**Course Title:** **Floodplain Management**

**Module 3:** Biological Landscape: Its impact on the floodplain and
floodplain management.

**Session 11**: Water Quality

**Author**: Susan Bolton, Ph.D., P.E.

**Time 75 minutes**

#  {#section .unnumbered}

# Objectives: (PP1, Title and PP2, Objectives) {#objectives-pp1-title-and-pp2-objectives .unnumbered}

At the end of this session, the students will be able to:

11.1 Identify the major physical, chemical, and biological components
used to characterize water quality.

11.2 Describe the importance of various water quality constituents to
aquatic ecosystem condition.

11.3 Learn how biological indicators are used to describe water quality.

> 11.4 Learn where to locate information on water quality for your
> watershed and identify the critical levels (biological and regulatory
> for indicating water quality status for the various physical,
> chemical, and biological constituents.
>
> 11.5 Discuss water quality within the context case study floodplains.

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**Scope:**

This session describes the elements that are typically considered
important for identifying water quality characteristics of rivers. The
concentrations of various constituents can be problematic in a river
either from a biological or regulatory perspective. Students will learn
where to locate information on water quality in their watershed.
Students will also learn about various indicators of stream condition
including chemical, physical, and biological indicators.

As an assignment, students will locate information on water quality
status in a watershed of their choice and discuss the condition of the
stream in terms of water quality from a biological and regulatory
perspective.

**Readings:**

*Student and Instructor Reading:*

EPA website "Monitoring and Assessing Water Quality." Chapter 5: Water
Quality. Conditions, Sections 5.2-5.11.
<http://www.epa.gov/volunteer/stream/vms50.html> (edited version
available in epawaterqualityinfo.doc)

EPA website *Biological Indicators of Watershed Health*
<http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/> Read all 6 sections.

*Additional Instructor Reading:*

Walling, D.E. and B.W. Webb. 1992. "Water Quality I. Physical
Characteristics." Pp 48-72 in P. Calow and G.E. Petts (eds.). in *The
Rivers Handbook: Hydrological and Ecological Principles.* Vol. One.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Walling, D.E. and B.W. Webb. 1992. "Water Quality II. Chemical
Characteristics." Pp 73-100 in P. Calow and G.E. Petts (eds.). *The
Rivers Handbook: Hydrological and Ecological Principles.* Vol. One.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

**General Requirements:**

Water quality is a huge topic. This session touches on just a few of the
more common and important aspects. There may be local issues that are of
importance. You should supplement this material with whatever water
quality constituents or issues are relevant locally.

There is a homework assignment at the end of the session. The Instructor
should review it with students.

**Objective 11.1 Identify the major physical, chemical and biological
components used to characterize water. (PP3, Objective)**

**Requirements:** None.

**Remarks**

I. Stream water constituents

A. Stream water in undeveloped watersheds naturally contains many
substances besides water. Constituents of river water can be dissolved
or suspended, organic or inorganic, and of physical, chemical, or
biological origin.

B. The most commonly measured substances in streams that are used to
describe water quality include: **(PP4, Commonly...)**

-   light

-   temperature

-   dissolved ions

-   suspended solids

-   nutrients and gases.

**Instructor Note:**

In previous sessions, we discussed that stream characteristics vary both
spatially and temporally. To review, ask students to give some examples
and relate them to the above discussion.

II\. Solar Radiation as Light

A. Light (provided by solar radiation) is of fundamental importance to
aquatic ecosystems. It is the ultimate source of energy used by
organisms in the stream.

B. The amount of light impinging on a river varies with latitude,
season, time of day, altitude, atmospheric conditions, and riparian
canopy cover.

C. The amount of light energy reaching photosynthetic organisms in the
river (autochthonous energy sources) varies with water clarity as it
affects light absorption and scattering.

D. In small, clear, shallow streams, light reaches the bottom of the
stream.

E. In larger, murky, deep streams, light is rapidly attenuated (absorbed
and scattered) and may not reach the bottom of the water column.

F. Turbidity is a visual property of light that is frequently measured
and monitored in water quality studies. Higher levels imply a lack of
clarity.

1\. Lack of clarity is usually due to suspended particles such as silts
and clays, supsensoids such as calcium carbonate (CaCO~3~), or dissolved
organic compounds such as humic and tannic acids.

III\. Solar Radiation as Heat/Temperature

A. Absorption of solar radiation by the water column can increase the
temperature of the stream. Temperature is a measure of the heat
intensity stored in a water volume.

1\. Heat input comes from absorption of short and long wave radiation,
heat transfer from air to water and soil to water, condensation on the
water surface, precipitation, and water inflow from upstream or
subsurface water.

2\. Heat loss occurs primarily via heat transfer from air to water and
soil to water and evaporation. Positive net heat gains increase water
temperature and negative ones decrease water temperature.

B. There is usually, but not always a strong relationship between air
temperature and water temperature.

1.  Other factors that influence temperature include canopy and shading,
    groundwater inputs, elevation, latitude **(PP5, Effects of
    Latitudes)**, channel depth and shape, and orientation (aspect).

2.  In general, water temperatures tend to increase as one moves
    downstream largely as a function of elevation and air temperature
    changes.

3.  Temperature directly affects metabolic rates, growth, and
    reproduction in aquatic organisms. Temperatures above or below the
    range of acceptable temperatures can negatively affect species
    health and survival. **(PP6, Influences...)**

4.  Fish can be broadly categorized as preferring cold (\< 18° C), cool
    (18-25 °C) or warm (\> 25 °C) water.

a\. Cold water fish: e.g. trout, salmon, smelt.

b\. Cool water fish: e.g. muskellunge, crappie, and pike.

c\. Warm water fish: e.g. bass, perch, carp, and catfish.

5\. Temperature also affects fluid viscosity. Silt particles sink twice
as fast at 23 C than they do at 0 C.

a\. Warmer water carries less silt, flows slightly faster, and generates
a thinner boundary layer along the bed.

C. Total solids are dissolved solids plus suspended and settleable
solids in water. This includes ions that pass through a 2-micron filter
and silt and clay particles and other particulate matter that does not
pass through a 2-micron filter.

1\. Ions that are typically included in total solids are:

-   Calcium and Magnesium

-   Sodium and Potassium

-   Chloride and Nitrate

-   Phosphorus, iron, and sulfur

2\. The most common minerals by mass are usually salt (sodium chloride)
and calcium carbonate (CaCO~3~)

3\. Conductivity measures the electrical conductance of water and
approximates the amount of total dissolved ions also called TDS (total
dissolved solids).

4\. Soil and geology play a major role in determining which dissolved
solids are prevalent across the country. **(PP7, Dissolved Minerals in
Surface Water; PP8, Dissolved Solids)**

5\. Total suspended solids are particulates that include organic and
inorganic material. **(PP10, Suspended Sediment)**

6\. pH is a function of the dissolved hydrogen ion (H^+^) **(PP11, ph
Range)**

D. Major nutrients of importance to water quality condition and aquatic
ecology are nitrogen and phosphorus.

1\. Nitrogen has a complex biogeochemical cycle (see Session 8)

a\. Nitrate (NO~3~^-^) is a form of nitrogen that is an essential plant
nutrient.

b\. Natural levels are typically \< 1 mg/l. Measured values of nitrates
across the U.S. are depicted in **(PP12, Nitrite Concentrations)**

2\. Phosphorus is also an essential nutrient for plants. It is often a
limiting nutrient in aquatic systems, i.e. production is limited by the
concentration of phosphorus without which additional production cannot
take place.

a\. Natural background phosphorus levels are a function of the soils and
geology of the watershed.

b\. Measured values of phosphorus across the U.S. are depicted in
**(PP13, Total Phosphorus)**

E. Dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide play important roles
in aquatic ecology.

> 1\. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is crucial for sustaining all aerobic
> aquatic life.
>
> 2\. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and salt content of the water
> affect the solubility of oxygen in water and thus the maximum
> concentrations that can be present **(PP14, Pressure and
> Temperature).**
>
> 3\. Photosynthesis and respiration are biological processes that
> affect the oxygen content of water.
>
> a\. In productive waters with many macrophytes, oxygen levels are
> elevated during the day due to photosynthesis and decreased at night
> due to respiration.
>
> b\. In rivers with low levels of autochthonous production, oxygen may
> increase at night due to lower water temperature
>
> 4\. Ground water is often low in DO and high in carbon dioxide (CO~2~)
> due to biological processing of organic matter in the soils which
> consumes oxygen and produces CO~2~ and chemical oxidation.
>
> 5\. Organic pollution of streams from sewage, or non-point sources,
> can create a biological or chemical oxygen demand (BOD or COD), which
> can depress levels of DO.
>
> 6\. Concentrations of oxygen vary around the country as a function of
> temperature, salinity, and in-stream oxygen demand **(PP15, Dissolved
> Oxygen)**

F. Introduced pollutants, such as bacteria, herbicides, pesticides,
metals, and oil also contribute to water quality conditions**. (PP16,
Coliform; PP17, Herbicide; PP18, Pollution in finfish and PP19, Organic
Chemicals in Fin Fish)**

Objective 11.2 Describe the importance of various water quality
constituents to aquatic ecosystem condition.

I.  How does water quality affect aquatic ecology?

    A.  Light is necessary for photosynthesis and also is correlated
        with movements and feeding patterns of organisms from
        zooplankton to fish.

    B.  Turbidity from either organic or inorganic sources can increase
        water temperatures because suspended particles absorb more heat.

        1.  Higher temperature leads to lower levels of saturated DO.

> a\. Low levels of DO can limit the types of organisms that can survive
> and thrive in the stream

2.  Higher turbidity also reduces the amount of light penetrating the
    water, which reduces photosynthesis and the production of DO

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C.  All organisms have temperature preference zones and values above and
    below which they cannot survive.

D.  The concentration of total dissolved solids affects the water
    balance in the cells of aquatic organisms

E.  Water with pH \< 6.5 or \> 8.0 stresses the physiology of most
    organisms and can reduce reproduction

    1.  Low pH can mobilize toxic elements and make them \"available\"
        for uptake by aquatic plants and animals. This can produce
        conditions that are toxic to aquatic life

F.  Suspended solids can serve as carriers of toxics, which readily
    cling to suspended particles.

G.  Nitrates in excess amounts can accelerate eutrophication, causing
    dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth and changes in the types
    of plants and animals that live in the stream. This, in turn,
    affects dissolved oxygen, temperature, and other indicators.

H.  Phosphorus in excess amounts can also lead to accelerated plant
    growth, algae blooms, low dissolved oxygen, and the death of certain
    fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic animals.

I.  Bacterial concentrations, as identified by e-coli counts not only
    pose human health risks, but also cause cloudy water, unpleasant
    odors, and an increased oxygen demand.

J.  Toxic metals and organic compounds can bioaccumulate in the aquatic
    system and lead to human health hazards and reproductive issues in
    aquatic organisms

Instructor Note: In class exercise

# Take a short break before beginning Objective 10.3 on Biological Indicators. Ask the students to work in teams and, based on what they have learned so far about aquatic ecology, brainstorm the qualities or characteristics that would qualify a species as a good biological indicator.  {#take-a-short-break-before-beginning-objective-10.3-on-biological-indicators.-ask-the-students-to-work-in-teams-and-based-on-what-they-have-learned-so-far-about-aquatic-ecology-brainstorm-the-qualities-or-characteristics-that-would-qualify-a-species-as-a-good-biological-indicator. .River-I}

# Tell them that a biological indicator should be something that can be used to identify ecological conditions in the stream. If you want to give additional hints, you can ask them to think about what kind of life history would be suitable for a biological indicator, or what sort of biological, chemical and physical environment, what place it should be in a food web, etc. Given them 5 or 10 minutes to generate a list and then have each team report to the class and make a master list of class generated ideas.  {#tell-them-that-a-biological-indicator-should-be-something-that-can-be-used-to-identify-ecological-conditions-in-the-stream.-if-you-want-to-give-additional-hints-you-can-ask-them-to-think-about-what-kind-of-life-history-would-be-suitable-for-a-biological-indicator-or-what-sort-of-biological-chemical-and-physical-environment-what-place-it-should-be-in-a-food-web-etc.-given-them-5-or-10-minutes-to-generate-a-list-and-then-have-each-team-report-to-the-class-and-make-a-master-list-of-class-generated-ideas. .River-I}

Objective 11.3 Learn how biological indicators are used to describe
water quality.

**Scope**

This section presents information on biological criteria used to assess
water quality.

**Remarks**

I.  The EPA and others have developed extensive information on how to
    use assemblages of biological organisms to indicate the ecological
    status of rivers. Indices have been developed that use fish,
    invertebrates, algae, and plants as bioindicators**. (Pp10.21)**

    A.  Characteristics that make fish good bioindicators:

        1.  Live in water all of their life

        2.  Species differ in their tolerance to amounts and types of
            pollution.

        3.  May be easy to collect and identify with proper equipment.

        4.  Live for several years.

        5.  Typically, use species numbers and diversity for indicator
            indices. Not as useful in areas with low species diversity.

> a\. Best in warm water systems with high diversity.

B.  Characteristics of invertebrates that make them good bioindicators.
    Typically, benthic (bottom dwelling) macroinvertebrates are used.

    1.  Live in water for all or most of their lives.

    2.  Have limited mobility and stay in areas suitable for survival.

    3.  Species have different tolerances to amount and types of
        pollution.

    4.  May be easily collected and identified.

    5.  Often live for more than one year.

    6.  Are integrators of environmental condition.

    7.  Typically, use species (or family or genus) number and diversity
        for indicator indices.

C.  Algae, in the form of periphyton (attached benthic algae) can be
    good bioindicators also.

    1.  There are naturally high numbers of species of periphyton.

    2.  They have a rapid response time to exposure to pollutants and
        for recovery.

    3.  Easy to sample with few people.

    4.  Tolerance and sensitivity to specific environmental changes are
        known for many species.

    5.  One drawback is that identification to species can be difficult.

    6.  Can quantify with assessment of biomass (chlorophyll a or
        ash-free dry mass), species, composition, and biological
        condition of periphyton assemblages.

D.  Macrophytes are currently used more for lake water quality
    assessment than for rivers. Macrophytes are aquatic plants, growing
    in or near water that are emergent, submergent, or floating.

    1.  Macrophytes respond to the full suite of water quality
        parameters: nutrients, light, toxics, metals, herbicides,
        turbidity, water level changes and salinity

    2.  The are easily sampled using transects or aerial photography

    3.  No laboratory analysis is needed

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II. Biological data are usually synthesized and analyzed using
    multimetric procedures that combine information on diversity,
    abundance, size, etc. depending on the species that are being used
    as indicators.

    A.  Biological data are good integrators of watershed conditions
        because aquatic life responds to the full suite of physical,
        chemical, and biological conditions in the river.

**Objective 11.4 Identify the critical levels (biological and regulatory
for indicating water quality status for the various physical, chemical,
and biological constituents**

**Scope**

This section suggests ways to locate relevant water quality data. It can
be used to inform the students of how to proceed for their homework
assignment.

**Remarks**

**I. Section 304 (a) (1)
(http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/popup1.html) of the Clean
Water Act requires EPA to develop criteria for water quality that
accurately reflects the latest scientific knowledge.**

> A. Criteria are based solely on data and scientific judgments about
> the effects of various constituents on environmental or human health.

1.  Criteria are developed for the protection of aquatic as well as for
    human health

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B.  Section 304 (a) also directs the EPA to provide guidance to states
    and tribes in adopting water quality standards under Section 303(c)
    of the Clean Water Act (CWA).

II\. How to locate federal and state criteria and standards?

> A. The EPA web site (http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/index.html) has
> links to water quality standards, criteria, and water pollution
> controls.
>
> B. The EPA bioindicator site has many links to indices and other
> biological criteria data <http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/>

C.  Regional EPA offices have web sites with up-to-date guidelines, e.g.
    the Region 10 Water Temperature Standard Guidance is available at
    <http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/water.nsf/6cb1a1df2c49e4968825688200712cb7/b3f932e58e2f3b9488256d16007d3bca?OpenDocument>

D.  Many states have web sites that provide information on state
    standards for water quality, e.g. Virginia's Dept. of Environmental
    Quality site that deals with water is
    <http://www.deq.state.va.us/water/>

E.  The EPA Surf-your-watershed site described in earlier sessions is
    also a good starting point when looking for data for your particular
    site. http://www.epa.gov/surf/

**Objective 11.5 Discuss water qualities within the context case study
floodplains**

**Remarks:**

A.  Teams should be given time to discuss how water quality impacts
    their case study floodplains**.**

**Homework:**

Instructor should assign the following tasks to the students to be
discussed at the start of the next class period.

1\. Locate and identify the water quality standards for your state. The
instructor can choose the number and type of constituents that are
appropriate.

2\. Does your state use bioindicators for assessing watershed and river
condition? If so, which types do they use?

3\. Students should then identify the expected levels of the chosen
constituents in their local river.

4\. Students then should identify which constituents do not meet state
or federal standards and describe river ecological condition based on
any bioindicators that are also used.

**References:**

Benke, A.C. 1993. "Concepts and patterns of invertebrate production in
running waters." *Verh. Int. Ver. Theor. Ang. Limnol*. 25: 15-38.

Davis, W.S., and T. Simon. 1995. *Biological Assessment and Criteria -
Tools for Water Resource Planning and Decision Making.* Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.

EPA. 2003. *Region 10 Final Guidance on Stream Temperature.*
http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/water.nsf/6cb1a1df2c49e4968825688200712cb7/b3f932e58e2f3b9488256d16007d3bca/\$FILE/TempGuidanceEPAFinal.pdf

EPA *Invertebrate photographs*.
<http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/photos_invertebrates.html>

EPA *Fish photographs*.\
http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/photos_fish.html

Hynes, H.B.N. 1970. *The Ecology of Running Waters*. University of
Toronto Press, Toronto.

Karr, J.R. and E.W. Chu. 1999. *Restoring Life in Running Waters*.
Island Press, Washington, D.C.

# Loeb, S.L., and A. Spacie. 1994. *Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems.* Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. {#loeb-s.l.-and-a.-spacie.-1994.-biological-monitoring-of-aquatic-systems.-lewis-publishers-boca-raton-fl. .River-I}

Lutz, D 2004. "Des Moines River water quality comparison table."
<http://www.cce.iastate.edu/research/lutz/dmrwqn/wq_standards.htm>

Mason, C.F. 1996. *Biology of Freshwater Pollution*. Longman Group,
Limited. Essex, England.

National Research Council. 2000. *New Strategies for America\'s
Watersheds*. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Smith, R.A., R.B. Alexander, and K.J. Lanfear. 1994. *Stream Water
Quality in the Coterminous United States---Status and Trends of Selected
Indicators during the 1980\'s.* USGA Water-Supply Paper 2400
(<http://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/sal/intro.html>)

Vannote, R.L., and B.W. Sweeney. 1980. "Geographic analysis of thermal
equilibria: A conceptual model for evaluating the effect of natural and
modified thermal regimes on aquatic insect communities." *American
Naturalist* 115:667-695.

Wetzel, R.G. 2001. *Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems*. Academic
Press, San Diego.