> **Session No. 10**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Course Title: Coastal Hazards Management**

**Session Title: Sea Level Rise Hazards**

**Author: Katherine Eschelbach, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill**

**Time: 50 minutes**

**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

**Objectives**

1.  Understand the basic processes that contribute to sea level rise and
    global

> climatic change

2.  Discuss the uncertainties of predicting global warming and sea level
    rise

3.  Discuss the potential impacts of sea level rise on humans and the
    natural

environment

4.  Conduct a class discussion on some current considerations for sea
    level rise and

> climate change policies as well as how these issues relate to other
> coastal hazards

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**Scope**

Session 10 introduces students to the natural hazard of sea level rise.
Assuming many of the students do not have an extensive background in the
earth and physical sciences, the material is very basic. The session
discusses the natural and anthropogenic processes that may contribute to
this hazard, where this hazard may occur, and the impacts it may have on
both the human and the natural environments in the coastal zone. The
article "Greenhouse Effect, Sea Level Rise, and Barrier Islands: Case
Study of Long Beach Island, New Jersey" by James Titus and the
Environmental Defense Fund Public Meeting transcript will be the basis
for a 30 minute discussion period at the end of the session to examine
current policy opinions concerning sea level rise and global warming in
the coastal zone. As this is the final session in "Section 2: The Nature
of the Coast", students will also be asked during the group discussion
to connect the problems presented on sea level rise back to the other
hazards discussed in Sessions 6 - 9.

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**Supplemental Considerations:**

The internet is a tremendous resource for background information on sea
level rise. Many of the federal government websites cited in the lecture
remarks below, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
website, are reliable and provide large amounts of information for
students and the public. The students should become familiar with
several of the websites as powerful resources of information.

An optional homework assignment, in addition to the student and
additional readings below, could be to assign the students these three
websites to become familiar with and to summarize their findings for the
class (as they pertain to sea level rise):

[www.noaa.gov](http://www.noaa.gov/)

[www.usgs.gov](http://www.usgs.gov/)

[www.epa.gov](http://www.fema.gov/)

-   The EPA Global Warming Resource Center website also provides links
    to a number of reports and publications on sea level rise if further
    investigation is desired:
    <http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.html>

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**Readings:**

*Instructor and Student Required Reading:*

Oliver, J.E. and J.J. Hidore. 2002. *Climatology: An Atmospheric
Science, 2^nd^ ed*. Upper Saddle

> River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Pp. 260-279: "Reconstructing the
> Past", pp. 280-294: "Natural Causes of Climatic Change", pp. 295-310:
> "The Warming of the Planet Earth", pp. 312-339: "The Human Response to
> Climate".

Senators John McCain and Joe Lieberman and Mr. Fred Krupp**.** June 17,
2004 1:30:00 PM ET.

*The Heat Is On: A National Town Meeting on Global Warming*.
Environmental Defense Fund. Washington, DC.

-   (*The transcript is downloadable at the following world wide web
    address:
    <http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/3818_webcast_transcript.pdf>
    .*

> *The video recording of the live meeting can be accessed at the
> following world wide web address:
> <http://www.vodium.com/MediapodLibrary/index.asp?library=envdef_undoit&SessionArgs=0A1U0000000100000110>*
> (*60 minutes*).)

Titus, J.T. 1998. Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause:
How to Save Wetlands

> and Beaches Without Hurting Property Owners. Sections I and II.
> Maryland Law Review. Vol. 57(4), 1279-1333.

-   (*This document is downloadable at the following world wide web
    address:
    <http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSLRTakings.html>)*

*Additional Background Reading:*

Abbott, P.L. 1996. *Natural Disasters.* Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers. Pp. 232-257:

"Climate Change".

Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.T. Leatherman. 2001. *Sea Level Rise:
History and*

> *Consequences.* San Diego, California: Academic Press. Pp. 1-10: "An
> Introduction to Sea Level", pp. 13-33: " Late Holocene Sea Level
> Variations", pp. 165-179: "Decadal Variability of Sea Level", pp.
> 181-220: "Social and Economic Costs of Sea Level Rise".

Feldman, D.L. 1994. *Global Climate Change and Public Policy.* Chicago,
IL: Nelson-Hall Inc.

> Pp. 1-19: "Adapting to Climate Change: Costs, Benefits, and Risks in
> Preparing for an Uncertain Future".

Markandya, A. and K. Halsnaes. 2002. *Climate Change and Sustainable
Development:*

> *Prospects for Developing Countries.* London, UK: Earthscan
> Publications Ltd. Pp. 49-72. "A Review of the Literature on Climate
> Change and Sustainable Development".

Robinson, Andrew. 2002. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes, Earthquakes,
Tornadoes and*

*Other Forces of Nature, 2nd ed.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
pp.259-295:

"Global Climatic Change".

Titus, J.T. 1998. Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause:
How to Save Wetlands

> and Beaches Without Hurting Property Owners. Maryland Law Review. Vol.
> 57(4), 1279-1391.

Viles, H. and T. Spencer. 1995. *Coastal Problems: Geomorphology,
Ecology, and Society at*

> *the Coast.* New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc. Pp. 156-205:
> "Coastal Wetlands".

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**PowerPoint slides:**

**Session 10**

\[**PowerPoint 10.1** Lecture Outline\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.2** Introduction: Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.3** What is Sea Level Rise?\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.4** Climate Change in Geologic Time\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.5** Climate Change in the Last 1,000 Years\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.6** Global Warming Processes\]

> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**7** Sea Level Rise Predictions\]

\[**PowerPoint 10**.**8** Uncertainties of Predictions\]

> \[**PowerPoint 10.9** Current Evidence\]
>
> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**10** Potential Impacts on the Natural
> Environment\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.11** Potential Impacts on Humans and the Built
Environment\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.12** Class Discussion\]

**Handouts:**

\[**Handout 10.1** Fossil history broken down by Eras, Periods, and
Epochs\]

### 

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**General Requirements:**

The professor should review some of the additional background reading
and prepare copies of handouts (*provided in the lecture and as Appendix
A)* based on the accompanying PowerPoint presentation.

The content of this session should be presented as a lecture. Class
discussion can be encouraged throughout the course of the lecture
period, but there will be time allocated at the end of the session for a
group discussion on this topic (***approximately 25 -- 30 minutes should
be allotted for the open discussion period***). **Students should read
the required readings before class** and can also use the additional
readings as resources for further investigation. The group discussion
will focus on the assigned readings and knowledge gained in all of the
coastal hazards sessions (Sessions 6-10).

The following slides will be used for the lecture outline:

> \[**PowerPoint 10.1** Lecture Outline\]

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**Objective 10.1:** Understand the basic processes that contribute to
sea level rise and global

> climatic change.

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. **Handout 10.1** is provided within the Remarks for this
objective as well as an appendix at the end of this document for
distribution.

The following slides will be used during this objective:

\[**PowerPoint 10.2** Introduction: Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.3** What is Sea Level Rise?\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.4** Climate Change in Geologic Time\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.5** Climate Change in the Last 1,000 years\]

\[**PowerPoint 10.6** Global Warming Processes\]

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**Remarks:**

**I. Introduction: Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.2** Introduction: Sea Level Rise in the Coastal
> Zone\]

1.  A natural hazard is a natural process that occurs under certain
    extreme environmental

> conditions in the atmosphere, on the earth's surface, or under the
> ground.

-   Natural hazards are often a source of astonishment and fear as well
    as respect

> for humans because of the awesome power that they contain.

2.  There are many different types of natural hazards, such as
    tornadoes, blizzards, drought,

> wildfire, volcanoes and earthquakes. ***Coastal hazards are those
> natural hazards that occur at the interface between the ocean and the
> shoreline.*** The hazards that are most uniquely tied to the coastal
> zone were presented in Sessions 6 and 7. Meteorological and geological
> hazards that are not as unique to the coastal zone were introduced in
> Sessions 8 and 9.

3.  The hazard that will be discussed in this session includes a hazard
    uniquely tied to the

coastal zone. This is the hazard of sea level rise.

**II. What is Sea Level Rise?**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.3** What is Sea Level Rise?\]

A. Definition

1.  Sea level rise can be defined as an increase in the mean sea level.
    The mean sea level is "the average height of the surface of the
    ocean for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period, usually
    determined from hourly height readings."[^1]

    -   The rotation of the earth and the gravitational pull from the
        moon and the sun result in the changing tides. There is a
        natural fluctuation of sea level each year based on the distance
        of the moon from the earth, which repeats itself approximately
        every 18.6 years, which is why data taken over a period of
        approximately 19 years is used to compute the mean sea level.

### B. Description

1.  The earth has gone through several different periods of sea level
    rise and decline, which are directly tied to climate change and
    global warming/cooling trends over geologic and recent time.

    -   We will look at historic evidence of climate change and the
        process of global warming first in order to understand the
        current hazard of sea level rise. (*These topics will be covered
        in Slides 10.4-10.6.)*

2.  It is a fact that mean sea level rises and falls. Sea level
    fluctuations are a part of the natural processes on earth that are
    determined by many factors, but largely are influenced by climate
    and global warming. Some factors of these processes are understood
    by scientists, but there are still many to understand.

    -   We will also discuss the predictions made by scientific study of
        these processes and the uncertainties involved (*in Slides
        10.7-10.9*).

3.  In comparison to other disasters that affect the coastal zone, such
    as hurricanes, tsunamis, floods, and earthquakes, sea level rise is
    on a much more gradual time scale. The impacts of a hurricane can be
    seen immediately, whereas the effects of sea level rise take a
    longer period of time to realize. However, sea level rise as a
    natural hazard is still important to consider, especially in the
    coastal zone where increasingly large amounts of the world
    population live, work, and recreate.

    -   We will introduce the effects sea level rise can have on the
        human and built environment (*in slides 10.10-10.11*) and then
        continue with a group discussion centering around the assigned
        reading.

**III. Climate Change Over Geologic Time**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.4** Climate Change Over Geologic Time\]

1.  In order to predict climate changes in the future, (and thus the
    amount of sea level rise for the future), the climate changes of the
    past must first be understood. And not just the changes in recent
    time. Climate change must also be considered over geologic time,
    which is measured in millions of years.

2.  Evidence of historic climate change comes from:

-   *Ice sheets and glaciers*, which indicate global temperatures and
    climate changes over geologic time.

    -   Core samples taken from ice sheets give information about
        temperature and climate through the differences in isotopes of
        oxygen found in each layer of ice.

    -   The retreat and advance of glaciers tells a story about climate
        over long periods of time through the deposition and erosion
        features left behind.

-   *Floral and faunal evidence*, which can lead to clues about the
    distribution of life on earth. From this information, scientists can
    then infer what the possible climate conditions were during those
    periods.

```{=html}
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```
-   Floral evidence centers around plant distribution and its change
    over time. A change in climate is reflected in where certain
    vegetation will grow and how it will grow. Past distributions of
    plants can be determined by coal deposits, fossils, or pollen
    deposits, whereas physiological features, such as tree rings and
    shape of leaves can tell a story about distribution as well.

-   Faunal evidence is provided through fossils, which can be dated by
    its approximate date of death through carbon 14 analysis. Large
    groups of fossils found together from the same time frame could
    indicate a catastrophe due to climate, such as drought or flood.

![](media/image1.png){width="2.0104166666666665in"
height="3.7291666666666665in"}

![](media/image3.png){width="4.21875in" height="2.375in"}

![](media/image4.png){width="4.1875in" height="2.3854166666666665in"}

Pollen distribution over time (Source:
<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/pollen.html>)

*(Note to Instructor: The label 18ka means 18,000 years ago.)*

-   *Historical human records*, which can give direct reporting as to
    what climate conditions have been like during the short period of
    time that humans have inhabited the planet.

    -   ![](media/image5.jpeg){width="1.7020833333333334in"
        height="4.875in"}Reconstruction of climate information can be
        made over the past 6000 years due to documentation by humans
        about weather conditions.

3.  The geologic time divisions (along with some major climate changes)
    include:

-   *The Precambrian Era*: took place greater then 570 million years ago

-   *The Paleozoic Era*: took place between 280 -- 570 million years ago

```{=html}
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```
-   Towards the end of the Paleozoic Era, during the Carboniferous and
    Permian Periods, there was an ice age that lasted for about 100
    million years.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   *The Mesozoic Era*: took place between 135 -- 280 million years ago

Source: <http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm>

-   *The Cenozoic Era*: took place between 2 -- 135 million years ago

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Towards the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, during the Eocene Period,
    there was a rise in global temperature and precipitation that made
    climate conditions on earth much warmer. Most of the United States
    was covered by tropical or subtropical climates and subtropical
    climates even existed above the Arctic circle.

-   Towards the end of the Eocene and into the current age, there has
    been a cooling trend and a resulting Ice Age where glaciers started
    to form again in Antarctica and eventually continental ice sheets
    existed in the Northern Hemisphere (at 10 million years ago, 3
    million years ago, and most recently known, between 30,000 and
    12,000 years ago.)

**Handout 10.1: Fossil history broken down by Eras, Periods, and
Epochs**

Taken from:
<http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html>

## The history of life as revealed by the fossil record.

  -------------- --------------- --------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Eras**       **Periods**     **Epochs**            **Aquatic Life**                                                                                            **Terrestrial Life**

  With                                                                                                                                                             
  approximate                                                                                                                                                      
  starting dates                                                                                                                                                   
  in millions of                                                                                                                                                   
  years ago in                                                                                                                                                     
  parentheses.                                                                                                                                                     
  Geologic                                                                                                                                                         
  features in                                                                                                                                                      
  green                                                                                                                                                            

  Cenozoic (65)\                                                                                                                                                   
  The \"Age of                                                                                                                                                     
  Mammals\"                                                                                                                                                        

                 Quaternary      Recent                                                                                                                            Humans in the new world
                 (1.8)                                                                                                                                             

                                 Pleistocene           Periodic glaciation                                                                                         First humans

                                                       Continental drift continues                                                                                 

                 Tertiary (65)   Pliocene              All modern groups present                                                                                   [Hominids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/H/H.html#hominid) and
                                                                                                                                                                   [pongids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/P.html#pongid)

                                 Miocene                                                                                                                           Monkeys and ancestors of apes

                                 Oligocene                                                                                                                         [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of
                                                                                                                                                                   [birds](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Birds)

                                 Eocene                                                                                                                            Adaptive radiation of [mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Mammals)

                                 Paleocene                                                                                                                         

  Mesozoic       Cretaceous      Still attached: N.                                                                                                                
  (251)\         (146)           America & N. Europe;                                                                                                              
  \"The Age of                   Australia &                                                                                                                       
  Reptiles\"                     Antarctica                                                                                                                        

                                                       Modern bony fishes                                                                                          [Extinction of
                                                                                                                                                                   dinosaurs](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html#The_Impact_Hypothesis%23The_Impact_Hypothesis),
                                                                                                                                                                   pterosaurs

                                                       Extinction of ammonites, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs                                                          Rise of woody angiosperms, snakes; first [placental
                                                                                                                                                                   mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Placentals) (Eutheria)

                                 Africa & S. America                                                                                                               
                                 begin to drift apart                                                                                                              

                 Jurassic (200)                        Plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs abundant; first                                                                   Dinosaurs dominant; first [angiosperms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Angiosperm.html)
                                                       [diatoms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Diatoms)                   

                                                       Ammonites again abundant                                                                                    First [mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Prototheria); Archaeopteryx; first lizards

                                                       Skates, rays, and bony fishes abundant                                                                      Adaptive radiation of dinosaurs; insects abundant

                                                                                                                                                                   

                                 Pangaea splits into                                                                                                               
                                 Laurasia and Gondwana                                                                                                             

                 Triassic (251)                        First plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs                                                                             [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of reptiles:\
                                                                                                                                                                   [thecodonts](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Diapsids), therapsids, turtles,\
                                                                                                                                                                   [crocodiles](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Diapsids), first dinosaurs

                                                       Ammonites abundant at first                                                                                 

                                                       Rise of [bony fishes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Bony)       

  Paleozoic      Permian (299)   Appalachian Mts.                                                                                                                  
  (542)                          formed; periodic                                                                                                                  
                                 glaciation and arid                                                                                                               
                                 climate                                                                                                                           

                                                       Extinction of trilobites, placoderms                                                                        Reptiles abundant: cotylosaurs, pelycosaurs. Cycads,
                                                                                                                                                                   [conifers](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#Conifers), ginkgos

                 Pennsylvanian   Warm, humid climate                                                                                                               
                 (320)           Together\                                                                                                                         
                                 the Pennsylvanian and                                                                                                             
                                 Mississippian\                                                                                                                    
                                 make up the\                                                                                                                      
                                 \"Carboniferous\";\                                                                                                               
                                 also called the\                                                                                                                  
                                 \"Age of Amphibians\"                                                                                                             

                                                       Ammonites, bony fishes                                                                                      First [reptiles](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Reptiles)\
                                                                                                                                                                   Coal swamps

                                                                                                                                                                   

                 Mississippian                         [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of Forests of [lycopsids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#lycopsids),
                 (359)                                 sharks                                                                                                      [sphenopsids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#sphenopsids), and seed ferns\
                                                                                                                                                                   Amphibians abundant\
                                                                                                                                                                   Land snails

                                 Periodic aridity                                                                                                                  

                 Devonian (416)\                       Placoderms,                                                                                                 [Ferns](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/Ferns.html), lycopsids, and sphenopsids\
                 The \"Age of                          [cartilaginous](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Cartilaginous)    First [gymnosperms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#Gymnosperms)\
                 Fishes\"                              and [bony fishes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Bony).          First [amphibians](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Amphibians)
                                                       Ammonites, nautiloids                                                                                       

                                 Extensive inland seas                                                                                                             

                                                       [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of [Arachnids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Arthropods) (scorpions)
                                                       ostracoderms, eurypterids                                                                                   

                 Silurian (444)  Mild climate; inland  Nautiloids, Pilina, other mollusks                                                                          First insects
                                 seas                                                                                                                              

                 Ordovician      Mild climate, inland  Trilobites abundant\                                                                                        First [fungi](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/Fungi.html)\
                 (488)           seas                  First jawless [vertebrates](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/V.html#vertebrate)     First plants
                                                                                                                                                                   ([liverworts](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Mosses.html#Evidence_from_the_mitochondrial_genome_(mtDNA))?)\
                                                                                                                                                                   First [millipedes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Myriapoda)?

                 Cambrian (542)                        Trilobites dominant. First eurypterids,                                                                     No fossils of eukaryotes, but [phylogenetic
                                                       [crustaceans](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Crustacea)\       trees](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#PhylogeneticTrees) suggest that lichens, mosses, perhaps
                                                       [mollusks](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Mollusks),           even vascular plants were present.
                                                       [echinoderms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Echinodermata)\   
                                                       [sponges](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Porifera),            
                                                       [cnidarians](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Cnidaria),         
                                                       [annelids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Annelida),\          
                                                       [tunicates](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Chordates)          

                                 Periodic glaciation                                                                                                               

  Proterozoic                                          [Fossils](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/F.html#fossil) rare but many protistan   No fossils of eukaryotes, but [phylogenetic
  (2500)\                                              and [invertebrate](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/I.html#invertebrate) phyla      trees](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#PhylogeneticTrees) suggest that lichens, mosses, perhaps
  Archean                                              toward the end                                                                                              even vascular plants were present towards the end.
  (3800?)                                                                                                                                                          
  -------------- --------------- --------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.  Long term changes of climate such as are seen in Handout 10.1 can
    occur for many reasons. Some of these reasons are as follows:

-   Distribution of Continents

```{=html}
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```
-   Glaciers that contribute to an ice age can only form on land masses
    near the poles, because the land will catch the snowfall and build
    ice sheets. An example is the Ice Age during the Paleozoic Era. The
    large glaciers during that time were most likely due to the
    configuration of the continents in a single landmass, called
    Pangaea, part of which was located near the South Pole. This long
    ice age most likely ended when Pangaea started to break apart,
    leaving less land in the polar regions to create glaciers.

> ![](media/image6.png){width="3.4583333333333335in" height="2.59375in"}

(Source:
<http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html>)

-   Ocean Variation

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```
-   The circulation of ocean water changes over time as the continents
    drift. Currently, the cold waters of the Antarctic and Arctic are
    extremely dense and sink to the bottom of the ocean and circulate
    along its depths. The warmer water evaporates to create clouds and
    eventually snow that result in glaciers. Ice ages are favored when
    oceanic circulation is directed north-south so the warmer water will
    reach the poles and create precipitation. This is facilitated when
    the continents are in a more longitudinal direction, as they are
    today.

-   Oceans also store heat and play a role in the distribution of energy
    on the surface of the earth. A small change in ocean temperature can
    have a drastic affect on climate.

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```
-   Influence of asteroids

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```
-   Large asteroids can have an affect on the earth's climate due to the
    heat of the impact, the fires started from the impact, and the
    addition of large amounts of carbon dioxide and soot from the fires
    and displaced solid particles. This would cause temperatures to drop
    due to the decrease in light penetration to the earth's surface.

```{=html}
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```
-   Orbit variations

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```
-   The motion of the earth around the sun drives our seasons and the
    amount of radiant energy that reaches the surface. Over time, the
    angle of the earth's axis relative to its orbital plane changes and
    thus the amount of radiant energy from the sun available to parts of
    the earth (that drives climate) changes as well.

**IV. Climate Change in the Last 1,000 Years**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.5** Climate Change in the Last 1,000 Years\]

1.  Trends over the past 1,00 years include:

-   Little climatic optimum

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```
-   There was a trend towards warming starting around 1000 AD, which
    allowed vegetation to grow in much more northern areas than it had
    previously, creating new optimal conditions for agriculture.

-   During this warm period, exploration and settlement of new lands,
    such as Iceland, were made possible.

```{=html}
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```
-   Little ice age

    -   Occurred between 1450 and 1850 AD and had a significant effect
        on Europe's crop yields and weather patterns, even though the
        change in annual temperature was only about 1 degree Celsius.

    -   Iceland and Greenland villages became overcome by glaciers and
        cut off from civilization

-   Recent warming

    -   By the end of the 19^th^ century, the temperatures began to rise
        again and this trend continues today

![](media/image7.png){width="5.208333333333333in"
height="2.2395833333333335in"}

Source: <http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/climchng.html>

2.  Short term changes (whether annual or over the periods of thousands,
    rather than millions of years) could be due to:

-   Solar irradiance

```{=html}
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```
-   The energy output from the sun plays a large role in driving the
    climate of the earth and even small variations in the amount of that
    energy that reach the earth can be significant. A change of just 0.1
    percent over the course of a decade could have dramatic effects on
    climate. A drop of 1-2% could bring ice age conditions similar to
    those seen in the Little Ice Age.[^2]

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Sun spot activity

```{=html}
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```
-   Sunspots are areas of the sun that have dropped more than 1000
    degrees lower than the other areas on the surface. They form dark,
    circular areas and there can be as many as 100 at a time. The Little
    Ice Age took place when there were very few sun spots and resulting
    cold conditions on earth.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Dust in the atmosphere

```{=html}
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```
-   Changes in the transparency of the atmosphere controls how much
    radiant energy can reach the earth's surface. These changes could be
    due to the changes in dust content, cloud cover, or ozone content in
    the atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions can inject a large amount of dust
    and ash into the atmosphere.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Human induced changes

```{=html}
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```
-   Humans have been altering the environment since the first uses of
    fire, agriculture, and domesticated animals. With these activities
    came deforestation, and in some cases, desertification from overuse
    of the land.

-   Urbanization, power generation, corporate farming, river damming,
    and the use of non-renewable natural resources continue to alter the
    environment and have an effect on climate and its driving processes,
    such as global warming.

**V. Global Warming Processes**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.6** Global Warming Processes\]

1.  **Global warming is a process that helps to keep the earth surface
    inhabitable.**

-   Without regulated global warming, the surface temperature of earth
    could be similar to that of Mars at -63 degrees Fahrenheit -- colder
    than large portions of Antarctica. However, if global warming were
    taking place like that on Venus, the surface temperature would be
    890 degrees Fahrenheit.[^3]

-   The Earth's atmosphere has levels of carbon dioxide that are in
    between these two extremes, but these levels of CO2 are an extremely
    important part of the processes that control the temperature of the
    earth.

2.  Carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect

-   Carbon dioxide only makes up 0.033 percent of the Earth's atmosphere
    today, but greatly contributes to the greenhouse effect.

```{=html}
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```
-   The greenhouse effect is when solar radiation enters the atmosphere
    and only some of the radiation returns to space. The rest of the
    radiation is trapped by the presence of greenhouse gases in the
    atmosphere, which include gases such as water vapor, methane, CFC's
    and CO2. The radiation builds up within the atmosphere and heats the
    surface.

```{=html}
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```
-   The earth also emits radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum.
    This radiation will also be trapped by the greenhouse gases.

```{=html}
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```
-   As more and more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere, the
    more capacity they have to trap radiation, and the warmer the
    temperature of the surface will be. **This can cause several climate
    changing effects, among them being the melting of glaciers and a
    corresponding sea level rise.**

```{=html}
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```
-   A significant amount of Carbon Dioxide is being added to the
    atmosphere from human activities, greatly accelerating the levels of
    greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than what would otherwise exist
    naturally.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Several human activities that increase the amount of CO2 in the
    atmosphere include: burning of fossil fuels, burning of vegetation
    for agriculture, and deforestation.

```{=html}
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```
-   Large amounts of ash and other gases are added to the atmosphere
    during a volcanic eruption that, if large enough of an eruption
    occurs that reaches the stratosphere, can have an impact on climate
    by also reducing the amount of sunlight that can reach the earth's
    surface.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Objective 10.2** Discuss the uncertainties of predicting global
warming and sea level rise.

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides.

The following slides will be used during this objective:

> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**7** Sea Level Rise Predictions\]
>
> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**8** Uncertainties of Predictions\]
>
> \[**PowerPoint 10.9** Current Evidence\]

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Remarks:**

**VI. Sea Level Rise Predictions**

> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**7** Sea Level Rise Predictions\]

1.  **The overall worldwide rate of sea level rise during the 20^th^
    century has been nearly 2mm per year -- sea level rise book,
    preface**

2.  **The predictions of sea level rise depend on the amount of global
    warming that occurs in the future**

![](media/image8.png){width="4.697916666666667in"
height="3.3020833333333335in"}

> (Source: <http://www.ghgonline.org/predictions.htm> )

-   Based on current data, the models predict an increase of between 2.5
    and 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the 21st century alone.[^4]

    -   However, there are many different scenarios that can result in
        those very different predictions.

-   Thus, *the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
    anticipates a rise of 2mm up to 88 cm over the next century*. The
    maximum rise would be almost ten times the rise during the past
    century.[^5]

**VII. Uncertainties of Predictions**

> \[**PowerPoint 9**.**8** Uncertainties of Predictions\]

1.  Scientists widely agree that the temperature of the earth is
    increasing at an alarming rate, but it is difficult to be certain
    how much it will continue to rise and what effects it will have on
    the earth's climate in the future.

-   "The strong likelihood is, we have entered the greenhouse century
    already; but we will not know it beyond reasonable doubt for a while
    yet."[^6]

-   There is a significant amount of "noise" that is difficult to
    interpret on a short time scale, just from natural fluctuations in
    the temperatures of the earth. This variability in the signal will
    remain difficult to interpret for several more decades.

2.  Although more and more scientists believe that there is a link
    between human input of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and an
    increase in global temperature, it is still not certain whether this
    is the main cause for global warming and how much the current trends
    will continue or accelerate.[^7]

-   Not all climate trends are due to human activity: the earth's
    temperature has fluctuated for millions of years without the
    influence of humans, although humans may be contributing to it
    significantly now.

-   There are such complex interactions between the sun, earth, moon,
    ocean, atmosphere and land that making predictions can be very
    complicated.

-   There is still an incomplete understanding of the role of clouds and
    the ocean in a warmer climate or the ability of different parts of
    the earth to work as sinks for CO2.

-   A truly global approach is necessary, but encompasses a very large
    amount of uncertainty and variability on a small time scale.

3.  There may be some uncertainties due to the variability, but from the
    variability comes some trends that give evidence that global warming
    has been occurring and will most likely continue into the future.

**VIII. Current Evidence**

> \[**PowerPoint 9.9** Current Evidence\]

"We are certain of the following: - there is a natural greenhouse effect
which already keeps the Earth warmer than it would otherwise be. --
emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing
the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases...These increases
will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an
additional warming of the Earth's surface." IPCC, *Climate Change*,
1^st^ report (1990). In 2001, the third report stated: "there is new and
stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the past 50
years is attributable to human activities."

*Some examples of current evidence for climate change (that contributes
to sea level rise) include:*

1.  Temperature record

![](media/image9.png){width="5.708333333333333in"
height="3.8020833333333335in"}

***example of yearly variability in temperature, but overall trend of
temperature increase***

(Source: <http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/greenhou.html>
)

-   Average surface temperatures increased over the past century from
    0.7 degrees Fahrenheit to 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit with the highest
    increases in the 1920's and 1990's. The 1990's were the warmest
    decade since 1880.

-   There has also been a reduction in the temperature differential
    between the temperature during the day and the temperature during
    the night, which is the result of the atmosphere capturing more
    radiation at night.

2.  Plant and animal life

    -   Since 1951, there has been an 80% decline in zooplankton due to
        a rise in sea surface temperature. Zooplankton is a primary
        component of the food chain and thus if it declines, the other
        components of the ecosystem that survive on its availability
        also suffer or must move elsewhere for food.

    -   Coral reefs are showing the effects of higher sea temperatures
        due to the process of bleaching, when the algae that inhabit,
        provide coloration, and feed the coral die. The algae are highly
        sensitive to water temperature to a certain threshold and the
        death of the algae leads to the death of the reef.

    -   Migratory patterns of caribou are being changed as they attempt
        to adapt to the melting of permafrost in the Arctic National
        Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.

    -   Populations of birds and plants are appearing where they have
        not before due to the warmer temperatures.

3.  Tropical disease

-   Tropical disease instances have become more frequent in areas where
    they already existed and spread to areas where they previously did
    not occur. Their spread is made possible by warmer temperatures that
    can allow the disease to exist in vectors such as insects, bacteria,
    and viruses.

    -   These diseases include: malaria, cholera, yellow fever, the
        plague, Dengue fever and hantavirus.

4.  Permafrost

    -   The permafrost is melting in Alaska at a rate of 3 feet every 10
        years.

5.  Glacial ice shelves

    -   Ice shelves have been breaking off creating icebergs that float
        into the sea in Antarctica and have been melting as well.

    -   The melting of the ice shelves may have disastrous effects on
        the glaciers, which, if started to melt, would have more direct
        impact on sea level rise.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Objective 10.3** Discuss the potential impacts of sea level rise on
humans and the natural

environment.

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides.

The following slides will be used during this objective:

> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**10** Potential Impacts on the Natural
> Environment\]
>
> \[**PowerPoint 10.11** Potential Impacts on Humans and the Built
> Environment\]

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Remarks:**

**IX. Potential Impacts on the Natural Environment**

> \[**PowerPoint 10**.**10** Potential Impacts on the Natural
> Environment\]

*A major potential impact of sea level rise on the natural environment
in the coastal zone is that of habitat loss.*

1.  Loss of habitat could be due to wetland inundation, coastal erosion,
    salt water intrusion, or shift in climate limits on vegetation.

-   If climate limits on vegetation shift by ten miles per decade, which
    is a strong possibility, a forest can only shift five miles per
    decade (.5 miles per year). The vegetation will not be able to
    migrate fast enough to keep up with the shift in climate conditions.

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```
-   In estuarine and fresh water areas, the intrusion of salt water that
    will result from sea level rise can have a drastic effect on the
    plants and animals that depend on those areas for habitat due to
    their own unique sensitivities to salt water.

**X. Potential Impacts on Humans and the Built Environment**

> \[**PowerPoint 10.11** Potential Impacts on Humans and the Built
> Environment\]

1.  "Nicholls and Leatherman (1994)[^8] summarize the physical effects
    of sea level rise in five categories. These are:

-   erosion of beaches and bluffs,

-   increased flooding and storm damage,

-   inundation of low-lying areas.

-   salt intrusion into aquifers and surface waters, and

-   higher water tables." [^9]

-   The areas most at risk include: Islands in the Pacific and Indian
    Oceans, Bangladesh, Egypt, Thailand, China, Denmark, Louisiana (of
    the US), and Indonesia.

```{=html}
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```
-   refugees fleeing the flooded farmlands of these areas could number
    in the millions of people

2.  **An important fact is that sea level is rising as more people
    inhabit the coastal zone.**

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Objective 10.4** Conduct a class discussion on some current
considerations for sea level rise and

> climate change policies as well as how these issues relate to other
> coastal hazards

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as discussion, supported by suggested
questions in the PowerPoint slides.

The following slide will be used during this objective:

\[**PowerPoint 10**.**12** Class Discussion\]

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Remarks:**

**XI. Class Discussion**

\[**PowerPoint 10.12** Class Discussion\]

**Some questions to lead discussion (also posted on Power Point slide
10.12):**

1.  Where do you stand on global warming? What are your biggest
    concerns, (if any)?

2.  What are the mitigation techniques mentioned in the Titus article?
    Which do you think are the best options? What are some of the pros
    and cons associated with each method from environmental, economic,
    and social viewpoints?

3.  What is your impression of the Climate Stewardship Act? Do you think
    that it will pass? Why or why not?

4.  What do you think about using the best available data/science to
    make policy decisions?

5.  How are the uncertainties about sea level rise similar to those with
    hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes? How are they different?

6.  How are sea level rise and global warming tied to the frequency and
    intensity of other hazards at the coast?

*Note to Instructor: There are several ways to conduct the group
discussion. Students could be broken into small groups, assigned 1 or 2
questions each, and be brought back together as one large group to
discuss their answers. Alternatively, the class could discuss their
thoughts on all of the questions as one large group, mediated by the
Instructor. It is possible to conduct the discussion either way, as long
as there is sufficient time set aside at the end of the session. **It is
recommended that the Instructor lecture for 20 -- 25 minutes and leave
25 -- 30 minutes for the group discussion.** As time allows, the
instructor should feel free to pose any additional questions to the
students in order to facilitate the discussion.*

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Appendix A: Handouts**

**Handout 10.1: Fossil history broken down by Eras, Periods, and
Epochs**

Taken from:
<http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html>

## The history of life as revealed by the fossil record.

  -------------- --------------- --------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Eras**       **Periods**     **Epochs**            **Aquatic Life**                                                                                            **Terrestrial Life**

  With                                                                                                                                                             
  approximate                                                                                                                                                      
  starting dates                                                                                                                                                   
  in millions of                                                                                                                                                   
  years ago in                                                                                                                                                     
  parentheses.                                                                                                                                                     
  Geologic                                                                                                                                                         
  features in                                                                                                                                                      
  green                                                                                                                                                            

  Cenozoic (65)\                                                                                                                                                   
  The \"Age of                                                                                                                                                     
  Mammals\"                                                                                                                                                        

                 Quaternary      Recent                                                                                                                            Humans in the new world
                 (1.8)                                                                                                                                             

                                 Pleistocene           Periodic glaciation                                                                                         First humans

                                                       Continental drift continues                                                                                 

                 Tertiary (65)   Pliocene              All modern groups present                                                                                   [Hominids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/H/H.html#hominid) and
                                                                                                                                                                   [pongids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/P.html#pongid)

                                 Miocene                                                                                                                           Monkeys and ancestors of apes

                                 Oligocene                                                                                                                         [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of
                                                                                                                                                                   [birds](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Birds)

                                 Eocene                                                                                                                            Adaptive radiation of [mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Mammals)

                                 Paleocene                                                                                                                         

  Mesozoic       Cretaceous      Still attached: N.                                                                                                                
  (251)\         (146)           America & N. Europe;                                                                                                              
  \"The Age of                   Australia &                                                                                                                       
  Reptiles\"                     Antarctica                                                                                                                        

                                                       Modern bony fishes                                                                                          [Extinction of
                                                                                                                                                                   dinosaurs](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html#The_Impact_Hypothesis%23The_Impact_Hypothesis),
                                                                                                                                                                   pterosaurs

                                                       Extinction of ammonites, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs                                                          Rise of woody angiosperms, snakes; first [placental
                                                                                                                                                                   mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Placentals) (Eutheria)

                                 Africa & S. America                                                                                                               
                                 begin to drift apart                                                                                                              

                 Jurassic (200)                        Plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs abundant; first                                                                   Dinosaurs dominant; first [angiosperms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Angiosperm.html)
                                                       [diatoms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Diatoms)                   

                                                       Ammonites again abundant                                                                                    First [mammals](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Prototheria); Archaeopteryx; first lizards

                                                       Skates, rays, and bony fishes abundant                                                                      Adaptive radiation of dinosaurs; insects abundant

                                                                                                                                                                   

                                 Pangaea splits into                                                                                                               
                                 Laurasia and Gondwana                                                                                                             

                 Triassic (251)                        First plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs                                                                             [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of reptiles:\
                                                                                                                                                                   [thecodonts](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Diapsids), therapsids, turtles,\
                                                                                                                                                                   [crocodiles](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Diapsids), first dinosaurs

                                                       Ammonites abundant at first                                                                                 

                                                       Rise of [bony fishes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Bony)       

  Paleozoic      Permian (299)   Appalachian Mts.                                                                                                                  
  (542)                          formed; periodic                                                                                                                  
                                 glaciation and arid                                                                                                               
                                 climate                                                                                                                           

                                                       Extinction of trilobites, placoderms                                                                        Reptiles abundant: cotylosaurs, pelycosaurs. Cycads,
                                                                                                                                                                   [conifers](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#Conifers), ginkgos

                 Pennsylvanian   Warm, humid climate                                                                                                               
                 (320)           Together\                                                                                                                         
                                 the Pennsylvanian and                                                                                                             
                                 Mississippian\                                                                                                                    
                                 make up the\                                                                                                                      
                                 \"Carboniferous\";\                                                                                                               
                                 also called the\                                                                                                                  
                                 \"Age of Amphibians\"                                                                                                             

                                                       Ammonites, bony fishes                                                                                      First [reptiles](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Reptiles)\
                                                                                                                                                                   Coal swamps

                                                                                                                                                                   

                 Mississippian                         [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of Forests of [lycopsids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#lycopsids),
                 (359)                                 sharks                                                                                                      [sphenopsids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#sphenopsids), and seed ferns\
                                                                                                                                                                   Amphibians abundant\
                                                                                                                                                                   Land snails

                                 Periodic aridity                                                                                                                  

                 Devonian (416)\                       Placoderms,                                                                                                 [Ferns](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/Ferns.html), lycopsids, and sphenopsids\
                 The \"Age of                          [cartilaginous](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Cartilaginous)    First [gymnosperms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Plants.html#Gymnosperms)\
                 Fishes\"                              and [bony fishes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Bony).          First [amphibians](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/Vertebrates.html#Amphibians)
                                                       Ammonites, nautiloids                                                                                       

                                 Extensive inland seas                                                                                                             

                                                       [Adaptive radiation](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#adaptive_radiation) of [Arachnids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Arthropods) (scorpions)
                                                       ostracoderms, eurypterids                                                                                   

                 Silurian (444)  Mild climate; inland  Nautiloids, Pilina, other mollusks                                                                          First insects
                                 seas                                                                                                                              

                 Ordovician      Mild climate, inland  Trilobites abundant\                                                                                        First [fungi](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/Fungi.html)\
                 (488)           seas                  First jawless [vertebrates](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/V/V.html#vertebrate)     First plants
                                                                                                                                                                   ([liverworts](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Mosses.html#Evidence_from_the_mitochondrial_genome_(mtDNA))?)\
                                                                                                                                                                   First [millipedes](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Myriapoda)?

                 Cambrian (542)                        Trilobites dominant. First eurypterids,                                                                     No fossils of eukaryotes, but [phylogenetic
                                                       [crustaceans](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Crustacea)\       trees](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#PhylogeneticTrees) suggest that lichens, mosses, perhaps
                                                       [mollusks](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Mollusks),           even vascular plants were present.
                                                       [echinoderms](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Echinodermata)\   
                                                       [sponges](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Porifera),            
                                                       [cnidarians](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Cnidaria),         
                                                       [annelids](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Annelida),\          
                                                       [tunicates](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Invertebrates.html#Chordates)          

                                 Periodic glaciation                                                                                                               

  Proterozoic                                          [Fossils](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/F.html#fossil) rare but many protistan   No fossils of eukaryotes, but [phylogenetic
  (2500)\                                              and [invertebrate](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/I.html#invertebrate) phyla      trees](http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#PhylogeneticTrees) suggest that lichens, mosses, perhaps
  Archean                                              toward the end                                                                                              even vascular plants were present towards the end.
  (3800?)                                                                                                                                                          
  -------------- --------------- --------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

**Appendix B: Course Developer References**

[http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/swces/products/publications/glossary/words/H_M.htm#](http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/swces/products/publications/glossary/words/H_M.htm)

[MEANSEALEVEL]{.underline}

Oliver, J.E. and J.J. Hidore. 2002. *Climatology: An Atmospheric
Science, 2^nd^ ed*. Upper

Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Robinson, Andrew. 2002. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes, Earthquakes,
Tornadoes and*

*Other Forces of Nature, 2nd ed.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
pp.259-295:

"Global Climatic Change".

<http://www.grinningplanet.com/2004/01-27/global-warming-overview-eco.htm>

<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/climchng.html>

Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.T. Leatherman. 2001. *Sea Level Rise:
History and*

> *Consequences.* San Diego, California: Academic Press. Pp. 1-10: "An
> Introduction to Sea Level"

<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/pollen.html>

<http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm>

<http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html>

<http://www.ghgonline.org/predictions.htm>

<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/greenhou.html>

**Appendix C: Power Point Graphics Citations**

**Session 10**

**PowerPoint 10.1:** Lecture Outline

-   (Source: www.globalchange.umich.edu/)

**PowerPoint 10.2** Introduction: Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone

-   (Source: NASA)

**PowerPoint 10.3** What is Sea Level Rise?

-   (Source:http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/\~tk/climate_dynamics/climate_impact_webpage.html)

**PowerPoint 10.4** Climate Change in Geologic Time

-   (Source:<http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GeoEras.html>
    )

-   (Source: NASA)

-   (Source: <http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm> )

**PowerPoint 10.5** Climate Change in the past 1,000 years

-   (Source:<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/climchng.html>
    )

-   (Source: http://doctorgrooveband.com/sun-spots.gif)

**PowerPoint 10.6** Global Warming Processes

-   (Source:http://library.thinkquest.org/C005137F/automobile_traffic_pollution.jpg)

-   (Source:<http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/climate/GCclimate1.html>)

-   (Source: NASA)

**PowerPoint 10.7** Sea Level Rise Predictions

-   (Source: <http://www.ghgonline.org/predictions.htm>)

**PowerPoint 10.8** Uncertainties of Predictions

-   (Source:http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/greenhou.html)

-   (Source:www.globalchange.si.edu/ images/essay_rsl.gif)

-   (Source:http://www.ngo.grida.no/soesa/nsoer/Graphics/national/fig4_9.gif)

-   (Source: USGS)

**PowerPoint 10.9** Current Evidence

-   (Source:
    <http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/greenhou.html>)

**PowerPoint 10.10** Potential Impacts on the Natural Environment

-   (Source: USGS)

-   (Source: http://www.usgcrp.gov/)

**PowerPoint 10.11** Potential Impacts on Humans and the Built
Environment

-   (Source: http://www.usgcrp.gov/)

-   (Source: [www.jri.org.uk/brief/
    climatechange.htm](http://www.jri.org.uk/brief/climatechange.htm))

**Course Preparer References:**

[^1]: [http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/swces/products/publications/glossary/words/H_M.htm#](http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/swces/products/publications/glossary/words/H_M.htm)

    [MEANSEALEVEL]{.underline}

[^2]: Oliver, J.E. and J.J. Hidore. 2002. *Climatology: An Atmospheric
    Science, 2^nd^ ed*. Upper

    Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

[^3]: Robinson, Andrew. 2002. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes,
    Earthquakes, Tornadoes and*

    *Other Forces of Nature, 2nd ed.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
    pp.259-295:

    "Global Climatic Change".

[^4]: <http://www.grinningplanet.com/2004/01-27/global-warming-overview-eco.htm>

[^5]: Robinson, Andrew. 2002. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes,
    Earthquakes, Tornadoes and*

    *Other Forces of Nature, 2nd ed.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
    pp.259-295:

    "Global Climatic Change".

[^6]: Robinson, Andrew. 2002. *Earthshock: Hurricanes, Volcanoes,
    Earthquakes, Tornadoes and*

    *Other Forces of Nature, 2nd ed.* London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
    pp.259-295:

    "Global Climatic Change".

[^7]: <http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/land/global/climchng.html>

[^8]: Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.T. Leatherman. 2001. *Sea Level
    Rise: History and*

    *Consequences.* San Diego, California: Academic Press. Pp. 1-10: "An
    Introduction to Sea Level"

[^9]: Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.T. Leatherman. 2001. *Sea Level
    Rise: History and*

    *Consequences.* San Diego, California: Academic Press. Pp. 1-10: "An
    Introduction to Sea Level"