### Marital Quality and Parent-Child Relationships

**Amato, P. R. (1986). Marital conflict, the parent-child relationship,
and child self-esteem. *Family Relations, 35,* 403-410.**

Examined the association between levels of marital conflict and the
self*-*esteem of 132 children (aged 8-9 yrs) and 142 adolescents (aged
15-16 yrs) in Australia. Marital conflict was negatively associated with
self*-*esteem among primary school girls but not among primary school
boys. Weak negative associations between conflict and self*-*esteem were
found for male and female adolescents. Marital conflict was negatively
associated with the quality of the child*-*father relationship in all
groups except among primary school boys. The negative effects of
conflict tended to be strongest when children\'s relationships were poor
with both parents*.* However, for young females, conflict was also
negatively related to self*-*esteem when relationships with both parents
were good.

**Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2004). Exploring marriage-parenting
typologies and their contextual antecedents and developmental sequelae.
*Development & Psychopathology, 16,* 501-523.**

To identify types of families, latent-class analysis was applied to
(reported) marriage and (observed) parenting measures obtained during
the infancy, toddler, and/or preschool years for 828 two-parent families
participating in the NICHD Study of Child Care. Five types of families
were identified: Consistently Supportive (i.e., good parenting, good
marriage, 15% of sample), Consistently Moderate (i.e., moderate
marriage, moderate parenting, 43%), Consistently Risky (i.e., poor
parenting, poor marriage, 16%), Good Parenting/Poor Marriage (19%), and
Poor Parenting/Good Marriage (7%). When groups were compared in terms of
contextual antecedents (measured at child age 1 month) and child
cognitive-academic and socioemotional functioning in first grade,
results indicated (a) that contextual risks increased linearly and
children\'s functioning decreased linearly as one moved across the first
three aforementioned groups; and after controlling for group differences
in background factors (b) that children in the
Good-Parenting/Poor-Marriage families outperformed those in the Poor
Parenting/Good Marriage; (c) that there was evidence of \"added value\"
developmentally when children experienced two sources of support (i.e.,
good marriage and good parenting) rather than just one (i.e., good
marriage or good parenting); but (d) that there was only modest evidence
of protective buffering whereby children experiencing just good
parenting (but not just good marriages) outperformed children
experiencing poor parenting and poor marriages. Results are discussed in
terms of the relative influence of marriage and parenting on child
development and the potential benefits of applying typological
approaches to the study of marriage-parenting family subsystems.

**Belsky, J., Youngblade, L., Rovine, M., & Volling, B. (1991). Patterns
of marital change and parent-child interaction. *Journal of Marriage and
the Family, 53,* 487-498.**

To examine the interrelation of marital and parent*-*child subsystems in
the family, 100 families participating in the Pennsylvania Infant and
Family Development Project were studied when their 1st child turned 3.
The goal of the work was to determine whether maternal, paternal, and
child behavior differ in households in which marital quality declines
vs. those in which it does not. Distinct patterns of marital change,
identified on the basis of marital reports obtained at 4 points in time
(during pregnancy and at 3, 9, and 36 mo), were related to parent and
child behavior that was measured during free-play and teaching sessions
and composited by means of cluster analytic procedures. Results reveal
more systematic associations between marital change patterns and
father-child interaction than between marital changes and mother-child
interaction. Whereas discerned associations in the case of men indicate
that marriages that were deteriorating in quality were associated with
more negative and intrusive father behavior and more negative and
disobedient child behavior, some evidence of a more compensatory process
was discerned in the case of associations between mothers\' marriage and
behavior. Findings are discussed in terms of relationship boundaries,
styles, and alliances.

**Brody, G. H., Arias, I., & Fincham, F. D. (1996). Linking marital and
child attributions to family processes and parent-child relationships.
*Journal of Family Psychology, 10,* 408-421.**

The contribution of marital attributions to parenting and parent-child
interaction was examined, along with the contribution of children\'s
attributions for negative parental behavior to ineffective parent-child
communication. Data from 170 children 10 to 12 years old (84 girls, 86
boys) were used to test a model of hypothesized links among
conflict-promoting marital attributions, negative marital context,
parenting practices, children\'s attributions for parent behavior, and
ineffective parent-child communication. Husbands\' and wives\' marital
attributions were related to the marital context, which was related to
ineffective parent-child communication. Husbands\' and wives\'
conflict-promoting marital attributions also were related to parenting
practices, which were related to children\'s attributions for negative
parental behavior. Children\'s attributions also accounted for unique
variance in ineffective parent-child communication.

**Brody, G. H., Pillegrini, A. D., & Sigel, I. E. (1986). Marital
quality and mother-child and father-child interactions with school-aged
children. *Developmental Psychology, 22,* 291-296.**

The objective of the present study was to examine parent-child
interactions with school-aged children in the context of the parents\'
marital relationship. Sixty families with a school-aged child served as
subjects. Mother-child and father-child teaching interactions were
videotaped, from which frequency counts of efficacious teaching
behaviors were obtained for each parent-child teaching interaction.
Parents completed a self-report measure of marital problems. A dyad
score of marital problems was formed by adding the husbands\' and
wives\' scores. A two-level variable of marital problems was then
derived by performing a median split on the marital problem dyad scores.
Normative comparisons suggested that the couples whose scores fell below
the median were characterized as nondistressed and the couples whose
scores fell above the median were characterized as slightly discontented
with their marital relationship. Few differences in teaching styles were
detected between mothers and fathers in the nondistressed group. Mothers
in the slightly discontented group used more questions, positive
feedback, informational feedback, and verbal task management and
intruded less often into their children\'s learning efforts than did the
fathers in this group. Fathers with increased reports of marital
problems used less positive feedback and were more intrusive; mothers in
this group appeared to compensate for a less than satisfactory marriage
by being more involved in teaching their children. In turn, children of
slightly discontented mothers were more actively responsive to their
teaching behaviors than were children of nondistressed mothers.

**Buehler, C., & Gerard, J. M. (2002). Marital conflict, ineffective
parenting, and children\'s and adolescents\' maladjustment. *Journal of
Marriage & Family 64,* 78-92.**

Data from the 1988 National Survey on Families and Households were
analyzed to examine the associations among marital conflict, ineffective
parenting, and children\'s and adolescents\' maladjustment. The weighted
sample for this study includes 2,541 married parents with a target child
aged 2-18 yrs living in the household. Data indicate that parents\' use
of harsh discipline and low parental involvement helped explain the
connection between marital conflict and children\'s maladjustment in
children aged 2-11 yrs. Parent-child conflict was measured only in
families with a target teenager and also was a significant mediator.
Although ineffective parenting explained part of the association between
marital conflict and children\'s maladjustment, independent effects of
marital conflict remained in families with target children aged 2-11 yrs
(but not for families with a teenager). With a few exceptions, this
pattern of findings was consistent for mothers\' and fathers\' reports,
for daughters and sons, for families with various ethnic backgrounds,
and for families living in and out of poverty.

**Burman, B., John, R. S., & Margolin, G. (1987). Effects of marital and
parent-child relations on children\'s adjustment. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 1,* 91-108.**

Investigated the effects of marital dissatisfaction, marital conflict,
and the parent*-*child relationship on the childhood adjustment of 30
boys and 26 girls (aged 6-14 yrs) in 47 nonclinic families. In support
of previous findings, results of a battery of tests show a strong
relationship between mothers\' marital satisfaction and conflict style
and their own ratings of boys\' adjustment*.* However, based on
fathers\' and children\'s reports, marital satisfaction and conflict
style did not contribute unique variance over the parent*-*child
relationship in predicting children\'s adjustment*.*

**Cowan, P. A., Cowan, C. P., Ablow, J., Johnson, V., & Measelle, J.
(Eds.). (2005). [The family context of parenting in children\'s
adaptation to school.]{.underline} Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.** (published as a book and as part of Parenting: Science and
Practice Monographs in a series edited by Marc Bornstein)

**Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2002). Interventions as tests of family
systems theories: Marital and family relationships in children\'s
development and psychopathology. *Development & Psychopathology, 14,*
731-759. **

This paper addresses the role of family-based studies of preventive and
therapeutic interventions in our understanding of normal development and
psychopathology. The emphasis is on interventions designed to improve
parent-child and/or marital relationships as a way of facilitating
development and reducing psychopathology in children and adolescents.
Intervention designs provide the gold standard for testing causal
hypotheses. We begin by discussing the complexity of validating these
hypotheses and the implications of the shift from a traditional emphasis
on theories of etiology to developmental psychopathology\'s newer
paradigm describing risks, pathways, and outcomes. We summarize
correlational studies that document the fact that difficult and
ineffective parent-child and marital relationships function as risk
factors for children\'s cognitive, social, and emotional problems in
childhood and adolescence. We then review prevention studies and therapy
evaluation studies that establish some specific parenting and marital
variables as causal risk factors with respect to these outcomes. Our
discussion focuses on what intervention studies have revealed so far and
suggests an agenda for further research.

**Cox, M. J., Paley, B., & Harter, K. (2001). Interparental conflict and
parent-child relationships. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham (Eds.),
*Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and
applications* (pp. 249-272). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.**

(from the chapter) To understand how marital conflict affects the way
parent-child relationships develop, it is important to conceptualize the
family as a system with multiple, mutually influential levels and
relationships existing across time. Unfortunately, little research
addresses the link between marital conflict and parent-child
relationships in this way. These and other issues are considered in this
chapter. The authors begin the chapter with a discussion of the
different pathways that may link marital and parent-child relationships.
They then turn to consider whether these relations differ by gender of
child and parent. Finally, they conclude with a discussion of future
directions.

**Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict
on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented
research. *Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 43,* 31-63.**

The effects of marital conflict on children\'s adjustment are well
documented. For the past decade research has increasingly focused on
advancing a process-level understanding of these effects, that is,
accounting for the particular responses and patterns embedded within
specific contexts, histories, and developmental periods that account for
children\'s outcomes over time. As a vehicle for presenting an update,
this review follows the framework for process-oriented research
initially proposed by E. M. Cummings and J. S. Cummings (1988),
concentrating on recent research developments, and also considering new
and emerging themes in this area of research. Understanding of the
impact of marital conflict on children as a function of time-related
processes remains a gap in a process-oriented conceptualization of
effects. Based on this review, a revised model for a process-oriented
approach on the effects of marital discord on children is proposed and
suggestions are made for future research directions.

**Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Graham, M. A. (2002).
Interparental relations as a dimension of parenting. Monographs in
parenting. In J. G. Borkowski & S. L. Ramey (Eds.), *Parenting and the
child\'s world: Influences on academic, intellectual, and
social-emotional development* (pp. 251-263). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) Suggests that interparental relations should be
considered as another dimension of parenting behavior since such
behaviors involve a volitional choice by the parents with regard to how
to behave, and these behaviors have effects and implications for
children\'s development and functioning. This chapter examines evidence
that the parents\' behavior in the context of marriage is a significant
influence on child development. In particular, the authors focus on the
implications for children\'s functioning of how parents work through
their everyday disagreements and problems, that is, interparental
conflict behavior. Conflict behavior is a predictor of marital happiness
and risk for divorce and marital distress is by some reports the most
common reason why adults seek psychological help. In recent years
considerable evidence has also accumulated to indicate that the
qualities of interparental conflict predict children\'s adjustment.
Thus, an accumulating literature supports the thesis of this report:
that marital functioning merits inclusion as a dimension of parenting.

**Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cummings, E. M. (2004).
Interdependencies among interparental discord and parenting practices:
The role of adult vulnerability and relationship perturbations.
*Development & Psychopathology, 16,* 773-797.**

We examined the nature and directionality of associations between
interparental discord and parenting practices in a sample of 227 mothers
and fathers of kindergarten children over two measurement waves spaced 1
year apart. Cross-lagged models indicated that associations between
interparental discord and maternal and paternal parenting practices
(i.e., acceptance, discipline) were generally negligible with one
exception: interparental discord at Time 1 predicted decreases in
maternal acceptance from Time 1 to Time 2. However, consistent with the
family systems conceptualization of the family as an open system,
prospective associations among interparental and parent-child subsystems
varied significantly as a function of parental depressive symptoms,
interparental relationship insecurity, and child-rearing disagreements.
The moderating role of adult characteristics commonly varied across the
type of adult vulnerability (e.g., depressive symptoms, interparental
relationship insecurity, child-rearing disagreements), dimension of
parenting practices (e.g., maternal and paternal acceptance and
inconsistent discipline), and the directionality of the paths between
interparental and parent-child subsystems.

**El-Sheikh, M., & Elmore-Staton, L. (2004). The link between marital
conflict and child adjustment: Parent-child conflict and perceived
attachments as mediators, potentiators, and mitigators of risk.
*Development & Psychopathology, 16,* 631-648.**

Parent-child conflict and perceived attachments to parents were examined
as predictors, mediators, and moderators in the marital conflict-child
adjustment connection in a sample of older children and young
adolescents. After controlling for marital conflict, parent-child
conflict predicted additional unique variance mainly for children\'s
externalizing problems, and attachments to parents accounted for unique
variance in children\'s externalizing and internalizing problems.
Moderation effects illustrated that a higher level of parent-child
conflict was a vulnerability factor, whereas a secure attachment was a
protective factor, for behavior problems associated with marital
conflict. Mediation effects were also evident and supported the
proposition that parent-child conflict and attachment to parents mostly
are partial mediators of effects in the marital conflict-child outcomes
link. The findings illustrate the aggregation, potentiation, and
amelioration of risk for adjustment problems associated with marital
conflict, and highlight the importance of assessing multiple systems
within the family.

**Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations
and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review. *Psychological
Bulletin, 118,* 108-132.**

It is widely assumed that a linkage, crucial to the understanding of
child behavior, exists between marital and parent-child relationship
quality. A meta-analysis of 68 studies was conducted to determine
whether this linkage exists and, if so, whether the linkage is positive
(as suggested by the spillover hypothesis) or negative (as suggested by
the compensatory hypothesis). Results supported the spillover
hypothesis; a positive and nonhomogeneous effect size of moderate
magnitude was found (d = 0. 46). This suggests that research in this
area can move beyond the question of whether a positive or negative
association exists to identifying moderators of the association.
Examination of the impact of 13 potential moderators did not support the
existence of any of these variables that could be adequately examined.
This suggests that the link between marital and parent-child relations
functions as a more stable force than previously thought.

**Fauber, R., Forehand, R., Thomas, A. M., & Wierson, M. (1990). A
mediational model of the impact of marital conflict on adolescent
adjustment in intact and divorced families: The role of disrupted
parenting. *Child Development, 61,* 1112-1123.**

Presents a study concerned with the development and testing of a
structural equation model wherein the relation of interparental conflict
to the adjustment problems of young adolescents is mediated through its
impact on three aspects of parenting behavior: lax control,
psychological control, and parental rejection.

**Fauchier, A., & Margolin, G. (2004). Affection and conflict in marital
and parent-child relationships. *Journal of Marital & Family Therapy,
30,* 197-211.**

In this study, we examined affection and conflict in marital and
parent-child relationships, as reported by mothers, fathers, and 9- and
10-year-old children in a community sample of 87 families. Affection and
conflict were inversely related within relationships, with mixed
findings across relationships. Most reports showed an association
between marital and parent-child conflict as well as between marital and
parent-child affection. According to fathers, however, the association
between marital affection and father-child affection is moderated by
marital conflict. Clinical implications of the associations between
positive and negative dimensions of family interaction and of the links
between marital and parent-child relations are discussed.

**Feldman, S. S., Wentzel, K. R., Weinberger, D. A., & Munson, J. A.
(1990). Marital satisfaction of parents of preadolescent boys and its
relationship to family and child functioning. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 4,* 213-234.**

Investigated the relationship between parents*\'* marital satisfaction
(MS) and family and child outcomes among 50 mothers and 43 fathers with
6th-grade sons. Outcomes in 3 domains of functioning were studied:
within-family functioning, 2 aspects of sons\' social-emotional (SEM)
adjustment (distress and restraint), and sons\' academic achievement.
Two mediators by which MS might influence the outcomes were also
assessed: individual parental characteristics (i.e., SEM functioning)
and child-rearing practices. Quality of the marital relationship was
signficantly related to outcomes in each domain of functioning.
Mothers\' MS was related to overall family functioning; fathers\' MS was
related to sons\' school achievement and development of self-control.
The relationship between fathers\' MS and sons\' self-restraint was
accounted for by fathers\' SEM functioning and child rearing.

**Fincham, F. D. (1994). Understanding the association between marital
conflict and child adjustment: An overview. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 8,* 123-127.**

To highlight advances in the literature linking marital discord and
child adjustment, a heuristic distinction is drawn between 1st and 2nd
generation research. A review of 1st generation research documenting the
existence of an association between marital and child functioning points
to the need for 2nd generation research on why this association exists.
Several issues that will facilitate research on the mechanisms linking
marital and child functioning are therefore discussed. This discussion
provides a framework for outlining how each of the contributions to the
special section advances understanding of the impact of marital discord
on child adjustment.

**Frosch, C. A., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2001). Marital behavior,
parenting behavior, and multiple reports of preschoolers\' behavior
problems: Mediation or moderation? *Developmental Psychology, 37,*
502-519.**

Associations among positive and conflictual marital behavior and
multiple reports of child behavior problems were examined in a community
sample of 78 families with 3-year-old children. Maternal and paternal
parenting behaviors were tested as potential mediators and moderators.
Parents reported on child behavior problems and were observed during
parent-child interaction and couple discussion in the presence of the
child. Observers and preschool teachers also reported on child behavior
problems. Less positive marital engagement and greater conflict were
associated with observers\' reports, but not with parents\' or
teachers\' reports, of more behavior problems. Associations between
marital behavior and child behavior problems were not explained by
maternal or paternal behavior; stronger support was found for moderating
effects of parenting. Also, positive marital engagement was a slightly
better predictor of child behavior problems than was marital conflict.

**Frosch, C. A., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & McHale, J. L. (2000). Marital
behavior and the security of preschooler-parent attachment
relationships. J*ournal of Family Psychology, 14,* 144-161.**

Longitudinal and concurrent relations among positive and negative
marital behaviors in 2 contexts and preschoolers\' security of
attachment were examined for 53 families. At 6 months postpartum,
couples were observed in their homes during couple discussion and family
play. At 3 years, parents completed the Attachment Q-Set (E. Waters,
1987); marital and parenting behavior was also observed. Interparental
hostility during family play at 6 months predicted less secure
preschooler-mother attachment. Greater marital conflict at 3 years was
associated with less security with mother and father, whereas positive
marital engagement at 3 years was associated with more secure
child-father attachment. Mothers\' parenting partially explained the
linkages between marital behavior and child-mother attachment. These
results highlight the impact of positive and negative marital behaviors
on children\'s abilities to use their parents as a secure base.

**Gonzales, N. A., Pitts, S. C., Hill, N. E., & Roosa, M. W. (2000). A
mediational model of the impact of interparental conflict on child
adjustment in a multiethnic, low-income sample. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 14,* 365-379.**

Path analysis was used to determine whether the effects of interparental
conflict on children\'s depression and conduct disorder are mediated by
3 dimensions of parenting: acceptance, inconsistent discipline, and
hostile control. The study extends the literature by testing this
mediational model with a low-income, predominantly ethnic minority
sample of preadolescent children and by examining the effects of
multiple dimensions of interparental conflict from the child\'s
perspective. Results supported the mediational model when analyses were
based on child\'s reports of all variables but not when mother\'s
reports were used to assess child depression and conduct problems.
Exploratory analyses revealed unique mediational paths associated with
conflict frequency and resolution, which were examined along with
intensity as distinct dimensions of interparental conflict.

**Grych, J. H. (2002). Marital relationships and parenting. In M. H.
Bornstein (Ed.), *Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4: Social conditions and
applied parenting* (2nd ed., pp. 203-225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) This chapter examines the theoretical and empirical
underpinnings of research on the relation between marriage and
parenting. Although parenting experiences undoubtedly affect marital
functioning as well, the chapter focuses on understanding how marital
relationships may support or undermine parenting. After a brief overview
of the development of research in this area, the conceptual perspectives
that have informed this work are described and the body of empirical
findings linking marital quality with different aspects of parenting,
including behavior, affect, cognition, and coparenting processes, are
reviewed. The chapter closes by considering critical issues that need to
be investigated if we are to more fully understand the links between
marriage and parenting.

**Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and
children\'s adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. *Psychological
Bulletin, 108,* 267-290.**

Marital problems have been related to numerous indexes of maladjustment
in children. Although several parameters of this association have been
identified, the process by which exposure to interparental conflict
gives rise to adjustment problems in children is largely unexplored.
Research on the link between marital conflict and child maladjustment
therefore is critically evaluated, and a framework is presented that
organizes existing studies and suggests directions for future research
on processes that may account for the association. According to the
framework, the impact of marital conflict is mediated by children\'s
understanding of the conflict, which is shaped by contextual, cognitive,
and developmental factors. The implications of the framework for
children\'s adjustment are discussed.

**Jaycox, L. H., & Repetti, R. L. (1993). Conflict in families and the
psychological adjustment of preadolescent children. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 7,* 344-355.**

We examined the cross-sectional association between conflict in families
and child psychological adjustment in 72 4th-5th graders. Multiple
informants (parents, children, and teachers) assessed conflict and anger
in the social climate of the home, marital discord, negative emotional
tone in the parent-child relationship, and child adjustment. As
predicted, child adjustment was more strongly related to family conflict
than to marital discord. There was a stronger association between family
conflict and maladjustment in girls. Moreover, the association between a
general climate of conflict at home and child maladjustment was
independent of anger and discord in the marital or parent-child
relationships. During the study of the effects of interpersonal conflict
at home, it appears to be important to identify the locus of anger and
aggression. Findings suggest that researchers should distinguish between
a general climate of conflict in the family and interparental discord.

**Jenkins, J. M., & Smith, M. A. (1991). Marital disharmony and
children\'s behaviour problems: Aspects of a poor marriage that affect
children adversely. *Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 32,*
793-810.**

Examined the elements of the parental marital relationship that put
children at risk for behavioral and emotional problems, using data from
119 families with a child aged 9-12 yrs. The relationships among
children\'s emotional and behavioral problems and overt parental
conflict, covert tension between parents*,* and discrepancies in
childrearing practices were assessed. Overt parental conflict related
most strongly to children\'s emotional and behavioral problems using
mothers\', fathers\', and children\'s accounts of the children\'s
symptoms. Aspects of the parent*-*child relationship were not mediating
variables in the relationship between parental conflict and children\'s
emotional and behavioral problems.

**Jouriles, E. N., & Farris, A. M. (1992). Effects of marital conflict
on subsequent parent-son interactions. *Behavior Therapy, 23,*
355-374.**

48 maritally intact families with sons aged 41-82 mo were assigned to 1
of 4 conditions in which conflictual or nonconflictual marital
interaction was followed by mother-son or father-son interaction.
Marital conflict altered parents*\'* general conversation with their
sons, fathers\' delivery of confusing and threatening commands, and
sons*\'* noncompliance to fathers\' commands. Effects of marital
conflict on each of these behaviors dissipated over time. Additionally,
marital conflict interacted with parent gender, differentially
influencing the probability of parents responding to noncompliance with
vague/confusing commands.

**Jouriles, E. N., Pfiffner, L. J., & O\'Leary, S. G. (1988). Marital
conflict, parenting, and toddler conduct problems. *Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 16,* 197-206.**

Examined relationships involving marital conflict, parenting, and
toddler conduct problems using 60 mother and toddler (aged 18-31 mo)
dyads. Mothers completed measures of marital satisfaction and conflict
and toddler conduct problems; dyads were also observed in a laboratory
setting. Marital conflict was positively correlated with observations of
toddler deviance and maternal reports of conduct problems as well as
with the frequency of maternal disapproval statements directed toward
sons\' misbehaviors. Marital conflict was correlated negatively with the
ratio of disapproval statements to daughters\' misbehaviors. Results
suggest the importance of examining parenting practices and child
characteristics that may mediate the relationship between marital
conflict and child behavior problems*.*

**Kerig, P. K. (1995). Triangles in the family circle: Effects of family
structure on marriage, parenting, and child adjustment. *Journal of
Family Psychology, 9,* 28-43.**

Mothers, fathers, and 6- to 10-year-old children used the Family
Cohesion Index to type their family system as cohesive (all close),
separate (all distant), triangulated (cross-generational coalitions), or
detouring (child excluded from the parental subsystem). Family members
agreed modestly with one another. Multivariate analyses of variance
showed that parents in triangulated families were higher in marital
conflict and dissatisfaction than were cohesive and detouring parents.
Children in triangulated families reported more interparental conflict
and more negative affect in the family. Children in detouring families
rated themselves higher in self-blame for their parents\' conflicts, and
their parents rated them highest in internalizing problems. Parents in
separate families rated their children highest in externalizing
problems. Implications for the integration of family systems
perspectives with research on marriage and parenting are discussed.

**Kerig, P. K., Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (1993). Marital quality and
gender differences in parent-child interaction. *Developmental
Psychology, 29,* 931-939.**

This microanalytic study of family interaction establishes links among
marital quality, gender, and parent-child relationships. Dyadic
conversational exchanges between 38 mothers and fathers and their 3. 5
year-old first-born son or daughter were analyzed. Marital quality was
related to gender differences in both parent and child behavior, with
less maritally adjusted fathers of daughters showing the most negativity
toward their children. Sequential analyses showed that gender
differences in parents\' and children\'s responses to one another were
also mediated by marital quality. Mothers in less satisfied marriages
were the least accepting of daughters\' assertiveness and were more
likely to reciprocate the negative affect of sons. Daughters of parents
lower in marital satisfaction were less compliant with their fathers.
Implications of these findings for understanding gender differences in
the effects of marital conflict on parenting and child development are
discussed.

**Kitzmann, K. M. (2000). Effects of marital conflict on subsequent
triadic family interactions and parenting. *Developmental Psychology,
36*, 3-13.**

This study examined marital conflict\'s indirect effects on children
through disruptions in family alliances and parenting. Forty married
couples were observed interacting with their 6-8-year-old sons after
pleasant and conflictual discussions. After conflictual discussion,
fathers showed lower support/engagement toward sons, and coparenting
styles were less democratic. Couple negativity was correlated with
family negativity, regardless of the topic of discussion, which suggests
continuity in the affective quality of the two family subsystems.
Mothers\' marital satisfaction moderated families\' responses to the
experimental manipulation. The results provide stronger evidence than
previously available of a causal link between conflict and disrupted
parenting. Further research is needed to identify which conflict-related
disruptions in parenting influence the development of children\'s
problems.

**Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and
parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. *Family Relations:
Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 49,* 25-44.**

Examined the association between interparental conflict and parenting
using meta-analytic review techniques. 138 effect sizes from 39 studies
are analyzed. The overall average weighted effect size is -0.62,
indicating a moderate association and support for the spillover
hypothesis. The parenting behaviors most impacted by interparental
conflict are harsh discipline and parental acceptance. Several
moderating effects for subject and method characteristics are
significant.

**Kurdek, L. A. (1996). Parenting satisfaction and marital satisfaction
in mothers and fathers with young children. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 10,* 331-342.**

This study examined parenting satisfaction (PS) and marital satisfaction
(MS) in married couples over 4 yrs (ns ranged from 59 to 87). There was
little evidence of interdomain spillover in that, for both husbands and
wives, PS and MS were generally unrelated at each assessment and change
in PS was unrelated to change in MS. With regard to interparent
spillover, the link between spouses\' MS tended to be stronger than the
link between spouses\' PS at each assessment, and the link between
spouses\' change in MS was stronger than the link between spouses\'
change in PS. A typology of satisfaction with family life is proposed as
one way of integrating the study of marital relationships and
parent*-*child relationships*.*

**Lindahl, K. M., Clements, M., & Markman, H. (1997). Predicting marital
and parent functioning in dyads and triads: A longitudinal investigation
of marital processes. *Journal of Family Psychology, 11,* 139-151.**

This study assessed longitudinally whether couples\' dysregulated
negative affect before parenthood is predictive of conflict, as well as
diminished affective quality, in family relationships 5 years later.
Observations of 25 couples\' marital communication were made before
parenthood and again 5 years later, when data also were collected on
parent-child and family interactions. Husbands\' prechild marital
behavior and couples\' prechild negative escalation were predictive of
husbands\' conflict and triangulation of the child into marital
conflict. Family-level functioning (e. g. , coalition formation) was
predicted by prechild negative escalation. Parenting behavior was not
predicted by prechild marital functioning but was related to current
marital functioning. The data provide support for the hypothesis that
how couples regulate negative affect early on in marriage sets the tone
for future interactions involving parents and their child.

**Lindahl, K. M., & Malik, N. M. (1999). Marital conflict, family
processes, and boys\' externalizing behavior in Hispanic American and
European American families. *Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28,*
12-25.**

Used self-report and observational measures to explore associations
among marital conflict, triadic family processes, and child adjustment
in Hispanic American, European American, and biethnic families. One
hundred and thirteen families with a 7- to 11-year-old son participated.
More similarities than differences were found between European American
and Hispanic American families. A hierarchical parenting style was
associated with externalizing behaviors for European American and
biethnic families but not for Hispanic American families. Marital
conflict and disengaged family alliances were associated with child
externalizing behavior for all ethnic groups. Ethnicity was not found to
moderate the relation between marital conflict and family functioning,
and greater levels of marital conflict were associated with disengaged
family interactions and also with lax or inconsistent parenting.
Implications for understanding cross-ethnic issues in family systems and
child adjustment are discussed.

**Margolin, G. O., Pamella H. M., Anna, M. (2001). Conceptual issues in
understanding the relation between interparental conflict and child
adjustment: Integrating developmental psychopathology and
risk/resilience perspectives. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham (Eds.),
*Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and
applications* (pp. 9-38). New York, NY: Cambridge. 2001.**

(from the chapter) Despite widespread acceptance of the belief that
exposure to interparental conflict is a serious stressor for children,
much remains unknown about exactly why and how this stressor translates
into different outcomes across children. The assumption that marital
conflict is a stressor for children stems from several explanatory
frameworks\--family systems theory, social learning theory, the
transmission of affect, consistencies in cognitive style, genetic
transmission theories, and trauma theory. This chapter reviews these
frameworks and illustrates how a developmental psychopathology
perspective can inform research in this area. Specifically, the authors
analyze the status of marital conflict as a risk factor, consider how
research on vulnerability and protective factors can delineate processes
that intensify or interrupt the trajectory from marital conflict to
negative child outcomes, and recommend greater attention to the
resilience of many children living in highly conflictual homes. This
perspective underscores the complexity of the relationship between
marital conflict and child outcomes and suggests why conflict does not
affect children in predictable or consistent ways.

**Owen, M. T., & Cox, M. J. (1997). Marital conflict and the development
of infant-parent attachment relationships. *Journal of Family
Psychology, 11,* 152-164.**

Couples were studied before and after the birth of their 1st child to
understand processes by which marital conflict influences child
development. Hypotheses were tested concerning direct and indirect
processes relating marital conflict to the security of infant-mother and
infant-father attachment and disorganized attachment behavior. Findings
supported the prediction that chronic marital conflict interferes with
sensitive, involved parenting and thereby predicts insecurity in
attachment relationships, particularly for fathers. It was also argued
that chronic marital conflict presents the infant with experiences of
frightened or frightening parents and diminished behavioral options to
alleviate accompanying distress. As predicted, disorganized attachment
behavior with mother and father was explained by chronic marital
conflict and not mediated by parental ego development or sensitive
parenting.

**Peterson, J. L., & Zill, N. (1986). Marital disruption, parent-child
relationships, and behavior problems in children. *Journal of Marriage
and the Family,* *48,* 295-307.**

Examined the effects of marital disruption on children\'s behavior,
accounting for variations in postdisruption living arrangements and the
effects of parent*-*child relationships *and* marital conflict, in a
1981 national sample of 1,423 children aged 12-16 yrs. Disruption was
associated with a higher incidence of several behavior problems (e.g.,
depression/withdrawal, antisocial behavior, impulsivity), negative
effects being greatest with multiple marital transitions. The negative
effects were lower if the S lived with the same-sex parent following
divorce or maintained a good relationship with one or both parents*.*
High, persistent conflict in intact families was also related to
behavior problems.

**Stone, G., Buehler, C., Barber, B. K. (2002). Interparental conflict,
parental psychological control, and youth problem behavior. In B. K.
Barber (Ed.), *Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects
children and adolescents* (53-95). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.**

(from the chapter) Discusses the understanding of parental psychological
control of adolescents by setting it in the larger family context. The
authors make a compelling theoretical and empirical link between
parental psychological control and interparental conflict (particularly
covert interparental conflict), both \"indirect and insidious family
patterns that disrupt the development of social and emotional competence
in children.\" They show empirically that psychological control is
distinct from interparental conflict, and that their findings of both
direct and indirect associations of conflict (through parental
psychological control) with adolescent functioning are independent of
demographic variation. Further, although their adolescent self-reported
measurement is common to the established work on psychological control,
their multisample replication design adds confidence to the validity of
the findings. In sum, this chapter provides an instructive and
systematic analysis of the various ways in which multiple family
processes can be understood, and the authors provide interesting initial
information on the role of parental psychological control amid other key
family processes.

**Sturge-Apple, M. L., Gondoli, D. M., Bonds, D. D., Salem, L. N.
(2003). Mothers\' responsive parenting practices and psychological
experience of parenting as mediators of the relation between marital
conflict and mother-preadolescent relational negativity. *Parenting:
Science & Practice, 3,* 327-355.**

This study assessed direct and indirect relations between marital
conflict and mother-preadolescent relational negativity. Self-report
questionnaire data were gathered from 156 married mothers and their
firstborn 5th graders who were between the ages of 10 and 12 years.
Participants completed measures of marital conflict, responsive
parenting practices, the psychological experience of parenting, and
mother-preadolescent relational negativity. Structural equation modeling
indicated that marital conflict was positively associated with maternal
reports of negativity in the mother-preadolescent relationship. In
contrast, marital conflict was not associated with preadolescent reports
of negativity in the mother-preadolescent relationship. Subsequent
analyses revealed that the relation between marital conflict and
maternal report of mother-preadolescent relational negativity was
indirect and mediated by responsive parenting practices and mothers\'
psychological experience of parenting. This study integrated essential
components from the marital conflict, stress and coping, and parenting
literatures. Understanding the roles of different aspects of parenting
in the relation between marital conflict and the mother-child
relationship suggests new directions for research.

**Webster-Stratton, C. (1994). Advancing Videotape parenting training: A
comparison study. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62,*
583-593.**

This study examines the specific effects of adding a broader based,
videotape treatment component (ADVANCE) to a basic videotape parent
skills training program (GDVM). ADVANCE treatment trains parents to cope
with interpersonal distress through improved communication, problem
solving, and self-control skills. Seventy-eight families with a child
diagnosed as oppositional-defiant or conduct-disordered were randomly
assigned to either GDVM alone or GDVM plus ADVANCE. Parent reports of
child adjustment and parent distress, assessment of child\'s knowledge
of social skills, as well as independent observations of mother-and
father-child interactions and communication and of problem solving
between parents were obtained at pre- and post-GDVM and at post-ADVANCE.
Both groups significantly improved at short-term follow-up. ADVANCE
produced additional significant improvements in parents\' communication,
problem-solving skills, and consumer satisfaction, as well as
children\'s increased knowledge of prosocial solutions. The clinical
significance of these findings is discussed.

**Zimet, D. M., & Jacob, T. (2001). Influences of marital conflict on
child adjustment: Review of theory and research. *Clinical Child &
Family Psychology Review, 4,* 319-335.**

This review summarizes the literature on the relationship between
marital conflict and child maladjustment with an emphasis on variables
that qualify, explain the association, or both. Following a historical
review, the modest findings on the strength of the association between
marital conflict and child maladjustment is explored. The definition of
marital conflict is clarified through specification of its various
dimensions (frequency, intensity, content, resolution). The role of
variables that serve to moderate and/or mediate the relationship between
marital conflict and child maladjustment are elaborated. Mediating
models include exposure theories (Modeling, Cognitive-Contextual
effects: appraisal of threat and blame, and Emotional Insecurity) and
changes in the parent-child relationship (Spillover). Variables that
moderate or qualify the relationship include children\'s cognitions and
behaviors, contextual factors, and demographic differences. A model is
presented summarizing these mechanisms. Research recommendations are
proposed and the clinical implications of this literature are addressed.

## Domestic Violence and Child Well-Being

**Cummings, E. M. (1998). Children exposed to marital conflict and
violence: Conceptual and theoretical directions. In G. W. Holden & R.
Geffner (Eds.), *Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research,
and applied issues* (pp. 55-93). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.**

(from the chapter) Describes a family-wide perspective on the
implications of marital conflict and violence for children and considers
the effects of specific forms of interadult conflicts on children,
including aggression and violence, providing evidence for a distinction
between constructive and destructive forms of conflict from the
children\'s perspective. The author examines (1) marital conflict and
violence as they pertain to family functioning, (2) conceptualizations
relevant to the process-oriented study of marital conflict, (3) marital
conflict and violence on a continuum and the distinction between
constructive and destructive conflict, and (4) sensitization and
emotional insecurity as theoretical constructs for the processes
mediating effects of marital conflict and violence on children.

**Gordis, E. B., Margolin, G., & John, R. S. (1997). Marital aggression,
observed parental hostility, and child behavior during triadic family
interaction. *Journal of Family Psychology, 11,* 76-89.**

This study used direct observation to examine how a history of exposure
to interparental aggression relates to children\'s behavior during
conflict with both parents present. Ninety 2-parent families with a
child 9-13 years of age participated. Consistent with a sensitization
hypothesis, results indicated that exposure to interparental physical
aggression during the previous year was related to child withdrawal,
anxiety, and distraction during a family discussion task. In addition,
the interaction between reported interparental aggression and observed
child-directed hostility accounted for significant variance in boys\'
behavior. Follow-up correlation analyses revealed that boys who had been
exposed to physical marital aggression were more anxious and distracting
when their parents were more hostile toward them during the discussion,
whereas boys who had not been exposed withdrew more.

**Harger, J., & El-Sheikh, M. (2003). Are children more angered and
distressed by man-child than woman-child arguments and by interadult
versus adult-child disputes? *Social Development, 12,* 162-181.**

Six to 10-year-olds\' responses to witnessing videotapes of five
contexts of verbal and physical arguments (man-woman, man-boy, man-girl,
woman-boy, and woman-girl) were compared to examine the hypotheses that:
(1) man-child disputes would be perceived more negatively and evoke more
negative affect in children than woman-child conflict; and (2) man-woman
conflict would be viewed more negatively and elicit greater negative
emotions in children than adult-child arguments. Results lend support to
the two predictions, and consistent with the emotional security
hypothesis, reveal that (1) man-child conflict evoked more sadness and
fear in children than woman-child disputes; (2) man-woman arguments
evoked more intense feelings of sadness and fear than any of the
adult-child disputes, and the adult in the conflicts was perceived as
more sad and scared when arguing with the spouse than with the girl or
boy; and (3) physical conflict evoked more negative affect than verbal
disputes.

**Holden, G. W., & Ritchie, K. L. (1991). Linking extreme marital
discord, child rearing, and behavior problems: Evidence from battered
women. *Child Development, 62,* 311-327.**

Relations between marital discord, parental behavior, and child behavior
were investigated in a sample of 37 battered women and 37 comparison
mothers and their children, aged 2-8 years. It was hypothesized that
violent fathers would be more irritable but less involved, battered
women more stressed and inconsistent in discipline, and both parents
would reportedly use fewer positive and more negative child-rearing
responses than comparison families. Based on matemal self-reports and
mother-child observations, the only robust self-report difference
between the groups of mothers were the level of stress and reports of
inconsistency in parenting; in contrast, all of the expected differences
were found between the mothers\' reports of the 2 groups of fathers.
Group effects on child behavior problems were also found. Children from
violent families were reported to have more internalizing behavior
problems, more difficult temperaments, and to be more aggressive than
the comparison children. In the violent families, maternal stress and
paternal irritability were the 2 significant predictors of child
behavior problems, whereas in the comparison families only maternal
stress was a reliable predictor.

**Jouriles, E. N., Barling, J., & O\'Leary, S. G. (1987). Predicting
child behavior problems in maritally violent families. *Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 15,* 165-173.**

Examined the relationships involving interspousal aggression,
parent-child aggression, and child behavior problems in 22 boys (mean
age 8.7 yrs) and 23 girls (mean age 8.2 yrs) from maritally violent
families. Mothers indicated how often their children witnessed
interspousal aggression and were victims of parent-child aggression;
they also rated their children\'s problem behaviors, while Ss reported
on their own depressive symptoms. The witnessing of interspousal
aggression was highly associated with parental aggression directed
toward children. Parent-child aggression related to attention problems,
anxiety-withdrawal, motor excess, and conduct problems in children;
however, the witnessing of interspousal aggression was not significantly
related to child behavior problems. Results are consistent with
theoretical predictions (e.g., G. R. Patterson, 1982) linking marital
problems to child behavior by virtue of their association with
parenting.

**Jouriles, E. N., McDonald, R. Spiller, L., Norwood, W. D., Swank, P.
R., Stephens, N., Ware, H., & Buzy, W. M. (2001). Reducing conduct
problems among children of battered women. *Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 69,* 774-785.**

This study was an experimental evaluation of an intervention designed to
reduce conduct problems among children of battered women. Participants
were 36 families (mothers and children) in which the mother had sought
shelter because of relationship violence and had at least 1 child (4-9
years old) with clinical levels of conduct problems. The intervention
consisted of 2 primary components: (a) providing instrumental and
emotional support and (b) teaching child management skills to mothers.
Families were randomly assigned to either the intervention condition or
the existing services comparison condition and were assessed on 5
occasions over 16 months after shelter departure. Compared with families
receiving existing services, children in the intervention condition
improved at a faster rate, the proportion of children displaying
clinical levels of conduct problems was greatly diminished, and mothers
displayed greater improvements in child management skills.

**Jouriles, E. N., & Norwood, W. D. (1995). Physical aggression toward
boys and girls in families characterized by the battering of women.
*Journal of Family Psychology, 9,* 69-78.**

Forty-eight families (mothers and children) participated in a study on
physical aggression toward boys and girls in households characterized by
the battering of women. In each family, the mother had sought shelter
because of relationship violence and had a son and daughter between 4
and 14 years. Mothers completed measures of physical marital violence
directed at themselves, aggression toward children, and children\'s
externalizing behavior problems. Older children completed measures of
aggression directed at themselves. Results indicated that child gender
moderates the relationship between the battering of women and aggression
toward children. In families characterized by \"more extreme\"
battering, boys were more often victims of aggression than girls, boys
exhibited more externalizing problems than girls, and gender differences
in externalizing problems helped account for the differential aggression
directed at boys and girls.

**Jouriles, E. N., Norwood, W. D., McDonald, R., & Peters, B. (2001).
Domestic violence and child adjustment. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham
(Eds.), *Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research,
and applications* (pp. 315-336). New York, NY: Cambridge.**

(from the chapter) This chapter reviews the empirical literature on the
link between wife abuse (and marital violence) and child adjustment. The
authors explore some of the parameters of this association and note
conceptual, methodological, and practical issues confronting researchers
in the area. They also highlight several controversial issues in the
conceptualization of violence and note gaps in our knowledge that limit
what can be concluded about this association. The authors conclude by
offering several suggestions for future research.

**Kanoy, K., Ulku-Steiner, B., Cox, M., & Burchinal, M. (2003). Marital
relationship and individual psychological characteristics that predict
physical punishment of children. *Journal of Family Psychology, 17,*
20-28.**

The relationships among use of physical punishment of children, marital
conflict, and individual adult hostility were examined longitudinally.
Couples expecting their first child completed self-report scales of
individual hostility and were observed in marital problem-solving
situations for level of marital conflict during the prenatal period. The
marital problem-solving situations were again assessed at 2 years and 5
years following the child\'s birth. At the later time points, discipline
practices were assessed through interview. A climate of negativity,
manifested through either high rates of individual hostility or marital
conflict, predicted the use of more frequent and severe physical
punishment of children at 2 and 5 years, even when parent educational
level was controlled. Implications for policy and parent education are
discussed.

**Katz, L. F., & Woodin, E. M. (2002). Hostility, hostile detachment,
and conflict engagement in marriages: Effects on child and family
functioning. *Child Development, 73,* 636-651.**

Examined the relations between patterns of marital communication, child
adjustment, and family functioning. Couples with a 4- or 5-year-old
child were divided into three groups based on observed patterns of
emotional communication: Hostile couples showed a cumulative increase in
negative speaker behaviors over the course of a high-conflict marital
discussion; hostile-withdrawn couples showed a cumulative increase in
both negative speaker and negative listener behaviors over the course of
the interaction; and engaged couples showed a cumulative increase in
both positive speaker and listener behaviors over the course of the
interaction. The families of these three types of couples were then
compared on child outcomes (i.e., peer relations, behavior problems),
parenting quality, co-parenting quality, and family-level functioning.
Differences in marital violence and marital satisfaction between marital
couples were also examined in relation to family risk. Families in which
couples were hostile-detached showed the most negative outcomes.
Hostile-detached couples were more likely than hostile or
conflict-engaging couples to use more power-assertive methods of
discipline; to be ineffective in co-parenting; and to have family units
that were less cohesive and more conflictual.

**Kitzmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., Kenny, E. D. (2003).
Child witnesses to domestic violence: A meta-analytic review. *Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71,* 339-352.**

This meta-analysis examined 118 studies of the psychosocial outcomes of
children exposed to interparental violence. Correlational studies showed
a significant association between exposure and child problems (d = -0.
29). Group comparison studies showed that witnesses had significantly
worse outcomes relative to nonwitnesses (d = -0. 40) and children from
verbally aggressive homes (d = -0. 28), but witnesses\' outcomes were
not significantly different from those of physically abused children (d
= 0. 15) or physically abused witnesses (d = 0. 13). Several
methodological variables moderated these results. Similar effects were
found across a range of outcomes, with slight evidence for greater risk
among preschoolers. Recommendations for future research are made, taking
into account practical and theoretical issues in this area.

**Margolin, G. (1998). Effects of domestic violence on children. In P.
K. Trickett & C. J. Schellenbach (Eds.), *Violence against children in
the family and the community* (pp. 57-101). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.**

(from the chapter) Witnessing violence, in general, has been associated
with emotional, behavior, and learning problems in children, with
children\'s susceptibility affected by developmental level, chronicity
of exposure, physical closeness to the incident, and emotional closeness
to the victim. On the basis of those parameters, one may conclude that
witnessing violence between parents is a particularly insidious event.
It is most likely to occur in the home\--the one environment generally
associated with safety and protection of the child. It is not
surprising, therefore, that exposure to marital violence has been
associated with a variety of problems in children. Issues on this topic
discussed in this chapter include: incidence and prevalence of
children\'s exposure to marital violence; co-occurrence of exposure to
marital violence and to other forms of violence; features of exposure to
marital violence; outcomes associated with exposure to marital violence;
summary of outcomes; factors mediating the effects of exposure to
interparental violence; explanatory factors and mechanisms; and
questions for further research.

**Margolin, G. G., Oliver, E. B., Pamella, H. (2004). Links between
marital and parent-child interactions: Moderating role of
husband-to-wife aggression. *Development & Psychopathology, 16,*
753-771.**

The present study examined how marital conflict may compromise parenting
by identifying interdependencies across marital and parent-child
subsystems in a sample of 86 two-parent families with a child aged 9-13.
The study used direct observation of three family discussions to examine
interdependencies across family subsystems. The study also assessed
whether a history of husband-to-wife aggression strengthened
interdependencies. Overall, families with husband-to-wife aggression
showed a negative tone that pervaded throughout the family. Consistent
with theories about physically aggressive men tending to withdraw from
conflict, fathers who had engaged in husband-to-wife aggression showed
an association between marital hostilities and lower levels of empathy
toward their children. Consistent with stress theories, women who had
been exposed to husband-to-wife aggression showed a link between marital
hostilities and negative affect when interacting with their children.
These findings illustrate how a history of exposure to marital
aggression can create a family environment of multiple risks for
children. For children in families with prior marital aggression,
ongoing marital hostilities can be linked to the additional risk of
erosions in parental support.

**Meredith, W. H., Abbott, D. A., & Adams, S. L. (1986). Family
violence: Its relation to marital and parent satisfaction and family
strengths. *Journal of Family Violence*, *1,* 299-305.**

Studied the association between satisfaction with family relationships
and the occurrence of family violence in a sample of 304 respondents to
a survey of married parents (61% were female, and 39% were male). The
Conflict Tactics Scale of M. A. Straus (1979), the Family Strengths
Scale of D. Olson et al (1982), the Marital Satisfaction subscale of the
Dyadic Adjustment Scale of G. B. Spanier (1976), and the Parent
Satisfaction Scale of Meredith et al (1986) were used. Perceived family
strength, marital satisfaction, and parent satisfaction decreased as
family violence increased. Marital violence was related to
parent*-*child violence*.* Results provide evidence that violence
damages relationships within a family.

**Yates, T. M., Dodds, M. F., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2003).
Exposure to partner violence and child behavior problems: A prospective
study controlling for child physical abuse and neglect, child cognitive
ability, socioeconomic status, and life stress. *Development &
Psychopathology, 15,* 199-218.**

Previous research suggests an association between partner violence and
child behavior problems. However, methodological shortcomings have
precluded the formation of directional conclusions. These limitations
include failure to control for the effects of child physical abuse and
general life stress, employment of nonrepresentative samples from
battered women\'s shelters, and reliance on a single contemporaneous
reporter, usually the mother, for information on both independent and
dependent measures. This study used prospective, longitudinal data
(N=155) and multiple informants to examine the relation between maternal
reports of partner violence in the home and teacher- and youth-report
ratings of concurrent and prospective child behavior problems.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to control for the
effects of child physical abuse, child physical neglect, socioeconomic
status, child cognitive ability, and life stress. The contribution of
partner violence to child behavior problems was confirmed for boys\'
(n=81) externalizing problems and girls\' (n=74) internalizing problems.
Child developmental status at the time of exposure further influenced
these relations.

***Fathering and Co-parenting Relationships***

# Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with

**toddler boys: Spousal differences and daily hassles. *Child
Development, 66,* 629-642.**

In order to advance understanding of the phenomenon of coparenting,
naturalistic observations

of firstborn sons were undertaken when they were 15 months of age at a
time when both parents

were home and family life was demanding. Narrative records of
coparenting events were scored

to determine the frequency with which parents supported and undermined
each other and to

test two hypotheses pertaining to individual differences in coparenting:
that greater differences

between spouses in demographic factors, personality, styles of
relatedness and child-rearing

attitudes would forecast more unsupportive and less supportive
coparenting; and that the adverse

effects of such spousal differences would be amplified by high levels of
family stress, as indexed by frequency and intensity of daily hassles.
Both hypotheses received support and are discussed

in turn.

**Coiro, M. J., & Emery, R. E. (1998). Do marriage problems affect
fathering more than mothering? A quantitative and qualitative review.
*Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review, 1,* 23-41.**

The important question of whether marital problems disrupt fathering
more than mothering

is addressed in (a) a quantitative review of evidence on marital
conflict and parenting in

intact families, and (b) a qualitative review of research on mother and
father involvement

with their children following divorce. We conclude that (a) there is
limited evidence that,

relative to mothering, fathering is more likely to be affected by
marital conflict, but suggest

that (b) marital status (i.e., divorce) affects fathering notably more
than it affects mothering.

We further suggest that marital problems may disrupt father involvement
which, in turn,

weakens the quality of father-child relationships; there likely are
multiple alternative pathways

through which marriage problems affect parenting, including both
\"spillover\" and \"compensation\"; researchers need to examine more
carefully how marital problems disrupt

coparenting; child age and gender may moderate linkages between the
parental and marital

subsystems; and coparenting, marital happiness, and the institution of
marriage itself may

be essential first avenues of intervention for those who wish to improve
or maintain fathers\'

involvement with their children.

**Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (1987). Men\'s involvement in parenthood:
Identifying the antecedents and understanding the barriers. In P. Berman
& F. A. Pederson (Eds.), *Fathers\' transition to parenthood* (pp.
145-174). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) Men differ in the extent of their participation in
family life.\
Contemporary fathers fight an uphill battle against their socialization
history, societal constraints, and complex dynamics within the couple
relationship that both encourage and discourage their participation in
childrearing. How involved men become in that relationship and how
stressed or satisfied they feel in the early years of parenthood depends
on what is happening in many aspects of life within and outside the
family.

**Cowan, P. A., Cowan, C. P., & Kerig, P. K. (1993). Mothers, fathers,
sons, and daughters: Gender differences in family formation and
parenting style. In P. A. Cowan & D. Field (Eds.), *Family, self, and
society: Toward a new agenda for family research* (pp. 165-195).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) For the past 17 years, we \[the authors\] have been
studying families in the process of development. Although we did not
initially plan to concentrate on gender issues, our longitudinal
findings make it clear that we cannot describe parents without knowing
whether we are talking about mothers or fathers, nor can we discuss
children without specifying whether we are talking about boys or girls.
We believe that it is not possible to understand family processes
without paying attention to the particularities of husband-wife,
father-son, father-daughter, mother-son, and mother-daughter
relationships\--at least in the early phases of family development. We
have amassed considerable evidence in the course of our longitudinal
research to support the contention that one key source of
gender-differentiated parenting is inherent in the process by which men
and women make their transition from couple to family. We focus on the
marital relationship as an important context in which parent*-*child
relationships develop. In the Becoming a Family Project, we assessed 72
expectant couples with interviews, questionnaires, and observations: 48
of the couples completed interviews and questionnaires in late pregnancy
and an additional 24 completed questionnaires after birth only. Then,
all of the couples were reassessed when their children were 6, 18, 42,
and 66 months old. In the last two assessments, the children were
approximately 3 1/2 and 5 1/2 years.

**Cox, M. J., Owen, M. T., Lewis, J. M., & Henderson, V. K. (1989).
Marriage, adult adjustment, and early parenting. *Child Development,*
*60,* 1015-1024.**

Assessed the impact of parents\' marriages*,* measured prenatally, on
their parenting of firstborn, 3-mo-old infants. Though the association
between marriage and parenting was the focus, adult psychological
adjustment was also measured to rule out the alternative hypothesis that
psychological adjustment relates to both marital quality and parenting
quality and accounts for any association between them. Even when
differences in individual psychological adjustment were considered,
mothers were warmer and more sensitive with their infants; fathers held
more positive attitudes toward their infants and their roles as parents
when they were in close/confiding marriages*.* Qualities of marriage
play an important part in the development of parent-child relationships.

**Deal, J. E., Halverson, C. F., & Wampler, K. S. (1989). Parental
agreement on child rearing orientations: Relations to parental, marital,
family, and child characteristics. *Child Development, 60,* 1025-1034.**

136 families and their preschool children were studied by observation
and an extensive self-report questionnaire package. Parental agreement
was assessed using the Block Child*-*rearing Practices Report Q-Sort (J.
Block and J. Block, 1980). Analyses revealed that the agreement score
rarely added any information not already provided by the parental
effectiveness scores. A Q-factor analysis revealed that the agreement
score actually represented agreement to a standard of good parenting.
Parents who were high agreers were good parents who agreed with other
good parents, while low agreers were ineffective parents who disagreed
with other parents, good or bad.

**Dickstein, S., & Parke, R. (1988). Social referencing in infancy: A
glance at fathers and marriage. *Child Development, 59,* 506-511.**

Social referencing was defined as the tendency of a person to look to a
significant other in an ambiguous situation to obtain clarifying
information. 40 11-mo-old infants were observed once with their mothers
and once with their fathers in a 15-min social referencing situation
that involved entrance of a female stranger as the ambiguous stimulus.
Infants used their fathers and mothers as referencing targets to an
equal extent. Additionally, marital satisfaction was found to be a
significant modifier of referencing*.* Paternal marital satisfaction
predicted social referencing to fathers as well as to mothers; no effect
was found for maternal marital satisfaction alone.

**Doherty, W. J., & Beaton, J. M. (2004). Mothers and fathers parenting
together. LEA\'s communication series. In A. L. Vangelisti (Ed.),
*Handbook of family communication* (pp. 269-286). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) The purpose of this chapter is to summarize
contemporary research on the parenting relationship between mothers and
fathers, to delineate conceptual frameworks that can be fruitful for
understanding the co-parenting relationship, to offer a preliminary
theoretical model of factors influencing co-parenting, and to suggest
fruitful areas for further research. An emerging body of research is
demonstrating the importance of co-parenting relationships in families
and the value of a triadic approach to studying families. The four
conceptual frameworks for co-parenting research discussed in the article
are social constructionism, family systems theories, family development
theories, and human ecology theories. The focal point of the conceptual
model presented in the chapter is the triadic mother-father-child
relationship and the marital status of the parents. Outside the triangle
are depicted several categories of influences on the co-parental
relationship: individual factors, mother-father relationship factors,
and broader ecological factors. Gaps in the current research on
co-parenting include co-parenting relationships during the child\'s
adolescence and young adulthood, how children participate in socially
constructing the co-parenting relationship, and co-parenting among
various racial groups.

**Feinberg, M. E. (2002). Coparenting and the transition to parenthood:
A framework for prevention. *Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review,
5,* 173-195.**

Notes that the way that parents work together in their roles as parents,
the coparenting relationship, has been linked to parental adjustment,
parenting, and child outcomes. The coparenting relationship offers a
potentially modifiable, circumscribed risk factor that could be targeted
in family-focused prevention. This paper briefly outlines an integrated
and comprehensive view of coparenting, and suggests that the time around
the birth of the first child is an opportune moment for coparenting
intervention. To support the development of such prevention programs, an
outline of the possible goals of coparenting intervention is presented
with a description of the processes by which enhanced coparenting may
have effects in each area. The paper discusses several issues involved
in developing and disseminating effective coparenting interventions.

**Feinberg, M. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context
of coparenting: A framework for research and intervention. *Parenting:
Science & Practice, 3,* 95-131.**

Research on coparenting has grown over the past decade, supporting a
view of coparenting as a central element of family life that influences
parental adjustment, parenting, and child outcomes. This article
introduces a multi-domain conception of coparenting that organizes
existing research and paves the way for future research and
intervention. This article advances a conceptualization of how
coparenting domains influence parental adjustment, parenting, and child
adjustment. An ecological model that outlines influences on coparenting
relationships, as well as mediating and moderating pathways, is
described. Areas of future research in the developmental course of
coparenting relationships are noted.

**Gable, S., Crnic, K., & Belsky, J. (1994). Coparenting within the
family system. *Family Relations, 43,* 380-387.**

The article focuses on coparenting in families raising toddler sons.
Researches have shown that there are positive associations between the
quality of marital relations and parenting effectiveness and indicators
of children\'s well-being. Beginning early in life, systematic
connections have been demonstrated between marital quality, parenting
style, and infant and toddler development. One characteristic of the
marital relationship that has emerged as a potent predictor of problems
during the preschool and adolescent years involves interadult conflict.
The connections between inter- spousal conflict, troubled parenting, and
problems for children appear to persist from the preschool years through
adolescence. Thus, one specific characteristic of the marital
relationship-overt conflict-appears to function prominently as a process
variable for interrupting effective parenting and explaining how
adults\' behavior might directly and indirectly contribute to
children\'s growth and development.

**Grossman, F. K., Pollack, W. S., & Golding, E. (1988). Fathers and
children: Predicting the quality and quantity of fathering.
*Developmental Psychology, 24,* 82-91.**

This study looked at the quality and quantity of interactions between
fathers and their firstborn 5-year-olds from the perspective of the
family as a developmental interdependent system. The goals were to
identify predictors of men\'s parenting from men\'s own adaptation
(direct effects) and from their wives\' characteristics (indirect
effects), both measured during the expectancy. Twenty-three families
from the Boston University Pregnancy and Parenthood Project made up the
sample. Measures included self-report scales, observations, and
semistructured interviews. Several of men\'s psychological
characteristics, particularly their autonomy and job satisfaction,
predicted their play time and the quality of their interactions with
their children. Women\'s autonomy, occupation, and age in the expectancy
predicted men\'s caretaking and weekday time involvement with their
5-year-olds. We suggest that the findings can best be explained by the
concepts of complementarity and identification.

**Laakso, J. (2004). Key determinants of mothers\' decisions to allow
visits with non-custodial fathers. *Fathering, 2,* 131-145.**

Increases in single-parent households, often involving never married
couples, have heightened the urgency to understand decisions parents
make about parent*-*child relationships after separation. This
qualitative study provides a descriptive analysis of the concerns of
mothers in non-marital relationships that may affect their decisions
regarding visitation and clarifies the relationship between visitation
and paying child support. Weighing the benefits versus the costs, most
mothers were willing to allow visitation even if the father did not pay
child support, recognizing the importance of father-child relationships.
It is imperative to make parenting plans and visitation as important as
payment of child support. Funding for fathering programs and creation of
father-friendly environments are essential to increase involvement of
non-custodial fathers.

**Margolin, G., Gordis, E. B., & John, R. S. (2001). Coparenting: A link
between marital conflict and parenting in two-parent families. *Journal
of Family Psychology, 15,* 3-21.**

Coparenting is examined as an explanatory link between marital conflict
and parent-child relations in 2-parent families. Data were collected
from 3 samples (pilot sample, n = 220 mothers; preadolescent sample, n =
75 couples; preschool sample, n = 172 couples) by using the Coparenting
Questionnaire (G. Margolin, 1992b) to assess parents\' perceptions of
one another on 3 dimensions---cooperation, triangulation, and conflict.
Main effects for child\'s age and for parents\' gender were found for
cooperation, and an interaction between parent and child gender was
found for triangulation. Regression analyses were consistent with a
model of coparenting mediating the relationship between marital conflict
and parenting. Discussion addresses the theoretical and clinical
importance of viewing coparenting as conceptually separate from other
family processes.

**McHale, J. P., Kazali, C., Rotman, T., Talbot, J., Carleton, M., &
Lieberson, R. (2004). The transition to coparenthood: Parents\' prebirth
expectations and early coparental adjustment at 3 months postpartum.
*Development & Psychopathology, 16,* 711-733.**

In the decade since the first observationally based empirical studies of
coparenting process in nuclear families made their mark, most
investigations of early coparenting dynamics have examined whether and
how such dynamics drive child development trajectories, rather than
identifying factors that may contribute to the differential development
of such dynamics in the first place. In this prospective study, we
examined both individual-representational and dyadic-interpersonal
predictors of early coparental process. Fifty married couples expecting
their first child portrayed their expectations and concerns about family
life after the baby\'s arrival, and took part in a set of
problem-solving tasks used to help evaluate marital quality. Both
mothers\' and fathers\' prebaby expectations about the future family,
and prenatal marital quality, predicted observed coparenting cohesion at
3 months postpartum. Maternal- and marriage-coparenting trajectories
differed as a function of infant characteristics, with pathways most
pronounced when infants were rated high in negative reactivity. Results
reveal how the prenatal environment can come to shape early coparenting
process, and indicate that family models must take into account the role
that child characteristics can play in altering prebirth-postpartum
pathways.

**McHale, J., Khazan, I., Erera, P., Rotman, T., DeCourcey, W.,
McConnell, M. (2002). Coparenting in diverse family systems. In M. H.
Bornstein (Ed.), *Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3: Being and becoming a
parent* (2nd ed., pp. 75-107). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) This review of the coparenting field begins with a
brief discussion of families and coparenting research in a historical
context. The authors outline central conceptual issues in thinking about
coparenting and summarize the essential tenets of structural family
theory. This is followed by a review of coparenting research,
emphasizing issues such as insider and outsider views of coparental and
family dynamics, as well as linkages between coparental functioning and
child adjustment. The authors then provide a section on practical issues
in coparenting of interest to both scientists and professionals working
with families, and close with a section summarizing future directions in
coparenting theory and research. Among the topics considered in this
concluding section are the limits of the coparenting construct, and the
applicability of coparenting theory to diverse family systems and to the
coparenting of multiple children in the same family.

**McHale, J. P*.*, Kuersten-Hogan*,* R., Lauretti, A., Rasmussen, J. L.
(2000). Parental reports of coparenting and observed coparenting
behavior during the toddler period. *Journal of Family Psychology, 14,*
220-236.**

Fifty-two married partners played with their 30-month-olds in both
dyadic (parent-child) and whole family contexts and reported on their
own coparenting activities (family integrity-promoting behavior,
conflict, disparagement, and reprimand). Coparenting behavior observed
in the whole family context was evaluated for antagonism, warmth and
cooperation, child-adult centeredness, balance of positive involvement,
and management of toddler behavior. Parallel balance and management
scores were also formed using dyadic session data. Men\'s reported
family integrity-promoting activities and women\'s reported conflict and
reprimand activities were reliable correlates of family group process in
both bivariate and discriminant analyses, with links enduring even after
controlling for marital quality. Whole family- and dyad-based estimates
of coparenting were altogether unrelated, and reported coparenting was
tied only to behavior in family context, not to family measures created
from dyad-based data.

**McHale, J. P., Lauretti, A., Talbot, J., & Pouquette, C. (2002).
Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of coparenting and
family group process. In J. P. McHale & W. S. Grolnick, (Eds.),
*Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of families* (pp.
127-165). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) Provides an overview of family group dynamics. First,
the authors draw on the work of the anthropologist S. Harrell to
describe 4 basic family system formations. The authors then consider
more specifically family groups in the US and the roots of American
psychologists\' current belief system about \"optimal\" family
functioning. Next, the authors spotlight recent research on coparenting
and family group process in the nuclear family group and discuss studies
linking these dynamics to important indicators of young children\'s
development and adaptation. The authors emphasize the need to extend
this fledging knowledge base on how coparental and family group
processes affect children\'s development to include family systems
beyond the 2-parent nuclear family, and the authors conclude with some
thoughts about clinical practice, public policy, and future coparenting
and family group research.

**Parke, R. D. (2002). Fathers and families. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.),
*Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3: Being and becoming a parent* (2nd ed.,
pp. 27-73). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.**

(from the chapter) This chapter begins with a discussion of the nature
of the father-child relationship and how this relationship shifts across
the development of the child. Next, the chapter moves to an examination
of the determinants of father involvement to examine the impact of the
marital relationship on the parent-child relationship. The author
reviews the effect of historical changes, namely shifts in work patterns
of family members and changes in the timing of the onset of parenthood,
on father-child relationships. Finally, the implications of fathering
for men themselves, their wives, and their children are examined.

**Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Mangelsdorf, S. C., Frosch, C. A., & McHale,
J. L. (2004). Associations between coparenting and marital behavior from
infancy to the preschool years. *Journal of Family Psychology, 18,*
194-207.**

This study examined the associations between coparenting and marital
behavior from infancy to the preschool years. Coparenting and marital
behavior were assessed in 46 families during observations of family play
and marital discussions at 6 months and 3 years. Both coparenting and
marital behavior showed moderate stability from 6 months to 3 years. In
addition, coparenting and marital behavior were more consistently
associated at 3 years than at 6 months. When the predictive capabilities
of early coparenting and marital behavior for later coparenting and
marital behavior were considered, early coparenting predicted later
marital behavior but not vice versa. This study highlights the
importance of early coparenting behavior, especially undermining
coparenting behavior, for understanding both subsequent coparenting
behavior and subsequent marital behavior.

**Talbot, J. A., & McHale, J. P. (2004). Individual parental adjustment
moderates the relationship between marital and coparenting quality.
*Journal of Adult Development, 11,* 191-205.**

Contemporary family research studies have devoted surprisingly little
effort to elucidating the interplay between adults\' individual
adjustment and the dynamics of their coparental relationship. In this
study, we assessed two particularly relevant \"trait\" variables,
parental flexibility and self-control, and traced links between these
characteristics and the nature of the coparents\' interactions together
with their infants. It was hypothesized that parental flexibility and
self-control would not only explain significant variance in coparenting
quality, but also act as moderators attenuating anticipated
relationships between marital functioning and coparental process.
Participants were 50 heterosexual, married couples and their
12-month-old infants. Multiple regression analyses indicated that even
after controlling for marital quality, paternal flexibility and maternal
self-control continued to make independent contributions to coparenting
harmony. As anticipated, paternal flexibility attenuated the association
between marital quality and coparenting negativity. Contrary to
predictions, maternal flexibility and self-control did not dampen, but
actually heightened the extent to which coparenting harmony declined in
the face of lower marital quality.