# Session No. 6

**Course Title: Disaster Response Operations and Management**

**Session Title: Actors, Roles and Responsibilities III**

## Time: 50 minutes

**Objectives:**

6.1 Understand the role of emergent groups in disasters including the
reason(s) for their appearance and the activities they participate in
during times of emergency.

6.2 Review the diverse set of actors involved in emergency management by
means of the Disaster Research Center Organizational Typology.

**Scope:**

During this session, the professor discusses emergent groups as
important actors in disaster response operations and management. The
professor then reviews all of the types of organizations involved in the
aftermath of disaster by relying on the well-known Disaster Research
Center Organizational Typology. Students are expected to learn what
emergent groups are, why they form after disaster and what activities
they participate in. Students will also be able to identify the
characteristics of established, extending, expanding and emergent
organizations.

**Session Requirements:**

1.  Instructor Reading:

> Drabek, Thomas E. and David A. McEntire. 2003. "Emergent Phenomena and
> the Sociology of Disaster: Lessons, Trends and Opportunities from the
> Research Literature." *Disaster Prevention and Management* 12 (2):
> 97-112.
>
> Drabek, Thomas E. 1987. "Emergent Structures." Pp. 259-190 in
> *Sociology of Disasters: Contribution of Sociology to Disaster
> Research*. Edited by Russell R. Dynes, Bruna De Marchi and Carlo
> Pelana. Milano, Italy: Franco Angeli.
>
> Dynes, Russell R. 1970. Organized Behavior in Disaster. Lexington,
> Massachusetts; Heath Lexington Books.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Understanding the Actors." *Disaster
> Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New
> York: Wiley.
>
> Quarantelli, E.L. 1996. "Emergent Behaviors and Groups in the Crisis
> Time of Disasters." Pp. 47-68. In *Individuality and Social Control:
> Essays in Honor of Tamotsu Shibutani*, edited by Kian M. Kwan.
> Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
>
> Stallings, Robert A. 1978. "The Structural Patterns of Four Types of
> Organizations in Disaster." Pp. 87-103 in *Sociology of Disasters:
> Contribution of Sociology to Disaster Research*. Edited by Russell R.
> Dynes, Bruna De Marchi and Carlo Pelana. Milano, Italy: Franco Angeli.
>
> Vigo, Gabriela and Dennis Wenger. 1994. "Emergtent Behavior in the
> Immediate Response to the 1985 Mexico City Earthquake and the 1994
> Northridge Earthquake in Los Angeles." Pp. 237-244 in *Proceedings of
> the NEHRP Conference and Workshop on Research on the Northridge,
> California Earthquake of January 17, 1994 -- Volume IV: Social Science
> and Emergency Management*, August 20 -- August 22, Los Angeles,
> California. Parshaw Vaziri, Comp. Richmond, Ca.: California
> Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering.
>
> Wenger, Dennis. 1989. "The Study of Emergent Volunteer and Emergent
> Organization Response in Search and Rescue: Approaches and Issues for
> Future Research." *HRRC Publication 5P*. College Station, TX: Hazard
> Reduction and Recovery Center, Texas A&M University.

2.  Student Reading:

> Drabek, Thomas E. and David A. McEntire. 2003. "Emergent Phenomena and
> the Sociology of Disaster: Lessons, Trends and Opportunities from the
> Research Literature." *Disaster Prevention and Management* 12 (2):
> 97-112.
>
> McEntire, David A. 2006. "Understanding the Actors." *Disaster
> Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience*. New
> York: Wiley.
>
> Stallings, Robert A. and E.L. Quarantelli. 1985. "Emergent Citizen
> Groups and Emergency Management." *Public Administration Review*. 45
> (Special Issue): 93-100.

3\. Handout:

DRC Organizational Typology

4\. Video:

The Halifax Shipping Disaster

**Remarks:**

1.  The professor should reiterate that there are many organizations
    that respond to disasters. This includes public agencies (at various
    levels of government), businesses and others from the non-profit
    sector. Today, the class session will focus on the role of emergent
    groups, and then summarize what has been taught about each of the
    different actors involved in disaster response operations and
    management.

2\. The professor may want to start the discussion by asking the
students several questions: Who has participated in disaster response as
a concerned citizen? What did you do after the disaster? What types of
individual and collective behavior did you witness at the scene? How did
people work together in groups? For what purpose did people organize
themselves during response operations?

3\. The professor should allow sufficient time to define emergent
groups, discuss their characteristics, and explain why they can be both
a benefit and a problem for emergency managers (e.g. they may perform
vital life-saving functions but create challenges such as convergence
and excessive volunteers).

4\. The professor should pay special attention to ensure that students
comprehend the DRC Organizational Typology. The concepts of structure
and tasks can be difficult for some students. Additional emphasis should
be given to explaining the differences between established, extending,
expanding and emergent organizations.

5\. Depending upon the level of the students' knowledge, the professor
may or may not want to discuss the drawbacks of the DRC Typology and the
need for theoretical refinement. If the class includes advanced or
upper-division students, then the professor may wish to read and cover
the authors mentioned in Objective 6.2, C2.

6\. The Drabek and McEntire article (2003) contains an sizable
bibliography for further reading on this subject.

**Objective 6.1 Understand the role of emergent groups in disasters
including the reason(s) for their appearance and the activities they
participate in during times of emergency.**

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I. **Sociologists** have frequently researched **individual and
collective behavior** in disasters (see Drabek and McEntire 2003).

> A. One of the **first studies** of organizational behavior in mass
> emergency situations was by **Samuel Prince**, a doctoral student at
> Columbia University.
>
> B. Prince (1920) examined an **explosion** that occurred when a
> **French munitioner ran into a Belgian relief ship** in the Halifax
> harbor on December 6, 1917.
>
> C. The **blast** was substantial in that one of the ships had
> **trinitrotoluene (TNT)** among its cargo.
>
> D. Hundreds of people were **killed** and many others were
> **wounded**.
>
> E. **Prince carefully described how people worked together** to care
> for the injured, gather the dead, and identify and bury remains.
>
> F. Prince is therefore regarded as the **father of modern disaster
> sociology** (See Scanlon 1988).

II\. It was not until the 1950s that **disaster sociology developed**
into a very important sub-discipline.

> A. At this time, the **United States government began to fund
> research** on disasters to understand how people behave in times of
> emergency in the hope that the **lessons might be transferable should
> a nuclear attack occur** during the Cold War.
>
> B. The **National Opinion Research Center** was established, and the
> "**convergence**" of individuals and groups at the scene of disasters
> was observed (Fritz and Marx 1954; Fritz and Mathewson 1957).
>
> C. The **assistance** provided to the victims of disasters **was
> subsequently labeled** **as**:

-   the "**therapeutic community**" (Fritz 1961)

-   the "**synthetic community**" (Thompson and Hawkes 1962)

-   the "**mass assault**" (Thompson and Hawkes 1962)

-   the "**altruistic community**" (Barton 1969)

-   "**emergence**" (Parr 1970)

-   or "**emergent behavior**" (Bardo 1978).

> D. Scholars therefore began to note how **individuals work together**
> to perform important functions after disaster strikes.

III\. Over time, scholars recognized that the **interaction of disaster
victims, friends, relatives, neighbors, strangers and other concerned
citizens** in mass emergency situations produced new or "**emergent"
groups**.

> A. These organizations **did not exist before** a disaster, but were
> **formed after the extreme event** to deal with their adverse
> consequences.
>
> B. According to Stallings and Quarantelli (1985, 84), "**emergent
> groups can be thought of as private citizens who work together in
> pursuit of collective goals relevant to actual or potential disasters
> but whose organization has not yet been institutionalized**."
>
> C. In other words, **emergent groups are organizations that are formed
> to deal with the consequences of disasters**.

IV\. Emergent groups **form for several reasons**:

> A. Disaster **demands are not** met by existing organizations (Auf der
> Heide 1989, 71).

B. **Traditional tasks and structures are insufficient or
inappropriate** (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985, 98).

> 1\. **Tasks include the responsibilities** to be performed (routine,
> non-routine)
>
> 2\. **Structure refers to the organization** (new, old)
>
> 3\. **Note**: this will be covered in more detail in objective 6.2.

C. When the **community feels it is necessary** that they participate in
the response (Wenger 1992, 9).

D. **Other factors**:

> 1\. **size** of the disaster (Tierney 1994, 13)
>
> 2\. **blame assignment** (Neal 1984)
>
> 3\. **socio-economic status** of the participants (Wenger 1992, 4)
>
> 4\. **lack of pre-disaster planning** (Scawthorn and Wenger 1990, 3)
>
> 5\. the perception of an **emergency situation**
>
> 6\. a **supportive social climate**
>
> 7\. relevant **pre-crisis social relationships**
>
> 8\. the **availability of resources**
>
> 9\. and **experience in previous disasters** (Quarantelli 1996,
> 60-63).

V. Because disasters create so many unique demands, the **activities of
emergent groups are numerous**. Examples include:

A. **Search and rescue** (Scawthorn and Wenger 1990, 4)

B. **Damage assessment** (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985, 94-95)

C. **Operations** (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985, 94-95)

D. **Coordination** (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985, 94-95)

E. **Collection of relief supplies** (Wenger 1992, 3)

F. **Shelter provision** (Wenger 1992, 3)

G. **Emotional support for victims** (Wenger 1992, 3)

VI\. It is necessary to add a few **points of clarification** about
emergent groups:

A. Emergent groups are often **made up of concerned citizens**. However,
emergent groups **may also include others from the public and private
sectors** (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985, 97).

B. Emergent groups **may appear in other disaster phases** than response
(Stallings and Quarantelli 1985). They have been observed during the
mitigation, preparedness and recovery phases of disaster.

C. Emergent groups **may appear in natural, technological and civil
disasters** (although we known less about emergence in the latter
disasters) (Scawthorn and Wenger 1990, 8; Quarantelli 1996, 64).

D. Emergent groups **may or may not have similar behavior in United
States and in other countries** (Quarantelli 1996; Marincioni 2001;
Aguirre et. al. 1995; Quarantelli 1989; Vigo and Wenger 1994; Wenger and
James 1990; Scawthorn and Wenger 1990; Porfiriev 1996; Comfort 1996).
There are **common characteristics** of emergent groups in all nations
but other **variations** as well.

E. **Culture, religion, gender, race and ethnicity may also have an
impact** upon the behavior of emergent groups in times of disaster
(Bolin and Borton 1986; Quarantelli 1996; Marincioni 2001; O'Brien and
Mileti 1992; Neal and Phillips 1990; Wenger 1992; Wenger and James 1990;
Scawthorn and Wenger 1990; Quarantelli 1989; Dobson 1993; Dull 1994;
Dann and Wilson 1993; Cook 1993; Dull 1994; Dobson 1993; Fothergill
1996; Williams 1993; Russell and Mentzel 1990; Phillips 1990; Wilson and
Oyola-Yemaiel 1998; Fothergill et al. 1999; Katayama 1992; Phillips
1993; Beady and Bolin 1986; Cooper and Laughy 1994; Dhesi 1991).

> 1\. **Certain people or religions** may promote more
> **self-sufficiency** and community responsibility than others.
>
> 2\. **Men and women participate** in emergent groups, but **may or may
> not follow traditional gender roles** and activities.
>
> 3\. People of **different races and ethnic origins** **may also impact
> the nature** and particular features of emergent groups.

VII\. Emergent groups **provide advantages and disadvantages** for
emergency responders and managers.

A. Emergent groups **may provide important life saving activities**
until emergency personnel arrive on the scene.

B. Emergent groups **perform activities that the government cannot
perform** (e.g. caring for an excessive number of victims).

C. Emergent groups **may not be trained** to perform important emergency
functions (e.g. search and rescue).

D. Emergent groups **may get in the way** of responders (e.g. due to
excessive convergence) or require the time of emergency managers (e.g.
excessive donations provided by the emergent groups).

E. **Emergency responders and managers should therefore work to harness
the positive contributions of emergent groups while discouraging or
minimizing their negative impacts**.

**Objective 6.2 Review the diverse set of actors involved in emergency
management by means of the Disaster Research Center Organizational
Typology.**

**Requirements:**

Present the following information as a lecture.

I. As the study of organizational responses to disaster progressed, the
**Disaster Research Center was established** at Ohio State University in
1963 (now located at the University of Delaware).

> A. Its co-founders, **Drs. Russell R. Dynes, J. Eugene Haas and E.L.
> Quarantelli gathered hundreds of factual reports** about group
> involvement in disasters.
>
> B. Their work (Quarantelli 1966; Dynes 1970) led to the development of
> the **DRC typology**, which **identifies different types of
> organizations in terms of tasks performed and structural
> arrangements**.
>
> C. This model created by DRC researchers is responsible in part for
> what Britton notes as the **"boom" years** of sociological research
> (1998, 366).
>
> D. Several scholars have relied on this research to **categorize
> organizational involvement in disasters and generate additional
> hypotheses** about group behavior in disasters (see, for instance,
> Stallings 1978; Forrest 1978; Smith 1978).
>
> E. It has been **a very important feature of the Sociological
> literature** on disasters.

II\. The **DRC model cross tabulates two dimensions** in order to
produce a fourfold typology of organizational involvement in disasters
(Drabek 1986, 160). (Show overhead transparency).

> A. The **two dimensions** of the model are **tasks** and
> **structures**.
>
> 1\. **Tasks refer to the activities of the organizations** involved in
> a disaster. This may include **functions** that are **routine or
> non-routine** to the organization.
>
> 2\. **Structures**, in contrast, **refer to the organizations'
> longevity**. This may include the **continuation of a structure that
> existed prior to the disaster (old) or the creation of a unique
> structure (new)** to deal with the event.
>
> 3\. Organizations that participate in disasters are **categorized in
> terms of their tasks and structures**.
>
> 4\. Organizations that perform **routine tasks** with **existing
> structures** are known as ***established organizations***.
>
> 5\. Organizations that perform **routine tasks** with **new
> structures** are known as ***expanding organizations***.
>
> 6\. Organizations that perform **non-routine tasks** with **existing
> structures** are known as ***extending organizations***.
>
> 7\. Organizations that perform **non-routine tasks** with **new
> structures** are known as ***emergent organizations***.

B. **Examples** of organizations involved in disasters bring the
typology to life.

> 1\. A ***fire department*** is an example of an established
> organization.

-   A fire department performs routine tasks (e.g. **it always fights
    fires**) and it is an organization that existed before the disaster
    (e.g. **it was created in advance due to the anticipation of
    fires**).

> 2\. The ***Red Cross*** is an example of an expanding organization.

-   The Red Cross performs routine tasks in the disaster (e.g. **it**
    **typically provides food, clothing and shelter** to the victims of
    many different types of disasters). However, the organizational
    structure of the Red Cross is often new in each disaster (as **Red
    Cross employees and volunteers arrive at the scene of disaster from
    all around the country, leading to the creation of new relations or
    a new organizational structure**).

> 3\. ***Churches*** are examples of extending organizations.

-   Because churches have the purpose of teaching religion in
    sanctuaries on certain days of the week, any **involvement in
    disaster response activities is seen as abnormal** (e.g.
    non-routine). At the same time, **the relationships of the pastor,
    leaders and parishioners are carried over** from the pre-disaster
    organization (e.g. it is an old structure).

> 4\. A ***victim advocate group*** is an example of an emergent
> organization.

-   The victim advocate group not only **performs tasks that are
    non-routine**, but **the group creates or results in the appearance
    of new relations** (e.g. a new structure) to meet or fulfill those
    functions deemed as important in the wake of disaster.

-   In other words, if citizens affected by a disaster notice that the
    fire department has not come to extinguish a blaze after an
    earthquake, **they may join together (e.g. create a new structure)
    to fight the fire (e.g. perform a task that they are not normally
    involved in)**.

III\. There are a **few important points** that must be recognized about
the **DRC Typology**.

> A. **Any disaster may include some or all of these types of
> organizations**.
>
> 1\. In fact, every disaster is likely to have its own **unique blend
> of established, expanding, extending and emergent organizations**.
>
> 2\. This is perhaps one of the reasons **why coordination is often
> difficult** to achieve in disaster response operations.
>
> B. Like any model, the DRC typology is an **over-simplification** of
> reality.
>
> 1\. Some **organizations do not fall neatly into one of the
> categories** only.

-   **Could an established organization perform new tasks in a
    disaster**?

-   **Could an emergent organization be based on some prior relations
    among some of its members**?

-   **How do we describe a post-disaster planning meeting that includes
    fire departments, the Red Cross, churches, victims groups and other
    organizations**?

> 2\. Scholars have therefore noted the **need to refine or add** to the
> DRC typology. **Examples** include:

#### **Type V or Supraorganization (which combines all four organizations in the response)**

-   **quasi-emergence (which involves minor changes to an organization's
    structure or function)**

-   **structural emergence (which occurs when organizations maintain
    prior functions and but develop a new structure)**

-   **task emergence (which takes place when a group accepts a new task
    but the structure has not been affected)**

-   **group emergence (which is formed with new structures and functions
    but is ephemeral)**

-   **emergence based on latent knowledge (which are emergent groups
    that have received prior training on response operations)**

-   **and interstitial groups** (which involves groups such as an unmet
    needs committee that form to facilitate coordination among others)
    (see Drabek 1987, 269; Wenger 1992, 9; Quarantelli 1996, 57; Vigo
    and Wenger 1994; Peacock 1991).

> C. The **DRC Typology** may help emergency managers **visualize what
> takes place** during disaster response operations.
>
> 1\. **Practitioners must be aware of all of the different types of
> organizations involved in disasters** in order to plan and respond
> effectively.

**Questions to be asked:**

1\. Who has participated in disaster response as a concerned citizen?

2\. What did you do after the disaster?

3\. What types of individual and collective behavior did you witness at
the scene?

4\. How did people work together in groups?

5\. For what purpose did people organize themselves during response
operations?

6\. What is the DRC Organizational Typology?

7\. What do the terms "structure" and "tasks" imply in the DRC
Organizational Typology?

8\. What are the differences between established, extending, expanding
and emergent organizations?

9\. Can you provide an example of an established, extending, expanding
and emergent organization?

10\. Why is the DRC Typology important for emergency responders and
managers?

### 

### The DRC Organizational Typology

Structures

Old New

Regular *Established Expanding*

Tasks

Non-regular *Extending Emergent*