpGdBnqBAFqA72ZR0gRfZNcFqLnDVoGdDMnDBwcat1omncoDnDzmxwwwwwww/opendoc.pdf>

-   UNHCR (1998). *Refugee Operations and Environmental Management:
    Selected Lessons Learned.* Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner
    for Refugees. 75 pages.
    <http://www.rmi.org/images/other/Con-UNHCR_SelLesLrn.pdf>

-   UNHCR (2000). *Handbook for Emergencies*. Switzerland: UNHCR.
    <http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/+bwwBmTe9c_dwwwwcwwwwwwwmFqhT0yfEhFqhT0yfEtFqnp1xcAFqhT0yfEcFqDnDVoGdDMnDBwcDzmxwwwwwww/opendoc.pdf>

-   UNHCR (2002). "Zambia Initiative launched: Briefing note." August 27
    .
    <http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/+3wwBmSehuipwwwwgwwwwwwwhFqnN0bItFqnDni5AFqnN0bIcFqGYwMxowafDoBowBoVnDzmxwwwwwww1FqmRbZ/opendoc.htm>

-   UNHCR (2002a). "The Environment: A Critical Time." *Refugees
    Magazine* 127: 2 July.
    <http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/opendoc.pdf?tbl=MEDIA&id=3d3fecb24&page=publ>

-   WFP (1999). *Environmental Review Guidelines.* Rome: World Food
    Programme. January. 58 pgs + annexes.

#### References Related to Natural Disasters and Local Communities:

-   Abramovitz, J. (2001). *Unnatural Disasters*. Worldwatch Paper 158.
    Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.
    <https://secure.worldwatch.org/cgi-bin/wwinst/BWP158>

-   Anderson, M.B. (2000). *The Impacts of Natural Disasters on the
    Poor: A Background Note*. Submitted to Cornell University under
    Consulting Agreement 35113-9382 for the World Bank.
    <http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/wdrpoverty/background/anderson.pdf>

-   Elfaig, A.H.I. (1998). *Strategies to Reduce Drought Vulnerability,
    with Special Emphasis on Coping Strategies of the Poor:
    Sub-Sahara-Semi Arid Area*. South Africa: Water Research Commission.

-   Earthsummit.org (2002). *Debate in Preparation for the World Summit
    on Sustainable Development (WSSD).* Organized by Multistakeholder
    Forum for Our Common Future and the International Strategy for
    Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Secretariat. May.
    [http://www.earthsummit.org](http://www.earthsummit.org/)

-   IFRC and RCS (2002). *World Disaster Report 2001*. International
    Federation of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent.
    <http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2001/chapter1.asp>

-   UNDP (2002). *A New UNDP Integrated Drylands Development Programme.
    Volume* *1: Programme Framework* and *Volume 2: Proposed Programme
    Interventions.* July. <http://www.undo.org/erd/disred/index.htm>

-   UNEP (2001). *DEWA's New Way Forward:* *Building on Achievements,
    Products and Services 2000--2001.* Division of Early Warning and
    Assessment. <http://www.unep.org/dewa/whatwedo.asp>

-   UNEP (2002). *Global Environment Outlook 3:* *Past, Present, and
    Future Perspectives*. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.

-   UNDP (2001). *From Relief to Recovery:* *The Gujarat Experience*.
    UNDP Emergency Response Division. October.
    <http://www.un.org.in/UNDMT/STATES/GUJARAT/gujarat_report.pdf>

#### General References on Humanitarian Efforts, Natural Disasters, and Risk Reduction :

-   The African Development Bank Group (2002). *Policies and
    Procedures:* *Emergency Assistance Policy Guidance.*
    <http://www.afdb.org/projects/polices/Emerging_assistances_guidelines.htm?n1=7&n2=4&n3=0>

-   International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2001a). *Climate
    Change 2001:* *Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.* Contribution
    of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC.
    Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

-   IPCC (2001b). *Climate Change 2001:* *The Scientific Basis*.
    Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of
    the IPCC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

-   International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) (2002). *Living
    with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives.*
    Prepared as an interagency effort coordinated by the ISDR
    Secretariat with special support from the Government of Japan, the
    World Meteorological Organization and the Asian Disaster Reduction
    Center (Kobe, Japan).
    <http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2002/unisdr-risk-09aug.pdf>

-   People-Centered Development Forum (1995). *Principles of Sustainable
    Livelihoods*.
    [http://www.pcdf.org/1995/princsl.htm](http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/nino.htm)

-   Sandrasagra, Mithre J. (2000). "UN Agencies Release Joint Report on
    El Niño." Third World Network.
    <http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/nino.htm>

-   UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1992). *Internationally
    Agreed Glossary of Basic Terms Related to Disaster Management*.
    United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.
    <http://www.unisdr.org/unisdr/glossarire.htm>

-   World Bank (2002). *Disaster Management Facility:* *Mitigation
    Projects*. <http://www.worldbank.org/dmf/projects/mitigation.htm>

[^1]: For the time being, these *Guidelines* will not address P.L. 480
    Title III Food for Development programs. These provide
    country-to-country grants of agricultural commodities to improve
    food security in the developing country and to promote agricultural
    policy reform. There are a number of reasons for not discussing them
    here. First, these programs are rarely small and are in the main
    managed by the country's USAID mission interacting directly with the
    host government. Furthermore, host governments are normally entitled
    to use these resources as they see fit, within the framework of the
    intergovernmental agreement, without further scrutiny by USAID. Such
    Title III programs are usually granted a categorical exclusion from
    environmental review, since they are cases where "A.I.D. does not
    have knowledge of or control over\...the details of the specific
    activities that have an effect on the physical and natural
    environment\..." \[216.2 (c)(ii)\].

[^2]: See Regulation 216 (b)(1)(i)(ii).

[^3]: The Rapid EIA was jointly developed by the Benfield Hazard
    Research Centre /University College of London and CARE
    International, funded by the UN Environmental Program (UNEP)/Office
    for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Joint
    Environmental Program, the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign
    Affairs, and USAID/OFDA.

[^4]: The Rapid EIA documents, including the forms, can be all consulted
    and downloaded from the BGHRC/UCL at
    <http://www.bghrc.com/DMU/REA/DREA3v2.pdf>.

[^5]: As of summer 2003, the Sphere standards are being reviewed and
    upgraded to include stronger environmental considerations. For
    further information, see
    [www.sphereproject.org](http://www.sphereproject.org/)

[^6]: To learn more, see USAID Africa Bureau's Programmatic
    Environmental Assessment for insecticide-treated materials (at
    <http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACP696.pdf>) and "Insecticide-Treated
    Net Projects: A Handbook for Managers" (click on
    <http://www.liv.ac.uk/lstm/malaria/mcintroductions.htm#itnhandbook>
    for a summary and ordering information).