**The Use of Service-Learning in**

**Emergency Management**

Service-learning is an educational approach that offers distinct
advantages for emergency management higher education. Service-learning
marries educational objectives with practice environments in such a way
that the student, the university, and the community all benefit. \"Real
world\" contexts and emphases on critical thinking, problem solving,
reflection, application and interpersonal skills enrich learning about
emergency management. Service-learning is much more than internships,
community service, and volunteering:

-   It is an approach to education that can help bridge the
    research/practitioner divide.

-   It is an appropriate extension of a university or college mission
    statement.

-   It provides newcomers to the profession with practical experience.

-   It offers students insights into the nature of the profession.

-   It creates professional networks for students soon to enter the
    profession.

-   It links the latest research and theory to emergency management
    practice.

**What is Service-Learning?**

[Definitions]{.underline}

Definitions of service-learning vary. Common threads among definitions
include the notion of community partnership/collaboration, experiential
learning, the importance of student reflection, and interdisciplinary
inquiry.

-   \"Service-learning is a credit-bearing, educational experience in
    which students participate in an organized service activity that
    meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity
    in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a
    broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of
    civic responsibility.\" (Bringle and Hatcher, 1995)

-   \"Service-learning means a method under which students learn and
    develop through thoughtfully organized service that: is coordinated
    with an institution of higher education, and with the community;
    helps foster civic responsibility; is integrated into and enhances
    the academic curriculum of the students enrolled; and includes
    structured time for students to reflect on the service experience.\"
    (American Association for Higher Education)

-   \"Service-learning is a teaching method which combines community
    service with academic instruction as it focuses on critical,
    reflective thinking and civic responsibility. Service-learning
    programs involve students in organized community service that
    addresses local needs, while developing their academic skills, sense
    of civic responsibility, and commitment to the community.\" (Campus
    Compact National Center for Community Colleges)

-   \"Service-learning is the various pedagogies that link community
    service and academic study so that each strengthens the other. The
    basic theory of service-learning is Dewey\'s: the interaction of
    knowledge and skills with experience is key to learning. Students
    learn best not by reading the Great Books in a closed room but by
    opening the doors and windows of experience. Learning starts with a
    problem and continues with the application of increasingly complex
    ideas and increasingly sophisticated skills to increasingly
    complicated problems\" (Ehrlich, 1996).

[Benefits]{.underline}

Students participating in service-learning develop:

-   A reduction of negative stereotypes and an increase in tolerance for
    diversity.

-   Greater self knowledge

-   Greater spiritual growth

-   Increased ability to work with others

-   Increased leadership skills

-   Increased feelings of being connected to a community

-   Increased connection to the college experience through closer ties
    to students and faculty

-   Increased reported learning and motivation to learn

-   Deeper understanding of subject matter

-   Deeper understanding of the complexity of social issues

-   Increased ability to apply material learned in class to real
    problems (Eyler and Giles, 1999).

Others have found that service-learning can help to increase retention
and relevancy of classroom material, and help to provide job skills for
careers after college. Service-learning can also challenge faculty to
become innovative and creative in their teaching, and contribute to a
university\'s outreach efforts (See
<http://csf.colorado.edu/sl/benefits.html> for more).

**Historical Perspectives**

[Campus Compact]{.underline}

Campus Compact ([http://www.compact.org](http://www.compact.org/)) is a
national coalition committed to the civic purposes of higher education.
Membership includes more than 800 college and university presidents.
Campus Compact promotes community service that:

-   develops students\' citizenship skills and values

-   encourages partnerships between campuses and communities

-   assists faculty who seek to integrate public and community
    engagement into their teaching and research.

Campus Compact has been providing leadership to the academic community
for more than fifteen years.

To learn more about Campus Compact, simply click on their web address
(above in blue).

> On the front page of their web site, see the left side bar and click
> on [Resources]{.underline}. You will find useful information on the
> "Service-Learning Syllabi Project" (over 200 Syllabi), Reflection
> Resources (for educators), Recommended Reading & Resources and more.

[Legislation and Presidential Initiatives]{.underline}

Presidents Bush, Clinton, and Bush enacted legislation to involve young
people and college students in their communities. Currently these
programs are housed in the Corporation for National Service and The
Points of Light Foundation. Most recently, President George W. Bush
promoted the Citizen Corps as a community-based network of volunteer
efforts, specifically targeting terrorism, crime and disasters. For
example, the Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) program helps
"train people to be better prepared to respond to emergency situations
in their communities" (<http://www.citizencorps.gov/cert.html>). CERT
originates through a team certified by FEMA's Emergency Management
Institute (EMI) to train volunteers for "disaster preparedness, disaster
fire suppression, basic disaster medical operations and light search and
rescue operations." CERT requires 18 hours of training and the ultimate
goal is to prepare 400,000 volunteers.

Americorps, started by President Clinton, provides service opportunities
for young people and senior citizens. Volunteers have assisted with
flood mitigation work, flooding response (sandbagging), shelter
management and debris removal. Students might combine their voluntary
service with academic credit for internship. As one example, an
emergency management student could request service to the American Red
Cross.

President Bush has challenged all Americans to donate 4000 hours of
volunteer service (or the equivalent of two years) over their lifetime.
A web site provides support information as well as a way to establish a
Record of Service:
<http://www.usafreedomcorps.gov/arecordofservice.html>

[Higher Education Changes]{.underline}

Service-learning is compatible with other changes in higher education.
Eugene Rice (1996) has observed that higher education has been in a
period of transition from teaching to learning, from independent
discipline-based work to interdisciplinary team-oriented work, and from
isolation to engagement. Boyer\'s (1994) vision of \"The New American
College\" redefines the work and structure of the academy by engaging
colleges and universities in addressing society\'s problems.
Service-learning complements notions of collaborative learning, the role
of professional service in the academy, student outcomes, engaging
students in active learning that enhances persistence and achievement,
institutional accountability, general education, and building
partnerships with communities (Bringle, 1997)

**Service-Learning Examples**

A diversity of approaches exists for service-learning. No one model fits
all situations: the approach used will depend on the quality of
community collaborations, the nature and degree of institutional
support, and the interests of faculty and students. Below are examples
of how service-learning can be applied to emergency management
curriculum.

[Community-based learning courses]{.underline}

Community-based learning courses connect academic content with an
assignment or project that meets a specific community need. Students
therefore participate in community activities that provide service as
well as illuminate course content. Examples include exercise design and
execution for an Emergency Preparedness class, vulnerability analysis
for a nursing home in a Special Populations class, and plan preparation
for a Disaster Recovery class.

Another strategy might be to include individual service projects as part
of the class requirements. While many students will leap at the chance
to do something innovative, traditional research paper options should
still be provided for those unable to participate. Students seem to
enjoy participating in an activity that benefits their community. For
example, in a recent course at Jacksonville State University, one
student pulled together multiple counties and agencies to fund weather
alert radios for deaf residents.

[Internships and practica]{.underline}

Students are placed in various settings in order to have opportunities
to practice professional skills learned in their curriculum and to
prepare them for professional roles. Internships and practica require
supervision and mentoring from both agency personnel and faculty.
Practice settings include government agencies, voluntary organizations,
and private sector companies.

Participants in FEMA's Higher Education Project Conferences have lauded
the benefits of internships and practica as critical for such an applied
field. Interns can participate in a variety of settings, which should be
complementary to the students' knowledge, skills and career goals. In
addition, the internship setting should be professionally appropriate,
with personnel willing to work with students that are learning the
field. Internships and practica should, ideally, be reserved for more
advanced students so that both students and agencies benefit.

[Senior capstones]{.underline}

A capstone course is designed to provide opportunities for students to
apply the expertise of their major program of study as well as to
demonstrate the broad outcomes of general education. Typically, teams of
seniors address a significant community problem, issue, or need as a
requirement for graduation. Capstones provide experiences in team
planning, decision making, and evaluation. Faculty and community
practitioners provide support and mentoring to capstones. Examples
include design and implementation of specific projects (e.g., Project
Impact, mitigation grant preparation) or limited research studies.

[Consultations]{.underline}

Faculty and students are often asked to serve as consultants for a
variety of community requests. Often consultations are requested for
services where the expertise and skills needed are not readily available
in the community. Consultations may be uncompensated service to the
community, or may be supported by grants or contracts. Including
students can benefit the student and provide labor to the faculty member
and agency. Typically, the process would be to move the student from a
dependent to an independent status, such as having the student observe
and learn, then practice, and then solo on a project.

[Alternative breaks]{.underline}

An alternative break program organizes teams of college students to
engage in community service and experiential learning during their
summer, fall, winter or spring breaks. Students participate in short-
term projects for community agencies and in the process learn about a
variety of social issues and problems. The intensity of the experience
increases the likelihood that students will transfer the lessons learned
on-site back to their own communities even after the alternative break
ends. Examples include mitigation projects in low-income neighborhoods,
Habitat for Humanity house-building experiences, or service on American
Red Cross disaster relief operations.

Alternative breaks could be focused locally or, ideally, involve trips
to other cultures. Such a trip could occur within the United States such
as when spring break students helped build Habitat for Humanity houses
in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew. Or, alternative breaks could range
as far as a foreign culture. Consider the example of students who helped
construct Nicaraguan housing after Hurricane Mitch
(http://www.guidancechannel.com). Students raised \$30,000, of which
\$10,000 went to a community that bought land to build homes, "since
that time, April 2001, the land has been bought, and fifty-four families
have signed up to move onto the student-purchased lands...each family
can receive \$200 worth of cement, lumber and zinc sheet roofing."

Cross-Cultural Solutions
([http://www.crossculturalsolutions.org](http://www.crossculturalsolutions.org/))
offers volunteer programs as well, and emphasizes the importance of
understanding service within a cultural context. Cross-Cultural
Solutions volunteers "work to empower people with the skills and
knowledge they need to become self-sufficient."

### Special Events

Because students' lives do not always neatly conform to semesters, time
spent away from family, or because family-school-jobs conflicts arise,
it is useful to offer limited-time events for service learning. Such
events can be facilitated through a student organization and/or for a
specific day. Such events might include:

-   Participation in the International Day for Disaster Reduction
    (October), World Meteorological Day (March), Fire Prevention Week
    (October), and so forth. Events might include bringing in guest
    speakers, sponsoring elementary school poster contests, hosting an
    educational booth in the student union, and a town meeting.

-   Working cooperatively with local meteorologists to promote Tornado
    Awareness or Hurricane Awareness. A number of television stations
    promote community forums, including ones that are storm-related.

**Project Design Considerations**

Planning service-learning projects requires attention to program design
and sound pedagogy. The following are suggested principles to consider:

[Design Principles]{.underline}

*Program Considerations*

An effective and sustained program:

1.  Engages people in responsible and challenging actions for the common
    good

2.  Provides structured opportunities for people to reflect critically
    on their service experience

3.  Articulates clear service and learning goals for everyone involved

4.  Allows for those with needs to define those needs

5.  Clarifies the responsibilities of each person and organization
    involved

6.  Matches service providers and service needs through a process that
    recognizes changing circumstances

7.  Expects genuine, active, and sustained organizational commitment

8.  Includes training, supervision, monitoring, support, recognition,
    and evaluation to meet service and learning goals

9.  Insures that the time commitment for service and learning is
    flexible, appropriate, and in the best interest of all involved.

10. Is committed to program participation by and with diverse
    populations. (Honnet and Poulson, 1989)

*Pedagogical Considerations*

1.  Academic credit is for learning, not for service

2.  Do not compromise academic rigor

3.  Set learning goals for students

4.  Establish criteria for the selection of community service placements

5.  Provide educationally sound mechanisms to harvest the community
    learning experience

6.  Provide support for students to learn how to harvest the community
    learning experience

7.  Minimize the distinction between the student\'s community learning
    role and the classroom learning role

8.  Re-think the faculty instruction role.

9.  Be prepared for uncertainty and variation in student learning
    outcomes

10. Maximize the community responsibility orientation of the course
    (Howard, 1993)

[Specification of learning objectives]{.underline}

Service-learning is one form of experiential education. Its pedagogy
rests on principles established by Dewey and other experiential learning
theorists in the last century (Furco, 1996). Learning takes place
through a cycle of action and reflection, not simply through the ability
to recall what has been learned through lecture and associated reading.
Experience enhances understanding and leads to more effective action
(Eyler and Giles, 1999).

Many types of learning can occur with service-learning. The most
frequently expressed goals of service-learning programs include:
personal and interpersonal development, understanding and application of
subject matter learning, critical thinking and perspective
transformation, and citizenship and values (Giles, Honnet, and Migliore,
1991). The overall goals for the course will help dictate the selection
of specific learning objectives.

The necessary link between service and learning is the practice of
*reflection.* Systematic reflection and integration of service
experiences with academic learning is the necessary ingredient to
successful service-learning courses. A number of good resources exist
for the practice of reflection. A good one to review is in the Colorado
State University Service-Learning Faculty Manual at
<http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/SLVP/sipman.htm>.

[Developing Community Partnerships]{.underline}

The success of service-learning initiatives is dependent upon the
quality of relationships established between the college or university
and the community. The community provides the specific context for
learning, and they have their own goals for participation. Community
goals and priorities must be considered in the design of
service-learning ventures. The relationship to develop is one of
reciprocity and partnership, not one of dependency or hierarchy. It is
often a significant role reversal for faculty to assume the position of
learner, with the community partner as expert and teacher. Community
partners should be invited to participate in reflections, presentations,
and other related service-learning activities.

#### Best Practices 

Models of best practices can be found through the AAHE, Campus Compact
and the National Society for Experiential Education, which surveyed 27
institutions for their guidelines. Links to these surveys can be found
at <http://www.aahe.org/service/models.htm>. Overall, the most commonly
identified characteristics of these model institutions included:

-   Provide a continuum of service learning opportunities

-   Reciprocal learning.

-   Teach sensitivity to other cultures.

-   Teach leadership skills as part of a service learning program.

-   Knowledge development with the community as the knowledge
    base/source.

-   Link to the Institutional Mission.

-   Promote and view the service as a partnership with the community.

-   Solicit high-level administrative support.

-   Solicit budgetary support. Stanford has a three-story building
    dedicated to service learning. Brown University has a \$1 million
    budget, with half from an endowment and half from fund-raising.

-   Link scholarship and research to service learning.

-   Offer stipends to faculty including travel to conferences along with
    participating in campus workshops.

-   Convene a Service Learning Advisory Committee.

-   Conduct annual faculty/student/agency surveys to determine needs and
    issues.

-   Educational needs drive service learning rather than community needs
    driving service learning.

-   Seek external funding (Kellogg Foundation for example; Faculty
    Development Funds; Campus Compact).

-   Prepare a Guidebook for all involved parties.

-   Recognize by the administration of those involved, especially those
    that administer such programs or efforts.

**Implementation**

[Recruitment and retention]{.underline}

Consider offering a fair or an in-class session to educate potential
participants about service learning. Gonzaga University's student
participant profile indicates a range of characteristics including
little or extensive volunteer experience. In addition, Gonzaga students
are described as energetic and eager to learn as well as being
interested in learning about possible careers through service learning.
Actively seeking these types of students may lead to more effective
outcomes for students and agencies.

#### Typical concerns

Are students, agencies and programs ready for a service learning
commitment? Realizing that students and agencies come to service
learning with a range of expectations, it's important to establish some
basic parameters. California State University-Fresno, for example,
outlines student rights and responsibilities
(<http://www.csufresno.edu/scs/rr.html>). Among those they list include
student rights to be adequately prepared and oriented, to have a safe
working environment that is also challenging, and to receive an
evaluation. Student responsibilities include meeting deadlines, behaving
appropriately, and meeting commitments.

A second concern is management of large-scale and/or wide-spread service
learning efforts across the university. Some institutions task a single
faculty member within a program to manage service learning (such as
internships and practica) while others appoint committees. Consider
Gonzaga University's Service Learning Committee
(<http://www.gonzaga.edu/service/gvs/service_learning/>) which has as
its mission, promoting service learning across the university, assisting
service-learning faculty, developing and maintaining courses, and
supporting students in service.

[Administrative requirements: insurance, safety, and
liability]{.underline}

In the AAHE et al. survey referenced above, most universities reported
that few if any legal issues, including liability, surfaced. Most
institutions handled liability issues similarly to other courses. Any
guidelines created should be done with the assistance of the Legal
Counsel for the college or university.

Indiana University-Purdue University offers this caveat: "IUPUI and any
office or program thereof, is not responsible for prequalifying or
training students for any service activity that may take place within or
beyond the boundaries of the University, and makes no representation as
to the abilities or qualifications of IUPUI students. Screening as to
suitability for service work and training for that work is the sole
responsibility of the organization with whom students volunteer. Since
IUPUI does not exercise any supervision or control over student
volunteers, liability for their actions at the agency is not imputable
to IUPUI, but rather is a matter between the agency and individual
students. IUPUI only provides liability insurance to protect students
from claims arising out of activities undertaken for course credit,
practicum or degree requirements, such as nursing students or social
work interns. Note that students who undertake community service
activities on their own or in connection with service learning courses
are not covered under the University policy."

Brown University accepts limited liability for their programs but report
no legal issues have surfaced.

[Strategies for success]{.underline}

A number of institutions offer orientations, fairs, and class sessions
to promote the idea of service learning, to educate students on how to
participate, and to reduce the amount of one-on-one counseling initially
required. Gonzaga University requires students to develop a Course
Learning Objectives Contract
(<http://www.gonzaga.edu/service/gvs/service/learing/start.htm>).

It is also a good idea to prepare students, perhaps with readings and/or
workshop sessions, for the types of placements they will experience.
Gonzaga University requires students to read about vulnerable
populations and emphasizes basic ethical values, strategies for building
rapport and maintain confidentiality, and the importance of respecting
others' points of views and ways of life.

For students in emergency management, the International Association of
Emergency Managers provides a set of ethical guidelines that could be
incorporated into service learning projects. These ethical values are
respect, commitment and professionalism (link to
<http://www.iaem.com/ethics.html>).

**Evaluation and Assessment**

[Performance measurement]{.underline}

If a grade is assigned (including pass/fail options), the parameters and
expectations for student performance must be specified in advance. These
might include a minimal set of hours, participation in reflection
sessions, logging service hours, maintaining a journal, writing a
reflection paper, or producing a document/project. The typical standards
of excellence that are used for classroom work will suffice here, though
it is advisable to consider both the content produced as well as the
experiential process. For example, if a student produces a quality
product but has not reflected on service as a learning experience,
should the student receive all available points?

[Outcome assessment]{.underline}

The purpose of outcome assessment is to measure effects of the program
against the program\'s stated goals. Outcome assessment in
service-learning has two purposes:

1.  Assessment of the value of services performed from the community
    perspective, and

2.  Assessment of the effectiveness of the educational experience in
    relation to student learning and development.

A variety of quantitative and qualitative constructs for measuring
program outcomes are available for use. Potential sources for outcome
data include the agency or service setting, beneficiaries of service,
faculty, students, and so forth.

Because universities and colleges must meet accreditation requirements,
it is appropriate that service-learning be treated the same as other
courses for credit. Thus, specifying student learning outcomes is
required. To initiate such learning outcomes, begin with the phrase, "as
a result of this experience, students will...." Consider tying the
student outcomes to the program and institutional mission statements,
but verify that the outcomes are measurable and attainable.

#### Program Assessment

Universities in the AAHE et al. survey indicated that annual assessment
is critical to continued success.

Agencies where students may be placed should be prepared, performance in
the setting should be monitored, and outcomes should be assessed.
Gonzaga University offers guidelines for agencies at their web site,
<http://www.gonzaga.edu/service/gvs/service_learning/most.htm>. Among
those guidelines, agencies should determine the student's level of
interest and commitment to service, review the students' learning
objectives, should orient the student to a typical day, ask for
feedback, and be realistic. In addition, the agency should orient the
student to the agency's goals and objectives, clients, history, and to
their expectations of the student.

**References**

Ehrlich, T. (1996) \"Foreword\" in Barbara Jacoby and Associates,
*Service-Learning in*

> *Higher Education: Concepts and Practices*. San Francisco, CA:
> Jossey-Bass, p. xi-xii.

Eyler, J., Dwight E. Giles, J., & Schmiede, A. (1996). *A
Practitioner\'s Guide to*

> *Reflection in Service-Learning: Student Voices and Reflection*.
> Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University.

Eyler, J., & Dwight E. Giles, J. (1999). *Where\'s the Learning in
Service-Learning?* San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Furco, A. (1996) \"Service-Learning: A Balanced Approach to Experiential
Education.\"

In B. Taylor (ed.), *Expanding Boundaries: Serving and Learning.*
Washington,

D.C.: Corporation for National Service.

Giles, D.E., Jr., Honnet, E.P., and Migliore, S (eds.). (1991).
*Research Agenda for Combining Service and Learning in the 1990s.*
Raleigh, N.C.: National Society for Experiential Education.

Jacoby, B., & Associates. (1996). *Service-Learning in Higher
Education*. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Rhoads, R. A. (1997). *Community Service and Higher Learning:
Explorations of the*

*Caring Self*. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Stanton, T. K., Dwight E. Giles, J., & Cruz, N. I. (1999).
*Service-Learning: A*

> *Movement\'s Pioneers Reflect on its Origins, Practice, and Future*.
> San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sykes, G. (1990). Learning to Teach with Cases. *Journal of Policy
Analysis and*

*Management, 9*(2), 297-302.

Waterman, A. S. (Ed.). (1997). *Service Learning: Applications from the
Research*.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

# Journals

*Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning*, OCSL Press, University
of Michigan,

1024 Hill Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-3310

<http://www.umich.edu/~mjcsl/>

*Journal of College Student Development*, Student Development Office,
Appalachian

State University, Boone, NC 28608

<http://www.jcsd.appstate.edu/>

**Links**

## American Association of Higher Education, Service Learning Project

http://www.aahe.org/service

Break Away: The Alternative Break Connection

<http://www.alternativebreaks.org/>

Campus Compact

[http://www.compact.org](http://www.compact.org/)

Campus Outreach Opportunity League -- COOL!

[http://www.COOL2SERVE.org](http://www.COOL2SERVE.org/)

Corporation for National and Community Service

[http://www.cns.gov](http://www.cns.gov/)

Institute on Philanthropy and Voluntary Service (Summer Institute)

[http://www.ipvs.org](http://www.ipvs.org/)

National Service Learning Clearinghouse

<http://www.servicelearning.org/>

National Service Learning Exchange

<http://www.nslexchange.org/>

Robin's Guide To: College and University Service-Learning Programs
Including Links to Online Course Lists and Syllabi. This link includes
368 program listings, and 31 online syllabi, as well as lists for
Graduate Service-Learning Programs.

<http://csf.colorado.edu/sl/academic.html>

Service-Learning, The Home of Service-Learning on the World Wide Web

<http://csf.colorado.edu/sl/>

Stories of service learning

[http://www.guidancechannel.com](http://www.guidancechannel.com/)

The Big Dummy\'s Guide to Service-Learning

<http://www.fiu.edu/~time4chg/Library/bigdummy.html>

## Appendix A: Examples of Service Learning Projects

Kay McKinney, a data entry mapper for Calhoun County EMA in Alabama,
created a web site addition for pets and disaster
(<http://www.kays.homestead.com/pets~ns4.html>).

Jason Milhollin, a deputy sheriff in Douglas County, Georgia, visited
local schools and delivered disaster preparedness presentations using
FEMA for Kids web site material (<http://www.fema.gov/kids>).

Emergency management graduate students at Jacksonville State University
revised the local Red Cross disaster plan. In doing so, they learned Red
Cross policies, worked with state and local Red Cross personnel,
responded to local house fires, trained in Red Cross procedures, and
interviewed local emergency management agency personnel. As part of the
revision, they practiced hazards analysis and risk assessment skills and
produced a revised document that will be used locally.