# ![](media/image1.png){width="2.7090277777777776in" height="0.8in"}

#  {#section-1 .Title1}

# Electrical {#electrical .Title1}

# Systems {#systems .Title1}

#  {#section-2 .Title1}

#  {#section-3 .Title1}

# Qualification Standard Reference Guide {#qualification-standard-reference-guide .Title1}

[October 2006]{.smallcaps}

[PURPOSE 1](#purpose)

[SCOPE 1](#scope)

[TECHNICAL COMPETENCIES 2](#technical-competencies)

[I. KNOWLEDGE OF ELECTRICAL THEORY & EQUIPMENT
2](#i.-knowledge-of-electrical-theory-equipment)

[1. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical and circuit
theory, terminology, theorems, laws, and analysis.
2](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-electrical-and-circuit-theory-terminology-theorems-laws-and-analysis.)

[2. Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate a working-level
knowledge of basic AC theory.
13](#electrical-systems-personnel-shall-demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-basic-ac-theory.)

[3. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the construction and
operation of AC generators, and motors, including operating
characteristics, method of torque production, and the advantages of
specific motor types).
14](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-the-construction-and-operation-of-ac-generators-and-motors-including-operating-characteristics-method-of-torque-production-and-the-advantages-of-specific-motor-types.)

[4. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of AC reactive components,
including inductive and capacitive reactance and phase relationships in
reactive circuits.
27](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-ac-reactive-components-including-inductive-and-capacitive-reactance-and-phase-relationships-in-reactive-circuits.)

[5. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical transmission and
distribution systems.
30](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-electrical-transmission-and-distribution-systems.)

[6. Demonstrate a working level knowledge of transformers.
44](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-transformers.)

[7. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS).
48](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-uninterruptible-power-supplies-ups.)

[8. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of variable frequency (speed)
drives (VFD).
50](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-variable-frequency-speed-drives-vfd.)

[9. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical test instruments
and measuring devices.
52](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-electrical-test-instruments-and-measuring-devices.)

[10. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of the principles and
concepts of natural phenomena hazards (such as static electricity,
reference NFPA 77) and their effect on electrical systems.
56](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-the-principles-and-concepts-of-natural-phenomena-hazards-such-as-static-electricity-reference-nfpa-77-and-their-effect-on-electrical-systems.)

[11. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of direct current (DC)
generators and motors.
59](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-direct-current-dc-generators-and-motors.)

[12. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of battery construction,
voltage production, and hazards. IEEE Std 450. Maintenance, Testing and
Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
70](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-battery-construction-voltage-production-and-hazards.-ieee-std-450.-maintenance-testing-and-replacement-of-vented-lead-acid-batteries-for-stationary-applications.)

[II. ELECTRICAL ISSUE IDENTIFICATION & REPORTING
76](#ii.-electrical-issue-identification-reporting)

[1. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of surveillance and assessment
techniques; reporting; and follow up actions for electrical systems and
programmatic elements of an Electrical Safety Program to include:
76](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-surveillance-and-assessment-techniques-reporting-and-follow-up-actions-for-electrical-systems-and-programmatic-elements-of-an-electrical-safety-program-to-include)

[2. Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate the ability to
communicate (both oral and written) when working or interacting with the
contractor, stakeholders, and other internal and external organizations.
81](#electrical-systems-personnel-shall-demonstrate-the-ability-to-communicate-both-oral-and-written-when-working-or-interacting-with-the-contractor-stakeholders-and-other-internal-and-external-organizations.)

[3. Become familiar with the ES&H reporting requirements as noted in DOE
O 231.1A, Environment, Safety, and Health Reporting.
81](#become-familiar-with-the-esh-reporting-requirements-as-noted-in-doe-o-231.1a-environment-safety-and-health-reporting.)

[4. Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate a working-level
knowledge of problem analysis principles and the ability to apply
techniques necessary to identify problems, determine potential causes of
problems, and identify corrective action(s).
84](#electrical-systems-personnel-shall-demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-problem-analysis-principles-and-the-ability-to-apply-techniques-necessary-to-identify-problems-determine-potential-causes-of-problems-and-identify-corrective-actions.)

[III. SAFETY & HEALTH RELATED TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS and COMPONENTS
87](#iii.-safety-health-related-to-electrical-systems-and-components)

[1. Obtain a clear understanding how electrical hazards are addressed
via the Integrated Safety Management System process. Emphasis placed on
knowing all applicable site contractor(s) job planning (job hazard
analysis, identification and integration of hazard controls within work
package), and application of -hazard controls, during the work control
process.
87](#obtain-a-clear-understanding-how-electrical-hazards-are-addressed-via-the-integrated-safety-management-system-process.-emphasis-placed-on-knowing-all-applicable-site-contractors-job-planning-job-hazard-analysis-identification-and-integration-of-hazard-controls-within-work-package-and-application-of--hazard-controls-during-the-work-control-process.)

[2. Obtain a working-level knowledge of Electrical Safety-Related Work
Practices (NFPA 70E, Article 110) to include the following:
87](#obtain-a-working-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-related-work-practices-nfpa-70e-article-110-to-include-the-following)

[3. Observe electrical work performed by each site contractor to learn
how work is performed within planned controls. Obtain a working
knowledge of site contractor(s) procedure/work control program, and
specific work control requirements for each job observed. The level of
rigor of these jobs should allow the candidate to review the functional
areas, requirements, and workscope for compliance with NFPA 70E, to
include the following:
89](#observe-electrical-work-performed-by-each-site-contractor-to-learn-how-work-is-performed-within-planned-controls.-obtain-a-working-knowledge-of-site-contractors-procedurework-control-program-and-specific-work-control-requirements-for-each-job-observed.-the-level-of-rigor-of-these-jobs-should-allow-the-candidate-to-review-the-functional-areas-requirements-and-workscope-for-compliance-with-nfpa-70e-to-include-the-following)

[4. From the jobs observed in Competency 3 above, assess how well
contractor management systems (lessons learned and other feedback
processes) are integrated with the work planning and ISM process.
Develop a working knowledge of how lessons learned are addressed by each
contractor's Integrated Safety Management System feedback process.
(Reference DOE P 450.4 Safety Management System Policy.)
93](#from-the-jobs-observed-in-competency-3-above-assess-how-well-contractor-management-systems-lessons-learned-and-other-feedback-processes-are-integrated-with-the-work-planning-and-ism-process.-develop-a-working-knowledge-of-how-lessons-learned-are-addressed-by-each-contractors-integrated-safety-management-system-feedback-process.-reference-doe-p-450.4-safety-management-system-policy.)

[5. Obtain a working-level knowledge of NFPA 70E, Article 420
requirements, to include:
93](#obtain-a-working-level-knowledge-of-nfpa-70e-article-420-requirements-to-include)

[6. Obtain a working-level knowledge of the DOE Electrical Safety
Handbook for safety requirements associated with site R&D operations
involving large capacity stored energy, inductor, capacitor and pulsed
energy systems to include requirements relating to:
101](#obtain-a-working-level-knowledge-of-the-doe-electrical-safety-handbook-for-safety-requirements-associated-with-site-rd-operations-involving-large-capacity-stored-energy-inductor-capacitor-and-pulsed-energy-systems-to-include-requirements-relating-to)

[7. Obtain a working-level knowledge of requirements related to safe
work practices for laser operations (NFPA 70E, Chapter 3) to include:
104](#obtain-a-working-level-knowledge-of-requirements-related-to-safe-work-practices-for-laser-operations-nfpa-70e-chapter-3-to-include)

[IV. ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT FOR NUCLEAR AND NON-NUCLAR
FACILITIES
108](#iv.-electrical-maintenance-management-for-nuclear-and-non-nuclar-facilities)

[1. Become familiar with DOE maintenance management requirements as
defined in DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program, and DOE G
433.1-1.
108](#become-familiar-with-doe-maintenance-management-requirements-as-defined-in-doe-o-433.1-maintenance-management-program-and-doe-g-433.1-1.)

[2. Become familiar with NFPA 70B safety requirements for electrical
equipment maintenance, to include:
111](#become-familiar-with-nfpa-70b-safety-requirements-for-electrical-equipment-maintenance-to-include)

[3. Become familiar with the NFPA 70E, Chapter 2, safety-related
maintenance requirements relating to:
118](#become-familiar-with-the-nfpa-70e-chapter-2-safety-related-maintenance-requirements-relating-to)

[V. ELECTRICAL DESIGN & INSTALLATION (SAFETY AND SYSTEMS)
124](#v.-electrical-design-installation-safety-and-systems)

[1. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the current national
electrical code, and become familiar with the requirements for wiring
design and protection (NFPA 70, NFPA 70E, chapter 4) to include:
125](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-the-current-national-electrical-code-and-become-familiar-with-the-requirements-for-wiring-design-and-protection-nfpa-70-nfpa-70e-chapter-4-to-include)

[2. Become familiar with the requirements for the Installation of
Lightning Protection Systems (NFPA 780, UL 96 Lightning Protection
Components, and UL 96A Installation requirements for Lightning
Protection Systems).
129](#become-familiar-with-the-requirements-for-the-installation-of-lightning-protection-systems-nfpa-780-ul-96-lightning-protection-components-and-ul-96a-installation-requirements-for-lightning-protection-systems.)

[3. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical diagrams,
including:
129](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-electrical-diagrams-including)

[4. Become knowledgeable of the Configuration Management process as
applied to electrical documentation, e.g., documenting, controlling,
revising, and issuance of electrical drawings. Also observed how
drawings are updated and issued "as built." (DOE STD 1073, Configuration
Management, and DOE O 414.1C Quality)
130](#become-knowledgeable-of-the-configuration-management-process-as-applied-to-electrical-documentation-e.g.-documenting-controlling-revising-and-issuance-of-electrical-drawings.-also-observed-how-drawings-are-updated-and-issued-as-built.-doe-std-1073-configuration-management-and-doe-o-414.1c-quality)

[5. Become familiar with battery installations, maintenance, testing,
and replacement as described in NFPA 70E, Chapter 3, IEEE Std-450, and
IEEE-C2 National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) to include:
134](#become-familiar-with-battery-installations-maintenance-testing-and-replacement-as-described-in-nfpa-70e-chapter-3-ieee-std-450-and-ieee-c2-national-electrical-safety-code-nesc-to-include)

[6. Become familiar with ventilation and battery room requirements as
cited in NFPA 70E, Chapter 3, IEEE Std-450 and IEEE C2-National
Electrical Safety Code (NESC) to include:
135](#become-familiar-with-ventilation-and-battery-room-requirements-as-cited-in-nfpa-70e-chapter-3-ieee-std-450-and-ieee-c2-national-electrical-safety-code-nesc-to-include)

[VI. ELECTRICAL VITAL SAFETY SYSTEMS (VSS)
137](#vi.-electrical-vital-safety-systems-vss)

[1. Mandatory Performance Activity: Demonstrate a familiarity-level of
knowledge of 10 CFR 830 (Nuclear Safety Management), and DOE O 414.1C
that relate to electrical safety programs, processes, and systems, to
include:
137](#mandatory-performance-activity-demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-of-knowledge-of-10-cfr-830-nuclear-safety-management-and-doe-o-414.1c-that-relate-to-electrical-safety-programs-processes-and-systems-to-include)

[2. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of all assigned electrical
power vital safety systems, and how they are addressed during the
design, construction and operation of nuclear facilities
144](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-all-assigned-electrical-power-vital-safety-systems-and-how-they-are-addressed-during-the-design-construction-and-operation-of-nuclear-facilities)

[3. Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the possible functional
interfaces/relationships between all electrical VSS and instrument and
control safety software analysis safety software, and design safety
software.
146](#demonstrate-a-working-level-knowledge-of-the-possible-functional-interfacesrelationships-between-all-electrical-vss-and-instrument-and-control-safety-software-analysis-safety-software-and-design-safety-software.)

[4. Document participation with the site contractor system engineer (SE)
in a quarterly walkthrough, bi-annual status walkthrough or an
assessment for all assigned Electrical VSSs.
149](#document-participation-with-the-site-contractor-system-engineer-se-in-a-quarterly-walkthrough-bi-annual-status-walkthrough-or-an-assessment-for-all-assigned-electrical-vsss.)

[5. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of functional
classifications for safety systems and the design expectations
associated with electrical systems that carry these functional
classifications, as described in DOE O 420.1B, Facility Safety, and its
associated guide DOE G 420.1-1.
149](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-functional-classifications-for-safety-systems-and-the-design-expectations-associated-with-electrical-systems-that-carry-these-functional-classifications-as-described-in-doe-o-420.1b-facility-safety-and-its-associated-guide-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[6. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
systems criteria for VSS (IEEE Stds: 308-2001, 323-2003, 379-2000,
384-1992, and 603-1998; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1.)
153](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-systems-criteria-for-vss-ieee-stds-308-2001-323-2003-379-2000-384-1992-and-603-1998-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[7. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for Emergency, Standby, and UPS systems for VSS
(IEEE Stds 387-1984, 650-1990, and 944-1986; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G
420.1-1).
160](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-emergency-standby-and-ups-systems-for-vss-ieee-stds-387-1984-650-1990-and-944-1986-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[8. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for VSS Accident Monitoring Instrumentation (IEEE
Std 497-2002; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).
167](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-vss-accident-monitoring-instrumentation-ieee-std-497-2002-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[9. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for VSS Motor Control Centers (MCC) (IEEE Std
649-1991; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).
170](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-vss-motor-control-centers-mcc-ieee-std-649-1991-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[10. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for Digital Computers supporting VSS (IEEE Std
7-4.3.2-2003, Annex E; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).
171](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-digital-computers-supporting-vss-ieee-std-7-4.3.2-2003-annex-e-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[11. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for VSS Protection Systems (IEEE Std 741-1997, and
833-1988; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).
171](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-vss-protection-systems-ieee-std-741-1997-and-833-1988-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[12. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for Instrumentation and Control (I&C) Equipment
Grounding of VSS (IEEE Std 1050-1996; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G
420.1-1).
172](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-instrumentation-and-control-ic-equipment-grounding-of-vss-ieee-std-1050-1996-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[13. Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety
design requirements for VSS Motor Operated Valves (IEEE Std 1290-1996;
and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).
175](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-electrical-safety-design-requirements-for-vss-motor-operated-valves-ieee-std-1290-1996-and-doe-o-420.1b-and-doe-g-420.1-1.)

[Additional Reading Requirements 175](#additional-reading-requirements)

[1. Obtain a clear understanding of electrical safety requirements and
practices in the following list of regulatory and consensus standards
documents, including the relationship between these documents and which
are "enforceable" in your site's contractors contract. OSHA (29 CFR 1910
and Subpart S, and 29 CFR 1926 Subparts K and V), NFPA 70E, Standard for
Electrical Safety in the Workplace/Maintenance, NFPA-70B, Recommended
Practice of Electrical Equipment Maintenance, DOE-HDBK-1092, DOE
Electrical Safety Handbook; and 10 CFR 851, Worker Safety and Health
Program.
175](#obtain-a-clear-understanding-of-electrical-safety-requirements-and-practices-in-the-following-list-of-regulatory-and-consensus-standards-documents-including-the-relationship-between-these-documents-and-which-are-enforceable-in-your-sites-contractors-contract.-osha-29-cfr-1910-and-subpart-s-and-29-cfr-1926-subparts-k-and-v-nfpa-70e-standard-for-electrical-safety-in-the-workplacemaintenance-nfpa-70b-recommended-practice-of-electrical-equipment-maintenance-doe-hdbk-1092-doe-electrical-safety-handbook-and-10-cfr-851-worker-safety-and-health-program.)

[2. Demonstrate a familiarity level knowledge of DOE O 414.1C, Quality
Assurance, as it pertains to electrical systems.
178](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-knowledge-of-doe-o-414.1c-quality-assurance-as-it-pertains-to-electrical-systems.)

[3. Demonstrate a familiarity-level of knowledge of DOE O 430.1B, Real
Property Asset Management, with regard to life cycle asset management.
184](#demonstrate-a-familiarity-level-of-knowledge-of-doe-o-430.1b-real-property-asset-management-with-regard-to-life-cycle-asset-management.)

[Selected Bibliography and Suggested Reading
190](#selected-bibliography-and-suggested-reading)

# PURPOSE

The purpose of this reference guide is to provide a document that
contains the information required for a National Nuclear Security
Administration (NNSA) technical employee to successfully complete the
Electrical Systems Functional Area Qualification Standard. In some
cases, information essential to meeting the qualification requirements
is provided. Some competency statements require extensive knowledge or
skill development. Reproducing all the required information for those
statements in this document is not practical. In those instances,
references are included to guide the candidate to additional resources.

# SCOPE

This reference guide has been developed to address the competency
statements in the July 2006 edition of DOE-STD-1170-2006, Electrical
Systems Functional Area Qualification Standard. Competency statements
and supporting knowledge and/or skill statements from the qualification
standard are shown in contrasting bold type, while the corresponding
information associated with each statement is provided below it. The
qualification standard contains 39 competency statements. Some of the
competency statements contain performance-based requirements. These
statements will not be covered in this reference guide.

Every effort has been made to provide the most current information and
references available as of November 2006. However, the candidate is
advised to verify the applicability of the information provided.

Please direct your questions or comments related to this document to
Mark Alsdorf, at 845-6448.

# TECHNICAL COMPETENCIES

## I. KNOWLEDGE OF ELECTRICAL THEORY & EQUIPMENT {#i.-knowledge-of-electrical-theory-equipment .Style2}

**(Each competency statement is a Mandatory Performance Activity (MPA),
provided that they are applicable to the candidate's assigned electrical
duties. For competency statements, reference DOE Electrical Science
Fundamentals Handbook 1011 (2-92) as reference source.)**

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical and circuit theory, terminology, theorems, laws, and analysis.

a)  Explain the basic law of electrostatics.

One of the mysteries of the atom is that the electron and the nucleus
attract each other. This attraction is called electrostatic force, the
force that holds the electron in orbit.

Without electrostatic force, the electron, which is traveling at high
speed, could not stay in its orbit. Bodies that attract each other in
this way are called charged bodies. The electron has a negative charge
and the nucleus (due to the proton) has a positive charge.

*The First Law of Electrostatics*

The negative charge of the electron is equal, but opposite to, the
positive charge of the proton. These charges are referred to as
electrostatic charges. In nature, unlike charges (such as electrons and
protons) attract each other, and like charges repel each other. These
facts are known as the first law of electrostatics and are sometimes
referred to as the law of electrical charges. This law should be
remembered because it is one of the vital concepts in electricity.

Some atoms can lose electrons and others can gain electrons; thus, it is
possible to transfer electrons from one object to another. When this
occurs, the equal distribution of negative and positive charges no
longer exists. One object will contain an excess of electrons and become
negatively charged, and the other will become deficient in electrons and
become positively charged. The electrons that can move around within an
object are said to be free electrons. The greater the number of these
free electrons an object contains, the greater its negative electric
charge. Thus, the electric charge can be used as a measure of electrons.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1.

b)  Define the following terms and their relationship in energized
    circuits:

-   Resistance

-   Capacitance

-   Inductance

-   Reactance

### Resistance

Resistance is defined as the opposition to current flow. The amount of
opposition to current flow produced by a material depends on the amount
of available free electrons it contains and the types of obstacles the
electrons encounter as they attempt to move through the material.
Resistance is measured in ohms and is represented by the symbol (R) in
equations. One ohm is defined as that amount of resistance that will
limit the current in a conductor to one ampere when the potential
difference (voltage) applied to the conductor is one volt. The shorthand
notation for ohm is the Greek letter capital omega (Ω). If a voltage is
applied to a conductor, current flows. The amount of current flow
depends upon the resistance of the conductor. The lower the resistance,
the higher the current flow for a given amount of voltage. The higher
the resistance, the lower the current flow.

### Capacitance

Capacitance is defined as the ability to store an electric charge and is
symbolized by the capital letter (C). Capacitance (C), measured in
farads, is equal to the amount of charge (Q) that can be stored in a
device or capacitor divided by the voltage (E) applied across the device
or capacitor plates when the charge was stored.

### Inductance

Inductance is defined as the ability of a coil to store energy, induce a
voltage in itself, and oppose changes in current flowing through it. The
symbol used to indicate inductance in electrical formulas and equations
is a capital (L). The units of measurement are called henries. The unit
henry is abbreviated by using the capital letter (H). One henry is the
amount of inductance (L) that permits one volt to be induced (V~L~) when
the current through the coil changes at a rate of one ampere per second.

### Reactance

In an inductive alternating circuit, the current is continually changing
and is continuously inducing an electromotive force (EMF). Because this
EMF opposes the continuous change in the flowing current, its effect is
measured in ohms. This opposition of the inductance to the flow of an
alternating current (AC) is called inductive reactance (X~L~).

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1.

c)  Explain the following fundamental laws of circuit analysis:

-   Ohm's law

-   Kirchoff's laws

### 

### Ohm's Law

In 1827, George Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical
circuit. Ohm's law defines this relationship and can be stated in three
ways.

Applied voltage equals circuit current times the circuit resistance.
This is represented by the equation:

E = I x R or E = IR

Current is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit
resistance. This is represented by the equation:

I = $\frac{E}{R}$

Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied voltage divided by the
circuit current.

R or Ω= $\frac{E}{I}$

where

> I = current (A)
>
> E = voltage (V)
>
> R = resistance (Ω)

If any two of the component values are known, the third can be
calculated.

### Kirchoff's Laws

Ohm's law describes the relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance. It can be applied to circuits that are relatively simple in
nature. However, many circuits are extremely complex and cannot be
solved with Ohm's Law. These circuits have many power sources and
branches that would make the use of Ohm's Law impractical or impossible.

Through experimentation in 1857, the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff
developed methods to solve complex circuits. Kirchhoff developed two
conclusions, known today as Kirchhoff's Laws.

Law 1: The sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to the
sum of the voltage sources of that loop (Kirchhoff's Voltage Law).

Law 2: The current arriving at any junction point in a circuit is equal
to the current leaving that junction (Kirchhoff's Current Law).

Kirchoff's laws are powerful tools in solving complex and difficult
circuits. Kirchhoff's laws can be related to conservation of energy and
charge if we look at a circuit with one load and source. Since all of
the power provided from the source is consumed by the load, energy and
charge are conserved. Since voltage and current can be related to energy
and charge, then Kirchhoff's laws are only restating the laws governing
energy and charge conservation.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1.

d)  Explain the use of the following theorems in network analysis and
    describe their application in circuit reduction techniques:

-   Thevenin\'s theorem

-   Norton\'s theorem

-   Maximum power transfer theorem

-   Superposition theorem

### Thevenin's Theorem

Thevenin's theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear
circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a
single voltage source and series resistance connected to a load. For a
circuit to qualify as linear, all the underlying equations must be
linear (no exponents or roots). If we are dealing with passive
components such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors, this is true.
However, there are some components that are nonlinear: that is, their
opposition to current changes with voltage and/or current. We would call
circuits containing these types of components nonlinear circuits.

Thevenin's theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and
other circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit, called the
load resistor, is subject to change, and re-calculation of the circuit
is necessary with each trial value of load resistance to determine
voltage across the resistor and current through it.

### Norton's Theorem

Norton's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear
circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a
single current source and parallel resistance connected to a load. Just
as with Thevenin's theorem, for a circuit to qualify as linear, all
underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots).

### Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem is an aid to system design. A load
resistance will dissipate the maximum amount of power when that load
resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network
supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the
Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network, its dissipated power
will be less than maximum.

This is essentially what is aimed for in stereo system design, where
speaker impedance is matched to amplifier impedance for maximum sound
power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and direct current
(DC), is very similar to resistance, and must be equal between source
and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to the load.
A load impedance that is too high will result in low-power output. A
load impedance that is too low will not only result in low-power output,
but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the power dissipated in
its internal impedance.

### Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem takes a complex subject and simplifies it. The
strategy used in the superposition theorem is to eliminate all but one
source of power within a network at a time, using series/parallel
analysis to determine voltage drops (and/or currents) within the
modified network for each power source separately. Then, once voltage
drops and/or currents have been determined for each power source working
separately, the values are all superimposed on top of each other (added
algebraically) to find the actual voltage drops/currents with all
sources active.

Additional information regarding these theorems is available at
<http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_10/8.html>.

e)  Discuss the fundamental relationships in DC circuits among voltage,
    current, resistance, and power.

### Voltage

Voltage, EMF, or potential difference, is described as the pressure or
force that causes electrons to move in a conductor. In electrical
formulas and equations, you will see voltage symbolized by a capital
(E), while on laboratory equipment or schematic diagrams, the voltage is
often symbolized by a capital (V).

### Current

Electron current, or amperage, is described as the movement of free
electrons through a conductor. In electrical formulas, current is
symbolized by a capital (I), while in the laboratory or on schematic
diagrams, it is common to use a capital (A) to indicate amps or
amperage.

### Resistance

Resistance is defined as the opposition to current flow. The amount of
opposition to current flow produced by a material depends on the amount
of available free electrons it contains and the types of obstacles the
electrons encounter as they attempt to move through the material.
Resistance is measured in ohms and is symbolized by a capital (R) in
equations. One ohm is defined as that amount of resistance that will
limit the current in a conductor to one ampere when the potential
difference (voltage) applied to the conductor is one volt. The shorthand
notation for ohm is the Greek letter capital omega (Ω). If a voltage is
applied to a conductor, current flows. The amount of current flow
depends upon the resistance of the conductor. The lower the resistance,
the higher the current flow for a given amount of voltage. The higher
the resistance, the lower the current flow.

### Power

Electricity is generally used to do some sort of work, such as turning a
motor or generating heat. Specifically, power is the rate at which work
is done, or the rate at which heat is generated. The unit commonly used
to specify electric power is the watt. In equations, you will find power
symbolized by the capital letter (P), and watts, the units of measure
for power, are symbolized by the capital letter (W). Power is also
described as the current (I) in a circuit times the voltage (E) across
the circuit.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1.

f)  Explain the treatment of inductance and capacitance values in
    steady-state DC circuits.

When an inductor has a DC current flowing through it, the inductor will
store energy in the form of a magnetic field. An inductor will oppose a
change in current flow by the counter electromotive force (CEMF) induced
when the field collapses or expands. Inductors in series are combined
like resistors in series. Inductors in parallel are combined like
resistors in parallel. The time constant for an inductor is defined as
the required time for the current either to increase to 63.2 percent of
its maximum value or to decrease by 63.2 percent of its maximum value.

A capacitor is constructed of two conductors (plates) separated by a
dielectric. A capacitor will store energy in the form of an electric
field caused by the attraction of the positively-charged particles in
one plate to the negatively charged particles in the other plate. The
attraction of charges in the opposite plates of a capacitor opposes a
change in voltage across the capacitor. Capacitors in series are
combined like resistors in parallel. Capacitors in parallel are combined
like resistors in series. The capacitive time constant is the time
required for the capacitor to charge (or discharge) to 63.2 percent of
its fully charged voltage.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 2.

g)  Discuss the fundamental relationships in AC circuits among voltage,
    current, resistance, reactance, impedance, power, and power factor.

In an inductive AC circuit, the current is continually changing and is
continuously inducing an EMF. Because this EMF opposes the continuous
change in the flowing current, its effect is measured in ohms. This
opposition of the inductance to the flow of an alternating current is
called inductive reactance (X~L~).

The magnitude of an induced EMF in a circuit depends on how fast the
flux that links the circuit is changing. In the case of self-induced EMF
such as in a coil, a CEMF is induced in the coil due to a change in
current and flux in the coil. This CEMF opposes any change in current,
and its value at any time will depend on the rate at which the current
and flux are changing at that time. In a purely inductive circuit, the
resistance is negligible in comparison to the inductive reactance. The
voltage applied to the circuit must always be equal and opposite to the
EMF of self-induction.

Any change in current in a coil causes a corresponding change of the
magnetic flux around the coil. Because the current changes at its
maximum rate when it is going through its zero value at 90° (point b on
figure 1) and 270° (point d), the flux change is also the greatest at
those times. Consequently, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at its
maximum (or minimum) value at these points as shown in figure 1. Because
the current is not changing at the point when it is going through its
peak value at 0° (point a), 180° (point c), and 360° (point e) the flux
change is zero at those times. Therefore, the self-induced EMF in the
coil is at its zero value at these points.

> ![](media/image2.png){width="3.7805555555555554in"
> height="2.027083333333333in"}\
> Figure 1-Current, self-induced EMF, and applied voltage in an
> inductive circuit

According to Lenz's Law, the induced voltage always opposes the change
in current. Referring to figure 1, with the current at its maximum
negative value (point a), the induced EMF is at a zero value and
falling. Thus, when the current rises in a positive direction (point a
to point c), the induced EMF is of opposite polarity to the applied
voltage and opposes the rise in current. Notice that as the current
passes through its zero value (point b) the induced voltage reaches its
maximum negative value. With the current now at its maximum positive
value (point c), the induced EMF is at a zero value and rising. As the
current is falling toward its zero value at 180° (point c to point d),
the induced EMF is of the same polarity as the current and tends to keep
the current from falling. When the current reaches a zero value, the
induced EMF is at its maximum positive value. Later, when the current is
increasing from zero to its maximum negative value at 360° (point d to
point e), the induced voltage is of the opposite polarity as the current
and tends to keep the current from increasing in the negative direction.
The value of the self-induced EMF varies as a sine wave and lags the
current by 90°, as shown in figure 1. The applied voltage must be equal
and opposite to the self-induced EMF at all times; therefore, the
current lags the applied voltage by 90° in a purely inductive circuit.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3.

h)  Describe how the following methods produce a voltage:

-   Electrochemistry

-   Static electricity

-   Magnetic induction

-   Piezoelectric effect

-   Thermoelectricity

-   Photoelectric effect

### Electrochemistry

Chemicals can be combined with certain metals to cause a chemical
reaction that will transfer electrons to produce electrical energy. This
process works on the electrochemistry principle. A chemical reaction
produces and maintains opposite charges on two dissimilar metals that
serve as the positive and negative terminals. The metals are in contact
with an electrolyte solution. Connecting together more than one of these
cells will produce a battery.

### Static Electricity

Atoms with the proper number of electrons in orbit around them are in a
neutral state, or have a zero charge. A body of matter consisting of
these atoms will neither attract nor repel other matter that is in its
vicinity. If electrons are removed from the atoms in this body of
matter, as happens due to friction when one rubs a glass rod with a silk
cloth, it will become electrically positive. If this body of matter
(e.g., the glass rod) comes near, but not in contact with, another body
having a normal charge, an electric force is exerted between them
because of their unequal charges. The existence of this force is
referred to as static electricity or electrostatic force.

### Magnetic Induction

Magnetic induction is used to produce a voltage by rotating coils of
wire through a stationary magnetic field, or by rotating a magnetic
field through stationary coils of wire. This is one of the most useful
and widely employed applications of producing vast quantities of
electric power.

### Piezoelectric Effect

By applying pressure to certain crystals (such as quartz or Rochelle
salts) or certain ceramics (like barium titanate), electrons can be
driven out of orbit in the direction of the force. Electrons leave one
side of the material and accumulate on the other side, building up
positive and negative charges on opposite sides. When the pressure is
released, the electrons return to their orbits. Some materials will
react to bending pressure, while others will respond to twisting
pressure. This generation of voltage is known as the piezoelectric
effect.

### Thermoelectricity

Some materials readily give up their electrons and others readily accept
electrons. For example, when two dissimilar metals like copper and zinc
are joined together, a transfer of electrons can take place. Electrons
will leave the copper atoms and enter the zinc atoms. The zinc gets a
surplus of electrons and becomes negatively charged. The copper loses
electrons and takes on a positive charge. This creates a voltage
potential across the junction of the two metals. The heat energy of
normal room temperature is enough to make them release and gain
electrons, causing a measurable voltage potential. As more heat energy
is applied to the junction, more electrons are released, and the voltage
potential becomes greater. When heat is removed and the junction cools,
the charges will dissipate and the voltage potential will decrease. This
process is called thermoelectricity.

### Photoelectric Effect

Light is a form of energy and is considered by many scientists to
consist of small particles of energy called photons. When the photons in
a light beam strike the surface of a material, they release their energy
and transfer it to the atomic electrons of the material. This energy
transfer may dislodge electrons from their orbits around the surface of
the material. Upon losing electrons, the photosensitive (light
sensitive) material becomes positively charged and an electric force is
created. This process is called the photoelectric effect.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1.

i)  Using appropriate data, calculate the total resistance for a circuit
    containing combinations of parallel and series resistance.

The easiest way to solve these types of circuits is to do it in steps.

![](media/image3.wmf){width="6.498611111111111in"
height="3.5194444444444444in"}Figure 2-Redrawn Circuit Example

Step 1: Find the equivalent resistance of the parallel branch:

Rp = $\frac{R_{2}R_{3}}{R_{2} + R_{3}}$ =
$\frac{(6)(\text{12})}{6 + \text{12}}$ = $\frac{\text{72}}{\text{18}}$ =
4Ω

Step 2: Find the resistance of the equivalent series circuit:

R~T~ = R~1~ + R~P~ = 4Ω + 4 Ω = 8 Ω

Step 3: Find total current (I~T~):

I~T~ = $\frac{V}{R_{T}}$ = $\frac{\text{60}V}{8\Omega}$ = 7.5 amps

Step 4: Find I~2~ and I~3~. The voltage across R~1~ and R~2~ is equal to
the applied voltage (V), minus the voltage drop across R~1~.

V2 = V3 = V - I~T~R~1~ = 60 - (7.5 X 4) = 30 V

Then, I~2~ and I~3~ are calculated.

I~2~ = $\frac{V_{2}}{R_{2}}$ = $\frac{\text{30}}{6}$ = 5 amps

I~3~ = $\frac{V_{3}}{R_{3}}$ = $\frac{\text{30}}{\text{12}}$ = 2.5 amps

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 1

j)  Using appropriate data for a circuit, calculate the reactance of
    that circuit.

#### Inductive Reactance

In an inductive AC circuit, the current is continually changing and is
continuously inducing an EMF. Because this EMF opposes the continuous
change in the flowing current, its effect is measured in ohms. This
opposition of the inductance to the flow of an alternating current is
called inductive reactance (X~L~). The mathematical representation of
the current flowing in a circuit that contains only inductive reactance
is:

I =$\frac{E}{X_{L}}$

where

I = effective current (A)

X~L~ = inductive reactance (W)

E = effective voltage across the reactance (V)

The value of X~L~ in any circuit is dependent on the inductance of the
circuit and on the rate at which the current is changing through the
circuit. This rate of change depends on the frequency of the applied
voltage. The mathematical representation for X~L~ is:

X~L~ = 2πf

where

π = \~3.14

f = frequency (Hertz)

L = inductance (Henries)

The magnitude of an induced EMF in a circuit depends on how fast the
flux that links the circuits changing. In the case of self-induced EMF
(such as in a coil), a counter EMF is induced in the coil due to a
change in current and flux in the coil. This CEMF opposes any change in
current, and its value at any time will depend on the rate at which the
current and flux are changing at that time. In a purely inductive
circuit, the resistance is negligible in comparison to the inductive
reactance. The voltage applied to the circuit must always be equal and
opposite to the EMF of self-induction.

#### Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition by a capacitor or a capacitive
circuit to the flow of current. The current flowing in a capacitive
circuit is directly proportional to the capacitance and to the rate at
which the applied voltage is changing. The rate at which the applied
voltage is changing is determined by the frequency of the supply;
therefore, if the frequency of the capacitance of a given circuit is
increased, the current flow will increase. It can also be said that if
the frequency or capacitance is increased, the opposition to current
flow decreases; therefore, capacitive reactance, which is the opposition
to current flow, is inversely proportional to frequency and capacitance.
Capacitive reactance X~C~, is measured in ohms, as is inductive
reactance. A mathematical representation for capacitive reactancies:

X~C~ = $\frac{1}{2\pi\text{fC}}$

where

f = frequency (Hz)

π = \~3.14

C = capacitance (farads)

The following equation is the mathematical representation of capacitive
reactance when capacitance is expressed in microfarads (μF).

X~C~ = $\frac{1,\text{000},\text{000}}{2\pi\text{fC}}$

The following equation is the mathematical representation for the
current that flows in a circuit with only capacitive reactance.

I= $\frac{E}{X_{C}}$

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3.

Note: Competencies "i" and "j" are performance-based competencies. The
qualifying official will evaluate the completion of these competencies.

## Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate a working-level knowledge of basic AC theory.

a)  Define the effective value of an AC relative to DC.

The effective value of AC is the amount of AC that produces the same
heating effect as an equal amount of DC. One-ampere effective value of
AC will produce the same amount of heat in a conductor, in a given time,
as one ampere of DC.

k)  Describe the relationship between maximum, average, and
    root-mean-square (RMS) values of voltage and current in an AC
    waveform.

The relationship between maximum, average, and RMS values of voltage and
current in an alternating current waveform are

-   peak value = average value x 1.57

-   peak value = effective value (RMS) x 1.414

-   average value = peak value x 0.637

-   average value = effective (RMS) x 0.9

-   effective value (RMS) = average value x 1.11

-   effective value (RMS) = peak value x 0.707

l)  Using a diagram of two sine waves, describe the phase relationship
    between the two waves.

The phase difference can be used to describe two different voltages that
have the same frequency, which pass through zero values in the same
direction at different times.

In figure 3, the angles along the axis indicate the phases of voltages
e~1~ and e~2~ at any point in time. At 120°, e~1~ passes through the
zero value, which is 60° ahead of e~2~ (e~2~ equals zero at 180°). The
voltage e~1~ is said to lead e~2~ by 60 electrical degrees, or it can be
said that e~2~ lags e~1~ by 60 electrical degrees.

> ![](media/image4.png){width="2.68125in" height="1.792361111111111in"}\
> Figure 3-Phase relationship

Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a
current and a voltage. If the phase difference between two currents, two
voltages, or a voltage and a current is zero degrees, they are said to
be in-phase. If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they
are said to be out-of-phase.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3.

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the construction and operation of AC generators, and motors, including operating characteristics, method of torque production, and the advantages of specific motor types). 

**Generators**

a)  Describe the basic construction and operation of a simple AC
    generator.

A simple AC generator consists of a strong magnetic field, conductors
that rotate through that magnetic field, and a means by which a
continuous connection is provided to the conductors as they are
rotating. The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow
through the field coil of the rotor. The field coil in the rotor
receives excitation through the use of slip rings and brushes. Two
brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide the
continuous connection between the field coil and the external excitation
circuit. The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and
is connected to the output. Each time the rotor makes one complete
revolution, one complete cycle of AC is developed. A generator has many
turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.

The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent on
the field strength and speed of the rotor. Most generators are operated
at a constant speed; therefore, the generated voltage depends on field
excitation, or strength.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

m)  Describe the development of a sine-wave output in an AC generator.

The elementary AC generator consists of a conductor, or loop of wire, in
a magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of
the loop are connected to slip rings, and they are in contact with two
brushes. When the loop rotates, it cuts magnetic lines of force, first
in one direction, and then the other.

At the instant the loop is in the vertical position, the coil sides are
moving parallel to the field and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In
this instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil
rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the
magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The direction of the
induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of the coil.

> ![](media/image5.png){width="3.6770833333333335in"
> height="1.8229166666666667in"}\
> Figure 4-Simple AC generator

The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring (X) (in figure 4)
positive (+) and slip ring (Y) negative (-). The potential across
resistor (R) will cause a current to flow from (Y) to (X) through the
resistor. This current will increase until it reaches a maximum value
when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force. The
horizontal coil is moving perpendicular to the field and is cutting the
greatest number of magnetic lines of force. As the coil continues to
turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until they reach zero,
where the coil is again in the vertical position (figure 5). In the
other half revolution, an equal voltage is produced, but the polarity is
reversed (figure 5). The current flow through (R) is now from (X) to (Y)
(figure 4).

> ![](media/image6.png){width="3.6875in" height="2.9583333333333335in"}\
> Figure 5-Developing a sine wave voltage

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

n)  Define the following terms in relation to AC generation:

-   Radians/second

-   Hertz

-   Period

A radian is an angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of a
circle. One radian equals 57.3º. Radians/second are units of angular
velocity. The time it takes for the generator to complete one cycle is
called the period, and the number of cycles per second is called the
frequency, which is measured in hertz (Hz).

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

o)  Using the type and application of an AC generator, describe the
    operating characteristics of that generator, including methods of
    voltage production, advantages of each type, and methods for
    paralleling.

Note: This is a performance-based requirement. A qualifying official
will evaluate the completion of this competency.

p)  State the purpose of the following components of an AC generator:

-   Field

-   Armature

-   Prime mover

-   Rotor

-   Stator

-   Slip rings

### Field

The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the
generator that receive a voltage from a source (called excitation) and
produce a magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the
armature to produce a voltage. This voltage is ultimately the output
voltage of the AC generator.

### Armature

The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is
produced. This component consists of many coils of wire that are large
enough to carry the full-load current of the generator.

### Prime Mover

The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator.
The prime mover may be any type of rotating machine, such as a diesel
engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

### Rotor

The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator.
The rotor is driven by the generator's prime mover, which may be a steam
turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. Depending on the type of
generator, this component may be the armature or the field. The rotor
will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor
will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

### Stator

The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary. Like the
rotor, this component may be the armature or the field, depending on the
type of generator. The stator will be the armature if the voltage output
is generated there; the stator will be the field if the field excitation
is applied there.

### Slip Rings

Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to
and from the rotor of an AC generator. The slip ring consists of a
circular conducting material that is connected to the rotor windings and
insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the slip ring as the rotor
rotates. The electrical connection to the rotor is made by connections
to the brushes. Slip rings are used in AC generators because the desired
output of the generator is a sine wave.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

q)  Using the speed of rotation and number of poles, calculate the
    frequency output of an AC generator.

The frequency of the generated voltage is dependent on the number of
field poles and the speed at which the generator is operated, as
indicated in the equation below.

f = $\frac{\text{NP}}{\text{120}}$

where\
f = frequency (Hz)\
P = total number of poles

N = rotor speed (rpm)

120 = conversion from minutes to seconds and from poles to pole pairs

The 120 in the equation is derived by multiplying the following
conversion factors.

$\frac{\text{60}\text{sec}\text{onds}}{1\text{min}\text{ute}}$ X
$\frac{2\text{poles}}{\text{polepair}}$

In this manner, the units of frequency (Hz or cycles/sec.) are derived.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

r)  List the three losses found in an AC generator.

The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators. Like
any coil, the armature has some amount of resistance and inductive
reactance. The combination of these makes up what is known as the
internal resistance, which causes a loss in an AC generator. When the
load current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the internal
resistance. This voltage drop subtracts from the output voltage and,
therefore, represents generated voltage and power that is lost and not
available to the load.

Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject
to effects from a magnetic field. The magnetic domains of the cores are
held in alignment with the field in varying numbers, dependent upon
field strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the domains
not held in alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the
rotor. This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and
heat. The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis
loss.

To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of
heat-treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss.
After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the
laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This
process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low
value.

Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush
friction on the commutator, and air friction (called windage), which is
caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation. Careful
maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a
minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the
reduction of bearing friction. Brush friction is reduced by ensuring:
proper brush seating, proper brush use, and maintenance of proper brush
tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of
brush friction. In very large generators, hydrogen is used within the
generator for cooling as it is less dense than air and causes fewer
windage losses.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

s)  Given the prime mover input and generator output, determine the
    efficiency of an AC generator.

Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output to
the total power input. Because any mechanical process experiences some
losses, no AC generators can be 100 percent efficient. Efficiency of an
AC generator can be calculated using the following equation.

$\text{Efficiency} = \frac{\text{Output}}{\text{Input}}$ X 100

Example: Given a 5 horsepower (hp) motor acting as the prime mover of a
generator that has a load demand of 2 kilowatts (kW), what is the
efficiency of the generator?

Solution: To calculate efficiency, the input, and output power must be
in the same units. We know that horsepower and the watt (W) are
equivalent units of power. Therefore, the equivalence of these units is
expressed with a conversion factor as follows.

> ![](media/image7.png){width="3.9583333333333335in" height="0.90625in"}
>
> Input power = 5 hp x 746 $\frac{W}{\text{hp}}$ = 3730 W
>
> Output power = 2 kW = 2000 W

$\text{Efficiency} = \frac{\text{Output}}{\text{Input}}$ =
$\frac{\text{2000}W}{\text{3730}W}$ = 0.54 X 100 = 54%

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

t)  Describe the basis for the kilowatt and kilovolt-amperes ratings of
    an AC generator.

The kilowatt (power) ratings of an AC generator are based on the ability
of the prime mover to overcome generator losses and the ability of the
machine to dissipate the internally generated heat.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

u)  Describe the conditions that must be met prior to paralleling two AC
    generators, including consequences of not meeting these conditions.

Most electrical power grids and distribution systems have more than one
AC generator operating at one time. Normally, two or more generators are
operated in parallel to increase the available power. Three conditions
must be met prior to paralleling (or synchronizing) AC generators.

-   Their terminal voltages must be equal. If the voltages of the two AC
    generators are not equal, one of the AC generators could be picked
    up as a reactive load to the other AC generator. This causes high
    currents to be exchanged between the two machines, possibly causing
    generator or distribution system damage.

-   Their frequencies must be equal. A mismatch in frequencies of the
    two AC generators will cause the generator with the lower frequency
    to be picked up as a load on the other generator (a condition
    referred to as motoring). This can cause an overload in the
    generators and the distribution system.

-   Their output voltages must be in phase. A mismatch in the phases
    will cause large opposing voltages to be developed. The worst-case
    mismatch would be 180° out of phase, resulting in an opposing
    voltage between the two generators of twice the output voltage. This
    high voltage can cause damage to the generators and distribution
    system due to high currents.

During paralleling operations, voltages of the two generators that are
to be paralleled are indicated through the use of voltmeters. Frequency
matching is accomplished through the use of output frequency meters.
Phase matching is accomplished through the use of a synchroscope, which
is a device that senses the two frequencies and gives an indication of
phase differences and a relative comparison of frequency differences.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

v)  Describe the difference between a stationary field, rotating
    armature AC generator, and a rotating field, stationary armature AC
    generator.

Small AC generators usually have a stationary field and a rotating
armature. One important disadvantage to this arrangement is that the
slip ring and brush assembly is in series with the load circuits and,
because of worn or dirty components, may interrupt the flow of current.

If the DC field excitation is connected to the rotor, the stationary
coils will have AC induced into them. This arrangement is called a
rotating field, stationary armature AC generator. The rotating field,
stationary armature type AC generator is used when large power
generation is involved. In this type of generator, a DC source is
supplied to the rotating field coils, which produces a magnetic field
around the rotating element. As the rotor is turned by the prime mover,
the field will cut the conductors of the stationary armature, and an EMF
will be induced into the armature windings. This type of AC generator
has several advantages over the stationary field, rotating armature AC
generator:

-   A load can be connected to the armature without moving contacts in
    the circuit.

-   It is much easier to insulate stator fields than rotating fields.

-   Much higher voltages and currents can be generated.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

w)  Explain the differences between a wye-connected and delta-connected
    AC generator, including advantages and disadvantages of each type.

In the wye connection, three common ends of each phase are connected
together at a common terminal (marked "N" for neutral), and the other
three ends are connected to a three-phase line.

In the delta connection, all three phases are connected in series to
form a closed loop.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

**Motors**

a)  Describe how an AC motor produces a rotating magnetic field.

![](media/image8.png){width="3.5625in" height="4.247916666666667in"}\
Figure 6 A rotating magnetic field

In an AC motor there are three phases, and the phases are electrically
120º out of phase. Electrically, the phases are connected to the
windings via a wye connection. Each phase has two windings.

The windings are wound in the same direction and are on opposite sides
of the stator. When electrical current flows through a winding a
magnetic field is produced. The magnetic field is directed across the
diameter of the stator. The magnetic field generated in one phase will
depend on the current through that phase. If the current through that
phase is zero, the resulting magnetic field is zero. If the current is
at a maximum value, the resulting field is at a maximum value.

Since the currents in the three windings are 120º out of phase, the
magnetic fields produced will also be 120˚ out of phase. When the
current flow in a phase is positive, the magnetic field will develop a
north pole at the poles labeled A, B, and C. When the current flow in a
phase is negative, the magnetic field will develop a north pole at the
poles labeled A\', B\', and C\'. The three magnetic fields will combine
to produce one field, which will act upon the rotor. At the end of one
cycle of AC, the magnetic field will have shifted through 360˚ or one
revolution. For point T1 on figure 6, the current in phase C is at its
maximum positive value. The resulting magnetic field is established
vertically downward, with the maximum field strength developed across
the C phase, between pole C (north) and pole C\' (south). At the same
instance, the currents in phases A and B are at half of the maximum
negative value. Thus poles A\' and B\' are weak south poles and poles A
and B are weak north poles. The strong magnetic field between poles C
and C\' prevents the weaker poles from connecting through the stator to
their corresponding matching pole. Instead, the strong magnetic field is
aided by the weaker fields developed across phases A and B, with poles
A\' and B\' being north poles and poles A and B being south poles.

The weak north A\' pole is magnetically coupled to the closer weak south
B pole rather than coupling through the rotor and the strong C and C\'
magnetic field. Additionally, the weak north B\' pole is magnetically
coupled to the closer weak south A pole. Thus, overall, one side of the
stator has a north pole (centered on the C pole) and the other side of
the stator has a south pole (centered on the C\' pole).

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

x)  Describe how an AC motor produces torque.

When alternating current is applied to the stator windings of an AC
induction motor, a rotating magnetic field is developed. The rotating
magnetic field cuts the bars of the rotor and induces a current in them
due to generator action. The induced current in turn produces a magnetic
field, opposite in polarity of the stator field, around the conductors
of the rotor. Because opposite charges attract, the rotor's magnetic
field will try to line up with the magnetic field of the stator. Since
the stator field is rotating continuously, the rotor cannot line up
with, or lock onto, the stator field, and therefore must follow behind
it. The torque of an AC induction motor is dependent upon the strength
of the interacting rotor and stator fields and the phase relationship
between them.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

y)  Using field speed and rotor speed, calculate percent slip in an AC
    motor.

The following is an example showing how to calculate percent slip in an
AC motor.

Example: A four-pole, 60 Hz AC induction motor has a full-load speed of
1735 rpm. Calculate percent slip in an AC motor.

![](media/image9.png){width="3.5729166666666665in"
height="3.2604166666666665in"}

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

z)  Explain the relationship between speed and torque in an AC induction
    motor.

Slip is the percentage difference between the speed of the rotor and the
speed of the rotating magnetic field.

In an AC induction motor, as slip increases from zero to \~10 percent,
the torque increases linearly. As the load and slip are increased beyond
full-load torque, the torque will reach a maximum value at about 25
percent slip. If load is increased beyond this point, the motor will
stall and come to a rapid stop. The typical induction motor breakdown
torque varies from 200 to 300 percent of full-load torque. Starting
torque is the value of torque at 100 percent slip and is normally 150 to
200 percent of full-load torque.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

a)  Describe how torque is produced in a single-phase AC motor.

If two stator windings of unequal impedance are spaced 90 electrical
degrees apart and connected in parallel to a single-phase source, the
field produced will appear to rotate. This is called phase splitting.

In a split-phase motor, a starting winding is used. This winding has a
higher resistance and lower reactance than the main winding. When the
same voltage (V~T~) is applied to the starting and main windings, the
current in the main winding (I~M~) lags behind the current of the
starting winding (I~S~). The angle between the two windings is enough
phase difference to provide a rotating magnetic field to produce a
starting torque. When the motor reaches 70 to 80 percent of synchronous
speed, a centrifugal switch on the motor shaft opens and disconnects the
starting winding.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

b)  Explain why an AC synchronous motor does not have starting torque.

Torque is only developed when running at synchronous speed; therefore,
the motor needs some type of device to bring the rotor to synchronous
speed.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

c)  Describe how an AC synchronous motor is started.

An AC synchronous motor may be started by a DC motor on a common shaft.
When the motor is brought to synchronous speed, AC current is applied to
the stator windings. The DC motor now acts as a DC generator and
supplies DC field excitation to the rotor of the synchronous motor. The
load may now be placed on the synchronous motor.

Synchronous motors are more often started by means of a squirrel-cage
winding embedded in the face of the rotor poles. The DC rotor windings
are de-energized and a reduced three-phase voltage is applied to the
stator windings. The motor is then started as an induction motor and
brought to \~95 percent of synchronous speed, at which time direct
current is applied, and the motor begins to pull into synchronism. The
torque required to pull the motor into synchronism is called the pull-in
torque.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

d)  Describe the effects of over and under-exciting an AC synchronous
    motor.

Keeping the same load, when the field excitation is increased on a
synchronous motor, the motor operates at a leading power factor. If
field excitation is reduced, the motor will operate at a lagging power
factor.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

e)  State some applications of the following types of AC motors:

-   Induction

-   Single-phase

-   Synchronous

### Induction

The induction motor is the most commonly used AC motor in industrial
applications because of its simplicity, rugged construction, and
relatively low manufacturing costs.

### Single-Phase

Single-phase motors are used for very small commercial applications such
as household appliances and buffers.

### Synchronous

Synchronous motors are used to accommodate large loads and to improve
the power factor of transformers in large industrial complexes.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

f)  Describe the differences in starting and operating characteristics
    of premium efficiency motors.

Since 1997, the Energy Policy Act (EPACT) has required most 1--200 hp
general-purpose motors manufactured or imported for sale in the United
States to meet minimum efficiency standards. These motors have been
identified as premium efficiency motors.

Premium efficiency motors offer the following benefits:

-   20 to 60 percent more copper in the windings

-   More and thinner laminations of higher-quality steel

-   Optimized air gap between stator and rotor

-   More efficient rotor-bar designs

-   Reduced fan losses

-   Higher quality control during manufacturing

-   Longer cores to reduce 2R (resistance) losses

Premium efficiency motors usually

-   have higher service factors

-   have longer insulation and bearing lives

-   have lower waste heat output and run cooler

-   have less vibration and are less noisy

-   are more likely to withstand voltage variations and harmonics

All of these characteristics increase their reliability. Because of
this, most motor manufacturers offer longer warranties for their premium
efficiency designs.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

g)  Describe the characteristics and operation of motor controllers.

Motor controllers range from a simple toggle switch to a complex system
using solenoids, relays, and timers. The basic functions of a motor
controller are to control and protect the operation of a motor. This
includes starting and stopping the motor, and protecting the motor from
over current, under voltage, and overheating conditions that would cause
damage to the motor. There are two basic categories of motor
controllers, the manual controller, and the magnetic controller.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

h)  Explain the following motor terms:

-   Revolutions per minute (RPM)

-   National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA) frame size

-   Service factor

-   Insulation class

-   NEMA design designation (letter)

-   Non-symmetrical load

### RPM

RPM is the approximate speed at which a motor operates. Multi-speed
shaded pole motors show maximum speed first, followed by the total
number of speeds (e.g., 3000/3-Spd). Multi-speed split-phase and
capacitor-start motors have maximum speed shown first, followed by the
second speed (e.g., 1725/1140). The RPM rating for a gear motor
represents output shaft speed.

### NEMA Frame Size

NEMA provides us with frame size standardization, so you can make
intelligent choices among the different sizes of motors.

Frame size standardization is important to motor interchangeability.
This means the same horsepower, speed, and enclosure will normally have
the same frame size from different motor manufacturers. Thus, it is
possible to replace a motor from one manufacturer with a similar motor
from another if they both use standard frame sizes.

### Service Factor

The service factor is a measure of continuous overload capacity at which
a motor can operate without overload or damage. The NEMA standard
service factor for totally enclosed motors is 1.0.

### Insulation Class

There are four motor insulation classes: A, B, F, and H.

-   A: 105°C or 221°F

-   B: 130°C or 266°F

-   F: 155°C or 311°F

-   H: 180°C or 356°F

### NEMA Design Designation (letter)

NEMA has assigned a simple letter designation to four of the most common
three-phase AC electric motors. These motors vary in starting torque and
speed regulation. They are all of squirrel-cage construction, and are
available in many sizes.

Design A has normal starting torque (typically 150-170 percent of rated
capacity) and relatively high starting current. Breakdown torque is the
highest of all NEMA types. It can handle heavy overloads for a
short-duration. For Design A, slip is less than or equal to 5 percent. A
typical application is powering of injection-molding machines.

Design B is the most common type of AC induction motor sold. It has
normal starting torque, similar to Design A, but offers low starting
current. Locked rotor torque is good enough to start many loads
encountered in industrial applications. For Design B, slip is less than
or equal to 5 percent. Motor efficiency and full-load power factor are
comparatively high, contributing to the popularity of the design.
Typical applications include pumps, fans, and machine tools.

Design C has high starting torque (greater than the previous two
designs, at about 200 percent), useful for driving heavy breakaway
loads. These motors are intended for operation near full speed without
great overloads. Starting current is low. For design C, slip is less
than or equal to 5 percent.

Design D has high starting torque (the highest of all the NEMA motor
types). Starting current and full-load speed are low. High slip values
(5--13 percent) make this motor suitable for applications with changing
loads and attendant sharp changes in motor speed, such as in machinery
with flywheel energy storage. Speed regulation is poor, making Design D
suitable for punch presses, cranes, elevators, and oil well pumps.
Several design subclasses cover the rather wide slip range. This motor
type is usually considered a special order item.

### Non-Symmetrical Load

A three-phase power system is called balanced or symmetrical if the
three-phase voltages and currents have the same amplitude and are phase
shifted by 120° with respect to each other. If either or both of these
conditions are not met, the system is called unbalanced or
non-symmetrical.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of AC reactive components, including inductive and capacitive reactance and phase relationships in reactive circuits.

a)  Define the following:

-   Inductive reactance

-   Capacitive reactance

-   Impedance

-   Resonance

-   Power factor

-   Non-symmetrical load

### Inductive Reactance

Inductive reactance is the opposition of the inductance to the flow of
an alternating current.

### Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the force of a capacitor that acts as a resistor
to limit the flow of current. Capacitive reactance is inversely
proportional to the capacitance of the capacitor and the frequency.

### Impedance

Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of an alternating current.
It may consist of any combination of resistance, inductive reactance,
and capacitive reactance. It is measured in ohms.

### Resonance

Resonance is a condition existing in a circuit in which the inductive
and capacitive reactance cancels each other out.

### Power Factor

Power factor is the ratio between true power and apparent power.

### Non-Symmetrical Load

A three-phase power system is called balanced or symmetrical if the
three-phase voltages and currents have the same amplitude and are phase
shifted by 120° with respect to each other. If either or both of these
conditions are not met, the system is called unbalanced or
non-symmetrical.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

i)  Describe the effect of the phase relationship between current (I)
    and voltage (E) in an inductive circuit.

The value of the self-induced EMF varies as a sine wave and lags the
current by 90˚. The applied voltage must be equal and opposite to the
self-induced EMF at all times; therefore, the current lags the applied
voltage by 90˚ in a purely inductive circuit.

The memory aid, "ELI the ICE man," can be used to remember the
voltage/current relationship in AC circuits. ELI refers to an inductive
circuit (L) where voltage (E) leads (comes before) current (I).

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

j)  Describe the effect on phase relationship between current (I) and
    voltage (E) in a capacitive circuit.

In any purely capacitive circuit, current leads applied voltage by 90˚.
The memory aid, "ELI the ICE man," can be used to remember the
voltage/current relationship in AC circuits. ICE refers to a capacitive
circuit (C) where current (I) leads (comes before) voltage (E).

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

k)  Determine the value for total current (I~T~) in a simple parallel
    resistance-capacitance-inductance (R-C-L) AC circuit.

Total current in a parallel R-C-L circuit is equal to the square root of
the sum of the squares of the current flows through the resistance,
inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance branches of the circuit.

![](media/image10.png){width="1.84375in" height="0.7916666666666666in"}

Because the difference between I~L~ and I~C~ is squared, the order in
which the quantities are subtracted does not affect the answer.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

l)  Describe the relationship between apparent, true, and reactive
    power.

The relationship between apparent, true, and reactive power can be
described using a triangle.

![](media/image11.png){width="3.8048611111111112in"
height="1.7680555555555555in"}\
Figure 7-Triangle describing the relationship between apparent, true,
and reactive power

The power triangle equates AC power to DC power by showing the
relationship between generator output (apparent power, S) in
volt-amperes (VA), usable power (true power, P) in watts, and wasted or
stored power (reactive power, Q) in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR). The
phase angle (θ) represents the inefficiency of the AC circuit and
corresponds to the total reactive impedance (Z) to the current flow in
the circuit.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

m)  Describe the indications of an unbalanced load in a three-phase
    power system.

In a fault condition, the neutral connection in a wye-connected load
will carry more current than the phase under a balanced load. Unbalanced
three-phase circuits are indicated by abnormally high currents in one or
more of the phases. This may cause damage to equipment if the imbalance
is allowed to continue.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

n)  Discuss circuit considerations required for non-symmetrical loads.

For information about non-symmetrical loads see

-   Dorf, Richard C. *The Electrical Engineering Handbook.* 1st ed. CRC
    Press, 1993.

-   Mablekos, Van E. The Two Phase Induction Motor." Section 4.10 in
    *Electric Machine Theory for Power Engineering.* New York: Harper
    and Row*,* 1980.

-   Werninck, E. H. *Electric Motor Handbook: Alternating Current
    Motors.* 1978.

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical transmission and distribution systems.

a)  Explain the differences between transmission and distribution
    systems.

Electric power transmission is one process in the transmitting of
electricity to consumers. The term refers to the bulk transfer of
electrical power from place to place. Typically, power transmission is
between the power plant and a substation near a populated area. This is
distinct from electricity distribution, which is concerned with the
delivery from the substation to the consumers. Due to the large amount
of power involved, transmission normally takes place at high voltage
(110 kV or above). Electricity is usually transmitted over long distance
through overhead power transmission lines. Underground power
transmission is used only in densely populated areas such as large
cities because of the high cost of installation and maintenance.

Reference: Wikipedia,
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission>

o)  Identify and discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated
    with underground and aboveground distribution systems.

Underground distribution systems make for more attractive and
uncluttered surroundings. Most equipment is buried beneath the surface,
providing more space for landscaping.

Underground distribution systems provide a more reliable power supply.
More than 40 percent of power outages are caused by fallen branches or
trees near overhead distribution lines, and in certain areas that
percentage is much higher.

One disadvantage to underground distribution systems is that they are
more costly than overhead wire and are vulnerable to degradation due to
moisture, particularly in older cable installations. Over time the
moisture breaks down the cable insulation leaving the cable vulnerable
to failures and prolonged outages. Traditionally, the only long-term
solution has been replacement of the degraded cables.

A major problem with underground distribution systems is that of making
connections in congested manholes or junction boxes. The necessary
procedure involves soldering conductors, taping joints, and wiping
lead-covered cable, and is so complex that it demands considerable skill
and is time consuming and costly.

Reference: Dorf, Richard C. *The Electrical Engineering Handbook.*,
sections 58.1 and 58.2, 1^st^ ed. CRC Press, 1993.

p)  Describe the function and importance of the following control and
    protective devices:

-   Circuit breakers

-   Protective relays

-   Fuses

-   Transient protection

### Circuit Breakers

The purpose of a circuit breaker is to break the circuit and stop the
current flow when the current exceeds a predetermined value without
causing damage to the circuit or the circuit breaker. Circuit breakers
are commonly used in place of fuses and sometimes eliminate the need for
a switch.

### Protective Relays

Protective relays are designed to cause the prompt removal of any part
of a power system that might cause damage or interfere with the
effective and continuous operation of the rest of the system. Protective
relays are aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of
disconnecting faulty components or subsystems.

Protective relays can be used for types of protection other than short
circuit or over current. The relays can be designed to protect
generating equipment and electrical circuits from any undesirable
condition, such as under voltage, under frequency, or interlocking
system lineups.

There are two operating principles for protective relays:
electromagnetic attraction and electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by a plunger being drawn up
into a solenoid or an armature that is attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet. This type of relay can be actuated by either DC or AC
systems. Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the induction motor
principle whereby torque is developed by induction in a rotor. This type
of relay can be used only in AC circuits.

### Fuses

A fuse is a device that only protects a circuit from an over current
condition. It has a fusible link that is directly heated and destroyed
by the current passing through it. A fuse contains a current-carrying
element that is sized so that the heat generated by the flow of normal
current through it does not cause it to melt the element. However, when
an over current or short-circuit current flows through the fuse, the
fusible link will melt and open the circuit.

### Transient Protection

Power surges and transients are electrical fluctuations caused by
lightning or other power utility issues. The surge or transient is
conducted through both power and data lines and can damage or destroy
downstream equipment. Vulnerable circuitry exists in an extremely
hostile environment. Properly applied transient protection can prevent
equipment damage, downtime, and data corruption.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 4

q)  Compare and contrast the characteristics of three-phase and
    single-phase distribution systems.

A three-phase system is a combination of three single-phase systems. In
a three-phase balanced system, power comes from a three-phase AC
generator that produces three separate and equal voltages each of which
is 120° out of phase with the other voltages.

Three-phase equipment (motors, transformers, etc.) weighs less than
single-phase equipment of the same power rating. They have a wide range
of voltages and can be used for single-phase loads. Three-phase
equipment is smaller in size, weighs less, and is more efficient than
single-phase equipment.

Three-phase systems can be connected in two different ways. If the three
common ends of each phase are connected at a common point and the other
three ends are connected to a three-phase line, it is called a wye
connection. If the three phases are connected in series to form a closed
loop, it is called a delta connection.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, volume 3

r)  Discuss the principles associated with ensuring continual power
    availability during electrical outages.

Typically there are six types of power anomalies and/or failure
incidents experienced by electrical power users: total failures (also
known as blackouts), severely reduced voltage (or brownouts), sags,
spikes, surges, and noise.

Total failures, or blackouts, constitute a complete loss of electrical
power. It can be total failure throughout an entire geographical
location, a single building, or group of buildings, or a single
electrical panel within a building. These failures can cause system and
network crashes, PC lockups, and corruption or loss of valuable data
from servers and workstations. These blackouts are often caused by
electrical storms, auto accidents involving utility poles, an electrical
utility company's inability to meet user demand (e.g., during sustained
hot weather conditions), or simply by the inability of a building's
infrastructure to handle demand on an overloaded circuit.

Severely reduced voltage from the power utility, or a brownout, occurs
when the utility company cannot meet customers demand. This usually
occurs in summer months when the use of air conditioning during times of
prolonged heat waves taxes the pool of available power. Sometimes these
brownouts are planned by the utility and are directed at specific
locations within their power grid. In this case they are called rolling
brownouts. Today's power equipment is designed to operate using
electrical power that falls within a specific acceptable range.
Brownouts occur where the electrical supply voltage drops below this
level. This lowered voltage places a strain on the electronic components
contained within the power equipment and can limit their operational
life. It can also cause immediate failure of those electronic
components.

Sags, spikes, and surges are power anomalies caused by electrical
storms, extraordinary demands for power from the utility, and other
electrical equipment. For example, the starting of an electrical motor,
like an elevator, can sometimes cause momentary sag as the power source
tries to meet demand, and then cause a spike once the motor has started
and needs less electrical current to sustain operation. These anomalies
are rapid, momentary decreases (sags) or increases (surges or spikes) in
voltage levels at the electrical outlet. They can cause loss of data,
total loss of a hard disk, and even catastrophic damage to the network
or computing hardware in use.

Electrical noise is electromagnetic interference (EMI) caused by
electrical storms, noisy electrical equipment (e.g., motors, welding
equipment, etc.), fluorescent lighting, and even radio transmitters. It
can cause events such as system lockups, temporary lapses in computing,
circuit connection termination, data transmission errors, and even data
corruption or loss.

A complete assessment of power-related risks will help a company
determine the appropriate level of protection needed and justify the
cost of power-protection equipment. To determine the level of protection
a company requires or can afford, the following questions should be
considered:

-   Does the business experience frequent power failures?

-   Is there frequent construction going on near or inside of the
    company's facilities?

-   Are facilities located in areas where severe weather events occur,
    such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and snow/ice/hail storms?

-   Is the distribution wiring in the facilities over 20 years old?

-   Do the facilities have emergency generators, and do they supply
    power to critical systems and network equipment outlets? (Note:
    Oftentimes generators are in place, but they supply power only to
    emergency lighting, some elevators, and critical building
    infrastructure systems, but not to tenants or occupants of the
    buildings systems.)

-   When the business experiences downtime is personnel time wasted or
    does the outage impact the revenue stream? Has the company performed
    a cost-of-downtime assessment?

-   Does the company have mission-critical business networks, systems,
    and/or processes that must be operational 24/7?

After reviewing the risks posed to an enterprise, the appropriate power
protection devices can be selected based on the scope of the potential
power interruption.

Short-term power anomalies such as spikes and surges lasting only a few
millionths to a few thousandths of a second can be prevented using surge
protection devices. Placed between the network or computing device and
the power outlet it is plugged into, a surge protector can prevent these
power anomalies from reaching the server, router, or hub.

Intermediate-term power failures, such as blackouts, brownouts, and
electrical noise lasting from a few seconds to 30 minutes, are treatable
through uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs). UPS devices contain
batteries and an electronic inverter, which converts DC power from
batteries to AC power required by the equipment being protected.
Software used in conjunction with a UPS can detect a loss of power and,
after a predefined period of time, cause servers to execute their
shutdown procedures. This shutdown allows files to be closed and updated
in a protected fashion, eliminating data loss and corruption. Once power
is restored, the system is signaled to start back up. In the case of
brownouts, the UPS detects this condition and can take over the job of
supplying power in the proper operating range.

In general, there are three different types of UPS devices. With an
offline standby power supply (SPS), power is usually derived directly
from the power line until power fails, at which time a battery-powered
inverter turns on to continue supplying power. The time it takes for the
inverter to come online varies by unit. The battery is charged when line
power is available. Offline UPSs do not compensate for voltages within
the 103-132VAC-input window, and therefore are not useful in dealing
with minor fluctuations in voltage. They generally only protect systems
from power spikes, and only protect against power sags and line noise
when the battery is switched on due to a blackout. They are generally
not suitable for servers, but because of their low cost, they are often
used in protecting desktop workstations.

When normal operating line power is present, a line-interactive UPS
system conditions power using a Ferro resonant transformer. The UPS
maintains a constant output voltage even with a varying input voltage
and provides good protection against line noise. The UPS transformer
also maintains output on its secondary briefly when a total outage
occurs. As with the offline SPS, the line-interactive UPS switches to
battery operation if it experiences a significant power surge or
complete outage. It offers adequate protection as long as power sags or
outages do not occur with a high degree of frequency in a short period
of time, in which case the battery would switch on and off without
having enough time to completely charge. This type of failure mode would
reduce available battery time during brownout or blackout conditions.

With a true UPS system, power is supplied continuously from an inverter.
There is no switchover time, and such systems provide the highest level
of protection during normal operation. It can provide line conditioning
and voltage regulation and protection. The true UPS system delivers
power under all conditions and continually recharges its battery, making
it always ready to respond if a severe power problem occurs. This type
of UPS is most often used for mission critical networks and computing
equipment requiring high availability.

The appropriate load size of a UPS can be calculated by adding the
volt-amperes (VAs) of the devices to be connected to the UPS. (If a
devices draw is specified in volts and amperes individually instead of
VAs, the VA value can be obtained by multiplying the volts by the
amperes. If the device only identifies the number of watts required, the
VA value can be calculated by multiplying the number of watts by 1.4.)
For safety, the UPS should have a VA of 40 to 50 percent more than the
calculated VA value of the devices connected to it. This will generally
provide a UPS with a battery capable of supplying power long enough to
allow the protected devices to properly shut down under the maximum load
size. UPS devices should be selected with enough battery time to power
protected devices through brownouts periods. In most cases, UPSs with
battery times of at least 15 to 20 minutes are selected.

Finally, operational tests and maintenance checks should be performed
regularly. Testing for line failure recognition should be conducted
monthly, and testing for full power failure shut down and restore
capability should be conducted quarterly.

Long-term power failures can last from a few hours to several days. In
this case, alternate long-term power generation equipment is needed.
This can come in the form of portable power generators or generators
that have been installed as part of a building's infrastructure. These
generators are powered by diesel, gasoline, or propane and can
continuously supply electricity to a building's mission critical systems
for up to a month.

Such SPSs typically generate electricity in the 152000kW range. SPSs can
be triggered into operation either manually or automatically. In the
manual operation, a user starts up the SPS and, once it has reached
speed, manually switches it into operation. Automatic SPSs switch into
operation when the power failure has been detected for a specific period
of time and switches out once power is restored. This switch-in time
should be less than the UPS dropout time, otherwise, systems and
networks will experience a short-term outage window.

Only experienced personnel, with the aid of electricians, building
management personnel, engineering contractors, and equipment vendors
should undertake the selection, installation, and testing of SPSs.

The inclusion of an SPS into an enterprise's power management plan can
significantly reduce problems associated with complete loss of power.
The cost of an SPS typically is between \$10,000 and \$50,000. Emergency
generators also can be rented in case of a prolonged outage. However,
the need for a licensed electrician to connect the generator and
approval of the building's manager are factors affecting its use.

Reference: Power Protection Basics, Dr. James Kennedy,
[http://www.lucent.com/livelink/0900940380064ec5_Other.pdf#search=%22six%20types%20of%20power%20anomalies%22](http://www.lucent.com/livelink/0900940380064ec5_Other.pdf#search=)

s)  Explain the following terms as they relate to power systems:

-   Fault current

-   Available fault current

-   Fault duty

### Fault Current

Fault current, also called short-circuit current, describes current flow
during a short. Fault current passes through all components in the
affected circuit. Fault current is generally very large and, therefore,
hazardous. Only the combined impedance of the object responsible for the
short, the wire, and the transformer limits its magnitude.

### Available Fault Current

Fault current calculations are a critical piece of the electrical
design/engineering puzzle for electrical distribution systems in
commercial and industrial installations. A fault current calculation
determines the maximum available current that will be available at a
given node, or location, in the system. Once the fault currents have
been calculated, you can then select over current protection equipment,
breakers, and fuses with a fault current rating equal to or greater than
those values. If a breaker or fuse isn't rated to handle the maximum
available fault current it might receive, it might not operate properly
and its internal parts could fuse together or the device could blow up
under the destructive stresses of a fault condition, which could cause
serious injury and/or property damage.

Fault current calculations are based on Ohm's Law (V=I×R). To determine
the maximum current available at any given point in a distribution
system, the equation is rearranged to solve for current (I=V÷R). In a
short circuit condition, resistance (R) gets very small and is
essentially based on the total resistance in the electrical distribution
system, from the derived source of power to the point of the fault.

### Fault Duty

Reference: Dorf, Richard C. *The Electrical Engineering Handbook.* 1^st^
ed. CRC Press*,* 1993.

t)  Discuss the safety considerations associated with high-voltage
    transmission systems.

Safety considerations associated with high-voltage transmission systems
fall into three categories: audible noise and radio/television
interference, induced currents and hazardous shock, and electric and
magnetic fields.

When a transmission line is in operation, an electric field is generated
in the air surrounding the conductor. Corona is the partial electrical
breakdown of the insulating properties of the air in the vicinity of the
conductors of a transmission line. When the intensity of the electric
field at the conductor surface exceeds the breakdown strength of the
surrounding air, a corona discharge occurs at the conductor surface.
Energy and heat are dissipated in small volumes near the surface of the
conductors. Part of this energy is in the form of small local pressure
changes that result in audible noise, or in a discharge that results in
radio/television interference.

Corona-generated audible noise can be characterized as a hissing,
cracking sound which, under certain conditions, is accompanied by a
120-hertz (Hz) hum. Corona-generated audible noise is of concern
primarily for contemporary lines at voltages of 345kV and higher during
inclement weather. The conductors of high-voltage transmission lines are
designed to be corona-free under ideal conditions. However, slight
variations and irregularities in the conductor surface cause higher
electric fields near the conductor surface, and the occurrence of
corona. The most common source of enhanced electric fields at the
conductor surface is water droplets on, or dripping from, the
conductors. Therefore, audible noise from transmission lines is
generally associated with wet weather (i.e., wet conductor) phenomenon.
Wet conductors can occur during periods of rain, fog, snow, or icing.
These conditions are expected to occur infrequently (less than 5 percent
of the time). During fair weather, insects and dust on the conductor
also can serve as sources of corona.

Corona on transmission line conductors can also generate electromagnetic
noise in the frequency bands used for radio and TV signals. Radio and TV
interference, known as gap-type noise, is caused by an oxidized film on
the surface of two hardware pieces in contact. The film acts as an
insulator between the surfaces and small electric arcs, which produce
noise and interference.

Induced current or spark discharge shocks can occur under certain
conditions, in fields associated with 230kV or higher voltage
transmission lines, when a person comes into contact with an object in
an electric field. These resulting short-term or long-term effects are
the possible nuisances from electric fields. Studies indicate it is
unlikely that electric fields produce long-term health effects. The
grounding of nearby metal objects reduces the potential for these
effects.

Whenever electricity is used or transmitted, electric and magnetic
fields are created by the electric charges. An electric field is said to
exist in a region of space if a charge, at rest in that space,
experiences a force of electrical origin (i.e., electric fields cause
free charges to move). The electric field is a vector quantity; that is,
it has both magnitude and direction. The direction corresponds to the
direction a positive charge would move in the field. Sources of electric
fields are unbalanced electrical charges (positive or negative) and
time-varying magnetic fields. Transmission lines, distribution lines,
house wiring, and appliances all generate electric fields in their
vicinity because of unbalanced electrical charge on unshielded energized
conductors. Electric fields are expressed in units of volts per meter
(V/m) or kilovolts (thousands of volts) per meter (kV/m). Electric
fields are easily shielded by most objects, including trees, fences, and
buildings.

Once electric fields are in motion, they create magnetic fields. The
strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the magnitude of the
current in the circuit. Magnetic fields can be characterized by the
force they exert on a moving charge or on an electrical current. A
magnetic field is a vector quantity that is characterized by both
magnitude and direction. Electric currents are sources of magnetic
fields. Magnetic fields are expressed as exposure per unit area in units
of milligauss (mG). Magnetic fields are not shielded by most materials.

The spatial uniformity of an electric field depends on the source of the
field and on the distance from that source. On the ground under a
transmission line, the electric field is nearly constant in magnitude
and direction over distances of a few meters. In proximity to
transmission or distribution line conductors, however, the field
decreases rapidly as distance (r) from the conductor increases.
Similarly, near small sources such as appliances, the field is not
uniform and falls off even more rapidly with distance from the device.
If an energized conductor (source) is inside a grounded conducting
enclosure, then the electric field outside the enclosure is zero, and
the source is said to be shielded.

Transmission line-related fields decrease at a rate of 1/r^2^ if
currents are balanced and conductors are closed spaced. Magnetic fields
associated with unbalanced phase circuits will fall off inversely from
distance to the source (conductor) at a rate of 1/r. Therefore, if the
distance is doubled from the source and the transmission line current is
balanced in all three phases, the magnetic field would drop off by a
factor of 4. However, if the phase current is unbalanced and distance
from the source is doubled, the field decreases by only one-half of its
original intensity.

The electric field created by a high-voltage transmission line extends
from the energized conductors to other conducting objects such as the
ground, towers, vegetation, buildings, vehicles, and people. The
strength of the vertical component of the electric field at a height of
1 meter (3.28 feet) is frequently used to describe the electric field
under transmission lines. Magnetic fields from high voltage transmission
lines are produced only when current flows and they have a magnitude
that is dependent on the amount of current, not the applied voltage.

Reference: Avenal Energy,
[http://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases/avenal/documents/applicants_files/AFC_CD-ROM/6.18.pdf#search=%22%20%22audible%20noise%20and%20radio%2Ftelevision%20interference%22%22](http://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases/avenal/documents/applicants_files/AFC_CD-ROM/6.18.pdf#search=)

u)  Explain the requirements for and uses of alternate power supplies.

The following requirements are applicable to engine generators,
uninterruptible power supplies, and stationary batteries.

Internal events. The alternate power supply should have the capability
to perform its required function over the expected range of
environmental and load conditions independent of the normal sources of
power. The environmental considerations should include the effects of
anticipated operating conditions and failed plant equipment that may
have an adverse impact on the ability of the alternate power supply to
perform its function.

External events. The alternate power supply associated distribution
systems, and necessary support systems should be protected against those
events likely to produce a loss of normal power. Examples of such events
are hurricanes (high winds), tornadoes, floods, ice storms, lightning,
fire, and seismic events. The level of protection should be related to
the expected frequency and consequences of total loss of AC power due to
the particular event.

Output breakers. Output breaker protection and load breaker protection
should be coordinated in accordance with NFPA 110. A fault on an
individual load or circuit should not trip the alternate power supply's
output breaker.

Output breakers should have an interrupt rating greater than or equal to
the maximum available fault current at its location. Output breakers
should be located such that a fire at the alternate power supply will
not damage the bus feed circuit downstream of the output breaker. This
should prevent a fire at the alternate power supply from causing the
loss of ability to feed loads from the normal source.

Reference: DOE-STD-3003-2000, Backup Power Sources for DOE Facilities,
2000

v)  Discuss the uses of different voltages in a facility.

Equipment sensitive to frequency and/or voltage is designed to operate
within certain tolerances. Most equipment is sensitive to large changes
in the supply voltage level because more current will flow through a
device when the voltage level of the supply is increased (the current
through the device is equal to the voltage across the device divided by
the impedance of the device). When a larger current flows, the heat
dissipated in the device increases (the heat dissipated by the device is
proportional to the square of the current). Thus, doubling the voltage
will typically double the current, resulting in the device dissipating
four times the heat. Most devices cannot tolerate this amount of heat
and cannot operate reliably with a supply voltage level more than 10
percent or so higher than their rated voltage. A transformer can be used
to transfer electrical energy with high efficiency from one voltage
level to another at the same frequency.

Reference:
<http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm/tm5-688/chap-2.pdf>.

w)  Discuss the reasons for using single-phase versus three-phase power
    systems in a facility.

In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power refers to the
distribution of electric power using a system in which all the voltages
of the supply vary in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when
loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors.

Reference: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_phase>

x)  Discuss which systems would benefit from line filtering.

y)  Discuss the types of noise for which systems benefiting from line
    filtering would be susceptible to without implementation of line
    filtering.

Power surges, voltage spikes, and electromagnetic noise can all cause
potential problems with electronic equipment. There are many products
available to address each area of concern, but one product group
addresses all three problems: power line conditioners. To be considered
a power line conditioner, the unit must incorporate surge protection,
electromagnetic-interference/radio-frequency interference noise
filtering, and voltage regulation.

For equipment in a building that shares its main power line with other
buildings or high-current draw devices, the fluctuations in the voltage
are likely to exceed the tolerance of equipment at some point.

In general, circuits are designed to operate with a particular supply
voltage. When the supply voltage changes, the operation of the circuit
may be adversely affected. Consequently, some types of equipment must
have power supplies that produce the same output voltage regardless of
changes in the load resistance or changes in the AC line voltage. That
is where the voltage regulation function of a power conditioner comes
into play. By constantly monitoring the AC voltage level and limiting it
when necessary, a more consistent voltage level is maintained, lessening
the chances of damage to or erratic behavior of the equipment.

Reference: Info Com International,
<http://www.infocomm.org/index.cfm?objectID=1E4303D3-3D45-4769-ADED9BF582B8F3D5>

z)  Define the terms, Harmonics, Positive, Negative, and Zero sequence
    currents.

### Harmonics

The term harmonics is used to describe a component of a periodic voltage
or current waveform having a frequency that is an integral multiple of
the fundamental power line frequency, 60Hz in the U.S. This irregular
waveform results because the waveform required by power electronic loads
is quite different than the sinusoidal voltage delivered by the utility.
This 'non-linear' current draw results in a distorted waveform.

High levels of harmonic distortion can stress the electrical network
within a water treatment facility and on the servicing utility, causing
problems for sensitive electronic equipment. The impact on a facility
can be very costly, especially when processes are disrupted or shut
down, reducing productivity, increasing repair and maintenance costs,
and possibly spilling partially treated or untreated wastewater into
nearby waterways.

Reference: Environmental Science and Engineering,
<http://www.esemag.com/0905/harmonics.html>

### Positive, Negative, and Zero Sequence Currents

Sequence components of voltage and current are obtained by
transformation using a three-phase vector having a magnitude of 1/3 (per
channel) and a phase angle of zero, 120, and -120 degrees. Zero sequence
is the algebraic sum of the three vector phases, divided by three, and
in a balanced system, should be zero. Positive sequence is the product
of the three-phase signal vector, multiplied by a vector with reverse
phase rotation; in a balanced system, positive sequence should be equal
to the voltage (current) of each phase with the same phase angle
(relative to GPS) as the Aphase signal. Negative sequence is the product
of the three-phase signal vector, multiplied by a vector with normal
phase rotation; in a balanced system, negative sequence should be equal
to zero.

Reference: Arbiter Systems,

<http://www.arbiter.com/ftp/datasheets/1133a_conv_energy_seq_comp.pdf>

a)  Describe the sources of harmonics.

Sources of harmonics are

#### Ideal Rectifiers

Different rectifier drives in industry, traffic, and power transmission
realized with solid state technology generate harmonics. Household
electronics are also a source of harmonics. When studying the harmonics
the treatment of rectifier equipment can be reduced to the study of
rectifier bridges.

#### Rectifiers in Reality

The ideal harmonic theory is practical in theoretical observation. In
reality, non-characteristic harmonics can often be found among the
harmonics generated by rectifiers.

#### Thyristor Switches

In industry, thyristor switches are often used to control resistive
loads, e.g. infra-red dryers. The most common ways of control are the
zero-point and phase angle control.

#### Arc Furnaces

There are three kinds of melting furnaces in use in industry:
resistance, induction, and arc furnaces. Resistance furnaces are visible
in the network like a resistance load and induction furnaces like a
motor load. Arc furnaces are most problematic for networks.

#### Transformers

A transformer's harmonic generating effect is based on the magnetic
non-linearity of iron. The magnetic flux density does not grow linearly
with increase of magnetic field strength. Due to the hysteresis of the
transformer's iron core the magnetic flux does not follow the curve form
of supply voltage.

Transformer connection, structure of the core, and way of earthing have
a remarkable effect on the generation and spreading of harmonics.

#### Other Sources of Harmonics

Other sources of harmonics are discharge and fluorescent lamps,
short-circuit motors and generators. In normal operating conditions
generators and short-circuit motors are not significant sources of
harmonics.

Reference: <http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/harmo/2.htm>

b)  Describe the effect of harmonics on the power system and equipment.

The effects of three-phase harmonics on circuits are similar to the
effects of stress and high blood pressure on the human body. High levels
of stress or harmonic distortion can lead to problems for the utility's
distribution system, plant distribution system, and any other equipment
serviced by that distribution system. Effects can range from spurious
operation of equipment to a shutdown of important plant equipment, such
as machines or assembly lines.

Harmonics can lead to power system inefficiency. Some of the negative
ways that harmonics may affect plant equipment are listed below:

#### Conductor Overheating:

A function of the square rms current per unit volume of the conductor.
Harmonic currents on undersized conductors or cables can cause a "skin
effect", which increases with frequency and is similar to a centrifugal
force.

#### Capacitors:

Capacitors can be affected by heat rise increases due to power loss and
reduced life on the capacitors. If a capacitor is tuned to one of the
characteristic harmonics such as the 5th or 7th, over voltage and
resonance can cause dielectric failure or rupture the capacitor.

#### Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Harmonics can cause false or spurious operations and trips, damaging or
blowing components for no apparent reason.

#### Transformers

Transformers have increased iron and copper losses or eddy currents due
to stray flux losses. This causes excessive overheating in the
transformer windings. Typically, the use of appropriate "K factor" rated
units is recommended for non-linear loads.

#### Generators

Generators have similar problems to transformers. Sizing and
coordination is critical to the operation of the voltage regulator and
controls. Excessive harmonic voltage distortion will cause multiple zero
crossings of the current waveform. Multiple zero crossings affect the
timing of the voltage regulator, causing interference and operation
instability.

#### Utility Meters

Utility meters may record measurements incorrectly, resulting in higher
billings to consumers.

#### Drives/Power Supplies:

Drive/power supplies can be affected by misoperation due to multiple
zero crossings. Harmonics can cause failure of the commutation circuits,
found in DC drives and AC drives with silicon controlled rectifiers
(SCRs).

#### Computers/Telephones:

Computers and telephones may experience interference or failures.

Reference: Square D,
<http://www-ppd.fnal.gov/EEDOffice-w/Projects/CMS/LVPS/mg/8803PD9402.pdf>

c)  Describe the typical means of mitigating harmonics and their
    effects.

There are many ways to reduce harmonics, ranging from variable frequency
drive designs to the addition of auxiliary equipment. The primary
methods used today to reduce harmonics are:

#### Power System Design

Harmonics can be reduced by limiting the non-linear load to 30% of the
maximum transformer's capacity. However, with power factor correction
capacitors installed, resonating conditions can occur that could
potentially limit the percentage of non-linear loads to 15% of the
transformer's capacity. If h~r~ equals or is closed to a characteristic
harmonic, such as the 5th or 7th, there is a possibility that a resonant
condition could occur.

#### 12-Pulse Converter Front End

In this configuration, the front end of the bridge rectifier circuit
uses twelve diodes instead of six. The advantages are the elimination of
the 5th and 7th harmonics to a higher order where the 11^th^ and 13th
become the predominate harmonics. This will minimize the magnitude of
harmonics, but will not eliminate them. The disadvantages are cost and
construction, which also requires either a Delta-Delta and Delta-Wye
transformer, "Zig-Zag" transformer or an autotransformer to accomplish
the 30° phase shifting necessary for proper operation. This
configuration also affects the overall drive system efficiency rating
because of the voltage drop associated with the transformer
configuration requirement.

#### Delta-Delta and Delta-Wye Transformers

This configuration uses two separate utility feed transformers with
equal non-linear loads. This shifts the phase relationship to various
six-pulse converters through cancellation techniques, similar to the
twelve-pulse configuration.

#### Isolation Transformers

An isolation transformer provides a good solution in many cases. The
advantage is the potential to "voltage match" by stepping up or stepping
down the system voltage, and by providing a neutral ground reference for
nuisance ground faults. This is the best solution when utilizing AC or
DC drives that use SCRs as bridge rectifiers.

#### Line Reactors

More commonly used for size and cost, the line reactor is the best
solution for harmonic reduction when compared to an isolation
transformer. AC drives that use diode bridge rectifier front ends are
best suited for line reactors. Line reactors (commonly referred to as
inductors) are available in standard impedance ranges from 1.5%, 3%, 5%,
and 7.5%.

#### Harmonic Trap Filters

Used in applications with a high non-linear ratio to system to eliminate
harmonic currents. Filters are tuned to a specific harmonic such as the
5th, 7th, 11th, etc. In addition, harmonic trap filters provide true
distortion power factor correction.

Reference:
<http://www-ppd.fnal.gov/EEDOffice-w/Projects/CMS/LVPS/mg/8803PD9402.pdf>

## Demonstrate a working level knowledge of transformers.

a)  Define the following terms as they apply to transformers:

-   Mutual induction

-   Turns ratio

-   Impedance ratio

-   Efficiency

### Mutual Induction

Mutual induction is the production of an electrical voltage in a coil
due to the relative position of two inductors, which causes the magnetic
lines of force to link with the turns of the other.

### Turns Ratio

Turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary winding
to the number of turns in the secondary windings of a transformer.

### Impedance Ratio

The ratio between the two impedances is referred to as the impedance
ratio.

### Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output to the
power input.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92; DOE Fundamentals Handbook Electrical
Science, volume 4 of 4, 1992

d)  Describe the differences between a wye-connected and delta-connected
    transformer.

In the wye connection, three common ends of each phase are connected
together at a common terminal (marked "N" for neutral), and the other
three ends are connected to a three-phase line.

In the delta connection, all three phases are connected in series to
form a closed loop.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92; DOE Fundamentals Handbook Electrical
Science, volume 4 of 4, 1992

e)  Using the type of connection and turns ratios for the primary and
    secondary of a transformer, calculate voltage, current, and power
    for each of the following types:

-   Delta - Delta

-   Delta - Wye

-   Wye - Delta

-   Wye -- Wye

The following are examples of these calculations.

### Example 1

Given a three-phase transformer bank with a line voltage of 13.8 kV,
primary line current 12.5 A, and a turns ratio of 5:1 with a Delta -
Delta connection:

Calculate the voltage across each primary winding.

primary voltage = V = 13800 volts

Calculate the primary phase current.

primary phase current = $\frac{I}{\sqrt{3}}$ =
$\frac{\text{12}\text{.}5}{1\text{.}\text{73}}$ = 7.22 amps

Calculate the secondary line current.

secondary line current = 5(12.5) = 62.5 amps

Calculate the secondary phase current.

secondary phase current = $\frac{\text{aI}}{\sqrt{3}}$ =
$\frac{\text{62}\text{.}5}{1\text{.}\text{73}}$ = 36.1 amps

### Example 2

Given a three-phase transformer bank with a line voltage of 13.8 kV,
primary line current 12.5 A, and a turns ratio of 5:1 with a Wye - Wye
connection:

Calculate the voltage across each primary winding.

primary voltage = $\frac{V}{\sqrt{3}}$ =
$\frac{\text{13800}}{1\text{.}\text{73}}$ = 7967.4 volts

Calculate the primary phase current

primary phase current = I = 12.5

Calculate the secondary line current

secondary line current = aI = 5(12.5) = 62.5 amps

Calculate the secondary phase current

Secondary phase current = aI = 5(12.5) = 62.5 amps

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92; DOE Fundamentals Handbook Electrical
Science, volume 4 of 4, 1992

f)  State the applications of each of the following types of
    transformers:

-   Distribution

-   Power

-   Control

-   Auto

-   Isolation

-   Instrument potential

-   Instrument current

### Distribution

Distribution transformers are generally used in electrical power
distribution and transmission systems. This class of transformer has the
highest power, or volt-ampere ratings, and the highest continuous
voltage rating. The power rating is normally determined by the type of
cooling methods the transformer may use. Some commonly used methods of
cooling are by using oil or some other heat-conducting material. Ampere
rating is increased in a distribution transformer by increasing the size
of the primary and secondary windings; voltage ratings are increased by
increasing the voltage rating of the insulation used in making the
transformer.

### Power

Power transformers are used in electronic circuits and come in many
different types and applications. Electronics or power transformers are
sometimes considered to be those with ratings of 300 volt-amperes and
below. These transformers normally provide power to the power supply of
an electronic device, such as in power amplifiers in audio receivers.

### Control

Control transformers are generally used in electronic circuits that
require constant voltage or constant current with a low power or
volt-ampere rating. Various filtering devices, such as capacitors, are
used to minimize the variations in the output. This results in a more
constant voltage or current.

### Auto

The autotransformer is generally used in low power applications where a
variable voltage is required. The autotransformer is a special type of
power transformer. It consists of only one winding. By tapping or
connecting at certain points along the winding, different voltages can
be obtained.

### Isolation

Isolation transformers are normally low power transformers used to
isolate noise from or to ground electronic circuits. Since a transformer
cannot pass DC voltage from primary to secondary, any DC voltage, such
as noise, cannot be passed, and the transformer acts to isolate this
noise.

### Instrument Potential

The instrument potential transformer steps down voltage of a circuit to
a low value that can be effectively and safely used for operation of
instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, and relays used
for various protective purposes.

### Instrument Current

The instrument current transformer steps down the current of a circuit
to a lower value and is used in the same types of equipment as a
potential transformer. This is done by constructing the secondary coil,
consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil, which
contains only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high
values of current can be obtained.

A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not
connected to an external load. Because the magnetic circuit of a current
transformer is designed for low magnetizing current when under load,
this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in
the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up
transformer, inducing an excessively high voltage in the secondary when
under no load.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92; DOE Fundamentals Handbook Electrical
Science, volume 4 of 4, 1992

g)  Describe the hazardous materials that are associated with
    transformers.

Wet type transformers are filled with oil. Fire or explosion is a
possibility if the transformer is faulted. Polychlorinated Biphenyls
(PCB) or PCB-contaminated electrical equipment and the treatment of PCB
oil spills shall comply with 40 CFR 761. Oil filled transformers
installed near buildings shall comply with FM 5-4/14-8. Existing PCB or
PCB-contaminated equipment shall be identified with warning signs and
shall not be relocated or re-used in other existing or new facilities.
Electrical equipment cooling material shall be handled in accordance
with 29 CFR 1910.1200.

When venting or opening gas or oil filled equipment, take precautions
against explosion, fire, and asphyxiation. Ensure adequate ventilation
is provided.

Extreme care must be taken when dealing with transformers filled with
Inerteen. Inerteen fumes are toxic, especially when heated. Exposure to
the skin may cause skin rashes, so gloves should be worn to prevent
contact with the skin.

Gas given off by a selenium rectifier is toxic. The gas, hydrogen
selenide, has a strong, pungent odor.

Although not a material hazard, operators should be aware not to open
the circuit of the secondary windings. Opening the secondary windings of
a transformer will increase the flux in the core due to the high primary
windings, creating excessive core loss, heating, and dangerously high
voltage across the secondary windings.

An additional hazard, although not a material hazard is that in
transformers with fans for cooling, the fans may start automatically at
any time. Do not place hands or tools in the fans.

Reference: Electrical Systems Topical Area Self-Study Guide, CS 1.16f,
August 1996

h)  Describe the conditions that must be met prior to paralleling two
    transformers, including consequences of not meeting these
    conditions.

The following conditions must exist for transformers to operate
satisfactorily in parallel:

-   Connection diagrams must be identical. Paralleling transformers with
    different connection diagrams is similar to short circuiting their
    secondary windings.

-   Voltage ratios must be the same. If voltage ratios are not the same,
    circulating currents will flow in the secondaries with no or little
    load and the division of load will be improper.

-   Percent impedance, including primary and secondary leads to each
    transformer, should be nearly equal. If the impedance's are equal
    and the turn's ratios are identical, the paralleled transformers
    will divide the load currents (properly) in proportion to their kVA
    ratings. If the percent impedance's are different, the transformer
    with the lower percent impedance will take more than its proper
    share of the load.

Reference: <http://polk-burnett.apogee.net/pd/dsdo.asp>

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).

a)  Describe how a UPS works.

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i)  Identify the various UPS components.

### How a UPS works

Normal conditions - AC from the normal power supply is converted into DC
in the rectifier. A small trickle charge of DC electricity maintains a
charge on the UPS DC battery. The majority of DC electricity from the
rectifier is converted back to AC electricity in the inverter. The AC
electricity passes through a static transfer switch and onto the
uninterruptible power supply loads via the distribution panel.

Loss of normal power - When the normal AC electricity power supply is
lost, the static transfer switch sense the loss of electricity. The
static transfer switch automatically disconnects the normal power supply
and connects the alternate AC power supply. This allows the alternate
power supply to provide power to the uninterruptible power supply loads.

Loss of normal power and alternate power - When the normal AC
electricity power supply is lost and the static transfer switch senses
power unavailable from the alternate AC power supply, as soon as the DC
electricity out of the rectifier drops below the voltage of the UPS
battery, electricity flows out of the battery and to the inverter where
the DC electricity is converted to AC electricity in the inverter. The
AC electricity passes through a static transfer switch and onto the
uninterruptible power supply loads via the distribution panel. The UPS
loads will be supplied with power as long as the charge on the battery
lasts. UPS batteries are sized to provide full load on the system for
approximately 20 minutes.

Reference: Electrical Systems Topical Area Self-Study Guide, CS 1.17b.
August 1996

### Various UPS Components

Major UPS components include a rectifier charger, a battery bank, and an
inverter.

### Rectifier

Each rectifier is adjusted to supply the inverter with nominal power
while simultaneously maintaining the level of battery charge, or to
recharge the battery after a period of back up. Each rectifier consists
of the following elements:

-   An anti-mains harmonic feed-back filter

-   A rectifier bridge controlling the output voltage

-   A smoothing inductor designed to eliminate residual ripple (The
    residual AC component must not affect the battery lifespan.)

-   A command and electronic adjustment logic

-   Control and monitoring equipment

Following a mains failure and its return, the rectifiers start up
automatically. To avoid mains inrush current during voltage return, it
is possible to individually stagger each rectifier start up using a time
delay, and the power build-up is progressive (longer than 10 seconds).
Stopping battery recharge is possible without stopping the rectifier,
using external data (dry contacts). When running off generator sets,
this function ensures that the battery is not recharged before returning
to normal mains. Each rectifier charger consists of several adjustable
voltage set points adapted to the requirements of battery recharge.
Adjustment consists of an automatic compensation system for load voltage
according to the ambient temperature within the battery casing.

### Battery Bank

The battery banks are stationary and of the following types:

-   Sealed lead-acid, mounted and cabled in a matching cabinet

-   Sealed lead-acid on racks

-   Open lead-acid on racks

Protection is incorporated in the battery cabinets, which are mounted on
the wall. A device protects each battery against the risk of total
discharge.

### Inverter

The inverter design enables the tolerances of different output
parameters (voltage, distortion rates, and frequency) to be maintained.
Each inverter consists of a three-phase frequency converter fitted with

-   a power converter bridge with insulated gate bipolar-type
    transistors

-   a parallel series filter

-   control and command electronics

The operating principle is based on pulse width modulation. The
oscillator provides the frequency reference and is synchronized with the
main's frequency when this is within tolerance. It operates autonomously
when the main is out of tolerance or absent.

It is also possible to desynchronize its operating when, for example the
UPS supply is provided by a generator set, the stability of which is
incompatible with the load requirements. In cases of sharp current
build, and before the inverter voltage exceeds its tolerance, the load
is transferred to the mains without interruption (automatic by-pass).
Once returned to a normal state, the load is automatically supplied by
the inverters. In the case of a non-discriminated short-circuit, the
inverters must be shut-off by their electronic protection without any
deterioration. After the inverter has stopped after full battery
discharge, the UPS will restart automatically when the mains supply is
restored.

Reference:
[http://www.dts-ups.com/DELPHYS%20DS%203ph-1ph.htm](http://www.dts-ups.com/DELPHYS DS 3ph-1ph.htm)

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of variable frequency (speed) drives (VFD).

a)  Describe the major components and operation of a VFD.

A VFD is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating
current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the
electrical power supplied to the motor. A VFD is a specific type of
adjustable speed drive. VFDs are also known as adjustable frequency
drives, variable speed drives, AC drives, or inverter drives.

A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a
controller and an operator interface.

#### VFD Motor

The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor.
Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors
are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer
advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for
most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that
are designed for fixed-speed mains voltage operation are often used, but
certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher
reliability and better VFD performance.

#### VFD Controller

Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power
conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC
intermediate power using a rectifier bridge. The DC intermediate power
is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter
switching circuit. The rectifier is usually a three-phase diode bridge,
but controlled rectifier circuits are also used. Since incoming power is
converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as
three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed
controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase
input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected
load.

As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, they have
promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current
ratings for which suitable devices are available. Currently, insulated
gate bipolar transistors are used in most VFD inverter circuits.

AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be
proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed. For example,
if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied
voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30
Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant
value (460/60 = 7.67 in this case). For optimum performance, some
further voltage adjustment may be necessary, but nominally constant
volts per hertz is the general rule. The latest method used for
adjusting the motor voltage is called pulse width modulation (PWM). With
PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to divide the
quasi-sinusoidal output waveform into a series of narrow voltage pulses
and modulate the width of the pulses.

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD
controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is
inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration
programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the
user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven
equipment requirements.

#### VFD Operator interface

The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and
stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator
control functions might include reversing and switching between manual
speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control
signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display
and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the
operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is
often provided on the front of the VFD controller. The keypad display
can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD
controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals
for connecting pushbuttons, switches, and other operator interface
devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often
available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored, and
controlled using a computer.

Reference: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Frequency_Drive>

j)  Give examples where VFDs are used.

Nearly all VFDs manufactured today are referred to as pulse width
modulation drives. These drives contain electronic circuitry that
converts the 60 Hz line power to direct current, then pulses the output
voltage for varying lengths of time to mimic an alternating current at
the frequency desired.

The majority of VFD applications are for centrifugal pumps and fans. The
savings potential for these devices is the largest, since the
theoretical input power varies with the cube of fan/pump speed and
volume.

For example, a fan operating at half speed will require only about 13
percent of full speed power. Losses in the VFD will reduce savings
somewhat, but the savings are still very impressive.

Air and water flow control is accomplished by either of several methods,
including recirculating a portion of the flow, throttling, variable
inlet vanes, and variable frequency drives.

Recirculating part of the flow results in the fan or pump operating at
full volume all the time. Only a portion of the flow is used for the
system or process and the rest is recirculated back to the inlet of the
fan or pump. This is the least efficient means of controlling flow.

Throttling essentially chokes the outlet of the pump or fan to decrease
flow much like holding your thumb over the end of a garden hose. The
pressure increases and the flow decreases. This results in some energy
savings over a constant volume recirculating system, but is still
wasteful.

Variable inlet vanes apply only to fans and compressors, not pumps.
Inlet vanes control flow by pre-spinning the air entering a fan wheel or
compressor impeller in the direction of rotation, which effectively
varies its capacity.

VFDs can also be applied to what are called constant torque loads.
Unlike the fan and pump power which varies with the cube of speed,
constant torque applications vary power in direct proportion to speed.
This results in lower savings for a given reduction in speed, but there
are still significant savings available in some applications. Examples
of constant torque systems include conveyors and hydraulically driven
injection molding machines. Positive displacement pumps and compressors
are also constant torque machines. VFDs provide the most efficient part
load control of rotary screw air compressors, and are gaining market
share in the industry.

VFDs can be installed with manual or automatic bypasses. In the early
days of the VFDs, bypasses were more common since VFDs were not as
reliable as they are at the present time. The bypasses were installed in
the event of a drive failure to ensure the system or process would
remain on line. Bypasses are still available but not always installed.
The criticality of the application must be considered in each case to
determine whether the added cost and security of a bypass is warranted.

Harmonic filtering may be necessary in some applications. VFDs can
produce harmonics that can make their way back to the rest of the
building and interfere with sensitive electronic equipment and machines.
Line reactors can be used on smaller drives of 20 hp and less to dampen
and mitigate harmonics. For larger applications, an isolation
transformer may be warranted. The isolation transformer can be installed
either on the drive or on the piece of equipment to be protected from
the harmonics. Because the equipment being protected may be much lower
in power, it may be most economical to isolate the piece of equipment
from the building supply.

Reference: Alliant Energy,
<http://www.alliantenergy.com/docs/groups/public/documents/pub/p012399.hcsp>

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical test instruments and measuring devices.

a)  Describe the purpose and method of operation of the following
    in-place measuring devices:

-   Voltmeter

-   Ammeter

-   Ohmmeter

-   Wattmeter

-   Ampere-hour meter

-   Power factor meter

-   Ground detector

-   Synchroscope

-   Megger

-   Power quality monitors

### Voltmeter

Voltmeters are used extensively in industry where the surveillance of
input and/or output voltages is vital for plant operation. A simple DC
voltmeter can be constructed by placing a resistor, called a multiplier,
in series with the ammeter meter movement, and marking the meter face to
read voltage. Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the load being
measured.

When a voltmeter is connected in a circuit, the voltmeter will draw
current from that circuit. This current causes a voltage drop across the
resistance of the meter, which is subtracted from the voltage being
measured by the meter. This reduction in voltage is known as the loading
effect and can have a serious effect on measurement accuracy, especially
for low current circuits.

The accuracy of a voltmeter is defined as the ratio of measured voltage
when the meter is in the circuit to the voltage measured with the meter
out of the circuit.

### Ammeter

The measurement of current being supplied to or from a component is
measured by an ammeter. The ammeter measures electric current. It may be
calibrated in amperes, milliamperes, or microamperes. To measure
current, the ammeter must be placed in series with the circuit to be
tested. When an ammeter is placed in series with a circuit, it will
increase the resistance of that circuit by an amount equal to the
internal resistance of the meter.

The accuracy of the ammeter is the ratio of the current when the meter
is in the circuit to the current with the meter out of the circuit.

### Ohmmeter

The ohmmeter is an instrument used to determine resistance. A simple
ohmmeter consists of a battery, a meter movement calibrated in ohms, and
a variable resistor.

Ohmmeters are connected to a component that is removed from the circuit.
The reason for removing the component is that measurement of current
through the component determines the resistance. If the component
remains in the circuit, and a parallel path exists in the circuit, the
current will flow in the path of least resistance and give an erroneous
reading.

### Wattmeter

The wattmeter is an instrument that measures DC power or true AC power.
The wattmeter uses fixed coils to indicate current, while the movable
coil indicates voltage. The fixed coils in series with one another serve
as an ammeter. The two terminals are connected in series with the load.
The movable coil, and its multiplier resistor, is used as a voltmeter,
with the terminals connected in parallel with the load.

Wattmeters are rated in terms of their maximum current, voltage, and
power. All of these ratings must be observed to prevent damage to the
meter.

### Ampere-Hour Meter

The ampere-hour meter registers ampere-hours and is an integrating meter
similar to the watt-hour meter used to measure electricity usage in a
home. Typical ampere-hour meters are digital indicators similar to the
odometer used in automobiles. The ampere-hour meter is a direct current
meter that will register in either direction depending on the direction
of current flow. For example, starting from a given reading, it will
register the amount of discharge of a battery; when the battery is
placed on charge, it will operate in the opposite direction, returning
once again to its starting point. When this point is reached, the
battery has received a charge equal to the discharge, and the charge is
stopped. It is normally desired to give a battery a 10 percent
overcharge. This is accomplished by designing the ampere-hour meter to
run 10 percent slow in the charge direction. These meters are subject to
inaccuracies and cannot record the internal losses of a battery. They
attempt to follow the charge and discharge, but inherently do not
indicate the correct state of charge. Similar to an ammeter, the
ampere-hour meter is connected in series. Although the ampere-hour
meters were used quite extensively in the past, they have been largely
superseded by the voltage-time method of control.

### Power Factor Meter

A power factor meter is a type of electrodynamometer movement when it is
made with two movable coils set at right angles to each other. Two
stationary coils are connected in series. Coils are mounted on a common
shaft, which is free to move without restraint or control springs. These
coils are connected with their series resistors. At a power factor of
unity, one potential coil current leads and one lags the current by 30°;
thus, the coils are balanced. A change in power factor will cause the
current of one potential coil to become more in phase and the other
potential coil to be more out of phase with the current, so that the
moving element and pointer take a new position of balance to show the
new power factor.

### Ground Detector

The ground detector is an instrument that is used to detect conductor
insulation resistance to ground. An ohmmeter, or a series of lights, can
be used to detect the insulation strength of an ungrounded distribution
system. Most power distribution systems in use today are of the grounded
variety type. However, some ungrounded systems still exist.

### Synchroscope

A synchroscope indicates when two AC generators are in the correct phase
relation for connecting in parallel and shows whether the incoming
generator is running faster or slower than the on-line generator. The
synchroscope consists of a two-phase stator. The two-stator windings are
at right angles to one another, and by means of a phase-splitting
network, the current in one phase leads the current of the other phase
by 90°, thereby generating a rotating magnetic field.

The stator windings are connected to the incoming generator, and a
polarizing coil is connected to the running generator. The rotating
element is unrestrained and is free to rotate through 360°. It consists
of two iron vanes mounted in opposite directions on a shaft, one at the
top, and one at the bottom, and magnetized by the polarizing coil.

If the frequencies of the incoming and running generators are different,
the synchroscope will rotate at a speed corresponding to the difference.
It is designed so that if incoming frequency is higher than running
frequency, it will rotate in the clockwise direction; if incoming
frequency is less than running frequency, it will rotate in the
counterclockwise direction. When the synchroscope indicates 0° phase
difference, the pointer is at the "12 o'clock" position and the two AC
generators are in phase.

### Megger

The megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation
resistance. The megger consists of a hand-driven DC generator and a
direct reading ohmmeter. The moving element of the ohmmeter consists of
two coils that are rigidly mounted to a pivoted central shaft and are
free to rotate over a C-shaped core. These coils are connected by means
of flexible leads. The moving element may point in any meter position
when the generator is not in operation.

As current provided by the hand-driven generator flows through the coil,
the coil will tend to set itself at right angles to the field of the
permanent magnet. With the test terminals open, giving an infinite
resistance, no current flows in coil A. Thereby, coil B will govern the
motion of the rotating element, causing it to move to the extreme
counter-clockwise position, which is marked as infinite resistance.

### Power Quality Monitors

Power quality monitors are intended to give all necessary information
about significant power quality disturbances over a long period varying
from weeks to months. These instruments identify and record the
characteristics of many types of disturbances changing on a timescale of
microseconds to hours. Fast transients require high sample rate
analog-to-digital converters giving a large data throughput. Operating
over a long timescale, this gives an enormous amount of data to be
handled. These instruments must either record very little of the data
handled, have large storage facilities, or communicate the data to a
storage facility by means of a modem. To prevent overloading of memory
with discrete event type disturbances, monitors have adjustable
thresholds that determine the level at which a disturbance is recorded.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

k)  Describe safe methods for using the following portable test
    equipment:

-   Ammeter

-   Voltmeter

-   Ohmmeter

### Ammeter

Current measuring instruments must always be connected in series with a
circuit and never in parallel. Always check the polarity of the ammeter.
Make certain that the meter is connected to the circuit so that
electrons flow into the negative lead of the meter and out of the
positive lead of the meter. (Normally the negative lead is black and the
positive lead is red.)

Always set the full-scale deflection of the meter to be larger than the
expected current. To be safe, set the full scale current several times
larger than the expected current, and then slowly increase the
sensitivity to the appropriate scale.

### Voltmeter

Voltage measuring instruments must always be connected in parallel with
(across the) a circuit and never in series. Always set the full-scale
voltage of the meter to be larger than the expected voltage to be
measured.

Always insure that the internal resistance of the voltmeter is much
greater than the resistance of the component to be measured.

### Ohmmeter

Before measuring the resistance of a circuit, always short the meter
test leads together and ensure the meter indicates near zero. Adjust the
meter to indicate zero using the meter adjustment. When the test leads
are taken apart, ensure that the meter reads infinite resistance.

The power supply to the circuit to be measured must always be OFF and/or
disconnected. This prevents the circuit's source from being applied
across the meter and damaging the meter's movement. The ohmmeter range
selection switch should be positioned so that the indicator is in the
middle region of the scale. This provides better accuracy.

Reference: Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook,
Electrical Science, 1992

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of the principles and concepts of natural phenomena hazards (such as static electricity, reference NFPA 77) and their effect on electrical systems.

a)  Discuss the potential impact of lightning on electrical systems at
    defense nuclear facilities.

For information regarding the impact of lightning on electrical systems
see NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection
Systems, 1997.

l)  Discuss various methods of lightning protection as preventive
    measures (e.g., surge suppressors, Faraday cages, etc.).

It is DOE policy to install lightning protection on all facilities used
for storage, processing, and handling of explosive materials where
operations cannot be shut down and personnel evacuated during electrical
storms. Specific operations shall be assessed for the risk of detonation
of explosives by lightning. Such assessment shall consider the need for
the protection factors outlined in appendix I, NFPA 780. When risk is
high, as in operations with highly sensitive electrostatic materials or
components, operations shall be conducted only in lightning-protected
facilities. Approved lightning protection systems shall conform to the
requirements of appendix I, NFPA 780.

Lightning-protection systems should be visually inspected every 7 months
and a report on their conditions filed at least annually. Any evidence
of corrosion, broken wires, or connections, or any other problem that
negates the system's usefulness shall be noted and the problem repaired.

Lightning protection systems should be tested electrically every 14
months to ensure testing during all seasons, or immediately following
any repair or modification. The testing shall be conducted only with
instruments designed specifically for earth-ground system testing. The
instruments shall be able to measure 10 ohms ±10°10 for ground
resistance testing and 1 ohm ±10°10 for bonding testing. Electrical
resistance readings shall be recorded.

Inspection records shall contain the most recent electrical test report
and any subsequent visual inspection reports for each building with a
lightning-protection system.

In addition to facility lightning protection, the effects of surges
resulting from lightning strikes to power distribution systems may be
lessened by the use of lightning arrestors and suppressors installed at
strategic points in the supply system to the facility. An assessment
addressing the consequences of lightning-induced surges is necessary to
determine the degree to which protection should be provided.

A Faraday cage is an enclosure with no apertures (holes, slits, windows,
or doors) made of a perfectly conducting material. No electric fields
are produced within the Faraday cage by the incidence of external fields
upon it or by currents flowing on the perfect conductor; that is, the
perfectly conducting enclosure is a perfect electromagnetic shield. If
no electrical energy sources are within the Faraday cage, then there
will be no electric fields within, since none can penetrate the
conducting enclosure.

A Faraday cage can enclose an arbitrary volume, so several rooms or
buildings, which alone would each be a Faraday cage, can be joined by
bonded perfectly conducting conduit to constitute a single Faraday cage.

Since a perfect conductor is an idealization unavailable in nature,
perfect Faraday cages do not exist. However, extremely good Faraday
cages are constructed for electromagnetic experiments; they are commonly
called screen rooms. Early screen rooms were made of copper mesh screen
with a somewhat tighter mesh than typical aluminum window screen. Screen
rooms are also made of welded sheet aluminum or sheet steel. For all
screen rooms, special attention is given to electromagnetic sealing of
closed doors and to metallic penetrations for power or communication.
Screen rooms are typically designed to shield the enclosed volume from
low-energy, high frequency transmitted electromagnetic waves (e. g.,
AM/FM radio waves), but not to shield from directly attached lightning
flashes. Welded sheet metal screen rooms can provide extraordinary
protection from lightning if the metal is thick enough. However, the
cost of this method is too high for many lightning protection
applications involving new construction, and the method is usually
impractical for existing construction.

m)  Briefly describe the safety measures and design features commonly
    used as safeguards against natural hazards and identify the relevant
    industry consensus standards that codify accepted design and
    installation practices for these safeguards.

Systems, structures, and components shall be designed, constructed, and
operated to withstand the effects of natural phenomena as necessary to
ensure the confinement of hazardous material, the operation of essential
facilities, the protection of government property, and the protection of
life safety for occupants of DOE buildings. The design process shall
consider potential damage and failure of systems, structures, and
components due to both direct and indirect natural phenomena effects,
including common cause effects and interactions from failures of other
systems, structures, and components. Furthermore, the seismic
requirements of Executive Order 12699 shall be addressed.

Systems, structures, and components for new DOE facilities, and
additions or major modifications to existing systems, structures, and
components shall be designed, constructed, and operated to meet the
requirements in the previous paragraph. Any additions and modifications
to existing DOE facilities shall not degrade the performance of existing
systems, structures, and components to the extent that the objectives
cannot be achieved under the effects of natural phenomena.

There is an established hierarchy in the set of documents that specify
natural phenomena hazard (NPH) requirements. In this hierarchy, 10 CFR
830, Nuclear Safety Management, (for Nuclear Facilities only) has the
highest authority followed by DOE O 420.1A, Facility Safety, and the
associated Guides, DOE G 420.1-1, Nonreactor Nuclear Safety Design
Criteria and Explosive Safety Criteria Guide for use with DOE O 420.1
Facility Safety, and DOE G 420.1-2, Guide for the Mitigation of Natural
Phenomena Hazards for DOE Nuclear Facilities and Non Nuclear Facilities.
The four NPH standards (DOE-STDS-1020, 1021, 1022, 1023) are the last
set of documents in this hierarchy.

In the event of conflicts in the information provided, the document of
higher authority should be utilized (e.g., the definitions provided in
the Guides should be utilized even though corresponding definitions are
provided in the NPH standards).

n)  Reference the following:

-   DOE-STD-1020-2002, Natural Phenomena Hazards Design and Evaluation
    Criteria for Department of Energy Facilities

-   DOE-STD-1021-93, Natural Phenomena Hazards Performance
    Categorization Guidelines for Structures, Systems, and Components

-   DOE-STD-1022-94, Natural Phenomena Hazards Site Characterization
    Criteria

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of direct current (DC) generators and motors.

**Generators**

a)  Describe the relationship between shaft speed, field flux, and
    generated voltage.

An electromechanical generator is a device capable of producing
electrical power from mechanical energy, usually the turning of a shaft.
When not connected to a load resistance, generators will generate
voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction
and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for
certain ranges of shaft speeds, thus making them well-suited as
measurement devices for shaft speed in mechanical equipment.

Fields have two measures: a field force and a field flux. The field
force is the amount of push that a field exerts over a certain distance.
The field flux is the total quantity, or effect, of the field through
space. Field force and flux are roughly analogous to voltage and current
(flow) through a conductor, respectively, although field flux can exist
in totally empty space (without the motion of particles such as
electrons) whereas current can only take place where there are free
electrons to move. Field flux can be opposed in space, just as the flow
of electrons can be opposed by resistance. The amount of field flux that
will develop in space is proportional to the amount of field force
applied, divided by the amount of opposition to flux. Just as the type
of conducting material dictates that conductor's specific resistance to
electric current, the type of insulating material separating two
conductors dictates the specific opposition to field flux.

Reference: All About Circuits,
<http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_13/1.html>

o)  Define the following:

-   Electromotive force

-   Excitation

-   Compounding

-   Armature

-   Terminal voltage

-   Load current

-   Shunt windings

-   Series windings

### Electromotive Force

Electromotive force is the force that causes electricity to flow between
two points with different electrical charges, or the difference of
potential between the two points.

### Excitation

The magnetic fields in DC generators are most commonly provided by
electromagnets. A current must flow through the electromagnet conductors
to produce a magnetic field. In order for a DC generator to operate
properly, the magnetic field must always be in the same direction.
Therefore, the current through the field winding must be direct current.
This current is known as the field excitation current and can be
supplied to the field winding in one of two ways. It can come from a
separate DC source external to the generator (e.g., a separately excited
generator) or it can come directly from the output of the generator, in
which case it is called a self-excited generator.

In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to
the generator output. The field may be connected in series with the
output, in parallel with the output, or a combination of the two.

Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or
another DC source. It is generally more expensive than a self-excited
generator. Separately excited generators are, therefore, used only where
self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases where
the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or
where the generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during
normal operations.

### Compounding

The compound generator has a field winding in parallel with the
generator armature (the same as a shunt-wound generator) and a field
winding in series with the generator armature (the same as a
series-wound generator).

The two windings of the compounded generator are made such that their
magnetic fields will either aid or oppose one another.

If the two fields are wound so that their flux fields oppose one
another, the generator is said to be differentially compounded. Due to
the nature of this type of generator, it is used only in special cases.

If the two fields of a compound generator are wound so that their
magnetic fields aid one another, the generator is said to be
cumulatively compounded. As the load current increases, the current
through the series field winding increases, increasing the overall
magnetic field strength and causing an increase in the output voltage of
the generator. With proper design, the increase in the magnetic field
strength of the series winding will compensate for the decrease in shunt
field strength. Therefore, the overall strength of the combined magnetic
fields remains almost unchanged, so the output voltage will remain
constant. In reality, the two fields cannot be made so that their
magnetic field strengths compensate for each other completely. There
will be some change in output voltage from the no-load to full-load
conditions.

### Armature

The purpose of the armature is to provide the energy conversion in a DC
machine. In a DC generator, an external mechanical force, such as a
steam turbine, rotates the armature.

This rotation induces a voltage and current flow in the armature. Thus,
the armature converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

In a DC motor, the armature receives voltage from an outside electrical
source and converts electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form
of torque.

### Terminal Voltage

Terminal voltage, as applied to DC generators, is defined as the voltage
that can be measured at the output of the generator.

### Load Current and Shunt Windings

When the field winding of a generator is connected in parallel with the
generator armature, the generator is called a shunt-wound generator.

In the shunt-wound generator, the battery voltage is connected across
the field winding. A steady current (equal to the battery voltage
divided by the resistance of the field winding) flows in the field
winding, causing it to become an electromagnet. Usually the field
winding is brought out separately from the armature, so the motor has
four wires. With an ohmmeter you can check that there are in fact two
windings, a high resistance one (the field) and a low resistance one
(the armature). To control the speed, connect the field winding directly
across the battery and drive the armature from a controller.

The excitation current in a shunt-wound generator depends on the output
voltage and the field resistance. Normally, field excitation is
maintained between 0.5 and 5 percent of the total current output of the
generator.

The shunt-wound generator, running at a constant speed under varying
load conditions, has a much more stable voltage output than does a
series-wound generator. Some change in output voltage does take place.
This change is caused by the fact that, as the load current increases,
the voltage drop across the armature coil increases, causing output
voltage to decrease. As a result, the current through the field
decreases, reducing the magnetic field and causing voltage to decrease
even more. If load current is much higher than the design of the
generator, the drop in output voltage is severe. For load current within
the design range of the generator, the drop in output voltage is
minimal.

### Series Windings

In a series-wound motor, the armature current flows through the field
winding, which is a high-current winding in series with the armature.
Both windings will be low resistance and, with an ohmmeter, it can be
difficult to tell them apart.

This series connection gives the series-wound motor a performance much
different than the shunt-wound types.

One feature of series-wound motors is that they don't have a theoretical
top speed: as the armature speed increases, the current reduces. As it
does so, the magnetic field reduces. As the field reduces, the motor
needs to rotate faster to give the same back EMF. As the current reduces
to zero, the perfect motor would get faster and faster to give an
infinite top speed under zero loading. Fortunately perfect motors don\'t
exist and there is always some residual magnetic field and some
friction. Nevertheless some early traction motors had a nasty habit of
over-revving to destruction if a drive shaft broke. This over-revving is
also the rationale behind compound-wound motors, where an extra
shunt-wound field provides a permanent field to restrict field reduction
and to limit top speed.

This feature of the series-wound motor makes it a good choice for open
road vehicles, where a limited top speed isn't so desirable, and where
you want to gain momentum down one hill to get up the next. However,
when you run a series-wound motor at slow speed with a small mechanical
load it becomes very inefficient.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

p)  State the purpose of the following components of a DC machine:

-   Armature

-   Rotor

-   Stator

-   Field

### Armature

The purpose of an armature is to provide the energy conversion in a DC
machine.

### Rotor

The purpose of the rotor is to provide the rotating element in a DC
machine.

### Stator

The stator is the part of a motor or generator that is stationary. In DC
machines, the purpose of the stator is to provide the magnetic field.

### Field

The purpose of the field in a DC machine is to provide a magnetic field
for producing either a voltage or a torque.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

q)  Describe self-excited and separately excited generators.

In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to
the generator output. The field may be connected in series with the
output, in parallel with the output, or a combination of the two.

Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or
another DC source. It is generally more expensive than a self-excited
generator. Separately excited generators are, therefore, used only where
self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases where
the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or
where the generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during
normal operations.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

r)  Describe the operation of compound-wound generators.

If the two fields are wound so that their flux fields oppose one
another, the generator is said to be differentially compounded. Due to
the nature of this type of generator, it is used only in special cases.

If the two fields of a compound generator are wound so that their
magnetic fields aid one another, the generator is said to be
cumulatively compounded. As the load current increases, the current
through the series field winding increases, increasing the overall
magnetic field strength and causing an increase in the output voltage of
the generator.

With proper design, the increase in the magnetic field strength of the
series winding will compensate for the decrease in shunt field strength.
Therefore, the overall strength of the combined magnetic fields remains
almost unchanged, so the output voltage will remain constant. In
reality, the two fields cannot be made so that their magnetic field
strengths compensate for each other completely. There will be some
change in output voltage from the no-load to full-load conditions.

In practical compounded generators, the change in output voltage from
no-load to full-load is less than 5 percent. A generator with this
characteristic is said to be flat-compounded.

For some applications, the series winding is wound so that it
overcompensates for a change in the shunt field. The output gradually
rises with increasing load current over the normal operating range of
the machine. This type of generator is called an over-compounded
generator.

The series winding can also be wound so that it under compensates for
the change in shunt field strength. The output voltage decreases
gradually with an increase in load current.

This type of generator is called an under-compounded generator.

Reference: <http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v2/css/h1011v2_94.htm>

s)  Describe how the terminal voltage of a DC generator is adjusted.

DC generator output voltage is dependent on three factors (1) the number
of conductor loops in series in the armature, (2) armature speed, and
(3) magnetic field strength. To change the generator output, one of
these three factors must be varied. The number of conductors in the
armature cannot be changed in a normally operating generator, and it is
usually impractical to change the speed at which the armature rotates.
The strength of the magnetic field, however, can be changed quite easily
by varying the current through the field winding. This is the most
widely used method for regulating the output voltage of a DC generator.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

t)  State the basis behind each DC generator rating.

DC generators are rated by current, speed, voltage, and power. Current
is based on the size of the conductor and the amount of heat that can be
dissipated in the generator. Speed is based at the upper limit and is
determined by the point at which mechanical damage is done to the
machine. The lower rating is based on the limit for field current.
Voltage is based on the insulation type and design of the machine. Power
is based on the mechanical limitations of the device that is used to
turn the generator, and on the thermal limits of conductors, bearings,
and other components of the generator.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

u)  Describe the internal losses found in a direct current generator.

### Copper Loss

Copper loss is the power lost as heat in the windings. It is caused by
the flow of current through the coils of the DC armature or DC field.
This loss varies directly with the square of the current in the armature
or field and the resistance of the armature or field coils.

### Eddy-Current Loss

As the armature rotates within the field, it cuts the lines of flux at
the same time that the copper coils of wire that are wound on the
armature cut the lines of flux. Since the armature is made of iron, an
EMF is induced in the iron, which causes a current to flow. These
circulating currents within the iron core are called eddy-currents.

### Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis loss occurs when the armature rotates in a magnetic field.
The magnetic domains of the armature are held in alignment with the
field in varying numbers, dependent on field strength. The magnetic
domains rotate, with respect to the particles not held in alignment, by
one complete turn during each rotation of the armature. This rotation of
magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat. The heat produced
by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.

*Rotational or Mechanical Los*s

Rotational or mechanical loss can be caused by bearing friction, brush
friction on the commutator, or air friction (called windage), which is
caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

v)  Describe the differences in construction between a shunt-wound and a
    series-wound direct current generator with respect to the
    relationship between the field and the armature.

When the field winding of a generator is connected in parallel with the
generator armature, the generator is called a shunt-wound generator. The
excitation current in a shunt-wound generator is dependent on the output
voltage and the field resistance. Normally, field excitation is
maintained between 0.5 and 5 percent of the total current output of the
generator.

When the field winding of a DC generator is connected in series with the
armature, the generator is called a series-wound generator. The
excitation current in a series-wound generator is the same as the
current the generator delivers to the load. If the load has a high
resistance and only draws a small amount of current, the excitation
current is also small. Therefore, the magnetic field of the series field
winding is weak, making the generated voltage low.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

w)  Describe the relationship between the shunt and series fields for
    cumulatively compounded and differentially compounded direct current
    generators.

Series-wound and shunt-wound generators have a disadvantage in that
changes in load current cause changes in generator output voltage. Many
applications in which generators are used require a more stable output
voltage than can be supplied by a series-wound or shunt-wound generator.
One means of supplying a stable output voltage is by using a compound
generator.

The compound generator has a field winding in parallel with the
generator armature (the same as a shunt-wound generator) and a field
winding in series with the generator armature (the same as a
series-wound generator).

The two windings of the compounded generator are made such that their
magnetic fields will either aid or oppose one another.

If the two fields are wound so that their flux fields oppose one
another, the generator is said to be differentially compounded. Due to
the nature of this type of generator, it is used only in special cases.

If the two fields of a compound generator are wound so that their
magnetic fields aid one another, the generator is said to be
cumulatively compounded. As the load current increases, the current
through the series field winding increases, increasing the overall
magnetic field strength and causing an increase in the output voltage of
the generator. With proper design, the increase in the magnetic field
strength of the series winding will compensate for the decrease in shunt
field strength. Therefore, the overall strength of the combined magnetic
fields remains almost unchanged, so the output voltage will remain
constant. In reality, the two fields cannot be made so that their
magnetic field strengths compensate for each other completely. There
will be some change in output voltage from the no-load to full-load
conditions.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

x)  Describe the voltage-versus-current characteristics for a
    flat-compounded, over-compounded, and under-compounded direct
    current generator.

In practical compounded generators, the change in output voltage from
no-load to full-load is less than 5 percent. A generator with this
characteristic is said to be flat-compounded.

For some applications, the series winding is wound so that it
overcompensates for a change in the shunt field. The output gradually
rises with increasing load current over the normal operating range of
the machine. This type of generator is called an over-compounded
generator.

The series winding can also be wound so that it under compensates for
the change in shunt field strength. The output voltage decreases
gradually with an increase in load current. This type of generator is
called an under-compounded generator.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

**Motors**

a)  Describe the basic construction and operation of the following four
    types of DC motors:

-   Shunt

-   Separately excited

-   Compound-wound

-   Series

### Shunt

A shunt-wound DC motor has a decreasing torque when speed increases. The
decreasing torque-vs-speed is caused by the armature resistance voltage
drop and armature reaction. At a value of speed near 2.5 times the rated
speed, armature reaction becomes excessive, causing a rapid decrease in
field flux and a rapid decline in torque until a stall condition is
reached.

The characteristics of a shunt-wound motor give it very good speed
regulation, and it is classified as a constant-speed motor, even though
the speed does slightly decrease as load is increased. Shunt-wound
motors are used in industrial and automotive applications where precise
control of speed and torque are required.

### Separately Excited

Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or
another DC source. Separately excited motors are, therefore, used only
where self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases
where the motor must respond quickly to an external control source or
where the generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during
normal operations.

### Compound-Wound

The compounded motor is desirable for a variety of applications because
it combines the characteristics of a series-wound motor and a
shunt-wound motor. The compounded motor has a greater torque than a
shunt motor due to the series field; however, it has a fairly constant
speed due to the shunt field winding. Loads such as presses, shears, and
reciprocating machines are often driven by compounded motors.

### Series

Since the armature and field in a series-wound motor are connected in
series, the armature and field currents become identical. As the speed
decreases, the torque for a series-wound motor increases sharply. As
load is removed from a series motor, the speed will increase sharply.
For these reasons, series-wound motors must have a load connected to
prevent damage from high-speed conditions.

The advantage of a series-wound motor is that it develops a large torque
and can be operated at low speed. It is a motor that is well suited for
starting heavy loads. It is often used for industrial cranes and winches
where very heavy loads must be moved slowly, and lighter loads moved
more rapidly.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

y)  State the function of torque in a DC motor and how it is developed.

Torque is defined as that force which tends to produce and maintain
rotation. The function of torque in a DC motor is to provide the
mechanical output or drive the piece of equipment that the DC motor is
attached to.

When a voltage is applied to a motor, current will flow through the
field winding, establishing a magnetic field. Current will also flow
through the armature winding, from the negative brush to the positive
brush. Since the armature is a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field, the conductor has a force exerted on it, tending to move it at
right angles to that field. Using the left-hand rule for
current-carrying conductors, you will see that the magnetic field on one
side is strengthened at the bottom, while it is weakened on the other
side. Using the right-hand rule for motors, we can see that there is a
force exerted on the armature that tends to turn the armature in the
counter-clockwise direction. The sum of the forces, in pounds,
multiplied by the radius of the armature, in feet, is equal to the
torque developed by the motor in pound-feet (lb-ft).

The force that is developed on a conductor of a motor armature is due to
the combined action of the magnetic fields. The force developed is
directly proportional to the strength of the main field flux and the
strength of the field around the armature conductor. The field strength
around each armature conductor depends on the amount of current flowing
through the armature conductor.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

z)  Describe the function of CEMF and how it is developed in a DC motor.

A generator action is developed in every motor. When a conductor cuts
lines of force, an EMF is induced in that conductor. Current to start
the armature turning will flow in the direction determined by the
applied DC power source. After rotation starts, the conductor cuts lines
of force. By applying the left-hand rule for generators, the EMF that is
induced in the armature will produce a current in the opposite
direction. The induced EMF, as a result of motor operation, is called
counter-electromotive force, or CEMF.

Since the CEMF is generated by the action of the armature cutting lines
of force, the value of the CEMF will depend on field strength and
armature speed.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

a)  Describe the relationship between field current and magnetic field
    size in a DC motor.

There are two conditions that are necessary to produce a force on a
conductor. The conductor must be carrying current and the conductor must
be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force
will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the
conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is
the basic theory by which all DC motors operate.

Every current-carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it. The
direction of this magnetic field may be found by using the left-hand
rule for current-carrying conductors.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

b)  Describe how to adjust the speed of a DC motor.

The field of a DC motor is varied using external devices, usually field
resistors. For a constant applied voltage to the field (E), as the
resistance of the field (R~f~) is lowered, the amount of current flow
through the field (I~f~) increases as shown by Ohm's law in the
following equation.

![](media/image12.png){width="1.5in" height="0.6354166666666666in"}

An increase in field current will cause field flux (Ф~f~) to increase.
Conversely, if the resistance of the field is increased, field flux will
decrease. If the field flux of a DC motor is decreased, the motor speed
will increase. The reduction of field strength reduces the CEMF of the
motor, since fewer lines of flux are being cut by the armature
conductors, as shown in the following equation.

![](media/image13.png){width="1.6145833333333333in"
height="0.4895833333333333in"}

A reduction of CEMF allows an increase in armature current as shown in
the following equation.

![](media/image14.png){width="1.90625in" height="0.875in"}

This increase in armature current causes a larger torque to be
developed. The increase in armature current more than offsets the
decrease in field flux as shown in the following equation.

![](media/image15.png){width="1.5833333333333333in"
height="0.6145833333333334in"}

This increased torque causes the motor to increase in speed.

![](media/image16.png){width="1.3541666666666667in"
height="0.3645833333333333in"}

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

c)  Describe the relationship between armature current and torque
    produced in a DC motor.

When a voltage is applied to a motor, current will flow through the
field winding, establishing a magnetic field. Current will also flow
through the armature winding. Since the armature is a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field, the conductor has a force exerted on it,
tending to move it at right angles to that field. Using the left-hand
rule for current-carrying conductors, you will see that the magnetic
field is strengthened on one side, while it is weakened on the other
side. Using the right-hand rule for motors, we can see that there is a
force exerted on the armature that tends to turn the armature in the
counter-clockwise direction.

The force that is developed on a conductor of a motor armature is due to
the combined action of the magnetic fields. The force developed is
directly proportional to the strength of the main field flux and the
strength of the field around the armature conductor. The field strength
around each armature conductor depends on the amount of current flowing
through the armature conductor. Therefore, the torque that is developed
by the motor can be determined using the equation below.

![](media/image17.png){width="1.4833333333333334in"
height="0.5777777777777777in"}

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

d)  Describe the torque-versus-speed characteristics for a shunt-wound
    and a series-wound DC motor.

A shunt-wound DC motor has a decreasing torque when speed increases. The
decreasing torque-vs-speed is caused by the armature resistance voltage
drop and armature reaction. At a value of speed near 2.5 times the rated
speed, armature reaction becomes excessive, causing a rapid decrease in
field flux and a rapid decline in torque until a stall condition is
reached.

A series-wound motor works differently. As the speed decreases, the
torque for a series-wound motor increases sharply. As load is removed
from a series motor, the speed will increase sharply. For these reasons,
series-wound motors must have a load connected to prevent damage from
high-speed conditions.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

e)  Explain why starting resistors may be necessary for large DC motors.

Initially the only component to limit starting current is the armature
resistance, which in most DC motors is a very low value. At the moment a
DC motor is started, the armature is stationary and there is no CEMF
being generated.

External resistors are placed in series with the armature during the
starting period. Starting resistors are usually incorporated into the
motor design to limit starting current to 125 to 200 percent of
full-load current.

Without external resistors to prevent the large current flow before the
CEMF is established, the large current could cause severe damage to the
brushes, commutator, or windings.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of battery construction, voltage production, and hazards. IEEE Std 450. Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.

a)  Using a cutaway drawing of a simple multi-cell storage battery,
    identify the following components and discuss their function:

-   Positive terminal

-   Negative terminal

-   Electrode

-   Cell

The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy and to convert this
chemical energy into electrical energy when the need arises.

A chemical cell (or voltaic cell) consists of two electrodes of
different types of metals or metallic compounds and an electrolyte
solution that is capable of conducting an electric current.

A good example of a voltaic cell is one that contains zinc and copper
electrodes. The zinc electrode contains an abundance of negatively
charged atoms, and the copper electrode contains an abundance of
positively charged atoms. When these electrodes are immersed in an
electrolyte, chemical action begins. The zinc electrode will accumulate
a much larger negative charge because it dissolves into the electrolyte.
The atoms, which leave the zinc electrode, are positively charged and
are attracted by the negatively charged ions of the electrolyte; the
atoms repel the positively charged ions of the electrolyte toward the
copper electrode.

This action causes electrons to be removed from the copper electrode,
leaving it with an excess of positive charge. If a load is connected
across the electrodes, the forces of attraction and repulsion will cause
the free electrons in the negative zinc electrode to move through the
connecting wire and load, and toward the positive copper electrode.

The potential difference that results allows the cell to function as a
source of applied voltage.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

f)  Describe the hazards associated with storage batteries.

Because batteries store large amounts of energy, there are certain
hazards that are associated with battery operation. These hazards must
be fully understood to ensure safe operation of batteries. Hazards
associated with storage batteries fall into three categories: shorted
cells, gas generation, and battery temperature.

### Shorted Cells

Cell short circuits can be caused by several conditions, which include
the following:

-   Faulty separators

-   Lead particles or other metals forming a circuit between the
    positive and negative plates

-   Buckling of the plates or excessive sediments in the bottom of the
    jar

The primary cause of some of these occurrences is overcharging and over
discharging of the battery, which causes sediment to build up due to
flaking of active material and buckling of cell plates. Overcharging and
over discharging should be avoided at all costs. Short circuits cause a
great reduction in battery capacity. With each shorted cell, battery
capacity is reduced by a percentage equal to one over the total number
of cells.

### Gas Generation

A lead-acid battery cannot absorb all the energy from the charging
source when the battery is nearing the completion of the charge. This
excess energy dissociates water by way of electrolysis into hydrogen and
oxygen. Oxygen is produced by the positive plate, and hydrogen is
produced by the negative plate. This process is known as gassing.

Gassing is first noticed when cell voltage reaches 2.30--2.35 volts per
cell and increases as the charge progresses. At full charge, the amount
of hydrogen produced is about 1 cubic foot per cell for each 63
ampere-hours input. If gassing occurs and the gases are allowed to
collect, an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen can be readily
produced. It is necessary, therefore, to ensure that the area is well
ventilated and that it remains free of any open flames or
spark-producing equipment.

As long as battery voltage is greater than 2.30 volts per cell, gassing
will occur and cannot be prevented entirely. To reduce the amount of
gassing, charging voltages above 2.30 volts per cell should be minimized
(e.g., 13.8 volts for a 12-volt battery).

### Battery Temperature

The operating temperature of a battery should preferably be maintained
in the nominal band of 60ºF--80°F. Whenever the battery is charged, the
current flowing through the battery will cause heat to be generated by
the electrolysis of water. The current flowing through the battery (I)
will also cause heat to be generated (P) during charge and discharge as
it passes through the internal resistance (R~i~), as illustrated using
the formula for power in the following equation.

P = I^2^R~i~

Higher temperatures will give some additional capacity, but they will
eventually reduce the life of the battery. Very high temperatures, 125°F
and higher, can actually do damage to the battery and cause early
failure.

Low temperatures will lower battery capacity but also prolong battery
life under floating (i.e., slightly charging) operation or storage.
Extremely low temperatures can freeze the electrolyte, but only if the
battery is low in specific gravity.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

g)  Define the following terms:

-   Voltaic cell

-   Battery

-   Electrode

-   Electrolyte

-   Specific gravity

-   Ampere-hour

-   Electrolysis

-   Equalizing charge

-   Float charge

-   Pilot cell

### Voltaic Cell

A voltaic cell is a combination of materials used to convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. A voltaic or chemical cell consists of
two electrodes of different types of metals or metallic compounds and an
electrolyte solution that is capable of conducting an electric current.

### Battery

A battery is a group of two or more connected voltaic cells.

### Electrode

An electrode is a metallic compound, or metal, that has an abundance of
electrons (negative electrode) or an abundance of positive charges
(positive electrode).

### Electrolyte

An electrolyte is a solution that is capable of conducting an electric
current. The electrolyte of a cell may be a liquid or a paste. If the
electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry cell. If the
electrolyte is a solution, it is called a wet cell.

### Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio comparing the weight of any
liquid to the weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity
of pure water is 1.000. Lead-acid batteries use an electrolyte that
contains sulfuric acid. Pure sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of
1.835, since it weighs 1.835 times as much as pure water per unit
volume.

### Ampere-Hour

An ampere-hour is defined as a current of one ampere flowing for one
hour. If you multiply the current in amperes by the time of flow in
hours, the result is the total number of ampere-hours. Ampere-hours are
normally used to indicate the amount of energy a storage battery can
deliver.

### Electrolysis

Electrolysis is the process in which an electric current, flowing
through a water solution of a chemical, breaks that compound up into its
component parts.

### Equalizing Charge

An equalizing charge is a controlled over charge of a battery bank for
the purpose of restoring the equality of charge in all cells.

### Float Charge

A float charge is the voltage required to counteract the self-discharge
of the battery at a certain temperature.

### Pilot Cell

A pilot cell is a storage battery cell tested to determine the condition
of the entire battery.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

h)  Describe the operation of a simple voltaic cell.

A voltaic cell consists of two electrodes of different types of metals
or metallic compounds and an electrolyte solution that is capable of
conducting an electric current. A good example of a voltaic cell is one
that contains zinc and copper electrodes. When these electrodes are
immersed in an electrolyte, chemical action begins. The zinc electrode
will accumulate a much larger negative charge because it dissolves into
the electrolyte. The atoms that leave the zinc electrode are positively
charged and are attracted by the negatively charged ions of the
electrolyte. The atoms repel the positively charged ions of the
electrolyte toward the copper electrode.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

i)  Explain the relationship between specific gravity and state of
    charge of a lead-acid battery.

The specific gravity increases.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

j)  Describe the relationship between total battery voltage and
    individual cell voltage for a series-connected battery.

When several cells are connected in series, the total voltage output of
the battery is equal to the sum of the individual cell voltages. In the
example of the battery in figure 2, the four 1.5V cells provide a total
of 6 volts. When we connect cells in series, the positive terminal of
one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the next cell. The
current flow through a battery connected in series is the same as for
one cell.

![](media/image18.png){width="3.1145833333333335in" height="2.875in"}\
**Figure 2.** Cells connected in a series

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

k)  Explain the advantage of connecting a battery in parallel with
    respect to current-carrying capability.

Cells connected in parallel give the battery a greater current capacity.
When cells are connected in parallel, all the positive terminals are
connected together, and all the negative terminals are connected
together. The total voltage output of a battery connected in parallel is
the same as that of a single cell.

Cells connected in parallel have the same effect as increasing the size
of the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell. The advantage of
connecting cells in parallel is that it will increase the
current-carrying capability of the battery.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

l)  Describe the difference between primary and secondary cells with
    respect to recharge capability.

Cells that cannot be returned to good condition, or recharged after
their voltage output has dropped to a value that is not usable, are
called primary cells. Dry cells that are used in flashlights and
transistor radios (e.g., AA cells, C cells) are examples of primary
cells.

Cells that can be recharged to nearly their original condition are
called secondary cells. The most common example of a secondary or
rechargeable cell is the lead-acid automobile battery.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

m)  State the advantages of each of the following types of batteries:

-   Carbon-zinc cell

-   Alkaline cell

-   Nickel-cadmium cell

-   Edison cell

-   Mercury cell

The advantages of each type of battery are listed below:

-   The carbon-zinc cell is durable, inexpensive, and comes in a variety
    of sizes.

-   The alkaline cell has extended life over that of a carbon-zinc cell
    of the same size.

-   The nickel-cadmium cell is a dry cell that can be recharged. It is a
    rugged dependable battery under extreme conditions of temperature,
    shock, and vibration. It has a long shelf life, heavy weight, large
    volume, and minimal temperature effect.

-   The Edison cell is a lighter and more rugged secondary cell than a
    lead-acid storage battery.

-   The mercury cell is very rugged, has a relatively long shelf life,
    provides constant output over varying load, and has the highest
    capacity of all the cell types.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

n)  Explain how gas generation is minimized for a lead-acid battery and
    the steps to prevent hydrogen buildup.

To reduce the amount of gassing, charging voltages above 2.30 volts per
cell should be minimized (e.g., 13.8 volts for a 12-volt battery).

A lead-acid battery cannot absorb all the energy from the charging
source when the battery is nearing the completion of the charge. This
excess energy dissociates water by way of electrolysis into hydrogen and
oxygen. At full charge, the amount of hydrogen produced is about one
cubic foot per cell for each 63 ampere-hours input. If gassing occurs
and the gases are allowed to collect, an explosive mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen can be readily produced. It is necessary, therefore, to
ensure that the area is well ventilated and that it remains free of any
open flames or spark-producing equipment.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

o)  Explain how heat is generated in a lead-acid battery.

Whenever the battery is charged, the current flowing through the battery
will cause heat to be generated by the electrolysis of water. The
current flowing through the battery (I) will also cause heat to be
generated (P) during charge and discharge as it passes through the
internal resistance (R~i~), as illustrated using the formula for power
in the following equation.

P = I^2^R~i~

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92, DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Electrical
Science, 1992

p)  Describe the various uses of battery banks in DOE facilities.

As the use of battery banks in DOE facilities varies from site to site,
the local qualifying official will evaluate the completion of this
competency.

q)  Describe how batteries are tested.

As the type of batteries and testing methods vary from site to site, the
local qualifying official will evaluate the completion of this
competency.

## II. ELECTRICAL ISSUE IDENTIFICATION & REPORTING {#ii.-electrical-issue-identification-reporting .Style2}

**(Each competency statement is a MPA, provided that they are applicable
to the candidate's assigned electrical duties.)**

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of surveillance and assessment techniques; reporting; and follow up actions for electrical systems and programmatic elements of an Electrical Safety Program to include:

-   Management systems;

-   Problem remediation and trends processes;

-   Inspection programs;

-   Training and qualification programs;

-   Oversight of contractor assurance systems.

a)  Describe the role of electrical systems personnel in performance
    oversight of government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO)
    facilities.

The role of electrical systems personnel is to ensure that electrical
safety requirements necessary for a practical safeguarding of applicable
DOE facilities and personnel are being adequately implemented. Practical
safe work procedures include training of skilled and unskilled personnel
who have a risk of electrical shock. For exposure to energized
components, safety measures shall protect personnel against both direct
contact and indirect contact through use of some conducting medium such
as a pole, a ladder, or an effective energy-isolation program, such as
lockout/tagout. In addition, only qualified persons who are capable of
working safely on energized circuits and are familiar with the proper
use of special precautionary techniques, personal protective equipment,
insulating and shielding material, and insulated tools may work on
energized equipment. Electrical systems personnel perform DOE line
management oversight of their assigned facilities to ensure that

-   the contractor is operating facilities safely and efficiently (i.e.,
    within the boundaries of those controls invoked in the facility
    authorization basis);

-   the contractor's management system is effectively controlling
    conduct of operation as related to electrical systems;

-   effective lines of communication between DOE and its operating
    contractors are maintained during periods of normal operation, and
    following reportable events, in accordance with DOE Orders and
    requirements.

Reference: Facilities Maintenance Management Reference Guide, July 2006

r)  Describe the assessment requirements and limitations associated with
    the interface of electrical systems personnel and contractor
    employees.

As assessment requirements and limitations associated with the interface
of electrical systems personnel and contractor employees vary from site
to site, the local qualifying official will evaluate the completion of
this competency.

s)  Describe how planning, observations, interviews, and document
    research are used during an assessment.

Effective assessments use a combination of tools and techniques to
maximize the productivity of the assessment team and resources. Such
assessment techniques include document reviews, interviews, and
observations. In using these techniques, the assessor should not forget
that the objective is to verify accomplishment of an organization's
mission. To save time, the assessor should gather only data and
information relevant to overall program performance and the achievement
of program objectives.

It is generally not acceptable to identify suspicions about the adequacy
or inadequacy of a program, system, or process. Investigations should be
sufficiently thorough and information gathered with sufficient diligence
that accurate, detailed conclusions and issues can be provided to assist
the organizations that will receive the final report.

In using any of these techniques, assessors should maintain good records
of the assessment results. These may include personal notes or other
information to support the assessment and may be included in the
checklist information. These records are useful in writing the report
and any associated findings and recommendations and will become
invaluable if questions arise during the report review process. All
classified notes should be disposed of properly in accordance with
established and agreed-upon procedures. A discussion of each of the
techniques follows.

Document review. Document review is used extensively during an
assessment to substantiate the information obtained during interviews
and observation. During the course of an assessment, questions may arise
concerning what is heard and seen. The review of documents, including
logs, procedures, work orders, and other data provides a method for
answering these questions and validating the assessment results. The
drawback of document review is that the accuracy of the records cannot
be ascertained by review alone. This technique should be combined with
interviews, observation, inspection, and/or performance testing to
complete the picture of performance. Records and documents should be
selected carefully to ensure they adequately characterize the program,
system, or process being assessed.

Interviews. Interviews provide a means to verify the results of
observation, document review, inspection, and performance testing. In
addition, interviews allow the responsible person to explain and clarify
those results. The interview helps to eliminate misunderstandings about
program implementation and provides a venue where apparent conflicts or
recent changes can be discussed and the organization and program
expectations can be described. Tools developed during assessment
planning are used to prepare for the interview. Assessors should also
prepare questions in advance to keep the interview focused.

Observation. Observation, the viewing of actual work activities, is
often considered the most effective technique for determining whether
performance is adequate. Assessors should understand the effect their
presence has on the person being observed and convey an attitude that is
helpful, constructive, positive, and unbiased. The primary goal during
observation is to obtain the most complete picture possible of the
performance, which should then be put into perspective relative to the
overall program, system, or process.

Before drawing final conclusions, the assessor should verify the results
through at least one other technique.

Reference: Facilities Maintenance Management Reference Guide, July 2006

t)  Explain the essential elements of a performance-based assessment,
    including investigation, fact-finding, and reporting. Include a
    discussion of the essential elements and processes of the following
    assessment activities:

-   Exit interview

-   Closure process

-   Tracking to closure

-   Follow-up

-   Contractor corrective action implementation

### Exit Interview

Assessments can gain value from an exit interview. This interview is
used primarily to present the assessment summary and provide the
assessed organization an opportunity to verify the factual accuracy of
assessment results. To facilitate this, assessors should be prepared to
provide detailed supporting information for those results (ideally, a
draft assessment report should be available at this time). This
interview also offers an opportunity for the assessed organization to
present its management position and any plans for addressing the
results. Reasonable time should be allowed to discuss any concerns, but
this interview should not be used to argue the assessment agenda or
methodology.

### Closure Process

In the closure process, contractors send a letter to the directives
management group (DMG) requesting closure and stating that the
corrective actions in the implementation plan have been completed. The
DMG coordinates approval of the closure with the appropriate division of
primary interest and the contracting officer's representative.

### Tracking to Closure

### After a reasonable period of time has elapsed, follow-up activities should be performed to verify the effectiveness of the corrective action and how it was implemented. This is referred to as tracking to closure. There are several ways to verify the implementation of corrective action, including 

-   a reassessment of the deficient areas;

-   review of new or revised quality-affecting documents such as
    manuals, procedures, training records;

-   verification during the next scheduled assessment;

-   verification by conducting a surveillance covering the areas of
    concern.

The key thing to remember when verifying corrective action
implementation is that verification is necessary. A solution to a
problem may look good on paper but may not be readily implementable. The
failure to adequately identify all root causes will most likely result
in a recurrence of the deficiency. Therefore, an appropriate amount of
follow-up is necessary to assure the effectiveness of the corrective
action process and to reestablish confidence in the item/service
assessed.

### Follow-up

After a reasonable period of time has elapsed, follow-up activities
should be performed to verify the effectiveness of the corrective
actions and how they were implemented. The verification should, at a
minimum, sample the corrective actions to determine whether the
problem/issue to be addressed has been resolved. The organization\'s
reporting systems (e.g., noncompliance tracking system, occurrence
reporting and processing system, external oversight reports and
regulatory violations, performance indicators) should be reviewed for
evidence of the problem (or a similar problem) recurring. The same
techniques used to conduct assessments may be used for verifying
corrective actions; however, there are several common ways to verify the
implementation of corrective actions, including the following:

-   Reassessment of the deficient areas

-   Review of new or revised quality-affecting documents such as
    manuals, procedures, and training records

-   Verification during the next scheduled assessment

-   Verification by conducting a surveillance covering the areas of
    concern

### Contractor Corrective Action Implementation

Management responsible for the activities assessed is also responsible
for the development of effective corrective action of the problem areas
or deficiencies discovered during the assessment. At a minimum, the
corrective action should address

-   measures to correct each deficiency

-   identification of all root causes for significant deficiencies

-   determination of the existence of similar deficiencies

-   corrective actions to preclude recurrence of like or similar
    deficiencies

-   assignment of corrective action responsibility

-   completion dates for each corrective action

For independent assessments, the proposed corrective action should be
reviewed for concurrence by the assessment team leader. This will help
ensure that the planned actions will be effective in resolving the
problem areas and deficiencies reported by the assessment team.

Reference: Facilities Maintenance Management Reference Guide, July 2006

u)  Describe the actions to be taken if the contractor challenges the
    assessment findings and explain how such challenges can be avoided.

Disputes over the assessment findings, the corrective action plan, or
its implementation (such as timeliness or adequacy) must be resolved at
the lowest possible organizational level. The organization that
disagrees with the disposition of a given issue may elevate the dispute
for timely resolution. The organization that disagrees with the
disposition of a given issue must elevate the dispute in a step-wise
manner through the management hierarchy. The dispute must be raised via
a deliberate and timely dispute resolution process that provides each
party with equal opportunity for input and a subsequent opportunity to
appeal decisions up to the Secretary of Energy, if necessary.

Reference: Facilities Maintenance Management Reference Guide, July 2006

v)  Describe the methods by which noncompliance is determined and
    communicated to contractor and Department management.

During the assessment of contractor activities there are certain
criteria useful in determining the acceptance or noncompliance of an
item or activity. The following criteria summarized from 10 CFR 830.120,
Quality Assurance, provide the basis for contractor assessments:

-   Programs. Organizations shall develop a written plan that describes
    the organizational structure, functional responsibilities, levels of
    authority, and interfaces for those managing, performing, and
    assessing adequacy of work.

-   Personnel training and qualifications. Personnel shall be trained
    and qualified to ensure they are capable of performing their
    assigned work. Training should emphasize correct performance of
    work, provide understanding of quality requirements, and stimulate
    professional development.

-   Quality improvement. The organization shall establish and implement
    processes to detect and prevent quality problems and to ensure
    quality improvement. Items and processes that do not meet
    established requirements shall be identified, controlled, and
    corrected. Correction shall include: identifying the cause of the
    problems and preventing reoccurrence. Item reliability, process
    implementation, and other quality-related information shall be
    reviewed and data analyzed to identify items and processes needing
    improvement.

-   Documents and records. Documents shall be prepared, reviewed,
    approved, issued, used, and revised to prescribed processes,
    specified requirements, or established designs. Records should be
    maintained and provisions provided for retention, protection,
    preservation, traceability, accountability, and retrievability.

-   Work processes. Work should be performed to technical standards and
    administrative controls. Work shall be performed under controlled
    conditions using approved instructions, procedures, or other
    appropriate means.

-   Design. The design process should use sound engineering/scientific
    principles and appropriate standards. Design work, including
    changes, shall be incorporated into applicable requirements and
    design bases.

-   Procurement. The procurement of items or services must meet
    established requirements and be performed as specified. Prospective
    suppliers shall be evaluated and selected on the basis of specific
    criteria.

-   Inspection and testing. Items must be inspected and tested to be
    deemed acceptable or not acceptable based on established acceptance
    and performance criteria.

Documented assessment results should be presented to the organization
that was assessed and provided to the appropriate levels of management
for review. Strengths and weaknesses affecting the process should be
identified so that management can take meaningful action.

Management should evaluate the assessment results to identify
improvement actions and determine whether similar problems may exist
elsewhere in the organization. Lessons learned from assessment results
should be communicated to other organizations with similar activities or
concerns.

Management should track improvement actions until a resolution has been
implemented and verified as completed.

Reference: 10 CFR 830.120, Quality Assurance

w)  Describe the role of electrical systems personnel in the contractor
    performance evaluation process.

The role of electrical systems personnel in the contractor performance
evaluation process varies from site to site. The local qualifying
official will evaluate the completion of this competency.

x)  Participate in the evaluation of a contractor's performance.

y)  Conduct an interview as part of an evaluation of an occurrence.

z)  Develop an assessment report.

a)  Participate in formal meetings between Department management and
    senior contractor management to discuss the results of electrical
    systems assessments.

Competencies h-k are performance-based. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of these competencies.

## Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate the ability to communicate (both oral and written) when working or interacting with the contractor, stakeholders, and other internal and external organizations.

a)  Identify the various internal and external groups with whom
    electrical systems personnel must interface in the performance of
    their duties.

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b)  Apply written communication skills in the development of

-   assessment reports

-   technical reports

-   technical papers

c)  Apply effective and appropriate communications skills when
    interfacing with the contractor.

These are performance-based competencies. The qualifying official will
evaluate completion of these competencies.

## Become familiar with the ES&H reporting requirements as noted in DOE O 231.1A, Environment, Safety, and Health Reporting.

a)  Using an occurrence report related to an electrical system or
    component and using DOE O 231.1A, as a reference, identify the
    following:

-   Causes

-   Corrective actions

-   Lessons learned

-   Whether corrective actions have been completed

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

d)  State the purpose of the Order

To ensure timely collection, reporting, analysis, and dissemination of
information on environment, safety, and health issues as required by law
or regulations or as needed to ensure that DOE/NNSA are kept fully
informed on a timely basis about events that could adversely affect the
health and safety of the public or the workers, the environment, the
intended purpose of DOE facilities, or the credibility of the
Department.

Reference: DOE O 231.1A

e)  Define the following terms:

-   Event

-   Condition

-   Facility

-   Notification report

-   Occurrence report

-   Reportable occurrence

### Event

An event is something significant and real-time that happens (e.g., pipe
break, valve failure, loss of power, environmental spill, earthquake,
tornado, and flood).

### Condition

A condition is any as-found state, whether or not resulting from an
event, that may have adverse safety, health, quality assurance,
operational, or environmental implications. A condition is usually
programmatic in nature; for example, errors in analysis or calculation;
anomalies associated with design or performance; or items indicating a
weakness in the management process.

### Facility

Facility refers to any equipment, structure, system, process, or
activity that fulfills a specific purpose. Examples include
accelerators, storage areas, fusion research devices, nuclear reactors,
production or processing plants, coal conversion plants,
magnetohydrodynamic experiments, windmills, radioactive waste disposal
systems and burial grounds, environmental restoration activities,
testing laboratories, research laboratories, transportation activities,
and accommodations for analytical examinations of irradiated and
un-irradiated components.

### Notification Report

A notification report is the initial documented report, to the
Department, of an event or condition that meets the reporting criteria
defined in the manual.

### Occurrence Report

An occurrence report is a documented evaluation of an event or condition
that is prepared in sufficient detail to enable the reader to assess its
significance, consequences, or implications and to evaluate the actions
being proposed or employed to correct the condition or to avoid
recurrence.

### Reportable Occurrence

A reportable occurrence is an occurrence to be reported in accordance
with the criteria defined in the manual.

Reference: DOE M 231.1-2, Occurrence Reporting and Processing of
Operations Information, August 2003

f)  Discuss the Department's policy regarding the reporting of
    occurrences as outlined in the Order.

It is DOE policy to ensure that the Office of the Secretary and both DOE
and DOE contractor line management are kept fully informed on a timely
basis of events that could adversely affect national security or the
safeguards and security interests of DOE, the health and safety of the
public or the workers, the environment, the intended purpose of DOE
facilities, or the credibility of the Department. The following
objectives are established in support of this policy:

-   To establish and maintain a system for reporting operations
    information related to DOE-owned or -operated facilities, and for
    processing that information to identify the root causes of
    occurrences and provide for appropriate corrective action.

-   To perform the following tasks

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-   timely identification, categorization, notification, and reporting
    to DOE management of reportable occurrences at DOE-owned or
    -operated facilities;

-   review of reportable occurrences to assess the significance, root
    causes, generic implications, and the need for corrective actions;

-   timely evaluation and implementation of appropriate corrective
    actions;

-   dissemination of occurrence reports to DOE operations and facilities
    to prevent similar occurrences;

-   maintenance of a central DOE system for reporting, processing, and
    retrieving unclassified occurrence reports.

Reference: DOE M 231.1-2, Occurrence Reporting and Processing of
Operations Information, August 2003

g)  State the different categories of reportable occurrences and discuss
    each.

### Operational Emergencies

Occurrences in this category are the most serious occurrences and
require an increased alert status for onsite personnel and, in specified
cases, for offsite authorities.

### Significance Category 1 

Occurrences in this category are those that are not operational
emergencies and that have a significant impact on safe facility
operations, worker or public safety and health, regulatory compliance,
or public/business interests.

### Significance Category R

Occurrences in this category are those identified as recurring, as
determined from the periodic performance analysis of occurrences across
a site.

### Significance Category 2

Occurrences in this category are those that are not operational
emergencies and that have a moderate impact on safe facility operations,
worker or public safety and health, regulatory compliance, or
public/business interests.

### Significance Category 3

Occurrences in this category are those that are not operational
emergencies and that have a minor impact on safe facility operations,
worker or public safety and health, regulatory compliance, or
public/business interests.

### Significance Category 4

Occurrences in this category are those that are not operational
emergencies and that have some impact on safe facility operations,
worker or public safety and health, or public/business interests.

Reference: DOE M 231.1-2, Occurrence Reporting and Processing of
Operations Information, August 2003

h)  Review a sample of Occurrence Reports and Operating Experience
    Weekly reports for issues on electrical safety and discuss the
    lessons learned.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Electrical systems personnel shall demonstrate a working-level knowledge of problem analysis principles and the ability to apply techniques necessary to identify problems, determine potential causes of problems, and identify corrective action(s).

a)  Describe and explain the application of problem analysis techniques,
    including the following:

-   Root cause analysis

-   Causal factor analysis

-   Change analysis

-   Barrier analysis

-   Management oversight risk tree (MORT) analysis

### Root Cause Analysis

Root cause analysis is a term used to denote a class of problem solving
methods aimed at identifying the root causes of problems or events. The
practice of root cause analysis is predicated on the belief that
problems are best solved by attempting to correct or eliminate root
causes. Any root cause analysis method may be used that includes the
following steps:

> 1\. Identify the problem
>
> 2\. Determine the significance of the problem
>
> 3\. Identify the causes (conditions or actions) immediately preceding
> and surrounding the problem
>
> 4\. Identify the reasons why the causes in the preceding step existed,
> working back to the root cause (the fundamental reason which, if
> corrected, will prevent recurrence of these and similar occurrences
> throughout the facility).

### Causal Factor Analysis

Events and Causal Factor Analysis identifies the time sequence of a
series of tasks and/or actions and the surrounding conditions leading to
an occurrence. The results are displayed in an Events and Causal Factor
chart that gives a picture of the relationships of the events and causal
factors.

### Change Analysis

Change Analysis is used when the problem is obscure. It is a systematic
process that is generally used for a single occurrence and focuses on
elements that have changed.

### Barrier Analysis

Barrier analysis is a systematic process that can be used to identify
physical, administrative, and procedural barriers or controls that
should have prevented the occurrence.

### MORT

This chart is a checklist of what happened (less than-adequate specific
barriers and controls) and why it happened (less-than-adequate
management). To perform the MORT analysis:

> 1\. Identify the problem associated with the occurrence and list it as
> the top event.
>
> 2\. Identify the elements on the \"what\" side of the tree that
> describe what happened in the occurrence (what barrier or control
> problems existed).
>
> 3\. For each barrier or control problem, identify the management
> elements on the \"why\" side of the tree that permitted the barrier
> control problem.
>
> 4\. Describe each of the identified inadequate elements (problems) and
> summarize your findings.

Reference: DOE-NE-STD-1004-92, Root Cause Analysis Guidance Document,
February 1992

i)  Describe and explain the application of the following root cause
    analysis processes in the performance of occurrence investigations:

-   Event and causal factors charting

-   Root cause coding

-   Recommendation generation

### Events and Causal Factors Charting

Events and causal factor analysis is used for multi-faceted problems or
long, complex causal factor chains. The resulting chart is a cause and
effects diagram that describes the time sequence of a series of tasks
and/or actions and the surrounding conditions leading to an event. The
event line is a time sequence of actions or happenings while the
conditions are anything that shapes the outcome and ranges from physical
conditions (such as an open valve or noise) to attitude or safety
culture. The events and conditions as given on the chart describe a
causal factor chain. The direct, root, and contributing cause
relationships in the causal factor chain are shown in figure 3.

![](media/image19.wmf){width="6.491666666666666in"
height="3.9027777777777777in"}\
Figure 8 -Causal factor relationships

Reference: DOE-NE-STD-1004-92, Root Cause Analysis Guidance Document,
February 1992

### Root Cause Coding

All causes must be identified as required in DOE M 231.1-2, Occurrence
Reporting and Processing of Operations Information, section 11,
Occurrence Reporting Model, and included in the occurrence report. The
cause codes to be used for reporting are provided in the causal analysis
tree, which is also in section 11 of DOE M 231.1-2. Guidance on
selecting the appropriate cause code is provided in DOE G 231.1-2,
Occurrence Reporting Causal Analysis Guide. The cause description field
should include a brief discussion to clearly link the event to the cause
code(s).

For those occurrences that require a formal root cause analysis, any of
the site approved root cause analysis methodologies are permitted. The
methodology used must be included in the cause description field of the
occurrence report.

Reference: DOE M 231.1-2, Occurrence Reporting and Processing of
Operations Information, 2003

### Recommendation Generation

Following identification of the root causes for a particular causal
factor, achievable recommendations for preventing its recurrence are
then generated. The root cause analyst is often not responsible for the
implementation of recommendations generated by the analysis. However, if
the recommendations are not implemented, the effort expended in
performing the analysis is wasted. In addition, the events that
triggered the analysis should be expected to recur. Organizations need
to ensure that recommendations are tracked to completion.

Reference: Rooney, James and Vanden Heuvel, Lee N., "Root Cause Analysis
for Beginners," *Quality Progress*, July 2004,
<http://www.asq.org/pub/qualityprogress/past/0704/qp0704rooney.pdf>

j)  Using event and/or occurrence data, apply problem analysis
    techniques and identify the problems and how they could have been
    avoided.

k)  Participate in at least one contractor or Department problem
    analysis and critique the results.

l)  Using data, interpret two fault tree analyses.

Competencies c-e are performance-based. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of these competencies.

## III. SAFETY & HEALTH RELATED TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS and COMPONENTS {#iii.-safety-health-related-to-electrical-systems-and-components .Style2}

**(Applies to only candidates who are assigned oversight to electrical
operations, construction, and/or maintenance activities. Each competency
statement is a MPA, provided that they are applicable to the candidate's
assigned electrical duties.)**

## Obtain a clear understanding how electrical hazards are addressed via the Integrated Safety Management System process. Emphasis placed on knowing all applicable site contractor(s) job planning (job hazard analysis, identification and integration of hazard controls within work package), and application of -hazard controls, during the work control process.

This is a site-specific competency. The local qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Obtain a working-level knowledge of Electrical Safety-Related Work Practices (NFPA 70E, Article 110) to include the following:

-   Multiemployer relationships

-   Electrical training and qualification programs

-   Electrical safety program elements

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) published the seventh
edition of the 70E Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for
Employee Workplaces in February of 2004. This edition contains an
introduction, 4 chapters, 13 annexes, and has many significant changes
from the sixth edition:

-   Total reorganization into the National Electrical Code (NEC) format

-   Chapter 2 was moved to become chapter 1

-   Chapter 3 became chapter 2

-   Chapter 4 became chapter 3

-   Chapter 1 became chapter 4.

-   The issue of multi-employer relationships (110.4) is addressed

The addition of multi-employer relationships now makes the employer
liable whenever outside contractors are engaged in activities covered by
the scope and application of this standard. The employer and contractor
must inform each other of existing hazards, personal protective
equipment/clothing requirements, safe work practices, and emergency
evacuation procedures applicable to the work to be performed. This
coordination shall include a meeting and documentation.

NFPA 70E covers the full range of electrical safety issues, including
safety related work practices, maintenance, special equipment
requirements, and installation. It focuses on protecting people and
identifies requirements that are considered necessary to provide a
workplace that is free of electrical hazards. OSHA bases its electrical
safety mandates, found in Subpart S part 1910 and Subpart K part 1926,
on the comprehensive information found in NFPA 70E. NFPA 70E is
recognized as the tool that illustrates how an employer might comply
with these OSHA standards. The relationship between the OSHA regulations
and NFPA 70E can be described as OSHA is the "shall" and NFPA 70E the
"how."

OSHA mandates that all services to electrical equipment be done in a
de-energized state. Working live can only be under special
circumstances. If it is necessary to work live (\>50 volts to ground),
the regulations outlined in NFPA 70E, Article 130 should be used as a
tool to comply with OSHA mandates Subpart S part 1910.333(a)(1).
Highlights of this article include:

Shock hazard analysis (paragraph 130.2): Determines the voltage to which
personnel will be exposed, boundary requirements, and PPE necessary.
Table 130.2 (C) is used to determine boundary distances.

Flash hazard analysis (paragraph 130.3): Determines the flash protection
boundary and PPE needed within that boundary. The flash protection
boundary is determined by methods found in 130.3(A) or Annex D of the
standard. Protective clothing is determined by using tables
130.7(C)(9)(a), 130.7(C)(10), and 130.7(C)(11). See question and answer
number 1 for more details.

Remember, OSHA only allows work on live electrical parts under two
special circumstances: (1) when continuity of service is required, and
(2) when de-energizing equipment would create additional hazards. In all
other cases, lockout/tagout is the law.

Employers are also responsible for complying with the 2002 NEC 110.16
labeling requirements. This requires all switchboards, panel boards,
industrial control panels, and motor control centers to be field marked.
Any equipment installed after 2002 needs to be labeled. For equipment
installed before 2002, labeling must be applied if ANY modifications or
upgrades take place.

Reference: <http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ezfacts/ezf263.htm>

## Observe electrical work performed by each site contractor to learn how work is performed within planned controls. Obtain a working knowledge of site contractor(s) procedure/work control program, and specific work control requirements for each job observed. The level of rigor of these jobs should allow the candidate to review the functional areas, requirements, and workscope for compliance with NFPA 70E, to include the following:

a)  Electrical safety-related work practices and establishment of
    electrically safe work conditions (NFPA 70E, Article 120). To
    include, but not limited to lockout/tagout (LOTO), deenergization
    requirements, zero-energy checks, and the electrically-safe-work
    condition verification process.

All activities on or near electrically energized systems having "live"
parts shall be conducted in accordance with the limitations and
procedures specified in the latest version of NFPA 70E and with the safe
work practices and conditions that follow.

Only qualified personnel {as defined in NFPA 70E Article 110.6(D)} as
authorized by supervisor can perform such work.

Safe Work Practices:

-   Know the equipment and potential hazards - Define the scope of work.

-   Submit the scope of work to your supervisor for approval.

-   Analyze the hazards -- use engineered methods to mitigate hazards.

-   Establish procedures as necessary.

-   Use barricades or other means to prevent unqualified persons
    crossing approach boundaries.

-   Personnel shall employ insulating barriers to prevent themselves and
    others from leaning into or falling into live parts and to prevent
    live parts that might become loose from contacting personnel.

-   Personnel shall wear safety glasses.

-   Personnel shall not wear metallic personal items (e.g., jewelry,
    glasses, watches) while working on or near live parts.

-   Personnel shall use non-conducting ladders when needed.

-   Always assume a conductor is energized until proven otherwise.

-   Personnel shall wear voltage rated gloves when using tools on or
    near live parts.

-   Personnel shall use only personal protective equipment that is
    designed \[approved. certified\] for the hazard.

-   Personnel shall use only insulated tools when working on or near
    live parts.

-   Personnel shall use only tools and instruments that are designed for
    the system voltage.

-   Personnel shall not bypass interlocks or safety devices that protect
    persons against electrical shock---except when absolutely necessary
    and then only with written approval from your supervisor

-   Whenever possible, do not work alone.

-   Safety Watch is required when deemed so by your supervisor. This
    person shall be CPR trained and be familiar with removing all
    sources of power to the devise being worked upon and have ready
    access to a phone in order to call 911 in case of emergency.

-   When operating circuit breakers or fused switches. ALWAYS stand to
    the side -- NEVER directly in front of the device being operated.

Work Conditions:

-   Personnel should inspect electrical equipment for defective parts,
    faulty insulation, improper grounding, loose connections, ground
    faults, and unguarded live parts and should take appropriate
    remedial action before working on or near live parts.

-   Personnel should work only where there is adequate clearance.

-   Personnel should not work on or near live parts that are in a
    hazardous location (e.g., in wet or damp areas, where there are
    corrosive or flammable atmospheres).

-   Restrict non-participants from the work area.

Reference: National Fire Prevention Association, NFPA 70E Chapter 1

m)  Electrical hazards/risk identification and classification processes,
    and the use of severity indices, in the application of electrical
    events analysis and trends. (NFPA 70E, Article 130)

n)  Electrical work on or near live parts. To include, but not limited
    to energized electrical work permits (elements and exemptions),
    shock and arc-flash hazard analyses, arc flash calculation
    methodology, arc flash reduction techniques, approach boundaries,
    and associated PPE. (NFPA 70E, Article 130, and IEEE 1584)

Article 130 states that electrical conductors shall be deenergized
before an employee works on or near them unless the employer can
demonstrate that deenergizing introduces additional or increased hazards
or is infeasible due to equipment design or operational limitations.
Typical examples include, but are not limited to, interruption of life
support equipment, deactivation of emergency alarm systems, and shutdown
of hazardous location ventilation equipment. If work must be performed
on energized conductors, a shock hazard analysis and flash hazard
analysis must be performed.

Reference: http://www.workplacegroup.net/article-implem-NFPA70E.htm

o)  Safety-related maintenance requirements: grounding and bonding,
    safety equipment, clear space requirements; substations, switchgear,
    panels, motor control centers; premises wiring; controller
    equipment; fuses and circuit breakers; rotating equipment; hazardous
    locations; batteries and battery rooms, portable electric tools and
    equipment; and personal safety and protective equipment. (NFPA 70E,
    Chapter 2, IEEE Std-450)

Electrical equipment is, in most cases, very reliable. Sometimes this
reliability is taken for granted. A comprehensive electrical equipment
maintenance program improves electrical system reliability and thereby
reduces exposure of electrical hazards to workers.

Chapter 2 addresses safety-related maintenance requirements for
electrical equipment and installations, or parts of either, for the
safety of employees who work on, near, or with such equipment:

Reference: http://www.workplacegroup.net/article-implem-NFPA70E.htm

p)  Safety requirements for special equipment: Such as Research &
    Development (R&D) electrical safety requirements; work practices for
    such R&D equipment (i.e. laser operations and power electronic
    equipment, etc.). (NFPA 70E, Article 400)

q)  Installation safety requirements: Power systems protection; flash
    protection; guarding of live parts; wiring design and protection;
    wiring methods, components, and equipment; specific purpose
    equipment and installations (cranes and hoists, elevators, HVAC,
    X-ray equipment, motor controllers, etc.; hazardous locations), and
    so on. (NFPA 70; and NFPA 70E, Chapter 4)

Specific purpose equipment and installations.

Cranes and hoists. This paragraph applies to the installation of
electric equipment and wiring used in connection with cranes, monorail
hoists, hoists, and all runways.

Disconnecting means\--Runway conductor disconnecting means. A readily
accessible disconnecting means shall be provided between the runway
contact conductors and the power supply.

Disconnecting means for cranes and monorail hoists. A disconnecting
means, capable of being locked in the open position, shall be provided
in the leads from the runway contact conductors or other power supply on
any crane or monorail hoist.

If this additional disconnecting means is not readily accessible from
the crane or monorail hoist operating station, means shall be provided
at the operating station to open the power circuit to all motors of the
crane or monorail hoist. The additional disconnect may be omitted if a
monorail hoist or hand-propelled crane bridge installation meets all of
the following:

-   The unit is floor controlled;

-   The unit is within view of the power supply disconnecting means; and

-   No fixed work platform has been provided for servicing the unit.

A limit switch or other device shall be provided to prevent the load
block from passing the safe upper limit of travel of any hoisting
mechanism.

The dimension of the working space in the direction of access to live
parts which may require examination, adjustment, servicing, or
maintenance while alive shall be a minimum of 2 feet 6 inches (762 mm).
Where controls are enclosed in cabinets, the door(s) shall open at least
90 degrees or be removable, or the installation shall provide equivalent
access.

All exposed metal parts of cranes, monorail hoists, hoists and
accessories including pendant controls shall be metallically joined
together into a continuous electrical conductor so that the entire crane
or hoist will be grounded in accordance with 29 CFR 1926.404(f). Moving
parts, other than removable accessories or attachments, having
metal-to-metal bearing surfaces shall be considered to be electrically
connected to each other through the bearing surfaces for grounding
purposes. The trolley frame and bridge frame shall be considered as
electrically grounded through the bridge and trolley wheels and its
respective tracks unless conditions such as paint or other insulating
materials prevent reliable metal-to-metal contact. In this case a
separate bonding conductor shall be provided.

Elevators, escalators, and moving walks

Elevators, escalators, and moving walks shall have a single means for
disconnecting all ungrounded main power supply conductors for each unit.

If control panels are not located in the same space as the drive
machine, they shall be located in cabinets with doors or panels capable
of being locked closed.

Electric welders\--disconnecting means\--Motor-generator, AC
transformer, and DC rectifier arc welders. A disconnecting means shall
be provided in the supply circuit for each motor-generator arc welder,
and for each AC transformer and DC rectifier arc welder which is not
equipped with a disconnect mounted as an integral part of the welder.

Resistance welders. A switch or circuit breaker shall be provided by
which each resistance welder and its control equipment can be isolated
from the supply circuit. The ampere rating of this disconnecting means
shall not be less than the supply conductor ampacity.

X-Ray equipment\--Disconnecting means\--General. A disconnecting means
shall be provided in the supply circuit. The disconnecting means shall
be operable from a location readily accessible from the X-ray control.
For equipment connected to a 120-volt branch circuit of 30 amperes or
less, a grounding-type attachment plug cap and receptacle of proper
rating may serve as a disconnecting means.

More than one piece of equipment. If more than one piece of equipment is
operated from the same high-voltage circuit, each piece or each group of
equipment as a unit shall be provided with a high-voltage switch or
equivalent disconnecting means. This disconnecting means shall be
constructed, enclosed, or located so as to avoid contact by employees
with its live parts.

Control\--Radiographic and fluoroscopic types. Radiographic and
fluoroscopic-type equipment shall be effectively enclosed or shall have
interlocks that deenergize the equipment automatically to prevent ready
access to live current-carrying parts.

r)  Be aware that 29 CFR 1910 and 29 CFR 1926 (OSHA requirements
    documents) has many, but not all of the electrical safety
    requirements as NFPA 70E. For example, NFPA 70E outlines requirement
    for arc-flash hazard controls, however the mentioned CFR's do not.

**To safely observe electrical work on or near energized electrical
conductors, the candidate must be previously trained to the mentioned
requirements. Candidates are not to cross any shock or arc flash
boundary.**

Reference: 29 CFR 1926.406, Specific Purpose Equipment and
Installations.

## From the jobs observed in Competency 3 above, assess how well contractor management systems (lessons learned and other feedback processes) are integrated with the work planning and ISM process. Develop a working knowledge of how lessons learned are addressed by each contractor's Integrated Safety Management System feedback process. (Reference DOE P 450.4 Safety Management System Policy.)

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Obtain a working-level knowledge of NFPA 70E, Article 420 requirements, to include:

-   a\. Wiring methods -- Bonding of enclosures, temporary wiring, and
    permitted use of cabletrays;

-   b\. Safety positioning and connection of switches;

-   c\. Switch/panelboard location and access requirements;

-   d\. Enclosures for damp and wet locations;

-   e\. Conductor identification requirements;

-   f\. Permitted and non-permitted use of flexible cords and cables;

-   g\. Portable cables over 600 volts;

-   h\. Motor, transformer, and capacitor general use equipment.

### Bonding of Enclosures

General. Metal raceways, cable trays, cable armor, cable sheath,
enclosures, frames, fittings, and other metal non--current-carrying
parts that are to serve as grounding conductors, with or without the use
of supplementary equipment grounding conductors, shall be effectively
bonded where necessary to ensure electrical continuity and the capacity
to conduct safely any fault current likely to be imposed on them. Any
nonconductive paint, enamel, or similar coating shall be removed at
threads, contact points, and contact surfaces or be connected by means
of fittings designed so as to make such removal unnecessary.

Isolated Grounding Circuits. Where required for the reduction of
electrical noise (electromagnetic interference) of the grounding
circuit, an equipment enclosure supplied by a branch circuit shall be
permitted to be isolated from a raceway containing circuits that supply
only that equipment by one or more listed nonmetallic raceway fittings
located at the point of attachment of the raceway to the equipment
enclosure. The metal raceway shall comply with provisions of this
standard and shall be supplemented by an internal insulated equipment
grounding conductor installed to ground the equipment enclosure.

Use of an isolated equipment grounding conductor does not relieve the
requirement for grounding the raceway system.

Ducts for Dust, Loose Stock, or Vapor Removal. No wiring systems of any
type shall be installed in ducts used to transport dust, loose stock, or
flammable vapors. No wiring system of any type shall be installed in any
duct, or any shaft containing only such ducts, used for vapor removal or
for ventilation of commercial-type cooking equipment.

### Temporary Wiring

Temporary electrical power and lighting wiring methods may be of a class
less than would be required for a permanent installation. Except as
specifically modified in 420.1(B) (1) (a) through 420.1(B) (1) (d), all
other requirements of this standard for permanent wiring shall apply to
temporary wiring installations.

Time Constraints.

During the Period of Construction. Temporary electrical power and
lighting installations shall be permitted during the period of
construction, remodeling, maintenance, repair, or demolition of
buildings, structures, equipment, or similar activities.

Temporary electrical power and lighting installations shall be permitted
for a period not to exceed 90 days for holiday decorative lighting and
similar purposes. Temporary electrical power and lighting installations
shall be permitted during emergencies and for tests, experiments, and
developmental work. Temporary wiring shall be removed immediately upon
completion of construction or purpose for which the wiring was
installed.

General Requirements for Temporary Wiring.

Feeders shall be protected as provided in 410.9. They shall originate in
an approved distribution center. Conductors shall be permitted within
cable assemblies or within multiconductor cords or cables of a type
identified for hard usage or extra-hard usage. For the purpose of this
section, Type NM and Type NMC cables shall be permitted to be used in
any dwelling, building, or structure without any height limitation.

Exception: Single insulated conductors shall be permitted where
installed for the purpose(s) specified in 420.1(B)(3)(c) where
accessible only to qualified persons.

Branch Circuits. All branch circuits shall originate in an approved
power outlet or panelboard. Conductors shall be permitted within cable
assemblies or within multiconductor cord or cable of a type identified
for hard usage or extra-hard usage. All conductors shall be protected as
provided in 410.9. For the purpose of this section, Type NM and NMC
cables shall be permitted to be used in any dwelling, building, or
structure without any height limitation.

Exception: Branch circuits installed for the purposes specified in
420.1(B)(3)(b) or 420.1(B)(3)(c) shall be permitted to be run as single
insulated conductors. Where the wiring is installed in accordance with
420.1(B)(1)(c), the voltage to ground shall not exceed 150 volts, the
wiring shall not be subject to physical damage, and the conductors shall
be supported on Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of AC reactive
components, including inductive and capacitive reactance and phase
relationships in reactive circuits.

### Cable Trays

Cable Trays.

Uses Permitted. Cable tray shall be permitted to be used as a support
system for services, feeders, branch circuits, communications circuits,
control circuits, and signaling circuits. Cable tray installations shall
not be limited to industrial establishments. Where exposed to direct
rays of the sun, insulated conductors and jacketed cables shall be
identified as being sunlight resistant. Cable trays and their associated
fittings shall be identified for the intended use.

Wiring Methods. The following wiring methods shall be permitted to be
installed in cable tray systems: armored cable; communication raceways;
electrical metallic tubing; electrical nonmetallic tubing; fire alarm
cables; flexible metal conduit; flexible metallic tubing;
instrumentation tray cable; intermediate metal conduit; liquid tight
flexible metal conduit and liquid tight flexible nonmetallic conduit;
metal-clad cable; mineral-insulated, metal-sheathed cable;
multi-conductor service-entrance cable; multi-conductor underground
feeder and branch circuit cable; multipurpose and communications cables;
nonmetallic-sheathed cable; power and control tray cable; power-limited
tray cable; optical fiber cables; optical fiber raceways; other
factory-assembled, multi-conductor control, signal, or power cables that
are specifically approved for installation in cable trays; rigid metal
conduit; and rigid nonmetallic conduit.

Uses Not Permitted. Cable tray systems shall not be used in hoist-ways
or where subject to severe physical damage. Cable tray systems shall not
be used in environmental airspaces, except as permitted in 420.1(A)(2)
to support wiring methods recognized for use in such spaces.

### Safety Positioning and Connection of Switches

Single-Throw Knife Switches. Single-throw knife switches shall be placed
so that gravity will not tend to close them. Single-throw knife switches
approved for use in the inverted position shall be provided with a
locking device that ensures that the blades remain in the open position
when so set.

Double-Throw Knife Switches. Double-throw knife switches shall be
permitted to be mounted so that the throw is either vertical or
horizontal. Where the throw is vertical, a locking device shall be
provided to hold the blades in the open position when so set.

Connection of Switches. Single-throw knife switches and switches with
butt contacts shall be connected so that their blades are de-energized
when the switch is in the open position. Bolted pressure contact
switches shall have barriers that prevent inadvertent contact with
energized blades. Single-throw knife switches, bolted pressure contact
switches, molded-case switches, switches with butt contacts, and circuit
breakers used as switches shall be connected so that the terminals
supplying the load are de-energized when the switch is in the open
position.

### Switch/Panelboard Location and Access Requirements

Switchboards that have any exposed live parts operating at 50 volts or
more shall be located in permanently dry locations and then only where
under competent supervision and accessible only to qualified persons.
Switchboards shall be located so that the probability of damage from
equipment or processes is reduced to a minimum. Panelboards shall be
mounted in cabinets, cutout boxes, or enclosures designed for the
purpose and shall be dead front.

Exception: Panelboards other than of the dead-front, externally operable
type shall be permitted where accessible only to qualified persons.

### Enclosures for Damp or Wet Locations.

Damp or Wet Locations. In damp or wet locations, surface-type enclosures
within the scope of NFPA 70E shall be placed or equipped so as to
prevent moisture or water from entering and accumulating within the
cabinet or cutout box, and shall be mounted so there is at least a 6-mm
(¼-in.) airspace between the enclosure and the wall or other supporting
surface. Enclosures installed in wet locations shall be weatherproof.

Exception: Nonmetallic enclosures shall be permitted to be installed
without the airspace on a concrete, masonry, tile, or similar surface.

Switchboards and Panelboards in Damp or Wet Locations. Switchboards or
panelboards in a wet location or outside of a building shall be enclosed
in a weatherproof enclosure or cabinet that shall comply with 420.5(A).

### Conductor Identification Requirements

Grounded Conductors. Insulated or covered grounded conductors shall be
identified in accordance with NFPA 70E.

Equipment Grounding Conductors. Equipment grounding conductors shall be
identified in accordance with NFPA 70E.

Ungrounded Conductors. Conductors that are intended for use as
ungrounded conductors, whether used as a single conductor or in
multi-conductor cables, shall be finished to be clearly distinguishable
from grounded and grounding conductors. Distinguishing markings shall
not conflict in any manner with the surface markings.

### Flexible Cords and Cables.

Suitability. Flexible cords and cables and their associated fittings
shall be suitable for the conditions of use and location.

Uses Permitted. Flexible cords and cables shall be used only for the
following:

-   Pendants

-   Wiring on luminaires (fixtures)

-   Connection of portable lamps, portable and mobile signs, or
    appliances

-   Elevator cables

-   Wiring on cranes and hoists

-   Connection of utilization equipment to facilitate frequent
    interchange

-   Prevention of the transmission of noise or vibration

-   Appliances where the fastening means and mechanical connections are
    specifically designed to permit ready removal for maintenance and
    repair, and the appliance is intended or identified for flexible
    cord connection

-   Data processing cables

-   Connection of moving parts

-   Temporary wiring

Attachment Plugs. Where used as permitted in 420.7(B)(1)(3), (9), and
(11), each flexible cord shall be equipped with an attachment plug and
shall be energized from a receptacle outlet.

Uses Not Permitted. Unless specifically permitted in 420.7(B), flexible
cords and cables shall not be used for the following:

-   As a substitute for the fixed wiring of a structure

-   Where run through holes in walls, structural ceilings, suspended
    ceilings, dropped ceilings, or floors

-   Where run through doorways, windows, or similar openings

-   Where attached to building surfaces

### Portable Cables Over 600 Volts

#### Construction

Conductors. The conductors shall be 8 American Wire Gauge (AWG) copper
or larger and shall employ flexible stranding.

Exception: The size of the insulated ground-check conductor of Type G-GC
cables shall be not smaller than 10 AWG.

Shields. Cables operated at over 2000 volts shall be shielded. Shielding
shall be for the purpose of confining the voltage stresses to the
insulation.

Equipment Grounding Conductor(s). An equipment grounding conductor(s)
shall be provided. The total area shall not be less than that of the
size of the equipment grounding conductor required in NFPA 70E.

Shielding. All shields shall be grounded.

Grounding. Grounding conductors shall be connected in accordance with
NFPA 70E.

Minimum Bending Radii. The minimum bending radii for portable cables
during installation and handling in service shall be adequate to prevent
damage to the cable.

Fittings. Connectors used to connect lengths of cable in a run shall be
of a type that lock firmly together. Provisions shall be made to prevent
opening or closing these connectors while energized. Suitable means
shall be used to eliminate tension at connectors and terminations.

Splices and Terminations. Portable cables shall not contain splices
unless the splices are of the permanent molded, vulcanized types in
accordance with this standard. Terminations on portable cables rated
over 600 volts, nominal, shall be accessible only to authorized and
qualified personnel.

### Motor, Transformer, and Capacitor General Use Equipment

#### Motors

In Sight From (Within Sight From, Within Sight). Where one piece of
equipment shall be "in sight from," "within sight from," or "within
sight," and so forth, of another equipment, the specified equipment is
to be visible and not more than 15 m (50 ft) distant from the other.

Disconnecting Means Location

Controller. An individual disconnecting means shall be provided for each
controller and shall disconnect the controller. The disconnecting means
shall be located in sight from the controller location.

Exception No. 1: For motor circuits over 600 volts, nominal, a
controller disconnecting means capable of being locked in the open
position shall be permitted to be out of sight of the controller,
provided the controller is marked with a warning label giving the
location of the disconnecting means.

Exception No. 2: A single disconnecting means shall be permitted for a
group of coordinated controllers that drive several parts of a single
machine or piece of apparatus. The disconnecting means shall be located
in sight from the controllers, and both the disconnecting means and the
controllers shall be located in sight from the machine or apparatus.

Motor. A separate disconnecting means shall be located in sight from the
motor location and the driven machinery location. The disconnecting
means required in accordance with 420.10(E)(1) shall be permitted to
serve as the disconnecting means for the motor if it is located in sight
from the motor location and the driven machinery location.

Exception: The disconnecting means shall not be required to be in sight
from the motor and the driven machinery location under either condition
(a) or (b), provided the disconnecting means required in accordance with
420.10(E)(2) is individually capable of being locked in the open
position. The provision for locking or adding a lock to the
disconnecting means shall be permanently installed on or at the switch
or circuit breaker used as the disconnecting means.

Where such a location of the disconnecting means is impracticable or
introduces additional or increased hazard to persons or property

In industrial installations, with written safety procedures, where
conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only qualified
persons service the equipment: Some examples of increased or additional
hazards include, but are not limited to, motors rated in excess of 100
hp, multi-motor equipment, submersible motors, motors associated with
variable frequency drives, and motors located in hazardous (classified)
locations.

To Be Indicating. The disconnecting means shall plainly indicate whether
it is in the open (off) or closed (on) position.

Readily Accessible. At least one of the disconnecting means shall be
readily accessible.

Motors Served by Single Disconnecting Means. Each motor shall be
provided with an individual disconnecting means.

Exception: A single disconnecting means shall be permitted to serve a
group of motors under any one of the following conditions:

-   Where a number of motors drive several parts of a single machine or
    piece of apparatus, such as metal and woodworking machines, cranes,
    and hoists

-   Where a group of motors is under the protection of one set of
    branch-circuit protective devices

-   Where a group of motors is in a single room within sight from the
    location of the disconnecting means

Motor and Branch-Circuit Overload Protection. Overload devices are
intended to protect motors, motor-control apparatus, and motor
branch-circuit conductors against excessive heating due to motor
overloads and failure to start. Overload in electrical apparatus is an
operating overcurrent that, when it persists for a sufficient length of
time, would cause damage or dangerous overheating of the apparatus. It
does include short circuits or ground faults. These provisions shall not
be interpreted as requiring overload protection where it might introduce
additional or increased hazards, as in the case of fire pumps.

Protection of Live Parts --- All Voltages. Exposed live parts of motors
and controllers operating at 50 volts or more shall be guarded against
accidental contact by enclosures or by location as follows:

-   By installation in a room or enclosure that is accessible only to
    qualified persons

-   By installation on a suitable balcony, gallery, or platform elevated
    and arranged so as to exclude unqualified persons

-   By elevation 2.5 m (8 ft) or more above the floor

Exception to (g): Live parts of motors operating at more than 50 volts
between terminals shall not require additional guarding for stationary
motors that have commutators, collectors, and brush rigging located
inside of motor-end brackets and not conductively connected to supply
circuits operating at more than 150 volts to ground.

Guards for Attendants. Where live parts of motors or controllers
operating at over 150 volts to ground are guarded against accidental
contact only by location, and where adjustment or other attendance might
be necessary during the operation of the apparatus, suitable insulating
mats or platforms shall be provided so that the attendant cannot readily
touch live parts unless standing on the mats or platforms.

#### Transformers.

General. Sections 420.10(F)(2) through 420.10(F)(8) cover the
installation of all transformers. The following transformers are not
covered by 420.10(F):

-   Current transformers

-   Dry-type transformers that constitute a component part of other
    apparatus and comply with requirements for such apparatus

-   Transformers that are an integral part of an X-ray, high-frequency,
    or electrostatic coating apparatus

-   Transformers used with Class 2 and Class 3 circuits

-   Transformers for sign and outline lighting

-   Transformers for electric-discharge lighting

-   Transformers used for power-limited fire alarm circuits

-   Transformers used for research, development, or testing, where
    effective arrangements are provided to safeguard persons from
    contacting energized parts

Voltage Warning. The operating voltage of exposed live parts operating
at 50 volts or more of transformer installations shall be indicated by
signs or visible markings on the equipment or structures.

Dry-Type Transformers Installed Indoors. Dry-type transformers installed
indoors and rated over 35 kV shall be installed in a vault.

Oil-Insulated Transformers Installed Indoors. Oil-insulated transformers
installed indoors shall be installed in a vault.

Oil-Insulated Transformers Installed Outdoors. Combustible material,
combustible buildings, and parts of buildings, fire escapes, and door
and window openings shall be safeguarded from fires originating in
oil-insulated transformers installed on roofs, attached to or adjacent
to a building or combustible material.

#### Capacitors.

Switching: Load Current. Group-operated switches shall be used for
capacitor switching and shall be capable of the following:

-   Carrying continuously not less than 135 percent of the rated current
    of the capacitor installation

-   Interrupting the maximum continuous load current of each capacitor,
    capacitor bank, or capacitor installation that will be switched as a
    unit

-   Withstanding the maximum inrush current, including contributions
    from adjacent capacitor installations

-   Carrying currents due to faults on capacitor side of switch

Isolation

General. A means shall be installed to isolate from all sources of
voltage each capacitor, capacitor bank, or capacitor installation that
will be removed from service as a unit. The isolating means shall
provide a visible gap in the electrical circuit adequate for the
operating voltage.

Isolating or Disconnecting Switches with No Interrupting Rating.
Isolating or disconnecting switches (with no interrupting rating) shall
be interlocked with the load-interrupting device or shall be provided
with prominently displayed caution signs to prevent switching load
current.

Additional Requirements for Series Capacitors. The proper switching
sequence shall be ensured by use of one of the following:

-   Mechanically sequenced isolating and bypass switches

-   Interlocks

-   Switching procedure prominently displayed at the switching location

Storage Batteries. Provisions shall be made for sufficient diffusion and
ventilation of the gases from the battery to prevent the accumulation of
an explosive mixture.

Reference:
[http://www.agsrhichome.bnl.gov/AGS/Accel/SND/Electrical%20Safety/NFPA%2070E%202004.pdf](http://www.agsrhichome.bnl.gov/AGS/Accel/SND/Electrical Safety/NFPA 70E 2004.pdf)

## Obtain a working-level knowledge of the DOE Electrical Safety Handbook for safety requirements associated with site R&D operations involving large capacity stored energy, inductor, capacitor and pulsed energy systems to include requirements relating to:

-   **Hazards identification, classification, PPE, and associated work
    practices;**

-   **Equipment configuration, and operational practices;**

-   **R&D training and qualifications requirements.**

### Hazards Identification

There are many possible types of electrical AC and DC power source
hazards in complex R&D systems and the various design philosophies
preclude establishing hazard classifications based on voltage alone.
Some of the hazards of working in complex R&D systems are:

-   Internal component failure can cause excessive voltages. Internal
    component open-circuit failure in capacitor banks and Marx
    generators can result in full voltages across components that may
    not be appropriately discharged in the usual manner.

-   Internal component shorts in capacitor banks and Marx generators can
    result in excessive fault current, causing extreme heat,
    over-pressurization of capacitor enclosures, and rupture.

-   Overloading or improper cooling of power supplies can cause
    excessive temperature rise.

-   Output circuits and components can remain energized after input
    power is interrupted.

-   Auxiliary and control power circuits can remain energized after the
    main power circuit is interrupted.

-   When power supplies serve more than one experiment, errors made when
    switching between experiments may create hazards to personnel.

-   R&D electrical apparatus may contain large amounts of stored energy,
    requiring fault analysis.

-   Liquid coolant leaking from R&D electrical equipment may pose an
    electrical hazard to personnel.

It is usual for R&D facilities to have equipment that operates at less
than 50 V. Although this equipment is generally regarded as
nonhazardous, it is considered hazardous when high currents are
involved. Examples of such equipment are a power supply rated 3 kA at 25
V, a magnet power supply with rated output of 200 A at 40 V, and a bus
bar carrying 1 kA at 5 V.

Though there is a low probability of electric shock at voltages less
than 50 V, there is a hazard due to arcing and heating in case of an
accidental fault. For example, a tool could drop onto the terminals and
initiate an arc, causing severe burns.

### Personnel Protective Equipment

Provide personal protective equipment for electrical work. Establish
documented procedures for its use, care, maintenance, and testing.
\[Guidance for these procedures can be found in 29 CFR 1910.137 and 29
CFR 1910.268(f).\]

Managers shall ensure that adequate resources are available to provide
personal protective equipment in compliance with applicable codes and
standards. In addition, they shall ensure that:

-   personnel are trained in its use in accordance with documented
    procedures;

-   procedures are established and implemented for documented controls
    of protective equipment such as inventory, storage, maintenance, and
    testing;

-   protective equipment requirements and usages are specified in the
    safe operating procedures;

-   protective equipment is inspected prior to each use;

-   high-voltage equipment is inspected prior to each use according to
    appropriate recognized standards and

-   grounding equipment, cables, clusters, and sticks, are inspected
    annually and prior to each use.

### Safe Work Practices

An analysis of high-voltage circuits should be performed by a qualified
person before work begins unless all exposed energized parts are guarded
as required for high-voltage work. The analysis must include fault
conditions where circuit current could rise above the nominal rated
value. Depending on the results of the analysis, any of the following
may apply:

-   If the analysis concludes that the current is above 5 mA or energy
    is above 10 joules, then the work is considered to be energized work
    and should be performed in accordance with DOE-HDBK-1092-2004,
    section 2, General Requirements and/or section 7, Work In Excess of
    600 Volts.

-   If the analysis concludes that the current is between 0.5 mA and 5
    mA and between 0.25 and 10 joules, then the worker may be exposed to
    a secondary hazard (e.g., startle reaction) that must be mitigated.

-   If the analysis concludes that the current is below 0.5 mA and below
    0.25 joules, then the worker exposure is minimal and no special
    precautions are required.

High-voltage supplies that use rated connectors and cables where there
are no exposed energized parts are not considered hazards. Connections
shall not be made or broken with the power supply energized unless they
are designed and rated for this type of duty (e.g., loadbreak elbows).
Inspect cables and connectors for damage and do not use if they are
damaged. Exposed high-voltage parts must be guarded to avoid accidental
contact.

### Equipment Configuration

In design and construction of R&D equipment, it is important to remember
the following cautions:

-   Install only components essential to the power supply within the
    power-supply enclosure.

-   Provide appropriate separation between high-voltage components and
    low-voltage supply and/or control circuits.

-   Provide to personnel a visible indicator that the power supply is
    energized.

-   Minimize the number of control stations and provide an emergency
    shutdown switch where needed.

-   Where possible, avoid multiple-input power sources.

-   Apply a label containing emergency shutdown instructions to
    equipment that is remotely controlled or unattended while energized.

Personnel in R&D labs may encounter energized parts in a variety of
configurations, locations, and under environmental conditions that are
not usual for most electrical power personnel. Sometimes the equipment
can be designed to incorporate mitigation of the hazards associated with
working on such equipment. If not, then safe operating procedures must
be developed and used.

### R&D Training and Qualification Requirements

The following paragraphs provide guidance for determining the
qualification process for persons involved with specialized electrical
equipment, configurations, or work tasks associated with experiments.
The guidance provided in this section is in addition to the minimum
qualifications described in DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, section 2.8, Training
and Qualifications of Qualified Workers.

The hazards associated with R&D equipment are sometimes unique because
the equipment itself is unique. These hazards are sometimes made worse
because of an uncommon design or the fact that it may be one of a kind.
Special efforts are necessary to identify all the potential hazards that
may be present in a specific unique design. These hazards should be
identified and a plan developed to mitigate the associated risk.
Personnel working on R&D equipment shall be qualified to work on this
equipment, depending on its unique safety problems.

Personnel assigned to tasks involving R&D equipment shall be apprised of
the hazards identified in section 10.7.1 of DOE0HDBK-1092-2004. It is
suggested that they participate in developing mitigation plans to reduce
the risks associated with the hazards.

A list of additional experience qualifications should be developed by
the appropriate personnel including the workers. This list should
identify specific training requirements necessary for unusual equipment
or tasks.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, December 2004

## Obtain a working-level knowledge of requirements related to safe work practices for laser operations (NFPA 70E, Chapter 3) to include:

-   Fail-safe interlocks;

-   Controlled areas;

-   Laser characteristics;

-   Safety training and qualifications;

-   Safeguarding of personnel.

### Fail-Safe Interlocks

Protective housing which encloses the laser shall be provided with an
interlock system which is activated when the protective housing is
opened or removed during operation and maintenance. Fail-safe interlocks
shall be provided for any portion of the protective housing which, by
design, can be removed or displaced during operation and maintenance.

Portions of the protective housing that are only intended to be removed
from any laser or laser system by the service personnel, which then
permits direct access to laser radiation shall either:

-   be interlocked (fail-safe interlock not required) or

-   require a tool for removal and shall have an appropriate warning
    label on the panel

If the interlock can be bypassed or defeated, a warning label with the
appropriate indications shall be located on the protective housing near
the interlock.

A Class 3b laser or laser system should be provided with a master
switch. A Class 4 laser or laser system shall be provided with a master
switch. This master switch shall effect beam termination and/or system
shutoff and shall be operated by a key, or by a coded access.

### Controlled Areas

Class 3b lasers shall be operated in a controlled area, unless the beam
path is completely enclosed. Class 4 lasers shall be operated in a
controlled area, where all entryway safety controls shall be designed to
allow both rapid egress by laser personal at all times and admittance to
the laser controlled area under emergency conditions. If the laser is
not fully enclosed, laser operation shall be in a light-tight room with
interlocked entrances to assure that the laser will shut off when the
door is opened.

Whenever appropriate and possible, Class 4 lasers or laser systems
should be controlled and monitored at a position as distant as possible
from the emission portal of the laser or laser system.

### Laser Characteristics

Lasers are classified in terms of their potential to cause biological
damage. The pertinent parameters are laser output energy or power,
radiation wavelength, exposure duration, and cross sectional area of the
laser beam at the point of interest. Most commercial lasers have an
attached label specifying the classification of that laser. The hazard
classification of a laser can be determined using ANSI Z136.1-2000
Section 3 and Appendix A. (The department of Environmental Health and
Safety keeps a copy of this standard for reference)

#### Class 1 

A Class 1 laser is considered to be incapable of producing damaging
radiation levels, and is, therefore, exempt from most forms of
surveillance. Example: laser printers

#### Class 2

Class 2 lasers and laser systems are visible (0.4 to 0.7 um) continuous
wave (CW) and repetitive-pulse lasers and laser systems which can emit
accessible radiant energy exceeding the appropriate Class 1 accessible
emission limit (AEL) for the maximum duration inherent in the design or
intended use of the laser or laser system, but not exceeding the Class 1
AEL for any applicable pulse (emission) duration \< 0.25 seconds and not
exceeding an average radiant power of 1mW.

A Class 2 laser is a low-powered laser in the visible range that may be
viewed directly under carefully controlled exposure conditions. These
lasers are considered safe because the natural reflex of the eye will
prevent average exposure from causing damage. Example: laser pointers

#### Class 3a

Class 3a lasers and laser systems include lasers and laser systems which
have an accessible output between 1 and 5 times the Class 1 AEL for
wavelengths shorter than 0.4 um or longer than 0.7 um, or less than 5
times the Class 2 AEL for wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 um.

Class 3a lasers will normally not produce injury if viewed only
momentarily by the unaided eye. The Class 3a lasers may be a hazard if
viewed using optics, e.g., telescopes, microscopes, or binoculars.
Example: HeNe lasers above 1 milliwatt, but not exceeding 5 milliwatts;
some laser pointers

#### Class 3b

Class 3b lasers and laser systems include:

Ultraviolet (0.18 to 0.4 um) and infrared (1.4 um to 1 mm) lasers and
laser systems which can emit during any emission duration within the
maximum duration inherent in the design of the laser or laser system,
but which (a) cannot emit an average radiant power in excess of 0.5 W
for = 0.25 seconds or (b) cannot produce a radiant energy greater than
0.125 Joules within an exposure time \< 0.25 seconds.

Visible (0.4 to 0.7 um) or near-infrared (0.7 to 1.4 um) lasers or laser
systems which emit in excess of the AEL of Class 3a but which (a) cannot
emit an average radiant power in excess of 0.5 W for = 0.25 seconds and
(b) cannot produce a radiant energy greater than 0.03 Joules per pulse.

Class 3b lasers may cause severe eye injuries through direct or specular
exposure. Examples: continuous lasers not exceeding 0.5 watts for any
period greater than 0.25 seconds, pulsed visible lasers not emitting
more than 0.03 joules per pulse, pulsed infrared or ultraviolet lasers
not emitting more than 0.125 joules during any period less than 0.25
seconds.

#### Class 4

Class 4 lasers and laser systems are those that emit radiation that
exceeds the Class 3b AEL.

Class 4 lasers are a hazard to the eye from the direct beam, specular
reflections, and sometimes even from diffuse reflections. Class 4 lasers
can also start fires and can damage skin. Example: lasers operating at
power levels greater than 500 milliwatts for continuous wave lasers or
greater than 0.03 Joules for a pulsed system.

### Safety Training

Laser safety training program shall be required for Class 3b and 4
lasers and laser systems. Laser safety training program should be
required for Class 2 and Class 3a lasers and laser systems. The laser
safety training program should include the information in ANSI
Z136.1-2000, section 5.

### Safeguarding of Personnel

Eye protection devices which are specifically designed for protection
against radiation from Class 3b lasers or laser systems should be
administratively required and their use enforced when engineering or
other procedural and administrative controls are inadequate to eliminate
potential exposure in excess of the applicable maximum permissible
exposure (MPE).

Eye protection devices that are specifically designed for protection
against radiation from Class 4 lasers or laser systems shall be required
and their use enforced when engineering or other procedural and
administrative controls are inadequate to eliminate potential exposure
in excess of the applicable MPE.

Laser protective eyewear is usually not required for Class 2 and Class
3a lasers or laser systems except in conditions where intentional
long-term (\>0.25 seconds) direct viewing is required.

Laser protective eyewear may include goggles, face shields, spectacles,
or prescription eyewear using special filter materials or reflective
coatings (or a combination of both) to reduce the potential ocular
exposure below the applicable MPE level.

Eyewear shall have the following requirements:

-   Protective eyewear shall be used only at the wavelength and
    energy/power for which it is intended.

-   Label the protective eyewear with the laser type and/or light
    wavelength that the eyewear is designed for.

-   Keep protective eyewear in good condition. Replace damaged or
    defective eyewear.

ANSI Z136.1-2000 Section 4.6.2 can be used to select appropriate
eyewear.

Other Protective Equipment

Protective eyewear should not be considered the primary means to protect
against laser radiation. Protective equipment such as beam stops,
shields, safety interlocks, and warning lights and horns shall be
maintained in proper operating condition and shall be utilized whenever
indicated to prevent harmful exposure to laser radiation.

Reference: ANSI Z136.1-2000, Guide for the Safe Use of Lasers, 2000

## IV. ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT FOR NUCLEAR AND NON-NUCLAR FACILITIES {#iv.-electrical-maintenance-management-for-nuclear-and-non-nuclar-facilities .Style2}

> **(Applies only to candidates assigned oversight of electrical
> maintenance activities. Each competency statement is a MPA, provided
> that they are applicable to the candidates assigned electrical
> duties.)**

## Become familiar with DOE maintenance management requirements as defined in DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program, and DOE G 433.1-1.

a)  Define each of the following maintenance-related terms and explain
    their relationship to each other.

-   Corrective

-   Planned

-   Preventive

-   Reliability centered

-   Predictive

### Corrective

Corrective maintenance refers to the repair of failed or malfunctioning
equipment, systems, or facilities to restore the intended function or
design condition. This maintenance does not result in significant
extension of expected useful life.

### Planned

Planned maintenance refers to maintenance activities performed prior to
equipment failure. The activities can be initiated by predictive or
periodic maintenance results, by vendor recommendations, or by
experience.

### Preventive

Preventive maintenance refers to predictive, periodic, and planned
maintenance actions taken to maintain a piece of equipment within design
operating conditions and extend its life.

### Reliability Centered

Reliability centered maintenance refers to a method for establishing a
scheduled maintenance program that can effectively and economically
realize the inherent reliability and safety levels of equipment.

### Predictive

Predictive maintenance refers to maintenance activities involving
continuous or periodic monitoring and diagnosis to forecast equipment
failure.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

s)  Discuss the importance of maintaining a proper balance of preventive
    and corrective maintenance.

A proper balance of corrective and preventive maintenance should be
employed to provide a high degree of confidence that property
degradation is identified and corrected, that equipment life is
optimized, and that the maintenance program is cost-effective.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

t)  Identify typical maintenance performance indicators, and discuss
    their importance.

Surveillance, inspecting, and testing activities should provide
assurance that the equipment needed for safe and reliable facility
operation performs within required limits and that preventive
maintenance, defined as including periodic and planned maintenance, is
utilized to maintain a piece of equipment within design operating
conditions and to realize its maximum reasonable useful life. The
potential impact of seasonal variations should be considered.

A predictive maintenance performance program should be established and
utilized to monitor equipment and determine trends. The program should
also analyze parameters, properties, and performance characteristics or
signatures of equipment to forecast equipment degradation so that
"as-needed" planned maintenance can be performed prior to equipment
failure.

Corrective maintenance should be performed in a manner ensuring that
quality repairs are performed and that equipment failing or
malfunctioning during service is restored in a timely manner.

Reference: DOE Order 4330.4B, Maintenance Management Program (Canceled).

u)  Discuss the relationship between maintenance and conduct of
    operations, quality assurance, and configuration management.

Maintenance has a primary role in preserving DOE property and ensuring
safe and reliable operation of facilities. The purpose of maintenance
guidelines is to describe the 32 key elements of an overall DOE
maintenance management program. Key elements include material that
incorporates the concepts included in other DOE Orders associated with
matters related to the maintenance program. For example, the discussion
on procedures is consistent with the direction of DOE Order 5480.19,
Conduct of Operations Requirements for DOE Facilities.

Similarly, there is considerable carry over from DOE O 414.1, Quality
Assurance. The maintenance guidance, in many cases, repeats the
information from the referenced Orders. The material from these Orders
is retained in maintenance guidelines to facilitate the maintenance
organizations' incorporation of the elements and their criteria into the
program. In many cases the objectives and criteria of all applicable
Orders are consistent and can be met by one program.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

v)  Discuss the requirements for receiving and inspecting parts,
    materials, and equipment.

Policies should be established for the procurement of parts, materials,
and equipment. These policies must be understood by stores and
purchasing personnel and other personnel who interface with the stores
and purchasing operations, such as maintenance supervisors, planning,
and scheduling personnel.

Procedures should be prepared to specifically describe the
responsibilities of personnel involved in the procurement function.
Specific procurement actions should be included in these procedures.

A system should be established as part of the design change process to
update spare parts needs and remove outdated/obsolete materials from the
stock system.

Timely procurement of parts, materials, and equipment for maintenance
activities can be enhanced by considering items such as the following:

-   Early identification of "long lead-time" items

-   Selection of procurement sources based on approved vendors and past
    vendor performance

-   Identification of appropriate quality, engineering, environmental,
    shelf life, preventive maintenance, and vendor technical manual
    requirements

-   Update of spare parts inventory following design modifications

-   Participation in a "pooled" spare parts system with other facilities
    that share common or nearby sites

Controls should be developed and maintained throughout the procurement
process to help obtain parts, materials, and services in a timely
manner. Controls such as the following should be provided:

-   Reliability of supplier performance should be verified. This can be
    accomplished by audits, inspections, or surveillance of supplier
    facilities, processes, methods, or records relevant to the part,
    material, or service provided.

-   Deficient or nonconforming items should be resolved in an effective
    and timely manner. Technical reviews should be initiated promptly to
    aid in the resolution of these items.

-   Quality assurance records need to be controlled and maintained to
    provide documentation for qualified parts and materials and to
    ensure traceability of parts and materials.

-   A process should be provided to qualify nonqualified material. An
    effective upgrade process will result in improved availability of
    quality parts and materials.

-   A process for acceptable substitution should be provided to obtain
    parts that are no longer available from the original supplier, that
    have new identification numbers, or that have different material
    specifications. Engineering and maintenance experience should be
    provided to support this process. Change approval documentation and
    substitution information should be maintained in a retrievable form.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

w)  Describe the difference between temporary and permanent repairs/work
    and the requirements and controls in place to prevent inadvertent
    modifications.

Temporary repairs are temporary modifications to the facility that allow
equipment to remain in or be returned to service in a condition that is
not the same as the original design specification. Prior to
implementation, temporary repairs should receive a safety review in
accordance with the facility temporary modification program to ensure
the adequacy of the repair and its effect on personnel and equipment
safety and reliability. Temporary repairs should be tracked after their
completion for consideration of permanent repairs. Permanent corrective
action should be taken as soon as practicable.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

x)  Discuss the importance and methods of establishing acceptance
    criteria for inspection and testing.

Equipment that is important to safe and reliable facility operation
should be tested in accordance with approved procedures. Post
maintenance test (PMT) procedures should contain acceptance criteria
that aid in measuring the performance of repaired equipment. Baseline
data should be provided, if applicable.

If a surveillance test, calibration, or special procedure does not exist
to test particular equipment following maintenance, a special test
procedure may be written, or the test may be performed in accordance
with instructions written for the work request or work order. With any
of these procedure methods, the required and actual testing performed
should be described, data recorded, acceptance criteria specified, and
appropriate reviews and approvals performed and documented. If special
test procedures are written to perform PMTs, the appropriate safety and
technical reviews should be performed in accordance with facility
procedures.

Test instructions should include details such as initial conditions and
prerequisites, hold points, cautions, personnel qualification
requirements, personnel safety requirements, clear acceptance criteria,
and posttest restoration.

Test instructions should be as specific as possible and should avoid
using vague criteria such as "verify proper operation" or "check for
excessive temperature."

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

## Become familiar with NFPA 70B safety requirements for electrical equipment maintenance, to include:

-   Electrical preventive maintenance program elements (Ch. 5);

-   Training requirements (Ch. 5);

-   Special precautions relating to electronic equipment, e.g.,
    equipment deenergization, zero-energy checks, prevention of shock,
    grounding requirements for maintenance actions (Ch. 12);

-   GFCI and GFPE maintenance requirements, e.g., trip tests, records
    keeping, approved listing of test equipment (Ch. 14);

-   Testing and test methods: precautions and safety; qualifications of
    test operators; test equipment; protective device testing (Ch. 20);

-   Deenergizing and grounding of equipment to provide protection for
    electrical maintenance personnel, (Ch. 23); g. Grounding
    requirements, e.g., symptoms and causes of inadequate grounding;
    grounding system inspection, testing and monitoring; and, solutions
    to inadequate grounding (Ch. 29).

-   Maintenance and servicing of transformers, cables, breakers, and
    motors (Ch. 10, 11, 14, and 17 respectively).

### Electrical Preventive Maintenance

The term "electrical preventive maintenance" (EPM) refers to a program
of regular inspection and service of equipment to detect potential
problems and to take proper corrective measures through the approved
work process controls.

#### Development and Implementation Requirements

An EPM program should be developed and implemented based on the
requirements of:

-   DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear
    Facilities (2001)

-   NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance
    (2002)

-   NFPA 70E, Standard for Standard for Electrical Safety in the
    Workplace (2004)

-   NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code (2002)

-   National Electrical Testing Association (1997)

-   ANSI-C2, National Electrical Safety Code (2002)

#### Definition

An EPM program is defined as the system that manages the conducting of
routine inspections and tests and the servicing of electrical equipment
so that impending troubles can be detected and reduced or eliminated.
Where designers, installers, or constructors specify, install, and
construct equipment with optional auxiliary equipment, that optional
equipment should be part of the EPM program. Records of all inspections,
tests, and servicing should be documented and reviewed.

All electrical equipment that is appropriate for EPM should be
inspected, tested, and serviced in accordance with an EPM program.

Inspections, tests, and servicing shall be performed by personnel who
are qualified for the work to be performed. These qualifications can be
shown by appropriate documentation of work experience, on-the-job, and
offsite formal training to verify understanding and retention of minimum
knowledge, skills, and abilities.

#### Maintenance

Electrical equipment should be maintained in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations and instructions for the local operating
environment. A copy of the manufacturer's recommendations should be
documented and on file.

#### Inspection

If an EPM program does not exist, an inspection, testing, and servicing
program should be developed and implemented to establish a baseline to
initiate an EPM program. The inspection frequency should be as
recommended by the manufacturer or as otherwise indicated in NFPA 70B.
An initial period of inspection (sometimes several years) provides
sufficient knowledge that, when accumulated, may permit increasing or
decreasing that interval based upon documented observations and
experience.

The EPM program should include the essential elements described in NFPA
70B, Chapter 5, What is an Effective EPM Program? This includes
planning, identifying the main parts, and utilizing available support
services for a program. For example:

-   Assigning qualified personnel

-   Surveying and analyzing equipment maintenance requirements

-   Performing routine inspections and tests

-   Analyzing inspection and test reports

-   Prescribing corrective measures

-   Performing necessary work

-   Preparing appropriate records.

#### Planning and Developing an EPM Program, and Fundamentals Of EPM

The EPM program should be planned and developed to include each of the
functions, requirements, and economic considerations described in NFPA
70B, Chapter 6, Planning and Developing an EPM Program, and NFPA 70B,
Chapter 7, Fundamentals of EPM. Chapter 6 includes surveying the
existing electrical system installation, identifying crucial equipment,
establishing a systematic program to follow, and developing methods and
procedures to plan, analyze, perform, verify, and record.

Electrical drawings should be kept current. A system of recording
changes in electrical systems and then integrating those changes into
the applicable drawings should be developed and implemented.

NFPA 70B includes designing to accommodate maintenance, scheduling
maintenance, personnel and equipment safety, circuit protection, and
initial acceptance testing.

### Training Requirements

Establish qualification requirements, training programs and
certifications where appropriate for all personnel.

Prior to performing electrical work, personnel must be qualified to
perform job-related electrical tasks as required by 29 CFR 1910.332.

Personnel exposed to the presence of voltages of 50 V or more will have
formal electrical safety awareness training. This training can be in a
classroom or on the job.

All training must be documented.

-   Instructors must provide course outlines.

-   Proof of successful completion must be maintained in appropriate
    files.

Minimum training requirements should include

-   electrical safety awareness;

-   electrical safety theory;

-   applicable codes, DOE orders, regulations, and standards;

-   demonstrations and hands-on practice;

-   use and care of personal protective equipment;

-   job-specific safe electrical work practices; and

-   electrical requirements of safe operating procedures and operating
    procedures.

-   Personnel working with high voltage (greater than 600 V) must have
    specialized electrical awareness training.

-   Periodic training refresher courses are required to maintain and
    update skills and code requirements.

Management and supervision who oversee electrical work must have
completed Electrical Safety Awareness Training at a level commensurate
with the level of work being performed.

### Special Precautions for Electronic Equipment

This section provides guidelines to

-   complement existing electrical codes and recommend industry
    standards,

-   improve electrical safety in the work environment for personnel
    within the DOE complex.

-   eliminate the ambiguity and misunderstanding in design, construction
    and implementation requirements for electrical/electronic equipment,
    and

-   assist the Authority Having Jurisdiction in providing information
    for acceptance of equipment within the scope of DOE-HDBK-1092-2004.

#### Scope

This section addresses enclosed electrical/electronic equipment
electrical safety guidelines which are not specifically addressed
elsewhere in the DOE Electrical Safety Handbook. These types of
equipment include: instrumentation and test consoles; enclosed
electrical/electronic equipment; other laboratory diagnostic
electrical/electronic equipment (stationary or mobile) mounted in or on
an enclosure, rack or chassis; and special electrical/electronic
equipment facility requirements.

#### Grounding and Bonding

Many ground system types exist within electrical equipment. All metal
parts of electrical equipment enclosures and chassis shall be bonded and
grounded as per the NEC. The methods chosen to avoid ground loops and
reduce noise shall meet the requirements of the NEC 250.6.

#### Objectional Current Over Grounding Conductors

Enclosed electrical/electronic equipment has both power and signal
conductors entering and leaving these enclosures. Objectionable currents
and noise may be the result of the design or installation of conductors
and equipment and their grounding locations. NEC 250.6 addresses these
objectionable currents and noise (See Section 10.9.2.1).

NEC 250.6 must be used with care because it seems to give blanket
authority to do whatever is necessary to stop objectionable currents
from flowing in the grounding system. This is not the intent. NEC 250.6D
specifically indicates that the introduction of noise or data errors in
electronic equipment shall not be considered objectionable currents, as
addressed therein.

Therefore, such objectionable currents must be handled in other ways.
NEC section 250.6 principally deals with objectionable currents that can
flow over grounding conductors due to severely unbalanced loads or
improper installation practices. NEC 250.96(B) provides requirements for
isolation of grounding circuits to reduce electrical noise (EMI).
Because of the complexity and number of interconnections of most
grounding systems, the NEC allows modifications of the grounding system
and connections in order to address such problems. Those permitted:

-   Arrangement to prevent objectionable current. Grounding of
    electrical systems, circuit conductors, surge arresters, and
    conductive noncurrent-carrying materials and equipment shall be
    installed and arranged in a manner that will prevent an
    objectionable current over the grounding conductors or grounding
    paths. Use of a single-point grounding system, as well as meeting
    the other requirements of NEC Article 250, will usually overcome
    problems.

-   Alterations to stop objectionable current. If the use of multiple
    grounding connections results in an objectionable current, one or
    more of the following alterations are permitted to be made, provided
    that the requirements of NEC 250.4(A)(5)(B)(4), are met. Such
    permitted alterations are:

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-   Discontinue one or more, but not all, of the grounding connections;

-   Change the locations of the grounding connections;

-   Interrupt the continuity of the conductor or conductive path
    interconnecting the grounding connections; and/or

-   Take other suitable remedial action satisfactory to the authority
    having jurisdiction.

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-   Temporary currents not classified as objectionable currents.
    Temporary currents resulting from accidental conditions, such as
    ground-fault currents, that occur only while the grounding
    conductors are performing their intended protective functions shall
    not be classified as objectionable. This does not prohibit changes
    in the system to correct excessive current during a fault condition.

-   Limitations to permissible alterations. The intent of NEC 250.6 is
    not to permit electronic equipment to be operated on AC systems or
    branch circuits that are not grounded as required by NEC
    Article 250. Currents that introduce noise or data errors in
    electronic equipment are not considered to be the objectionable
    currents. Voltage differences and thus objectionable currents may
    exist because impedances to ground are not equal throughout a
    grounding system due to variations of the resistance of the earth,
    improper connections, or other problems. Even though voltage
    differences allow unwanted currents to flow in the grounding
    conductors, and induced noise may travel over this path, it is not
    to be used as a reason to disconnect all grounding connections to
    any system component. At least one grounding connection must remain.

#### Equipment Grounding Conductor

The equipment grounding conductor of a power-supply cord or
interconnecting cable should be size in accordance with NEC 250.122 and
the associated NEC Table 250.122. The minimum size equipment grounding
conductor is based on the total rating of the enclosed equipments in
amperes. Note that the minimum size equipment grounding conductor may be
smaller than the size for the current-carrying conductors; i.e., the
grounded (neutral) and ungrounded conductors, which are sized per NEC
Article 310.15 -- usually following NEC Table 310.16.

Systems feeding power isolation transformers must continue the equipment
grounding conductor to the equipment or the ungrounded equipment must be
guarded and labeled. For two-wire cord connected equipment, an equipment
grounding connector should be installed according to the manufacturer's
instructions.

### GFCI and GFPE Maintenance Requirements

The EPM program should include the essential ingredients of chapter 14
of NFPA 70B, Ground Fault Protection. This includes ground-fault circuit
interrupters (GFCls) and ground-fault protection for equipment (GFPE).

Ground-fault protective devices are intended to protect personnel and
equipment. There are two distinct types --- GFCI and GFPE --- and it is
extremely important to understand the difference between them.

A GFCI is defined in Article 100 of the NEC as a device intended for the
protection of personnel in their job assignments. (See NEC 210.8, 215.9,
427, 527)

A GFPE is defined in Article 100 of the NEC as a system intended to
provide protection of equipment from line-to-ground fault currents. GFPE
systems (equipped with or without a test panel) shall be inspected and
tested at installation and at specified intervals as recommended by the
manufacturer.

### Testing and Test Methods

Sometimes it becomes necessary to check the continuity of power
circuits, control circuits, etc., by using a particular testing
instrument (volt, ohm, and/or amp meter) designed for the testing
involved. The voltage device used shall be rated for the application.
Proximity testers and solenoid-type devices should not be used to test
for the absence of voltage because they do not accurately detect and/or
measure voltage. Also, proximity testers will not detect direct current
(DC) or AC voltage in a cable that is shielded. Proximity testers are
very useful in certain applications; for example, for finding cables
that go through a panel but that do not terminate in the panel. However,
it should be noted that a proximity tester's failure to detect voltage
does not guarantee that the equipment or device is deenergized. The
absence of voltage can only be verified with a voltmeter rated for the
application.

Voltmeters, both analog and digital, are designed for a number of
applications from appliance troubleshooting to power system testing. The
type of voltmeter used depends on where in the power system you are
using the meter. The user must read and understand the manufacturer's
instructions on the use and application of the voltmeter. When a
multi-function, multi-scale meter is used, it is important for the user
to select the function and scale necessary for the task being performed
in order to avoid damage or destruction of the meter and injury to the
employee. The selection of test instruments and equipment shall be based
on its application and categorization.

### Deenergizing Equipment

Safe procedures for deenergizing circuits and equipment shall be
determined before circuits or equipment are deenergized. Deenergization
procedures shall be included in the lockout/tagout procedure for the
circuit or equipment to be deenergized.

### Maintenance and Servicing of Transformers

Ferro-resonance can generate overvoltages of up to 12 times
line-to-ground source voltage upon opening of a single-phase device or a
poorly synchronized three-phase device. Violent failure can occur,
exposing personnel to the high-voltage failure and accompanying
conditions.

Ferro-resonant conditions can result in damage to lightning arresters,
switching devices, buried cable, transformers, and associated equipment.

Ferro-resonance can be initiated when all of the following elements are
present and the switching means at dip point or takeoff is either a
single-phase device or an unsynchronized three-phase device that does
not operate all phases within one-half cycle:

-   System grounded at the source but with no ground at the transformer
    bank, such as a transformer or transformer bank connected delta on a
    grounded-wye system.

-   Shielded cable or overhead conductor length sufficient to create the
    capacitance necessary.

-   Transformer size that permits saturation of the iron core at the
    operating voltage

-   Transformer unloaded or very lightly loaded.

Prevention or control of ferro-resonance may be accomplished by any of
the following measures:

-   Using a wye-wye transformer connection with both neutrals grounded
    and tied to the system neutral.

-   Using only phase-to-neutral (not phase-to-phase) transformer
    connections for single-phase transformers.

-   Limiting length of underground cable between transformers and
    single-pole or poorly synchronized three-pole switching devices.

-   If single-pole or poorly synchronized switching devices must be
    used, ensuring that transformer and underground cable are loaded in
    excess of 2% resistive load of the transformer capacity.

-   If transformer primary is ungrounded-wye, temporarily grounding the
    neutrals of the transformers being switched.

-   Installing close-coupled, high-speed, three-pole switching devices
    to minimize the duration of the single-phase condition during
    opening and closing of the circuit.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

## Become familiar with the NFPA 70E, Chapter 2, safety-related maintenance requirements relating to:

-   Grounding and bonding;

-   Safety equipment and clear space requirements;

-   Electrical systems and components;

-   Hazardous locations;

-   PPE

-   Identify and discuss elements of an electrical safety program,
    including the following:

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-   **Two-man rule**

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-   Stored energy

-   Component labeling

### Grounding and Bonding

This section presents general rules for the grounding and bonding of
electrical installations.

Qualified workers should clearly understand the concepts of grounding
practices as required by the NEC. They should also clearly understand
the definition and intent of the following components of a grounding
system that are explained in this section:

-   Grounded conductor

-   Grounding conductor

-   Grounding electrode conductor

-   Bonding jumper

-   Grounding electrode

Engineering specifications and drawings should identify the requirements
for all components and clearly illustrate the grounding electrode
system, the grounding electrode conductor, bonding points, and bonding
jumpers, and the connection point for the grounded conductor and the
grounding conductors. Where used for installation or construction
purposes, these specifications and drawings should also include detailed
installation instructions.

Circuit and system grounding consists of connecting the grounded
conductor, the equipment grounding conductor, the grounding bus bars,
and all non-current-carrying metal parts to ground.

This is accomplished by connecting a properly sized unspliced grounding
electrode conductor between the grounding bus bar and the grounding
electrode system. There are three fundamental purposes for grounding an
electrical system:

-   To limit excessive voltage from lightning, line surges, and
    crossovers with higher voltage lines.

-   To keep conductor enclosures and non-current-carrying metal
    enclosures and equipment at zero potential to ground.

-   To facilitate the opening of overcurrent protection devices in case
    of insulation failures because of faults, short circuits, etc.

Equipment grounding systems, which consist of interconnected networks of
equipment grounding conductors, are used to perform the following
functions:

-   Limit the hazard to personnel (shock voltage) from the
    non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment raceways and other
    conductor enclosures in case of ground faults, and

-   Safely conduct ground-fault current at sufficient magnitude for fast
    operation of the circuit overcurrent protection devices.

To ensure the performance of the above functions, equipment grounding
conductors are required to:

-   Be permanent and continuous

-   Have ample capacity to safely conduct ground-fault current likely to
    be imposed on them; and

-   Have impedance sufficiently low to limit the voltage to ground to a
    safe magnitude and to facilitate the operation of the circuit
    overcurrent protection devices.

Caution shall be taken to ensure that the main bonding jumper and
equipment bonding jumper are sized and selected correctly. Bonding
completes the grounding circuit so that it is continuous. If a ground
fault occurs, the fault current will flow and open the overcurrent
protection devices. The means of bonding shall provide the following to
ensure the grounding system is intact:

-   Provide a permanent connection,

-   Provide a positive continuity at all times, and

-   Provide ampacity to conduct fault current.

#### Grounded or Ungrounded Systems

Ungrounded systems may provide greater continuity of operations in the
event of a fault. However, the second fault will most likely be more
catastrophic than a grounded system fault. Whenever ungrounded systems
are used in a facility, the maintenance personnel should receive
training in how to detect and troubleshoot the first fault on an
ungrounded system. "Grounded" means that the connection to ground
between the service panel and earth has been made. Ungrounded electrical
systems are used where the designer does not want the overcurrent
protection device to clear in the event of a ground fault.

Ground detectors can be installed per NEC to sound an alarm or send a
message to alert personnel that a first fault has occurred on one of the
phase conductors. Ground detectors will detect the presence of leakage
current or developing fault current conditions while the system is still
energized and operating. By warning of the need to take corrective
action before a problem occurs, safe conditions can usually be
maintained until an orderly shutdown is implemented.

#### Grounded Systems

Grounded systems are equipped with a grounded conductor that is required
to be run to each service disconnecting means. The grounded conductor
can be used as a current-carrying conductor to accommodate all neutral
related loads. It can also be used as an equipment grounding conductor
to clear ground faults ahead of the service disconnecting means. A
network of equipment grounding conductors is routed from the service
equipment enclosure to all metal enclosures throughout the electrical
system. The equipment grounding conductor carries fault currents from
the point of the fault to the grounded bus in the service equipment
where it is transferred to the grounded conductor. The grounded
conductor carries the fault current back to the source and returns over
the faulted phase and trips open the overcurrent protection device.

Note: A system is considered grounded if the supplying source, such as a
transformer or generator is grounded in addition to the grounding means
on the supply side of the service equipment disconnecting device for
separately derived systems.

The neutral of any grounded system serves two main purposes: (1) it
permits the utilization of line-to-neutral voltage and thus will serve
as a current-carrying conductor to carry any neutral current, and (2) it
plays a vital role in providing a low-impedance path for the flow of
fault currents to facilitate the operation of the overcurrent devices in
the circuit.

#### Ungrounded Systems

Ungrounded systems operate without a grounded conductor. In other words,
none of the circuit conductors of the electrical system are
intentionally grounded to an earth ground such as a metal water pipe, or
building steel. The same network of equipment grounding conductors is
provided for ungrounded systems as for solidly grounded electrical
systems. However, equipment grounding conductors (EGCs) are used only to
locate phase-to-ground faults and sound some type of alarm. Therefore, a
single sustained line-to-ground fault does not result in an automatic
trip of the overcurrent protection device. This is a major benefit if
electrical system reliability is required or if it would result in the
shutdown of a continuous process. However, if an accidental ground fault
occurs and is allowed to flow for a substantial time, over-voltages can
develop in the associated phase conductors. Such an over-voltage
situation can lead to conductor insulation damage, and while a ground
fault remains on one phase of an ungrounded system, personnel contacting
one of the other phases and ground are subjected to 1.732 times the
voltage they would experience on a solidly neutral grounded system.

#### Grounding Requirements

Alternating current systems of less than 50 volts shall be grounded as
required in NEC. Systems of 50 to 1,000 V should be solidly grounded as
required by NEC. Systems supplying phase-to-neutral loads shall also be
solidly grounded. The following electrical systems are required to be
solidly grounded:

-   240/120-V, single-phase, three-wire

-   208Y/120-V, three-phase, four-wire

-   480Y/277-V, three-phase, four-wire

-   240/120-V, three-phase, four-wire, delta (midpoint of one phase used
    as a grounded circuit conductor)

The following systems are not required to be solidly grounded:

-   240-V, three-phase, three-wire delta

-   480-V, three-phase, three-wire

-   600-V, three-phase, three-wire.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### Safety Equipment and Clear Space Requirements

Working space around electrical enclosures or equipment shall be
adequate for conducting all anticipated maintenance and operations
safely, including sufficient space to ensure safety of personnel working
during emergency conditions and workers rescuing injured personnel.
Spacing shall provide the dimensional clearance (discussed in the
following subsections) for personnel access to equipment likely to
require examination, adjustment, servicing, or maintenance while
energized. Such equipment includes panelboards, switches, circuit
breakers, switchgear, controllers, and controls on heating and air
conditioning equipment.

These clearances shall be in accordance with NESC and NEC. These working
clearances are not required if the equipment is not likely to require
examination, adjustment, servicing, or maintenance while energized.
However, sufficient access and working space is still required.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-1092-2004, Electrical Safety Manual, 2004

### Electrical Systems and Components

Qualified employees performing such tasks as electrical repairs,
modifications, and tests on energized electrical systems, parts, and
equipment need to comply with the following:

-   Parts to which an employee might be exposed shall be put into an
    electrically safe work condition before the employee works on or
    near them, unless the employer can demonstrate that deenergizing
    introduces additional or increased hazards or is infeasible due to
    equipment design or operational limitations.

-   Personnel shall not work on energized circuits unless they are
    qualified to do so, or, for training purposes, unless they work
    under the direct supervision of a qualified person.

-   Sufficient protection in the form of insulated tools and insulated
    protective equipment, such as gloves, blankets, sleeves, mats, etc.,
    shall be used while working on energized circuits.

### Hazardous Locations

Hazardous areas and locations are classified by group, class, and
division. These classifications are determined by the atmospheric
mixtures of various gases, vapors, dust, and other materials present.
The intensity of the explosion that can occur depends on concentrations,
temperatures, and many other factors that are listed in NFPA codes.

Hazardous locations must be well understood by anyone designing,
installing, working on, or inspecting electrical equipment and wiring in
such areas. Such locations carry a threat of flammable or combustible
gases, vapors, or dusts being present some or all of the time.

Information in the following paragraphs assist in classifying areas or
locations with respect to hazardous conditions, whether from atmospheric
concentrations of hazardous gases, vapors, and deposits, or from
accumulations of readily ignitable materials.

This section covers the requirements for electrical equipment and wiring
in locations that are classified according to the properties of the
flammable vapors, liquids, or gases or combustible dusts that may be
present and the likelihood that a flammable or combustible concentration
is present. The hazardous (classified) locations are assigned the
following designations:

-   Class I Division 1

-   Class I Division 2

-   Class II Division 1

-   Class II Division 2.

-   Class I, Zone 0, Zone 1, Zone 2

-   Class III fibers and flyings are not covered here

#### Class I

Class I locations are identified in the NEC as those in which flammable
gases or vapors are or may be present in the air in amounts sufficient
to create explosive or ignitable mixtures. Gases or vapors may be
continuously or intermittently present. However, if a gas or vapor is
present, there is a potential that a flammable mixture will be present.

From an engineering standpoint, greater precautions are needed if a
particular set of conditions is likely to occur (e.g., the presence of a
flammable mixture within the explosive range) than if it is unlikely.
This is the reason for dividing hazardous locations into two divisions.

#### Division 1

NEC 500.5 defines Class I Division 1 hazardous locations as those in
which:

-   Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, liquids, or vapors can
    exist under normal operating conditions;

-   Ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors may exist
    frequently because of repair or maintenance operations or because of
    leakage; or

-   Breakdown or faulty operation of equipment or processes might
    release ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, liquids, or
    vapors and might also cause simultaneous failure of electrical
    equipment.

Note: In each case, ignitable concentrations are mentioned. This means
concentrations between the lower and upper flammable or explosion
limits.

NEC Article 100 defines a flammable liquid as one that has a flashpoint
below 38°C (100°F) or one whose temperature is raised above its
flashpoint. Flashpoint is the lowest temperature to which a combustible
or flammable liquid may be heated before sufficient vapors are driven
off and the liquid will flash when brought into contact with a flame,
arc, spark, or another ignition source.

#### Division 2

NEC 500.5(B)(2) defines Class I Division 2 locations as those:

-   In which flammable liquids or gases are handled, processed, or used,
    but where such materials are normally confined in closed containers
    or closed systems from which they can escape only in case of
    accidental rupture or breakdown of such containers or systems or in
    case of abnormal equipment operation.

-   In which gases or vapors are normally prevented, by positive
    mechanical ventilation, from forming ignitable concentrations and
    which might become hazardous through failure or abnormal operation
    of the ventilating equipment

-   That are adjacent to a Class I Division 1 location and to which
    ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors might occasionally be
    transmitted unless such transmittal is prevented by adequate
    positive-pressure ventilation from a source of clean air, and
    effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.

The fine-print note #2 to NEC 500.5 describes a number of areas and
occupancies normally classified as Class I Division 2 locations. For
example, piping systems without valves, meters, and devices do not
usually cause a hazardous condition, even though they carry flammable
liquids, because they are considered a contained system. Therefore, the
surrounding area can be classified as a Class I Division 2 location.

#### Class II

A Class II location is defined in NEC 500 as an area where combustible
dust presents a fire or explosion hazard. Class II locations are divided
into two divisions based on the normal presence or absence of dust.

#### Class II Division 1

A Class 11 Division 1 location is one:

-   In which combustible dust is in the air under normal operating
    conditions in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or
    ignitable mixtures;

-   Where mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or
    equipment might cause such explosive or ignitable mixtures to be
    produced and might also provide a source of ignition through
    simultaneous failure of electrical equipment, operation of
    protective devices, or other causes; or

-   In which combustible dusts of an electrically conductive nature may
    be present in hazardous quantities.

#### Class II Division 2

A Class II Division 2 location is one where:

-   Combustible dust is not normally in the air in quantities sufficient
    to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures;

-   Dust accumulations are normally insufficient to interfere with the
    normal operation of electrical equipment or other apparatus, but
    where combustible dust may be suspended in the air as a result of
    infrequent malfunctioning of handling or processing equipment; and

-   Combustible dust accumulations on, in, or in the vicinity of the
    electrical equipment may be sufficient to interfere with the safe
    dissipation of heat from electrical equipment or may be ignitable by
    abnormal operation or failure of electrical equipment.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### PPE

Qualified workers are responsible for avoiding and preventing accidents
while performing electrical work, repairs, or troubleshooting electrical
equipment. Personnel shall wear or use PPE and protective clothing that
is appropriate for safe performance of work. Qualified workers need to
use appropriate arc-fault PPE whenever they work near electrical
equipment that could create an arc flash hazard.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### Two Man Rule

Never work on a project site alone. Safety procedures require a minimum
of two personnel during the installation, maintenance, or operation of
any equipment.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### Stored Energy

For discharge equipment with stored energy in excess of 10 joules

-   A discharge point with an impedance capable of limiting the current
    to 500A or less should be provided.

-   The discharge point must be identified with a unique marker
    (example: yellow circular marker with a red slash), and should be
    labeled \"HI Z PT\" in large legible letters.

-   A properly installed grounding hook should first be connected to the
    current-limiting discharge point and then to a low-impedance
    discharge point (\< 0.1 ohm) that is identified by a unique marker
    (example: yellow circular marker).

### Component Labeling

For all chassis and rack cabinets (electrical, computer, power
distribution, etc.), the manufacturer's name, trademark, or other
descriptive marking of the organization responsible for the product
should be identified.

Other markings for power requirements are:

-   Voltage

-   Maximum rated current in amperes

-   Wattage

-   Frequency

-   Duration

-   Duty cycle

-   Other ratings as specified in the NEC (NEC 110.21)

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

## V. ELECTRICAL DESIGN & INSTALLATION (SAFETY AND SYSTEMS) {#v.-electrical-design-installation-safety-and-systems .Style2}

**(Applies only to candidates assigned oversight of electrical design
and installation activities. Each competency statement is a MPA,
provided that they are applicable to the candidate's assigned electrical
duties.)**

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the current national electrical code, and become familiar with the requirements for wiring design and protection (NFPA 70, NFPA 70E, chapter 4) to include:

-   Use of listed and labeled, Nationally Recognized Test Laboratory
    (NRTL), electrical equipment (also reference 29 CFR 1910.303 & .399,
    and 29 CFR 1926.403);

-   Branch circuits identification;

-   GFCI protection for personnel;

-   Outside circuits and conductors for 600 volts (or less) systems;

-   Overcurrent protection for 600 volts (or less) and greater-than 600
    volts circuits;

-   Grounding and bonding requirements as noted in NFPA 70E Article
    410.10.

### NRTL

Electrical equipment is considered to be acceptable either by being
listed by an NRTL, designed, manufactured, and tested according to
nationally recognized standards, or approved by AHJ-determined criteria.
Procurement and use of equipment not listed by an NRTL should be
reviewed by the AHJ. The extensive testing involved in the listing
process usually cannot be duplicated at the user facility, and many of
the tests are destructive in nature. The AHJ should develop an
examination acceptance process to ensure appropriate confidence in the
safety of the product.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### Branch Circuits

Branch circuits are the conductors between the last overcurrent device
in an electrical system and the outlets, such as receptacles, lighting
outlets, and outlets for electrical equipment wired directly into a
circuit. Branch circuits for temporary wiring shall originate inside an
approved panel board or power outlet that is rated for the voltages and
currents the system is expected to carry. As with feeders, branch
circuit conductors can be contained within multi-conductor cord or cable
assemblies.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### GFCI Protection for Personnel

There are two classes of GFCIs, each with a distinct function. A Class A
GFCI trips when the current to ground has a value in the range of 4
through 6 milliamperes and is used for personnel protection. A Class A
GFCI is suitable for use in branch circuits. A Class B GFCI (commonly
used as ground fault protection for equipment) trips when the current to
ground exceeds 20 milliamperes. A Class B GFCI is not suitable for
employee protection. Ground-fault circuit protection can be used in any
location, circuit, or occupancy to provide additional protection from
line-to-ground shock hazards because of the use of electric hand tools.
There are four types of GFCIs used in the industry:

-   Circuit breaker type

-   Receptacle type

-   Portable type

-   Permanently mounted type

The condition of use determines the type of GFCI selected. For example,
if an electrician or maintenance person plugs an extension cord into a
non-protected GFCI receptacle, the easiest way to provide GFCI
protection is to utilize a portable-type GFCI.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, 2004

### Outside Circuits

Outside conductors, 600 volts, nominal, or less. The following
paragraphs apply to branch circuit, feeder, and service conductors rated
600 volts, nominal, or less and run outdoors as open conductors.

Conductors on poles. Conductors supported on poles shall provide a
horizontal climbing space not less than the following:

-   Power conductors below communication conductors\--30 inches.

-   Power conductors alone or above communication conductors: 300 volts
    or less\--24 inches; more than 300 volts\--30 inches.

-   Communication conductors below power conductors with power
    conductors 300 volts or less\--24 inches; more than 300 volts\--30
    inches.

Clearance from ground. Open conductors shall conform to the following
minimum clearances:

-   10 feet\--above finished grade, sidewalks, or from any platform or
    projection from which they might be reached.

-   12 feet\--over areas subject to vehicular traffic other than truck
    traffic.

-   15 feet\--over areas other than those specified in paragraph in 29
    CFR 1910.304 that are subject to truck traffic.

-   18 feet\--over public streets, alleys, roads, and driveways.

Clearance from building openings. Conductors shall have a clearance of
at least 3 feet from windows, doors, porches, fire escapes, or similar
locations. Conductors run above the top level of a window are considered
to be out of reach from that window and, therefore, do not have to be 3
feet away.

Clearance over roofs. Conductors shall have a clearance of not less than
8 feet from the highest point of roofs over which they pass, except
that:

-   Where the voltage between conductors is 300 volts or less and the
    roof has a slope of not less than 4 inches in 12, the clearance from
    roofs shall be at least 3 feet, or

-   Where the voltage between conductors is 300 volts or less and the
    conductors do not pass over more than 4 feet of the overhang portion
    of the roof and they are terminated at a through-the-roof raceway or
    approved support, the clearance from roofs shall be at least 18
    inches.

Reference: 29 CFR 1910.304, Wiring Design and Protection, July 1, 2006

### Overcurrent Protection

The following requirements apply to overcurrent protection of circuits
rated 600 volts, nominal, or less.

-   Protection of conductors and equipment. Conductors and equipment
    shall be protected from overcurrent in accordance with their ability
    to safely conduct current.

-   Grounded conductors. Except for motor running overload protection,
    overcurrent devices may not interrupt the continuity of the grounded
    conductor unless all conductors of the circuit are opened
    simultaneously.

-   Disconnection of fuses and thermal cutouts. Except for service
    fuses, all cartridge fuses which are accessible to other than
    qualified persons and all fuses and thermal cutouts on circuits over
    150 volts to ground shall be provided with disconnecting means. This
    disconnecting means shall be installed so that the fuse or thermal
    cutout can be disconnected from its supply without disrupting
    service to equipment and circuits unrelated to those protected by
    the overcurrent device.

-   Location in or on premises. Overcurrent devices shall be readily
    accessible to each employee or authorized building management
    personnel. These overcurrent devices may not be located where they
    will be exposed to physical damage nor in the vicinity of easily
    ignitable material.

-   Arcing or suddenly moving parts. Fuses and circuit breakers shall be
    so located or shielded that employees will not be burned or
    otherwise injured by their operation.

Reference: 29 CFR 1910.304, Wiring Design and Protection, July 1, 2006

The following requirements apply to overcurrent protection over 600
volts.

Feeder and branch-circuit conductors shall have overcurrent protection
in each ungrounded conductor located at the point where the conductor
receives its supply or at an alternative location in the circuit when
designed under engineering supervision that includes but is not limited
to consideration of the appropriate fault studies and time-current
coordination analysis of the protective devices and the conductor damage
curves.

Circuit breakers used for overcurrent protection of 3-phase circuits
shall have a minimum of three overcurrent relay elements operated from
three current transformers. The separate overcurrent relay elements
shall be permitted to be part of a single electronic protective relay
unit. On 3-phase, 3-wire circuits, an overcurrent relay in the residual
circuit of the current transformers shall be permitted to replace one of
the phase relays. An overcurrent relay element, operated from a current
transformer that links all phases of a 3-phase, 3-wire circuit, shall be
permitted to replace the residual relay element and one of the
phase-conductor current transformers. Where the neutral is not
regrounded on the load side of the circuit, the current transformer
shall be permitted to link all 3-phase conductors and the grounded
circuit conductor (neutral).

Reference: NFPA 70E, Standard for Safety in the Workplace, 2004

### Grounding and Bonding

The following paragraphs cover grounding requirements for systems,
circuits, and equipment.

The path to ground from circuits, equipment, and enclosures shall be
permanent, continuous, and effective. Bonding shall be provided where
necessary to ensure electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct
safely any fault current likely to be imposed.

The following systems that supply premises wiring should be grounded:

-   The neutral conductor of all 3iwire, DC systems supplying premises
    wiring shall be grounded.

-   A 2-wire, DC system supplying premises wiring and operating at
    greater than 50 volts but not greater than 300 volts shall be
    grounded.

-   AC circuits of less than 50 volts shall be grounded under any of the
    following conditions:

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-   Where supplied by transformers, if the transformer supply systems
    exceed 150 volts to ground

-   Where supplied by transformers, if the transformer supply system is
    ungrounded

-   Where installed as overhead conductors outside of buildings

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```
-   AC systems of 50 volts to 1000 volts that supply premises wiring
    systems shall be grounded under any of the following conditions:

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-   Where the system can be grounded so that the maximum voltage to
    ground on the ungrounded conductors does not exceed 150 volts

-   Where the system is rated 3-phase, 4-wire, wye connected in which
    the neutral is used as a circuit conductor

-   Where the system is rated 3-phase, 4-wire, delta connected in which
    the midpoint of one phase winding is used as a circuit conductor

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```
-   The following AC systems of 50 volts to 1000 volts shall be
    permitted to be grounded, but shall not be required to be grounded:

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-   Electric systems used exclusively to supply industrial electric
    furnaces for melting, refining, and tempering

-   Separately derived systems used exclusively for rectifiers that
    supply only adjustable speed industrial drives

-   Separately derived systems supplied by transformers that have a
    primary voltage rating less than 1000 volts, provided that all of
    the following conditions are met:

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```
-   The system is used exclusively for control circuits.

-   The conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only
    qualified persons service the installation.

-   Continuity of control power is required.

-   Ground detectors are installed on the control system

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```
-   Where high-impedance grounded neutral systems in which a grounding
    impedance, usually a resistor, limits the ground-vault current to a
    low value shall be permitted for 3-phase AC systems of 480 volts to
    1000 volts where all of the following conditions are met.

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-   The conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only
    qualified persons service the installation.

-   Continuity of control power is required.

-   Ground detectors are installed on the control system

-   Line-to-neutral loads are not served

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```
-   AC systems of 1 kV and over supplying mobile or portable equipment
    shall be grounded. Where supplying other than mobile or portable
    equipment, such systems shall be permitted to be grounded.

-   The frame of a portable generator shall not be required to be
    grounded and shall be permitted to serve as the grounding electrode
    for a system supplied by the generator under the following
    conditions:

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```
-   The generator supplies only equipment mounted on the generator,
    cord-and-plug connected equipment through receptacles mounted on the
    generator, or both.

-   The non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment and the equipment
    grounding conductor terminals of the receptacles are bonded to the
    generator frame.

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```
-   The frame of a vehicle shall be permitted to serve as the grounding
    electrode for a system supplied by a generator located on the
    vehicle under the following conditions:

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```
-   The frame of the generator is bonded to the vehicle frame.

-   The generator supplies only equipment located on the vehicle or
    cord-and-plug-connected equipment through receptacles mounted on the
    vehicle, or both equipment located on the vehicle and
    cord-and-plug-connected equipment through receptacles mounted on the
    vehicle or on the generator.

-   The non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment and the equipment
    grounding conductor terminals of the receptacles are bonded to the
    generator frame.

-   The system complies with all other provisions of NFPA-70E, article
    410.10.

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```
-   A system conductor that is required to be grounded shall be bonded
    to the generator frame where the generator is a component of a
    separately derived system.

Reference: NFPA-70E, Standard for Safety in the Workplace, 2004

## Become familiar with the requirements for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems (NFPA 780, UL 96 Lightning Protection Components, and UL 96A Installation requirements for Lightning Protection Systems).

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of electrical diagrams, including:

-   One-line diagrams

-   Schematics

-   Construction drawings

-   As-built drawings

-   Wiring diagrams

a)  Using a schematic, identify an electrical component by its
    symbology.

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y)  Using a logic diagram for a control circuit, identify and describe
    the effects of an action taken.

z)  Using a one-line diagram, identify power sources and loads.

a)  Using a one-line diagram or schematic diagram, analyze the effects
    of a component failure in a system.

b)  Using a construction drawing, identify the emergency power supplies.

c)  Discuss the origin and purpose of \"as-built\" drawings.

Elements "a" through "f" are performance-based competencies. The
qualifying official will evaluate the completion of these competencies.

## Become knowledgeable of the Configuration Management process as applied to electrical documentation, e.g., documenting, controlling, revising, and issuance of electrical drawings. Also observed how drawings are updated and issued "as built." (DOE STD 1073, Configuration Management, and DOE O 414.1C Quality)

a)  Discuss the change control process described in DOE STD 1073.

Contractors must establish and use a formal change control process as
part of the configuration management process. The objective of change
control is to maintain consistency among design requirements, the
physical configuration, and the related facility documentation, even as
changes are made. The change control process is used to ensure changes
are properly reviewed and coordinated across the various organizations
and personnel responsible for activities and programs at the nuclear
facility.

Through the change control process, contractors must ensure that:

-   changes are identified and assessed through the change control
    process,

-   changes receive appropriate technical and management review to
    evaluate the consequences of the change,

-   changes are approved or disapproved,

-   waivers and deviations are properly evaluated and approved or denied
    and the technical basis for the approval or the denial is
    documented,

-   approved changes are adequately and fully implemented or the effects
    of the partial implementation are evaluated and accepted,

-   implemented changes are properly assessed to ensure the results of
    the changes agree with the expectations, and

-   documents are revised consistent with the changes and the revised
    documents are provided to the users.

Reference: DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration Management, October 2003

d)  Describe the purpose and objectives of the Operational Configuration
    Management Program.

The basic objectives and general principles of configuration management
are the same for all activities. The objectives of configuration
management are to

-   establish consistency among design requirements, physical
    configuration, and documentation, including analysis, drawings, and
    procedures for the activity;

-   maintain this consistency throughout the life of the facility or
    activity, particularly as changes are being made.

Reference: DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration Management, October 2003

e)  Discuss the following elements of the Configuration Management
    Program:

-   Design requirements

-   Document control

-   Change control

-   Assessments

-   Design reconstitution adjunct

-   Material condition and aging adjunct

### Design Requirements

The objective of the design requirements element of configuration
management is to document the design requirements. The design
requirements define the constraints and objectives placed on the
physical and functional configuration. The design requirements to be
controlled under configuration management will envelop the safety basis
and, typically, the authorization basis. Consequently, proper
application of the configuration management process should facilitate
the contractor's efforts to maintain the safety basis and the
authorization basis. Contractors must establish procedures and controls
to assess new facilities and activities, and modifications to facilities
and activities, to identify and document design requirements.

### Document Control

Document control ensures that only the most recently approved versions
of documents are used in the process of operating, maintaining, and
modifying the nuclear facility.

Document control helps ensure that

-   important facility documents are properly stored;

-   revisions to documents are controlled, tracked, and completed in a
    timely manner;

-   revised documents are formally distributed to designated users;

-   information concerning pending revisions is made available.

As controlled documents are updated to reflect changes to the
requirements and/or physical installation, the contractor must ensure
that

-   each updated document is uniquely identified and includes a revision
    number and date;

-   each outdated document is replaced by the latest revision.

### Change Control

Change control is a process that ensures all changes are properly
identified, reviewed, approved, implemented, tested, and documented.

The change control package is the documentation that accompanies a
change to a facility, activity, or operation from the planning and
initiation through completion of the implementation and testing. The
change control package documents the following, as applicable:

-   The description of the proposed change sufficient to support
    technical and management reviews prior to approval

-   The name and organization of the requester

-   The description of the potentially affected systems, structures, and
    components

-   The reason for the proposed change and any known schedule issues

-   A list of the alternative solutions considered and the results

-   The date by which the decision about the change needs to be
    completed to facilitate timely implementation or to allow
    implementation to occur concurrent with other activities, such as a
    planned maintenance shutdown

-   Constraints

-   Any other information needed to review, track, approve, or process
    the proposed change

It also includes related information such as

-   change request

-   design package

-   installation package

-   post-modification testing documentation

### Assessments

The quality assurance criteria of 10 CFR 830, subpart A, require DOE
contractors for nuclear facilities, including activities and operations,
to assess management processes and measure the adequacy of work
performance. Furthermore, the assessment criteria require that the
persons performing the assessments

-   have sufficient authority and freedom from line management

-   are qualified to perform the assessments

The objective of assessing configuration management is to detect,
document, determine the cause of, and initiate correction of
inconsistencies among design requirements, documentation, and physical
configuration. Properly performed assessments should help identify
inconsistencies between these areas, evaluate the root causes for these
problems, and prescribe improvements to avoid similar inconsistencies in
the future.

The five specific types of assessments are

-   configuration assessments, which are performed to ensure
    configuration is managed throughout the construction process for new
    construction or major modifications;

-   physical configuration assessments, which are conducted to evaluate
    the consistency between the physical configuration and the facility
    documentation;

-   design assessments, which are done to ensure that design documents
    have been updated to reflect changes and accurately reflect the
    physical configuration of the nuclear facility;

-   post-construction, -modification, or -installation inspections and
    tests, which are performed either after construction, modification,
    or installation to verify operation is as expected;

-   periodic performance assessments, which are conducted to verify that
    systems and components continue to meet design and performance
    requirements in their current configurations.

### Design Reconstitution Adjunct

Design reconstitution adjunct is an adjunct program to the configuration
management process that accomplishes the one-time effort of identifying,
retrieving, extracting, evaluating, verifying, validating, and
regenerating missing critical design requirements and basis. Design
reconstitution encompasses the following functions

-   Developing associated program plans and procedures

-   Identifying and retrieving design information from identified source
    documents

-   Evaluating, verifying, and validating the design information

-   Resolving discrepancies

-   Regenerating missing critical design information

-   Preparing and issuing design information summaries

### Material Condition and Aging Adjunct

The authors of this standard have deleted the discussion on material
condition and aging because it is a subject that is more appropriately
covered in DOE directives on maintenance.

Reference: DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration Management, October 2003

f)  Discuss the purpose, concepts, and general process for applying the
    graded approach to operational configuration management.

-   Using the guidance in DOE-STD-1073-2003, discuss the system engineer
    concept as it applies to oversight of safety systems. Specifically
    address the areas of configuration management, assessment of system
    status and performance, and technical support for operation and
    maintenance activities or for documented safety analysis (DSA)
    reviews.

-   Using DOE O 414.1C, discuss how the pedigree of electrical equipment
    should be maintained when supporting a nuclear related activity,
    and/or performing a safety function.

DOE defines graded approach as a process of ensuring that the level of
analysis, documentation, and actions used to comply with a requirement
are commensurate with:

-   the relative importance to safety, safeguards, and security;

-   the magnitude of any hazard involved;

-   the life cycle stage of a facility;

-   the programmatic mission of a facility;

-   the particular circumstances of a facility;

-   the relative importance of radiological and nonradiological hazards;
    and

-   any other relative hazard.

The main purpose of using a graded approach is to determine and apply a
level of resources that is appropriate when implementing a program. The
goal is to apply the highest level of resources to the most important
equipment in the most important facilities and to avoid such
expenditures where they are not warranted. For a highly hazardous
facility such as a large nuclear reactor, which could potentially have
serious off-site personnel safety consequences, a significant investment
of resources is appropriate for the systems that prevent, detect, or
mitigate such consequences. At the other extreme, for a low-hazard
facility---a glovebox operation, for example---where the greatest hazard
is localized (i.e., offsite persons and workers at other collocated
facilities are not affected), the same investment of resources may not
be necessary. The grading system should take into account both facility
grades and SSC grades in determining the appropriate level of resources
to be applied.

In applying the graded approach to the configuration management process,
the following factors should be considered:

  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------
  Relative Importance Factors           Situational/Circumstantial
                                        Considerations

  Facility grade                        Facility type and technical
                                        characteristics

  SSC grades                            Facility remaining lifetime

                                        Facility operational status and
                                        life cycle phase

                                        Programmatic and technical issues

                                        Existing programs and procedures
  ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------

The first column lists factors that can be used to grade based upon
relative importance. That is, one item can be identified as more
important than another and therefore can be assigned a higher priority.
The second column lists special situations and circumstances that are
independent of relative importance.

Reference: DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration Management, October 2003

The bulleted portion of this competency is performance-based. The
qualifying official will evaluate the completion of this portion of the
competency.

## Become familiar with battery installations, maintenance, testing, and replacement as described in NFPA 70E, Chapter 3, IEEE Std-450, and IEEE-C2 National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) to include:

-   Connections and capacities;

-   DC systems grounding and ground-fault detection;

-   DC circuits protection and alarms.

### Connections and Capacities

Batteries usually consist of a number of identical cells connected in
series. The voltage of a series connection of cells is the voltage of a
single cell multiplied by the number of cells. If cells of sufficiently
large capacity are available, then two or more series-connected strings
of equal numbers of cells could be connected in parallel to achieve the
desired rated capacity. The rated capacity of such a battery is the sum
of the capacities of a group of cells comprising a single cell from each
of the parallel branches.

Cells of unequal capacity should not be connected in series. Parallel
connections of batteries should be limited to 4 strings. Parallel
connections of batteries are not recommended for constant
current-charging applications. Cells connect in series have high
voltages that could produce a shock hazard.

### DC Systems Grounding and Ground Fault Detection

One of the four types of available DC grounding systems should be used

Type 1. The ungrounded DC system in which neither pole of the battery is
connected to ground.

Type 2. The solidly grounded DC system where either the positive or
negative pole of the battery is connected directly to ground.

Type 3. The resistance grounded DC system, where the battery is
connected to ground through a resistance. The resistance is used to
permit operations of a current relay that initiates an alarm.

Type 4. A tapped solid ground, either at the center point or at another
point tot suit the load system.

### DC Circuits Protection and Alarms

DC circuits should be protected according to the NEC. Alarms should be
provided for early warning of the following abnormal conditions of
battery operation:

For vented batteries:

-   Overvoltage

-   Undervoltage

-   Overcurrent

-   Ground-fault

For valve regulated lead acid batteries all of the above plus
overtemperature, as measured at the pilot cell.

Reference: NFPA-70E, Standard for Safety in the Workplace, 2004

## Become familiar with ventilation and battery room requirements as cited in NFPA 70E, Chapter 3, IEEE Std-450 and IEEE C2-National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) to include:

-   Ventilation requirements for different battery types;

-   Battery room restrictions, barriers, illumination, and enclosure
    requirements;

-   Battery protection requirements.

### Ventilation Requirements

Batteries should be located in rooms or enclosures with outside vents or
in well-ventilated rooms, so arranged to prevent the escape of fumes,
gases, or electrolyte spray into other areas.

Ventilation should be provided to prevent liberated hydrogen gas from
exceeding 1 percent concentration. Room ventilation should be adequate
to ensure that pockets of trapped hydrogen gas do not occur,
particularly at the ceiling, to prevent the accumulation of an explosive
mixture. Exhaust air shall not pass over electrical equipment unless the
equipment is listed for the use. Inlets shall be no higher than the tops
of the battery cells and outlets at the highest level in the room.

### Battery Room Restrictions

The battery room should be accessible only to authorized personnel and
should be locked when unoccupied. The battery room and enclosure doors
should open outward. The doors should be equipped with quick-release,
quick-opening hardware. The battery room should be located so that
access to the batteries is unobstructed. DC switching equipment,
rotating machinery other than exhaust fans, and other equipment not
directly part of the battery and charging facilities should be external
to the battery room. Alternatively, DC switching equipment should be
separated from the battery by a partition of a height no less than 6 ft
6 in and of sufficient length to prevent accident contact with live
surfaces. Foreign piping should not pass through a battery room.
Passageways should be of sufficient width to allow the replacement of
all battery room equipment. Emergency exits should be provided as
required. Access and entrance to working space about the battery should
be provided as required by NFPA-70E, article 400.15.

### Battery Protection Requirements

The following are general requirements for battery protection.

When the battery capacity exceeds 100 ampere-hours or where the nominal
battery voltage exceeds 50 volts, suitable warning notices indicating
the battery voltage and the prospective short-circuit current of the
installation should be displayed.

Each output conductor should be individually protected by a fuse or
circuit breaker positioned as close as practicable to the battery
terminals.

Protective equipment should not be located in the battery compartment of
the enclosure.

Switching and control equipment should comply with NEC and should be
listed for the application.

For an ungrounded battery of nominal voltage that exceeds 120 volts, a
ground-fault detector should be provided to initiate a ground-fault
alarm.

The battery installation should have an isolating switch installed as
close as practicable to the main terminals of the battery. Where a
busway system is installed, the isolating switch may be incorporated
into the end of the busway.

Where the battery section exceeds 1120 volts, the installation should
include an isolating switch, plugs, or links, as required, to isolate
sections of the battery, or part of the battery for maintenance.

The following signs should be posted in appropriate locations:

-   Electrical hazard warning signs indicating the shock hazard due to
    the battery voltage and the arc hazard due to the prospective
    short-circuit current

-   Chemical hazard warning signs indicating the danger of hydrogen
    explosion from open flame and smoking and the danger of chemical
    burns from the electrolyte

-   Notice for personnel to use and wear protective equipment and
    apparel

-   Notice prohibiting access to unauthorized personnel

Reference: NFPA-70E, Standard for Safety in the Workplace, 2004

## VI. ELECTRICAL VITAL SAFETY SYSTEMS (VSS) {#vi.-electrical-vital-safety-systems-vss .Style2}

**(Applies only to candidates who are assigned an electrical VSS.
Recommend applying, as appropriate, to candidates who are assigned an
electrical system that performs a defense in depth/important to safety
function and/or supports a nuclear related activity. Each competency
statement is a MPA, provided that they are applicable to the candidate's
assigned electrical duties.)**

## Mandatory Performance Activity: Demonstrate a familiarity-level of knowledge of 10 CFR 830 (Nuclear Safety Management), and DOE O 414.1C that relate to electrical safety programs, processes, and systems, to include:

-   Knowledge of site VSS interfaces for electrical, software, and
    instrument and control systems;

-   The basic purpose of the USQ process;

-   General purpose and constitution of the DSA;

-   Purpose and content of Technical Safety Requirements (TSR)
    documentation.

a)  Discuss the reasons for performing an Unreviewed Safety Question
    determination.

A proposed change or test involves a USQ if

-   the probability of the occurrence or the consequences of an accident
    or the malfunction of equipment important to safety previously
    evaluated in the documented safety analysis could be increased,

-   the possibility of an accident or malfunction of a different type
    than any evaluated previously in the documented safety analysis
    could be created, or

-   a margin of safety could be reduced.

Reference: DOE G 424.1-1A, Implementation Guide for Use in Addressing
Unreviewed Safety Question Requirements, July 2006

g)  Describe the situations for which a safety evaluation is required to
    be performed.

A safety evaluation is the record that is required to document the
review of a change. This document records the scope of the evaluation
and the logic for determining whether or not a USQ exists.

Reference: DOE G 424.1-1A, Implementation Guide for Use in Addressing
Unreviewed Safety Question Requirements, July 2006

h)  Define the conditions for an Unreviewed Safety Question.

A proposed change or test involves a USQ if

-   the probability or consequences of an accident or malfunction of
    equipment important to safety could be increased;

-   the possibility of a different type of accident than previously
    evaluated in the DSA could be introduced;

-   margins of safety could be reduced.

Reference: DOE G 424.1-1A, Implementation Guide for Use in Addressing
Unreviewed Safety Question Requirements, July 2006

i)  Describe the responsibilities of contractors authorized to operate
    defense nuclear facilities regarding the performance of safety
    evaluations.

Each facility should identify the methods by which facility changes can
be made. After these methods have been identified, each facility must
determine what constitutes an acceptable means to make a change; that
is, the contractor must clearly control the facility change process and
must perform and document changes in accordance with approved
procedures. Performing a modification under the guise of maintenance is
not acceptable because the proper control processes to analyze the
proposed change and document its outcome would probably be absent. It is
necessary to identify all means for performing a change because each one
provides a direct input into the USQ process and must be integrated
accordingly.

The USQ process is intended to be implemented along with a change
control process that includes generalized steps for identifying and
describing the temporary or permanent change, technical reviews of the
change, management review and approval of the change, implementation of
the change, and documenting the change. As part of the technical reviews
of a change, the contractor should perform the appropriate type of
safety analysis to ascertain whether the change is indeed safe. This is
accomplished separately from the USQ process. The USQ process is used
subsequently to determine if final approval of the change by the
contractor is sufficient or if DOE approval must be obtained.

Reference: DOE G 424.1-1A, Implementation Guide for Use in Addressing
Unreviewed Safety Question Requirements, July 2006

j)  Describe the actions to be taken by a contractor upon identifying
    information that indicates a potential inadequacy of a previous
    safety analyses or, a possible reduction in the margin of safety, as
    defined in the TSRs.

Because an inadequacy in the safety analysis has the potential to call
into question information relied on for authorization of operations, DOE
requires the contractor to

-   take appropriate action to place or maintain the facility in a safe
    condition;

-   expeditiously notify DOE when the information is discovered;

-   perform a USQ determination and submit the results promptly;

-   complete an evaluation of the safety of the situation and submit it
    to DOE before removing any operational restrictions implemented to
    compensate for the analytical discrepancy.

Reference: DOE G 423.1-1, Implementation Guide For Use in Developing
Technical Safety Requirements, October 2001

k)  Discuss the purpose of the TSRs.

TSRs define the performance requirements of SSCs and identify the safety
management programs used by personnel to ensure safety. TSRs are aimed
at confirming the ability of the SSCs and personnel to perform their
intended safety functions under normal, abnormal, and accident
conditions. These requirements are identified through hazard analysis of
the activities to be performed and identification of the potential
sources of safety issues. Safety analysis to identify and analyze a set
of bounding accidents that take into account all potential causes of
releases of radioactivity also contribute to the development of TSRs.

Reference: DOE G 423.1-1, Implementation Guide For Use in Developing
Technical Safety Requirements, October 2001

l)  Describe the responsibilities of contractors authorized to operate
    defense nuclear facilities regarding the TSR.

Section 10 CFR 830.205, Nuclear Safety Management, requires DOE
contractors responsible for hazard category 1, 2, and 3 DOE nuclear
facilities to develop TSRs. These TSRs identify the limitations to each
DOE-owned, contractor-operated nuclear facility based on the DSA and any
additional safety requirements established for the facility. The TSR
rule requires contractors to prepare and submit TSRs for DOE approval.

Reference: DOE G 423.1-1, Implementation Guide For Use in Developing
Technical Safety Requirements, October 2001

m)  Define the following terms and discuss the purpose of each:

-   Safety limit

-   Limiting control settings

-   Limiting conditions for operation

-   Surveillance requirements

### Safety Limit

SLs are those bounds within which process variables must be maintained
for adequate control of the operation and that must not be exceeded in
order to protect the integrity of the physical system that is designed
to guard against uncontrolled release or radioactivity. If any SL is
exceeded, corrective action must be taken as stated in the technical
specification or the affected part of the process, or the entire process
if required, must be shut down, unless this action would further reduce
the margin of safety.

### Limiting Control Settings

Limiting control settings are settings for automatic alarm or protective
devices related to those variables having significant safety functions.
Where an LCS is specified for a variable on which an SL has been placed,
the setting must be so chosen that protective action, either automatic
or manual, will correct the abnormal situation before an SL is exceeded.

### Limiting Conditions for Operation

Limiting conditions for operation are the lowest functional capability
or performance levels of equipment required for safe operation of the
facility.

### Surveillance Requirements

Surveillance requirements are requirements relating to test,
calibration, or inspection to assure that the necessary quality of
systems and components is maintained, that facility operation will be
within SLs, and that the LCO will be met.

Reference: DOE G 423.1-1, Implementation Guide For Use in Developing
Technical Safety Requirements, October 2001

n)  Describe the general content of each of the following sections of
    the TSRs:

-   Use and application

-   Safety limits

-   Operating limits

-   Surveillance requirements

-   Administrative controls

-   Basis

-   Design features

### Use and Application

This section should contain basic information and instructions for using
and applying the TSR.

### Safety Limits

SLs should describe as precisely as possible the process variables or
the parameters being limited, and should state the limit in measurable
units (pressure, temperature, flow, etc.). In general, SLs should be
monitored continuously.

SLs should be based on, and specified in terms of, three basic rules.

-   Exceeding an SL is a TSR violation for each applicable mode. Upon
    exceeding an SL, the following steps should be taken:

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-   The affected parameter must be immediately brought within the SL.

-   Place the facility in the most stable, safe condition attainable,
    including shutdown if appropriate.

-   Reactors are required to shut down immediately (e.g., scram). At
    nonreactor nuclear facilities, the TSR should specify actions to be
    taken that place the involved process in the most stable, safe
    condition attainable, including shutdown if appropriate.

-   All other action requirements should be met.

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-   Each SL should have a mode applicability statement. This statement
    should consist of a simple list of modes or other conditions for
    which the SL is applicable.

-   Action statements should describe the actions to be taken in the
    event that the SL is not met. These actions should first place the
    facility in a safe, stable condition, or should verify that the
    facility already is safe and stable and will remain so. Secondly, an
    action statement should establish the steps and time limits to
    correct the out-of-specification condition. The actions should bring
    the affected parameter immediately within the SL and should affect a
    shutdown of the facility, within a justified facility-specific time
    frame, normally less than an hour. Other actions required after
    exceeding an SL, including reporting requirements and an evaluation
    of possible damage caused by exceeding the SL, may be included in
    the action statement. A statement prohibiting restart, before DOE
    approval, of the facility after an SL violation should be included
    in the action statement of each SL, in section 5 of the TSR, or in
    both.

### Operating Limits

Operating limits are those limits that are required to ensure the safe
operation of a nuclear facility. The operating limits section may
include subsections on limiting control settings and limiting conditions
for operation.

### Surveillance Requirements

This section includes requirements relating to test, calibration, or
inspection to assure that the necessary operability and quality of
safety structures, systems, and components is maintained; that facility
operation is within safety limits; and that limiting control settings
and limiting conditions for operation are met.

### Administrative Controls

This section should impose administrative requirements necessary to
control operation of the facility such that it meets the TSR. The
following topics should be included:

-   Contractor responsibility. The facility or plant manager is
    responsible for overall operation of the nuclear facility and should
    delegate in writing the succession to this responsibility during his
    or her absence.

-   Contractor organization. On-site and off-site organizations should
    be described for facility operation and contractor management.

-   Procedures. Operations procedures should provide sufficient
    direction to ensure that the facility is operated within its design
    basis and supports safe operation of the facility.

-   Programs. Programs developed to ensure the safe operation of the
    facility should be discussed here and thereby committed to by
    reference.

-   Minimum operations shift complement. This section of the ACs should
    include the maximum daily working hours and maximum number of
    consecutive days on duty.

-   Operating support. A list of facility support personnel that
    includes name, title, work and home telephone numbers.

-   Facility staff qualifications and training. Minimum qualifications
    for members of the facility staff in positions affecting safety
    should conform to the requirements of DOE Order 5480.20A, Personnel
    Selection, Qualification, and Training Requirements for DOE Nuclear
    Facilities, or a successor document, and should be provided in the
    AC section.

-   Record keeping. Records need to be kept of all information
    supporting the implementation of the TSR, including operational logs
    of modes changes, entering actions, surveillances, deviations,
    procedures, programs, meetings, recommendations, etc.

-   Reviews and audits. Describe the methods established to conduct
    independent reviews and audits.

-   Deviations from technical safety requirements. State the actions and
    reporting to be taken for deviations from TSRs.

### Basis

The TSR bases appendix provides summary statements of the reasons for
the selection of each specific SL, OL, and SR. The bases show how the
numerical values, conditions, surveillances, and action statements
fulfill the purpose derived from the safety documentation. Included in
the bases should also be a description of the safety functions that each
safety system provides and identification of what is included in each
safety system. The level of detail in the description should be
sufficient for the operations staff to confirm that the system is
operable. This description is provided so that the operations staff
knows exactly what must be operable to consider the entire safety system
operable. The bases appendix references the basis for specific parts of
the TSR given in the DSA and other safety documentation.

### Design Features

The design features section describes those design features that, if
altered or modified, would have a significant effect on safe operation.
The important attributes of the passive design features that are taken
credit for in the accident analyses should be described completely.
These design features are normally passive characteristics of the
facility not subject to change by operations personnel, e.g., shielding,
structural walls, relative locations of major components, installed
poisons, or special materials. Active safety features are normally
described in the DSA and are the subject of the various TSRs so they are
not normally described in the design features section. All changes or
modifications that impact the safety basis of the facility are subject
to the USQ process. The design features section captures those
permanently built-in features critical to safety that do not require, or
infrequently require, maintenance or surveillance.

Reference: DOE G 423.1-1, Implementation Guide For Use in Developing
Technical Safety Requirements, October 2001

o)  Discuss the basic purposes and objectives of a DSA.

A DSA is the process whereby facility hazards are identified, controls
to prevent and mitigate potential accidents involving those hazards are
proposed, and commitments are made for design, construction, operation,
and disposition to assure adequate safety at DOE nuclear facilities.

Reference: Implementation Guide for Use in Developing Documented Safety
Analyses To Meet Subpart B of 10 CFR 830, October 2001

p)  Describe the responsibilities of contractors authorized to operate
    DOE nuclear facilities regarding the development and maintenance of
    a DSA.

The contractor responsible for a hazard category 1, 2, or 3 DOE nuclear
facility must obtain approval from DOE for the methodology used to
prepare the DSA for the facility unless the contractor uses a
methodology set forth in table 2 of appendix A to 10 CFR 830.204,
Documented Safety Analysis.

The DSA for a hazard category 1, 2, or 3 DOE nuclear facility must, as
appropriate for the complexities and hazards associated with the
facility

-   describe the facility (including the design of SSCs and the work to
    be performed);

-   provide a systematic identification of both natural and man-made
    hazards associated with the facility;

-   evaluate normal, abnormal, and accident conditions, including
    consideration of natural and man-made external events,
    identification of energy sources or processes that might contribute
    to the generation or uncontrolled release of radioactive and other
    hazardous materials, and consideration of the need for analysis of
    accidents which may be beyond the design basis of the facility;

-   derive the hazard controls necessary to ensure adequate protection
    of workers, the public, and the environment, demonstrate the
    adequacy of these controls to eliminate, limit, or mitigate
    identified hazards, define the process for maintaining the hazard
    controls current at all times, and control their use;

-   define the characteristics of the safety management programs
    necessary to ensure the safe operation of the facility, including
    where applicable, quality assurance, procedures, maintenance,
    personnel training, conduct of operations, emergency preparedness,
    fire protection, waste management, and radiation protection;

-   define a criticality safety program that

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-   ensures that operations with fissionable material remain
    sub-critical under all normal and credible abnormal conditions,

-   identifies applicable nuclear criticality safety standards,

-   describes how the program meets applicable nuclear criticality
    safety standards.

Reference: Implementation Guide for Use in Developing Documented Safety
Analyses To Meet Subpart B of 10 CFR 830, October 2001

q)  Define the following terms and discuss the purpose of each:

-   Safety basis

-   Design features

-   Safety evaluation report

### Safety Basis

Safety basis means the combination of information relating to the
control of hazards at a nuclear facility, including design, engineering
analyses, and administrative controls upon which DOE depends for its
conclusion that activities at the facility can be conducted safely.

### Design Features

Design features means the set of requirements that bound the design of
SSCs within the facility. These design requirements include
consideration of safety, plant availability, efficiency, reliability,
and maintainability. Some aspects of the design features are important
to safety, although others are not.

### Safety Evaluation Report

The safety evaluation report is a management document that provides the
approval authority, the basis for the extent and detail of the DSA
review, and the basis for any conditions of DSA approval.

Reference: Implementation Guide for Use in Developing Documented Safety
Analyses To Meet Subpart B of 10 CFR 830, October 2001

r)  Describe the requirements for the scope and content of a DSA and
    discuss the general content of each of the required sections of a
    DSA.

Refer to DOE-STD-3009-94, Preparation Guide for U.S Department of Energy
Nonreactor Nuclear Facility Documented Safety Analyses, at
<http://www.eh.doe.gov/techstds/standard/std3009/std3009_cn2.pdf>, for
information regarding this competency.

s)  Discuss the uses that contractor management makes of a DSA.

Contractors, in the preparation of DSAs, identify how the generic safety
requirements of the Department apply to the specific facility, and
propose commitments under which the contractor undertakes to design,
build, and operate the facility to be in conformance with the applicable
statutes, federal rules, and DOE directives to ensure facility safety.
The Department reviews the DSA and decides whether to authorize the
facility, or to approve the DSA if the facility is already authorized.
In authorizing the facility or approving its DSA, the Department may
require modified or alternative commitments. In this way, the Department
and the contractor responsible for the facility or operation arrive at a
common understanding of how the Department\'s safety rules, Orders, and
policies apply in the context of the particular facility. Facility
operation is required to be in compliance with the resulting commitments
in approved DSAs.

Reference: Implementation Guide for Use in Developing Documented Safety
Analyses To Meet Subpart B of 10 CFR 830, October 2001

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of all assigned electrical power vital safety systems, and how they are addressed during the design, construction and operation of nuclear facilities

a)  Mandatory Performance Activity: Walkdown electrical power vital
    safety systems and locate and identify major components, subsystems,
    and interfaces.

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t)  Identify all Electrical Power Vital Safety Systems (site specific),
    and then discuss the functional classifications, safety functions,
    and functional requirements of these systems.

Elements "a" and "b" are performance-based competencies. The qualifying
official will evaluate the completion of these competencies.

u)  Discuss electrical power distribution with the regard to the
    following elements (IEEE Red Book or other sources can be used as a
    guide in developing the discussion):

-   Basic design considerations and electrical distribution design

-   Voltage considerations

-   Surge voltage protection techniques

-   System protective devices

-   Power factor and its effects in electrical distribution systems

-   Power switching, transformation, and motor-control apparatus

-   Cable system basics

-   Busway design

Refer to IEEE-STD-141-1976 (IEEE Red Book), Electrical Power
Distribution, for information related to this competency.

v)  Discuss protection and coordination with regard to the following
    elements (the IEEE Buff book or other sources can be used as a guide
    in developing the discussion:

-   Fault calculations

-   Short-circuit current calculations for single and three-phase
    circuits.

-   Instrument transformer basics

-   Protective relay selection and application

-   Fuses selection and application

Refer to IEEE-STD-242-1975 (IEEE Buff Book), Protection and
Coordination, for information related to this competency.

w)  Discuss electrical system grounding with regard to the following
    elements (the IEEE Green Book or other source can be used as a guide
    in developing the discussion):

-   Electrical system grounding fundamentals

-   Electrical equipment grounding fundamentals

-   Static and lightning grounding fundamentals

Refer to IEEE-STD-142-1982 (IEEE Green Book), Grounding, for information
related to this competency.

x)  Discuss emergency and standby power with regard to the following
    elements (the IEEE Orange Book or other source can be used as a
    guide in developing the discussion):

-   Emergency and standby power guidelines

-   Generator and electric utility system fundamentals

-   Stored energy system fundamentals

-   Protection device fundamentals

Refer to IEEE-STD-446-1987 (IEEE Orange Book), Emergency and Standby
Power, for additional information regarding this competency.

## Demonstrate a working-level knowledge of the possible functional interfaces/relationships between all electrical VSS and instrument and control safety software analysis safety software, and design safety software.

a)  Identify how functional requirements and applicability of safety
    analysis and design computer codes are defined, documented, and
    controlled relative to modeling and data assumptions, design
    constraints, sizing and timing conditions and input/output
    parameters as described in DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance, and DOE
    G 414.1-4 Safety Software Guide.

Functional requirements are defined using the following process:

-   An outline of the target system is developed and presented to the
    stakeholders for the purpose of soliciting their needs.

-   A first cut of the system overview diagram is created based on the
    outline statement. (Use case diagrams are useful for the purpose.)
    As this diagram is a very rough image, it should evolve over time.

-   Interviews with major stakeholders are conducted to solicit their
    needs.

-   Collected needs are defined.

-   Major functional requirements are identified.

-   Actors are identified.

-   Overall risks are analyzed.

-   Major quality requirements for each quality characteristic, such as
    safety, reliability, and usability are identified. A quality model
    should be used for this purpose.

-   Required constraints and conditions, including total budget,
    delivery date, hardware and communication network environment, and
    available human resources are identified.

-   The system is refined into sub-systems, and the outline statement is
    re-defined. The system overview diagram and project description are
    refined based on the defined sub-systems.

Reference: *A Taxonomy of Safety-Related Requirements,* which can be
found at <http://www.sei.cmu.edu/community/rhas-workshop/firesmith.pdf>.

y)  Review a development project for safety analysis or design software.
    Explain how the problem being addressed by the software was
    translated into functional requirements, how the requirements were
    established and controlled, and how the code was reconciled with the
    original problem.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

z)  Identify how system-level requirements are established and then
    assigned to hardware, software, and human components of a digital
    instrumentation and control system.

Generic safety requirements are established as a priority and placed
into the system specification and/or overall project design
specifications. From there, they are flowed into lower-level unit and
module specifications.

Other safety requirements, derived from bottom-up analysis, are flowed
up from subsystems and components to the system-level requirements.
These new system-level requirements are then flowed down across all
affected subsystems. During the system requirements phase, subsystems
and components may not be well defined. In this case, bottom-up analysis
might not be possible until the architectural design phase or even
later.

The allocation of the system requirements to software, hardware, and
other system components (e.g., humans) may be performed by a group
external to the software engineering group (e.g., the system engineering
group), and the software engineering group may have no direct control of
this allocation. Within the constraints of the project, the software
engineering group takes appropriate steps to ensure that the system
requirements allocated to software, which they are responsible for
addressing, are documented and controlled.

To achieve this control, the software engineering group reviews the
initial and revised system requirements allocated to software to resolve
issues before they are incorporated into the software project. Whenever
the system requirements allocated to software are changed, the affected
software plans, work products, and activities are adjusted to remain
consistent with the updated requirements.

Reference: Requirements Management,
<http://www2.umassd.edu/swpi/sei/tr25f/tr25_l2a.html>

a)  Identify the typical requirements that define functional interfaces
    between safety software components and the system-level design, as
    described in DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance, and DOE G 414.1-4
    Safety Software Guide.

Software requirement specification (SRS) is a specification for a
particular software product, program, or set of programs that performs
certain functions in a specific environment. The SRS may be written by
one or more representatives of the supplier, one or more representatives
of the customer, or by both. The basic issues that the SRS writer(s)
shall address are the following:

-   Functionality. What is the software supposed to do?

-   External interfaces. How does the software interact with people, the
    system's hardware, other hardware, and other software?

-   Performance. What is the speed, availability, response time,
    recovery time of various software functions, etc.?

-   Attributes. What are the portability, correctness, maintainability,
    security, etc., considerations?

-   Design constraints imposed on an implementation. Are there any
    required standards in effect, e.g., implementation language,
    policies for database integrity, resource limits, operating
    environment(s)?

It is important to consider the part that the SRS plays in the total
project plan. The software may contain essentially all the functionality
of the project or it may be part of a larger system. In the latter case
typically there will be an SRS that will state the interfaces between
the system and its software portion, and will place external performance
and functionality requirements upon the software portion. In such cases,
the SRS should agree with and expand upon these system requirements.

Reference: IEEE STD- 830-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Software
Requirements Specifications.

b)  Identify the specific records that must be maintained and the
    requirements for maintaining these records to document the
    development of safety system software.

Section 2.3.1.1 of IEEE STD 828-1998, Standard for Software
Configuration Management Plans, requires, at a minimum, that all
configuration items that are to be delivered be listed in the software
configuration management plan. This fulfills the intent of criterion
VIII, Identification and Control of Materials, Parts, and Components,
with regard to safety system software if all software deliverables are
identified and controlled as configuration items. Criterion III, Design
Control, requires measures for design documentation, identification and
control of design interfaces, and control of design changes. Criterion
VI, Document Control, requires that all documents that prescribe
activities affecting quality, such as instructions, procedures, and
drawings, be subject to controls that ensure that documents, including
changes, are reviewed for adequacy and approved for release by
authorized personnel. Criterion XVII, Quality Assurance Records,
requires in part that sufficient records be maintained so that data that
is closely associated with the qualification of personnel, procedures,
and equipment will be identifiable and retrievable. This regulatory
guide applies to all aspects of the software life cycle within the
system life cycle context. Therefore, for safety system software,
configuration items or controlled documents should include the
following:

-   Software requirements, designs, and code

-   Support software used in development (exact versions)

-   Libraries of software components essential to safety

-   Software plans that could affect quality

-   Test software requirements, designs, or code used in testing

-   Test results used to qualify software

-   Analyses and results used to qualify software

-   Software documentation

-   Databases and software configuration data

-   Commercial software items that are safety system software

-   Software change documentation

Items that could change because of design changes, review, or audit
should be configuration items subject to formal change control. Other
items that may not change but are necessary to ensure correct software
production, such as compilers, should also be configuration items,
thereby ensuring that all factors contributing to the executable
software are understood. This also is useful in areas such as
maintenance, future software development, and tracing the impact of
reported bugs. Items that are retained for historical or statistical
purposes may be controlled documents.

Reference: IEEE STD- 830-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Software
Requirements Specifications.

c)  Review a development project for safety system software. Explain how
    the functional interfaces between components and the system level
    design were established and controlled.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Document participation with the site contractor system engineer (SE) in a quarterly walkthrough, bi-annual status walkthrough or an assessment for all assigned Electrical VSSs.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of functional classifications for safety systems and the design expectations associated with electrical systems that carry these functional classifications, as described in DOE O 420.1B, Facility Safety, and its associated guide DOE G 420.1-1.

a)  Discuss the purpose, scope, and application of DOE O 420.1B. Include
    in this discussion, key terms, essential elements, and personnel
    responsibilities and authorities.

The purpose of this Order is to establish facility safety requirements
for DOE, including NNSA, for

-   nuclear safety design

-   criticality safety

-   fire protection

-   NPH mitigation

-   system engineer program

d)  Discuss the project management terminology for which definitions are
    provided in DOE O 420.1B.

Project management terminology is in DOE O 430.1B, Real Property Asset
Management. There are no project management definitions in DOE O420.1B
as indicated in the functional area standard.

Reference: DOE O 430.1B, Real Property Asset Management, September 2003

e)  Discuss in detail the roles played by various management levels
    within the Department as they relate to the project management
    system.

Three themes regarding roles and responsibilities necessary to achieve
defined project objectives include:

-   Strengthening line management accountability for successful project
    management results;

-   Defining the roles, responsibilities, authority, and accountability
    of the Federal Project Management Team relative to the contractor
    Project Management Team; and

-   Developing effective Integrated Project Teams to assist the Federal
    Project Director in planning, programming, budgeting, and
    successfully acquiring capital assets.

-   Line managers are responsible for successfully developing,
    executing, and managing projects within the approved Performance
    Baseline. Delegation of authority from one line manager to a
    lower-level line manager must be documented and consistent with DOE
    delegation authorities and the qualifications of the lower-level
    line manager. Although the authority and responsibility for
    decision-making may be delegated to a lower-level manager, the
    senior manager remains accountable for the decisions made by
    subordinate managers.

Key roles and responsibilities of line managers are described in the
following sections:

Heads of Field Organizations

-   Direct initial project planning and execution roles for projects
    assigned by the Acquisition Executive.

-   Initiate definition of mission need based on input from sites,
    laboratories, and program offices.

-   Establish the integrated project team.

-   Oversee development of project definition, technical scope, and
    budget to support mission need.

-   Initiate development of the acquisition strategy before CD-1 (during
    the period preceding designation of the Federal Project Director).

-   Perform functions as Acquisition Executive when so delegated.

-   Develop project performance measures, and monitor and evaluate
    project performance throughout the project's life cycle.

-   Allocate resources throughout the program.

-   Oversee the project line-management organization and ensure the line
    project teams have the necessary experience, expertise, and training
    in design engineering, safety and security analysis, construction,
    and testing.

-   Serve as the Federal Project Director until the Federal Project
    Director is appointed.

-   Ensures that safety is fully integrated into design and construction
    for high-risk, high-hazard, and hazard category 1, 2, and 3 nuclear
    facilities.

Acquisition Executives.

The following roles and responsibilities are for illustrative purposes,
and each designated Acquisition Executive is guided by the specific
limits of his/her delegated authority.

-   Approve Critical Decisions (CD-0 cannot be delegated below the
    Program Secretarial Officer level).

-   Appoint and Chair Acquisition Advisory Boards to provide advice and
    recommendations on key project decisions.

-   Approve the appointment of the Federal Project Director.

-   Designate the Design Authority at CD-1.

-   Monitor the effectiveness of Federal Project Directors and their
    support staff.

-   Approve project changes in compliance with change control levels
    identified in Project Execution Plans.

-   Conduct monthly and quarterly project performance reviews.

-   Ensure that safety is fully integrated into design and construction
    for high-risk, high-hazard, and hazard category 1, 2, and 3 nuclear
    facilities.

Federal Project Director.

Successful performance of DOE projects depends on professional and
effective project management by the Federal Project Director. The
Federal Project Director is responsible and accountable to the
Acquisition Executive/Program Secretarial Officer or delegated
authority, as appropriate, for executing the project.

The Federal Project Director's assigned project must meet cost,
schedule, and performance targets unless circumstances beyond the
control of the project director result in cost overruns and/or delays.
Federal Project Directors must demonstrate initiative in incorporating
and managing an appropriate level of risk to ensure best value for the
government. In cases where significant cost overruns and/or delays
occur, the Federal Project Director alerts senior management in a timely
manner and takes appropriate steps to mitigate these cost overruns or
delays.

Roles and responsibilities of the Federal Project Director's team must
be clearly defined relative to the contractor management team. Further
guidance is provided in DOE M 413.3-1.

-   Attains and maintains certification in concert with the requirements
    outlined in DOE O 361.1A before they are delegated authority to
    serve as a Federal Project Director.

-   Plans, implements, and completes a project using a Systems
    Engineering approach.

-   Initiates development and implementation of key project
    documentation (e.g., Project Execution Plan).

-   Defines project cost, schedule, performance, and scope baselines.

-   Is responsible for design, construction, environmental, safety,
    security, health, and quality efforts performed comply with the
    contract, public law, regulations, and Executive Orders.

-   Is responsible for timely, reliable, and accurate integration of
    contractor performance data into the project's scheduling,
    accounting, and performance measurement systems.

-   Evaluates and verifies reported progress; makes projections of
    progress and identifies trends.

-   Serves as the single point of contact between Federal and contractor
    staff for all matters relating to a project and its performance.

-   Serves as the Contracting Officer's Representative, as determined by
    the Contracting Officer.

-   Leads the Integrated Project Team and provides broad program
    guidance. Delegates appropriate decision-making authority to the
    Integrated Project Team members.

-   Prepares and maintains the Integrated Project Team Charter and
    operating guidance with Integrated Project Team support.

-   Approves changes in compliance with the approved change control
    process documented in the Project Execution Plan.

-   Ensures that safety is fully integrated into design and construction
    for high-risk, high-hazard, and hazard category 1, 2, and 3 nuclear
    facilities.

Reference: DOE O 413.3A, Program and Project Management for the
Acquisition of Capital Assets, July 2006

f)  Discuss the purpose of "critical decisions." Include in this
    discussion the responsible authorities for critical decisions.

The five critical decisions are major milestones approved by the
Secretarial Acquisition Executive or Acquisition Executive that
establish the mission need, recommended alternative, acquisition
strategy, the performance baseline, and other essential elements
required to ensure that the project meets applicable mission, design,
security, and safety requirements. Each critical decision marks an
increase in commitment of resources by the Department and requires
successful completion of the preceding phase or critical decision.
Collectively, the critical decisions affirm the following:

-   There is a need that cannot be met through other than material
    means;

-   The selected alternative and approach is the optimum solution;

-   Definitive scope, schedule, and cost baselines have been developed;

-   The project is ready for implementation; and

-   The project is ready for turnover or transition to operations.

Reference: DOE O 413.3A, Program and Project Management for the
Acquisition of Capital Assets, July 2006

g)  Describe the process by which projects are designated.

Projects are designated as major system projects, other projects, or
environmental restoration projects.

A major system (MS) project is any project or system of projects with a
total project cost of \$400M or greater or any other project so
designated by the Office of the Secretary. A project may be designated
as an MS either solely by the Office of the Secretary or by the Deputy
Secretary in response to recommendations from the appropriate PSO or
head of a departmental office, which is endorsed by the appropriate
Under Secretary. The Office of Engineering and Construction Management
maintains and periodically publishes a list of MS projects.

A project designated as an "other" project is any project with a total
project cost less than \$400M and not designated as an MS project,
including line item projects, general plant projects, and capital
equipment and information technology projects, whether funded by capital
or operating funds.

Environmental restoration and facility disposition projects are driven
by the regulatory requirements in the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) or in the
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Therefore critical decisions for
these projects are different from those of a traditional construction
project.

Reference: DOE O 413.3A, Program and Project Management for the
Acquisition of Capital Assets, July 2006

h)  Define the term "safety-class" and discuss the implications of an
    electrical system carrying this functional classification.

Safety-class refers to nuclear safety structures, systems, and
components (SSCs) that are relied upon to protect the safety and health
of the off-site public as identified by safety analyses.

Safety class electrical systems must be designed to preclude single
point failure.

References: DOE HDBK-1188-2006, Glossary of Environment, Safety, the
Health Terms, January 2006 and DOE O 420.1B, Facility Safety, December
2005

i)  Define the term "safety-significant" and discuss the implications of
    an electrical system carrying this functional classification.

Safety-significant refers to SSCs that are not designated as
safety-class SSCs, but whose preventive or mitigative function is a
major contributor to defense in depth (i.e., prevention of uncontrolled
material release) and/or worker safety as determined from hazard
analyses.

As a general rule of thumb, safety-significant SSC designations based on
worker safety are limited to those SSCs whose failure is estimated to
result in a prompt worker fatality or serious injuries or significant
radiological or chemical exposures to workers. The term, serious
injuries, as used in this definition, refers to medical treatment for
immediately life-threatening or permanently disabling injuries (e.g.,
loss of eye, loss of limb).

The general rule of thumb cited above is neither an evaluation guideline
nor a quantitative criterion. It represents a lower threshold of concern
for which safety significant SSC designation may be warranted. Estimates
of worker consequences for the purpose of safety-significant SSC
designation are not intended to require detailed analytical modeling.
Considerations should be based on engineering judgment of possible
effects and the potential added value of safety-significant SSC
designation.

Reference: DOE HDBK-1188-2006, Glossary of Environment, Safety, the
Health Terms, January 2006

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety systems criteria for VSS (IEEE Stds: 308-2001, 323-2003, 379-2000, 384-1992, and 603-1998; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1.)

a)  Identify and describe the requirements for principal design criteria
    of electrical power systems supporting VSS (Class 1E power systems):
    Design Basis and Design Basis Events; Independence; the Equipment
    Qualification process for Class 1E power systems; Single-Failure
    Criterion; Requirements for connecting of non-Class 1E systems to
    Class 1E systems; Class 1E protection requirements.

#### Design Basis and Design Basis Events

Each holder of or an applicant for a license for a nuclear power plant,
other than a nuclear power plant for which the certifications required
under 10 CFR 50.82(a)(1) have been submitted, shall establish a program
for qualifying electric equipment important to safety. This includes
equipment that is relied on to remain functional during and following
design basis events to ensure the capability to prevent or mitigate the
consequences of accidents that could result in potential offsite
exposures.

Design basis events are defined as conditions of normal operation,
including anticipated operational occurrences, design basis accidents,
external events, and natural phenomena for which the plant must be
designed to ensure that all electric equipment important to safety
functions.

#### Independence

The onsite electric power supplies, including the batteries, and the
onsite electric distribution system, shall have sufficient independence,
redundancy, and testability to perform their safety functions assuming a
single failure.

The protection system shall be designed to assure that the effects of
natural phenomena, and of normal operating, maintenance, testing, and
postulated accident conditions on redundant channels do not result in
loss of the protection function, or shall be demonstrated to be
acceptable on some other defined basis. Design techniques, such as
functional diversity or diversity in component design and principles of
operation, shall be used to the extent practical to prevent loss of the
protection function.

#### Equipment Qualification Process

See element "d" of this competency for a description of the equipment
qualification process.

#### Single Failure

A single failure means an occurrence that results in the loss of
capability of a component to perform its intended safety functions.
Multiple failures resulting from a single occurrence are considered to
be a single failure. Fluid and electric systems are considered to be
designed against an assumed single failure if neither (1) a single
failure of any active component (assuming passive components function
properly) nor (2) a single failure of a passive component (assuming
active components function properly), results in a loss of the
capability of the system to perform its safety functions.

#### Requirements for Connecting Non-Class 1E systems to Class 1E systems

Non-Class 1E, non-division associated components must be electrically
isolated from Class 1E systems by an acceptable Class 1E isolation
device or have an adequate justification and analysis for Non-Class 1E
isolation.

#### Class 1E Protection Requirements

Pursuant to the provisions of 10 CFR 50.34, an application for a
construction permit must include the principal design criteria for a
proposed facility. The principal design criteria establish the necessary
design, fabrication, construction, testing, and performance requirements
for SSCs that are important to safety; that is, SSCs that provide
reasonable assurance that the facility can be operated without undue
risk to the health and safety of the public. The following criteria
apply to electric power systems.

Criterion 17\--Electric power systems. An onsite electric power system
and an offsite electric power system shall be provided to permit
functioning of SSCs important to safety. The safety function for each
system (assuming the other system is not functioning) shall be to
provide sufficient capacity and capability to assure that (1) specified
acceptable fuel design limits and design conditions of the reactor
coolant pressure boundary are not exceeded as a result of anticipated
operational occurrences and (2) the core is cooled and containment
integrity and other vital functions are maintained in the event of
postulated accidents.

Electric power from the transmission network to the onsite electric
distribution system shall be supplied by two physically independent
circuits (not necessarily on separate rights of way) designed and
located so as to minimize to the extent practical the likelihood of
their simultaneous failure under operating and postulated accident and
environmental conditions. A switchyard common to both circuits is
acceptable. Each of these circuits shall be designed to be available in
sufficient time following a loss of all onsite AC power supplies and the
other offsite electric power circuit, to assure that specified
acceptable fuel design limits and design conditions of the reactor
coolant pressure boundary are not exceeded. One of these circuits shall
be designed to be available within a few seconds following a
loss-of-coolant accident to assure that core cooling, containment
integrity, and other vital safety functions are maintained.

Provisions shall be included to minimize the probability of losing
electric power from any of the remaining supplies as a result of, or
coincident with, the loss of power generated by the nuclear power unit,
the loss of power from the transmission network, or the loss of power
from the onsite electric power supplies.

Criterion 18\--Inspection and testing of electric power systems.
Electric power systems important to safety shall be designed to permit
appropriate periodic inspection and testing of important areas and
features, such as wiring, insulation, connections, and switchboards, to
assess the continuity of the systems and the condition of their
components. The systems shall be designed with a capability to test
periodically (1) the operability and functional performance of the
components of the systems, such as onsite power sources, relays,
switches, and buses, and (2) the operability of the systems as a whole
and, under conditions as close to design as practical, the full
operation sequence that brings the systems into operation, including
operation of applicable portions of the protection system, and the
transfer of power among the nuclear power unit, the offsite power
system, and the onsite power system.

Reference: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.32,
Criteria for Power System for Nuclear Power Plants

j)  Identify and describe the requirements for supplementary design
    criteria of electrical power systems supporting VSS (Class 1E power
    systems): Class 1E power systems; AC power systems; DC power
    systems; Instrumentation and control power systems; Execute and
    Sense-and-Command features.

#### Class 1E Power Systems

The safety function of an electrical power system is to provide power to
systems and components that require electrical power to perform their
safety functions. A safety-significant or safety-class electrical power
system is defined as the system or component that provides actuation or
motive force to safety equipment. These systems consist of onsite AC/DC
power supply systems and associated distribution systems and components
(e.g., conduits, wiring, cable trays, etc.).

Safety-class electrical power must be designed against single-point
failure in accordance with the criteria in section 5.1.1.2 of DOE G
420.1-1. Redundancy requirements for electrical systems pertain to
normal and alternative power sources and should be analyzed on a
case-by-case basis. For safety-significant systems, redundancy is not
required if it can be shown that there is sufficient response time to
provide an alternative source of electrical power.

Environmental capability of safety-class electrical equipment must be
demonstrated by testing, analysis, and operating experience, or a
combination of these methods in accordance with section 5.1.3 of DOE G
420.1-1.

For the commercial nuclear industry, a multitude of ANSI/IEEE Standards
define the requirements for the manufacture, installation, and testing
of reactor Safety Class 1E electrical systems and components. The Safety
Class 1E requirements may not be directly applicable to the safety-class
category defined for nonreactor nuclear facilities. These standards,
however, contain useful and significant information that should be
considered. Table 5.5 in DOE G 420.1-1 lists a minimal set of national
codes and standards that should be addressed for safety-significant and
safety-class electrical systems, keeping in perspective the applicable
use of ANSI/IEEE standards for Safety Class 1E components. Table 5.6
presents a list of ANSI/IEEE standards that can be used for guidance in
specific applications. Before using these standards, their applicability
to the design(s) being considered should be reviewed.

#### Instrumentation and Control Power Systems

The safety functions of instrumentation, control, and alarm systems are
to provide information on out-of-tolerance conditions/abnormal
conditions; ensure the capability for manual or automatic actuation of
safety systems and components; ensure safety systems have the means to
achieve and maintain a fail-safe shutdown condition on demand under
normal or abnormal conditions; and/or actuate alarms to reduce public or
site-personnel risk (e.g., effluent monitoring components and systems).

The design of safety-class and safety-significant instrumentation and
control systems must incorporate sufficient independence, redundancy,
diversity, and separation to ensure that all safety-related functions
associated with such equipment can be performed under postulated
accident conditions as identified in the safety analysis.
Safety-significant components should be evaluated as to the need for
redundancy on a case-by-case basis. Under all circumstances, safety
class instrumentation, controls, and alarms must be designed so that
failure of non-safety equipment will not prevent the former from
performing their safety functions.

Safety-significant and safety-class instrumentation, control, and
alarm-system designs must ensure accessibility for inspection,
maintenance, calibration, repair, or replacement.

Safety-class instrumentation, control, and alarm systems must provide
the operators sufficient time, information, and control capabilities to
perform the following safety functions:

#### Execute and Sense-and-Command Features

IEEE Std 603-1991 specifies the need to ensure acceptable response time
for the instrumentation and control system in order to accomplish
necessary safety functions. Consideration of the sampling rate of plant
variables is an important aspect of the design of a digital system when
satisfying this criterion.

The non-safety system interactions with protection systems should be
limited such that the requirements of 10 CFR 50, appendix A, GDC 24,
Separation of Protection and Control System, are met. Where the event of
concern is a simple failure of a sensing channel shared between control
and protection functions, acceptable approaches are

-   isolating the protection system from channel failure by providing
    additional redundancy.

-   isolating the control system from channel failure by using data
    validation techniques to select a valid control input.

-   designing the communications path to be a broadcast only from the
    protection system to the control system.

The inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria should require
an analysis or demonstration that no single credible event, including
all direct and consequential results of that event, can cause a
non-safety system action that results in condition requiring protective
action and can concurrently prevent the protective action in those sense
and command feature channels designated to provide principal protection
against the condition.

Reference: DOE G 420.1-1, Nonreactor Nuclear Safety Design Criteria and
Explosives Safety Criteria Guide for Use with DOE O 420.1, Facility
Safety, March 2000

k)  Describe the relationship between surveillance and test requirements
    and design of electrical systems supporting the VSS.

General Design Criterion 21, Protection System Reliability and
Testability, of appendix A, General Design Criteria for Nuclear Power
Plants, to 10 CFR 50 requires, in part, that the protection system be
designed to permit its periodic testing during reactor operation,
including a capability to test channels independently to determine
failures and losses of redundancy that may have occurred. General Design
Criterion 18, Inspection and Testing of Electric Power Systems,
requires, in part, that electric power systems important to safety be
designed to permit periodic testing, including periodic testing of the
performance of the components of the system and the system as a whole.
The testing should be carried out under conditions as close to design as
practical and should involve the full operational sequence, including
operation of portions of the protection system, as well as the transfer
of power among the nuclear power unit, the offsite power system, and the
onsite power system. Criterion XI, Test Control, of appendix B, Quality
Assurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel Reprocessing
Plants, to 10 CFR 50 requires, in part, that a test program be
established to ensure that all testing, including operational testing
required to demonstrate that systems and components will perform
satisfactorily in service, is identified and performed in accordance
with written test procedures.

Reference: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.118,
Periodic Testing of Electric Power and Protection Systems, April 1995

l)  Discuss the Equipment Qualification process for Class 1E power
    systems in support of VSS: Principles of equipment qualification;
    Qualification methods; the Qualification Program; and, documentation
    requirements.

The electric equipment qualification program must include and be based
on the following:

-   Temperature and pressure. The time-dependent temperature and
    pressure at the location of the electric equipment important to
    safety must be established for the most severe design basis accident
    during or following which this equipment is required to remain
    functional.

-   Humidity. Humidity during design basis accidents must be considered.

-   Chemical effects. The composition of chemicals used must be at least
    as severe as that resulting from the most limiting mode of plant
    operation (e.g., containment spray, emergency core cooling, or
    recirculation from containment sump). If the composition of the
    chemical spray can be affected by equipment malfunctions, the most
    severe chemical spray environment that results from a single failure
    in the spray system must be assumed.

-   Radiation. The radiation environment must be based on the type of
    radiation, the total dose expected during normal operation over the
    installed life of the equipment, and the radiation environment
    associated with the most severe design basis accident during or
    following which the equipment is required to remain functional,
    including the radiation resulting from recirculating fluids for
    equipment located near the recirculating lines and including
    dose-rate effects.

-   Aging. Equipment qualified by test must be preconditioned by natural
    or artificial (accelerated) aging to its end-of-installed life
    condition. Consideration must be given to all significant types of
    degradation which can have an effect on the functional capability of
    the equipment. If preconditioning to an end-of-installed life
    condition is not practicable, the equipment may be preconditioned to
    a shorter designated life. The equipment must be replaced or
    refurbished at the end of this designated life unless ongoing
    qualification demonstrates that the item has additional life.

-   Submergence (if subject to being submerged).

-   Synergistic effects. Synergistic effects must be considered when
    these effects are believed to have a significant effect on equipment
    performance.

-   Margins. Margins must be applied to account for unquantified
    uncertainty, such as the effects of production variations and
    inaccuracies in test instruments. These margins are in addition to
    any conservatisms applied during the derivation of local
    environmental conditions of the equipment unless these conservatisms
    can be quantified and shown to contain appropriate margins.

Reference: 10 CFR 50.49, Environmental Qualification of Electric
Equipment Important to Safety for Nuclear Power Plants, July 2006,

m)  Discuss the concept of 'Independence': Identify some of the general
    criteria for attaining 'Independence', e.g., physical separation,
    electrical isolation and devices, methods of achieving independence,
    and associated circuits; Describe the general concept of 'Specific
    Separation Criteria, e.g., area classification and separation
    distances; Discuss the major requirements for circuit breakers and
    fuses to be considered as 'isolation' devices.

Section 4.6 of IEEE Std. 279-1971 requires, in part, that channels that
provide signals for the same protective function must be independent and
physically separated. Section 5.6.1 of IEEE Std. 603-1998 states,
"Redundant portions of a safety system provided for a safety function
shall be independent of, and physically separated from, each other to
the degree necessary to retain the capability of accomplishing the
safety function during and following any design basis event requiring
that safety function." General Design Criterion (GDC) 17, Electric Power
Systems, in appendix A to 10 CFR 50 requires, in part, that electric
power from the transmission network to the onsite electric distribution
system shall be supplied by two physically independent circuits that are
designed and located so as to minimize to the extent practical the
likelihood of their simultaneous failure under operating and postulated
accident and environmental conditions. GDC 21, Protection System
Reliability and Testability, requires, in part, that redundancy and
independence designed into the protection system shall be sufficient to
assure that no single failure results in a loss of the protection
function. GDC 22, Protection System Independence, requires that the
effects of natural phenomena, and of normal operating, maintenance,
testing, and postulated accident conditions on redundant channels do not
result in loss of the protection function.

Reference: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.75,
Criteria for Independence of Electrical Safety Systems, February 2005

n)  State the general requirement for the single-failure criterion (SFC)
    and identify the major conditions used to apply the SFC to safety
    systems design: independence and redundancy; nondetectable,
    cascaded, common-cause failures; Design Basis Events; and shared
    systems.

Any single failure within the protection system should not prevent
proper protective action at the system level when required. Section 5.1
of IEEE STD 603-1998 states that the safety system must perform all
safety functions required for a design basis event in the presence of
(a) any single detectable failure within the safety systems concurrent
with all identifiable but nondetectable failures, (b) all failures
caused by the single failure, and (c) all failures and spurious system
actions that cause or are caused by the design basis event requiring the
safety functions. The single failure could occur prior to, or at any
time during, the design basis event for which the safety system is
required to function.

Reference: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.53,
Application of the Single-Failure Criterion to Safety Systems, November
2003

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for Emergency, Standby, and UPS systems for VSS (IEEE Stds 387-1984, 650-1990, and 944-1986; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

Note: IEEE STD 944-1986 was withdrawn on February 6, 2006.

a)  Identify and discuss the principal design criteria for standby power
    supplies supporting VSS: capability; ratings; interactions; design
    and application considerations; design features.

> Emergency power systems are at the top of the hierarchy of backup
> power systems. Legally required standby systems hold the No. 2 spot.
> Optional standby systems are third in the pecking order. Basically,
> their level of importance corresponds to the order in which they
> appear in the NEC.
>
> A system is legally required when any government agency having
> jurisdiction says it is. The rules that dictate what kinds of
> emergency loads are legally required are found in the locally adopted
> building code, such as the International Building Code or NFPA 101
> Life Safety Code. Unlike emergency systems, legally required systems
> do not directly protect the lives of the public at large. They prevent
> shutting down specific loads --- the loss of which would create
> hazards or impede rescue operations. Hospital communications systems,
> for example, because evacuation instructions announced over the public
> address system are part of a rescue operation. Article 701 of the NEC
> governs the installation, operation, and maintenance of such systems.
>
> Legally required circuits and equipment supply illumination or power
> upon interruption of the normal electrical supply. They provide
> electric power to aid in firefighting, rescue operations, control of
> health hazards, and similar operations. They typically supply such
> loads as communications systems, ventilation and smoke removal
> systems, sewage disposal, lighting, and potentially dangerous
> industrial processes. Surprisingly enough, they might also include
> fire pumps and elevators, which many people automatically assume are
> emergency loads. The definition of "Legally Required Standby Systems"
> in 701.2 contains a Fine Print Note (FPN) that lists some of the items
> that might be a legally standby system...but be careful --- FPNs are
> informational only \[90.5(C)\]. Do not depend on this FPN as a
> comprehensive list. Always consult the AHJ and/or fire marshal to find
> out what is legally required.
>
> A standby power system is optional when it is not required by Article
> 700 or Article. 701. These systems protect public or private
> facilities or property where life safety does not depend on the
> performance of the system. These systems are not required for rescue
> operations.
>
> They may supply on-site generated power to selected loads
> automatically or manually. These are typically installed to provide an
> alternate source of power. This can be for a variety of facilities,
> including industrial and commercial buildings, farms, and even
> residences. They serve such loads as heating and refrigeration
> systems, data-processing systems, communications systems, and
> industrial processes. They may also serve any load that the customer
> considers important enough to warrant a backup system, but not
> important enough for a building code to require it, such as a break
> room refrigerator or that important coffee maker. These systems may be
> permanently installed, or they may be arranged for a connection to a
> premises wiring system from a portable alternate power supply. A
> portable generator does not fall within the scope of Article 702,
> unless the generator is connected to the premises wiring.
>
> It should come as no surprise that the AHJ must approve all equipment
> used in legally required systems. What may surprise you is this same
> rule applies to optional systems.
>
> While there are compelling operational and economic reasons to conduct
> testing and maintenance of optional systems, doing so is not an NEC
> requirement. But for legally required systems, it is.
>
> Legally required standby system testing consists of acceptance testing
> and operational testing. The AHJ must conduct or witness an acceptance
> test of the emergency system upon completion of the installation, and
> periodically thereafter. The systems must also be periodically tested
> to ensure they are in proper operating condition. Running the system
> to power the loads of the facility is a generally accepted method of
> operational testing. In fact, you must provide a means to test these
> systems under the maximum anticipated load condition. In addition, you
> must maintain records of testing and maintenance.
>
> Legally required and optional standby systems must have adequate
> capacity to safely carry all loads that are expected to operate
> simultaneously. Because optional standby systems are not critical, the
> user of the system can select which load(s) to connect to the system.
>
> Additionally, both legally required standby system and optional
> standby system equipment must be suitable for the maximum available
> fault current at line terminals. The legally required standby
> alternate power source can supply legally required standby and
> optional standby system loads under either of these conditions:

-   The alternate power source has adequate capacity to handle all
    connected loads.

-   Automatic selective load pickup and load shedding is provided to
    ensure that the legally required system takes priority over the
    optional system.

To protect utility workers, the backup system must have approved
transfer equipment. Legally required standby systems and optional
standby systems can be on the same transfer switch --- emergency systems
must have their own. On legally required systems, transfer equipment
must be identified for standby use and be approved by the AHJ.

Where an outdoor generator has a readily accessible disconnecting means
within sight (within 50 feet) of the structure, you don not need an
additional disconnecting means for the generator feeder conductors that
serve or pass through the structure. To warn emergency response
personnel of multiple electrical supply systems, both legally required
and optional standby systems are required to have a sign indicating the
presence of the system. This signage must be placed at the service
disconnecting means for the structure, and must indicate the physical
location of the standby systems power source. The following power source
requirements apply to legally required systems, but not to optional
power sources.

If the normal supply fails, legally required power must be available
within 60 seconds (as opposed to 10 seconds for emergency systems). The
supply system for the legally required standby power source must be one
of these seven types:

-   Storage batteries. These must be of suitable rating and capacity to
    maintain the total load for 1.5 hours, without the voltage applied
    to the load falling below 87.5% percent of normal.

-   Generator set. If prime mover-driven, a generator acceptable to the
    AHJ (and sized per 701.6) must have the means to automatically start
    the prime mover upon failure of the normal service. Where internal
    combustion engines are the prime movers, you need a 2-hour on-site
    fuel supply.

-   Uninterruptible power supplies. A UPS must comply with the
    requirements for batteries and generators.

-   Separate service. An additional service installed per Article. 230
    can serve as a legally required source of power, but only if it is
    acceptable to the AHJ. To minimize the possibility of simultaneous
    interruption of the legally required standby supply, a separate
    service drop or lateral must be electrically and physically
    separated from all other service conductors.

-   Connection ahead of service disconnecting means. Where acceptable to
    the AHJ, connection ahead of (not within) the same cabinet,
    enclosure, or vertical switchboard section as the service
    disconnecting means is permitted. To prevent simultaneous
    interruption of supply, the legally required standby service
    disconnect must be sufficiently separated from the normal service
    disconnection means. See Article 230.82 for equipment permitted on
    the supply side of a service disconnecting means. You cannot have
    more than six service disconnects, including the disconnecting means
    for the standby system.

-   Fuel cell systems. A fuel cell system meeting the requirements of
    Article 692 can be used, provided the system is capable of carrying
    the load for at least 2 hours of full demand operation.

-   Unit equipment. Unit equipment consisting of a battery, a battery
    charging means, and automatic actuation can serve to supply some
    legally required loads, such as lighting. Where unit equipment is
    used, the battery must maintain at least 87.5% of battery voltage
    for at least 90 minutes.

The wiring for these systems can be in raceways, cables, boxes, and
cabinets with other general wiring.

You do not need to provide ground-fault protection of equipment on the
alternate source of legally required standby power systems. But you must
ensure selective coordination of the overcurrent protection devices of
legally required power systems with all supply-side OCPDs. Selective
coordination for optional standby systems is not a Code requirement.

If the system is separately derived, ground it per Article 250.30. If it
is not separately derived, bond it to the system grounding electrode.

When you step back and take a look at what each kind of standby system
is trying to accomplish, the requirements make sense. Article 700
applies to systems or equipment required to protect people who are in an
emergency and are trying to get out, while Article 701 applies to
systems or equipment needed to aid the people responding to the
emergency. Article 700 lighting provides an exit path, but Article 701
lighting illuminates fire hydrants and switchgear areas. Article 702
systems do not protect people --- they protect against financial loss.

To ensure you do not confuse what is optional with what is legally
required, walk down your systems and identify which non-emergency
circuits and equipment prevent danger or aid in rescuing people. Review
the list with the AHJ and/or fire marshal, making necessary additions.

References: National Electrical Code, Articles 700, 701, and 702 and
Legally Required and Optional Standby Systems By Mike Holt, NEC
Consultant available at
<http://ecmweb.com/nec/electric_legally_required_optional/index.html>

o)  Identify and discuss some of the design application requirements for
    Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) supporting VSS: performance
    requirements; UPS sizing and capacities; and UPS configurations.

The fundamental purpose of a UPS is to provide an uninterruptible source
of power for the equipment it protects. An electric device plugged into
the wall (or into a surge suppressor plugged into the wall) has only one
source of power. If there is a blackout, the electricity is cut and the
device obviously goes off immediately. A UPS changes this equation by
providing its equipment two sources of power.

UPSs are designed so that there is one source of power that is normally
used, called the primary power source, and another source that kicks in
if the primary is disrupted, called the secondary power source. The
power from the wall is always one of these sources, and the battery
contained within the UPS is the other. A switch is used to control which
of these sources powers the equipment at any given time. The switch
changes from the primary source to the secondary when it detects that
the primary power has gone out. It switches back from the secondary
power source to the primary when it detects that the primary power
source has returned.

The wall AC power is not always the primary power source and the battery
the secondary. Which source is primary and which is secondary depends on
the type of UPS.

Of course, the power that comes from the wall is AC, and your equipment
uses AC power as well. All batteries, however, provide DC power.
Therefore, circuitry is provided within all UPSs to convert AC power to
DC to charge the battery. A device called an inverter is also provided
to change the battery's stored DC electricity to AC to run your
equipment. T

UPSs come in many different sizes and shapes. The size of the UPS is
primarily dictated by the size of the battery; the larger the battery,
the more time your equipment can run on battery power before shutting
down. Larger units not only can power equipment for more time, they can
also handle a larger total demand for power. Different UPSs have various
other additional features, including warning signals, PC control
software, and conditioning circuitry for the AC power source.

One of the most important features of a UPS is its capacity. Another is
its run time. While these two concepts are related, they are not the
same. It is important to understand the difference between them, as
these numbers play a critical role in UPS sizing.

The run time that a UPS provides is the number of minutes that the UPS
will be able to provide power from the battery for a given load level.
Since driving more equipment requires more power to be taken from the
battery, driving more load will result in shorter run time. A UPS with a
larger battery, or with an add-on battery pack, will provide longer run
time for a given load size. Run time is critically important because it
tells you how long a power outage the UPS can handle before the battery
runs out. Most UPS manufacturers will provide tables that show the
typical run times for a model based on the loads it has to handle. Here
is a sample table for an APC Back-UPS Pro 650 model.

  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------
  Load (VA)                              Run Time (minutes)

  100                                    **49**

  200                                    **22**

  300                                    14

  400                                    **9.3**

  500                                    7.2

  600                                    5.8
  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------

Figure 9-Run time values and loads

In figure 9 the run time values for 100, 200 and 400 VA are highlighted.
Notice that when the load is doubled, the run time is reduced not by
half, but by more than half. One key reason for this is that lead-acid
batteries discharge more quickly when they are drawing more load.

After looking at that chart, a natural question might be: "If it will
run a 200 VA load for 22 minutes, and a 400 VA for 9.3 minutes, how long
will it run an 800 VA load for? 4 minutes? 2 minutes?" Unfortunately,
the answer to this is probably "0 minutes." This is where capacity
enters into the picture. The UPS has a nominal maximum capacity, usually
indicated by the number in its model name. In this example, it is 650
VA. The UPS will probably handle a load slightly above this
figure\--much the way your car does not stop dead when the fuel gauge
hits "E," but going to 800 VA will probably cause the UPS to overload
and shutdown when it goes on battery. The reason for a maximum capacity
figure is not just the batteries. It is also a function of the ability
of the UPS's circuitry and even its wires to handle a particular size of
load. It is also a safety issue, as exceeding the current limit of a
circuit is unsafe.

While the UPS's capacity is rated in terms of its nominal load limit in,
there is another limit that must be observed. To understand this other
limit we must understand the difference between apparent power, which is
the power provided as input to a device, and actual power, which is the
power the device actually uses. For most complex devices, these are not
the same. The ratio of actual power to apparent power of a device is its
power factor. The load on a UPS cannot exceed its apparent power load
limit in VA, nor can the load exceed its actual power load limit in
Watts. Many UPS manufacturers do not publish a specific wattage limit,
but instead assume that the power factor of its loads will be about 60%.
If you are driving a load that has a power factor of 60%, then the
apparent and actual power limits are the same. But if the loads you are
driving have a power factor higher than 60%, you cannot use the total VA
limit because your watt usage will be over the wattage limit. I

Many larger UPS models offer the ability to increase run time by adding
on expansion battery packs. These expandable units are great, especially
if you are not sure of your exact load requirements when you purchase
the unit. Expanding the UPS saves money over buying another since you
are only paying for extra battery and not duplicating the UPS's other
components.

So, a UPS has a limit on the loads it can power. In fact, it has two
limits: a maximum apparent power load specification (in VA) and a
maximum actual power load specification (in W). Sometimes the actual
power load limit is not explicitly provided but must be computed. If the
wattage is not listed specifically, it is safe to assume that it is 60%
of the VA number. However, you should read the specifications carefully,
because some UPSs use a different ratio.

The rule for sizing a UPS is simple in concept, and difficult in
application: the loads you attach to the UPS cannot exceed either of its
limits. Here are a couple of examples to show how the two limits work:
Take a 650 VA UPS. The wattage limit is not specified, so to be safe, we
use 60%, which yields a limit of 390W. This means any load we run cannot
exceed either 650 VA or 390 W. Some sample power supply loads:

Regular Power Supply, 500 VA Rating: A regular power supply with a
rating of 500 VA will run fine on this UPS, because its power factor is
probably about 60%, much as the UPS manufacturer assumed. Even if the
power factor is 70%, that is still 350 W, under the UPS's limit.

Power-Factor-Corrected Power Supply, 500 VA Rating: Some power supplies
have circuitry added to them that corrects the power factor to
approximately 100% (sometimes called power factor 1). In this case the
power supply will have a 500 VA rating and also a 500 W rating. This
power supply will overload the UPS we are discussing here because its W
rating is too high.

To figure out what a load will demand of the UPS, we need to know both
its VA and W ratings. Unfortunately, many manufacturers do not provide
the information required to make a knowledgeable decision. An upper
bound of the VA requirements of a unit can be obtained by looking for
its current rating, which almost all devices have on a label or plaque
near their power cord. However, these numbers are usually rather
conservative. If a device has a 2A rating, then its nominal VA
requirement is 2\*115=230 VA. However, in practice, it may never
actually require more than, say, 175 VA. There is no way to know for
sure unless you know how to test the device electrically, so if you want
to be absolutely certain, you must be conservative and use the maximum
figure of 230.

Unfortunately, ideally sizing a UPS is not easy to do. You often have to
be conservative with your numbers and purchase a bit more UPS than you
really need, to make sure you have your bases covered. Here are some
tools and techniques you can use to help you with sizing:

Use A Sizing Tool: American Power Conversion has a useful UPS sizing
tool on its web site. Other companies also offer sizing programs. These
tools are specifically geared towards UPS sizing, and have databases of
typical real VA and W requirements of various devices. They are probably
the best place to start.

Read the Recommendations: For a UPS you are considering, look at the
recommendations the manufacturer makes for the unit. Compare them to
what you are going to run and use common sense. If the manufacturer says
"deal for small desktop PCs" and you are running a high-powered
equipment, you are probably asking for trouble if you try to run it on
that UPS.

Test the UPS: The absolute best way to size a UPS, if you can do it, is
to test it.

Be Conservative: A little too much is better than a little too little
when it comes to a UPS.

Once you know your UPS has enough capacity to meet the requirements of
your hardware, the next matter is one of run time: how much do you need?
The most important goal of a UPS is to provide enough power to let you
gracefully shut down your system. To get enough run time to actually
work through anything but the shortest blackouts, you will usually have
to pay substantially more money. To lengthen your run time, do not plug
unnecessary gadgets into your UPS's backed-up receptacles. For example,
most peripherals do not need to be plugged into a UPS. Most UPS
manufacturers provide charts that show theoretical run-time for various
sizes of load.

Reference: <http://www.pcguide.com/ref/power/ext/ups/func.htm>

p)  Identify some of the key Class 1E performance characteristics for
    Class 1E static battery chargers and inverters supporting VSS: Input
    conditions; Output requirements; Surge withstand capability; and,
    reverse current flow prevention.

For each division of the DC power system, the battery charger supplies
the steady state DC power and maintains the battery in a fully charged
condition. The battery charger itself is supplied from the AC power
system of the emergency power supply.

The battery chargers should have sufficient capacity to restore the
battery from a discharged condition to a minimum charged state within an
acceptable period of time while at the same time satisfying the highest
combined demands of the various steady state loads following an
initiating loss of normal power. If the battery charger is permitted to
supply the system with the battery disconnected, the charger should have
the capability to satisfy the highest combined demands, including
transients. Each battery charger should have disconnecting devices in
the AC and DC circuits to enable the charger to be isolated.

Ventilation should be provided in battery rooms to maintain the
concentrations of combustible gases below prescribed levels. This
ventilation system should be powered by the emergency power supply.

Each redundant battery set should be capable of meeting all required
load demands and conditions, including duty cycles and electrical
transients occurring in operational states and under design basis
accident conditions for a specified period of time (typically two to
four hours), with account taken of such factors as design margins,
temperature effects, any recent discharge and deterioration with age.

Overvoltage surges can be caused by lightning strikes, electrical faults
or switching phenomena. Voltage surge suppressors or arresters should be
provided to prevent surges from exceeding the allowable voltage limits
set for the equipment or its insulation.

Reference: International Atomic Energy Agency, Design of Emergency Power
Systems for Nuclear Power Plants, August 2004

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for VSS Accident Monitoring Instrumentation (IEEE Std 497-2002; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Identify and discuss the selection criteria used for identifying the
    'type variables' for Accident Monitoring Instrumentation.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Regulatory Guide 1.97 defines five types
and three categories of plant variables for accident monitoring
instrumentation. A discussion of these classifications is provided
below. Each variable has been defined as to both type and category.
Plant variables are divided into types according to the purpose of the
indication to the plant operator. Any one variable may belong to more
than one type.

#### Type A

Type A are those variables to be monitored that provide the primary
information required to permit the Main Control Room (MCR) operators to
take the specified manual actions for which no automatic control is
provided and that are required for safety systems to accomplish their
safety functions for design basis accident events.

Primary information is information that is essential for the direct
accomplishment of the specified safety function. It does not include
those variables that are associated with contingency (or backup) action
that may also be identified in written procedures or guidelines.

Type A variables are limited to those variables which are necessary
(primary) to alert the MCR operator of the need to perform preplanned
manual actions for safety systems to perform their safety functions,
such as initiating suppression pool cooling and containment spray to
permit the systems to perform safety functions for which no automatic
system controls are provided.

Variables that require actions specified by the emergency procedure
guidelines in response to specific operating limits have also been
considered in performing the assessment documented in this chapter.

Type A variables do not include variables (1) which may indicate whether
a specific safety function is being accomplished (Type B), or (2) which
may indicate the need for contingency or corrective actions, resulting
from the failure of the plant (Type C) or system(s) (Type D) to respond
correctly when needed, or (3) which may indicate to the operator that it
is desirable to change or modify the operation/alignment of systems
important to safety to maintain the plant in a safe condition after
plant safety has been achieved.

#### Type B

Type B are those variables that provide information to the MCR operators
to indicate whether plant safety functions are being accomplished,
including reactivity control, core cooling, maintaining reactor coolant
system integrity, and maintaining containment integrity.

#### Type C

Type C are those variables that provide information to the MCR operators
to indicate that barriers to fission product release have the potential
for being breached or have been breached. These barriers are the fuel
cladding, primary coolant pressure boundary, and primary containment.
The sources of potential breach are limited to the energy sources within
the cladding, coolant boundary, or containment.

#### Type D

Type D are those variables that provide information to the MCR operators
to indicate the successful operation of individual safety systems or
other systems important to safety. Type D variables should provide
information to permit the MCR operators to ascertain the operating
status of each individual safety system and other systems important to
safety to that extent necessary to determine if each system is operating
or can be placed in operation to help mitigate the consequences of an
accident.

#### Type E

Type E are those variables monitored to determine the magnitude of
release of radioactive materials and to assess the continuation of such
releases. These variables should permit the MCR operators to monitor the
effluent discharge paths and environs within the site boundary to
ascertain if there have been significant releases (planned or unplanned)
of radioactive materials and to continually assess such releases. In
particular, Type E variables monitor:

-   The planned paths for effluent release

-   Plant areas inside buildings where access is required to service
    equipment necessary to mitigate the consequences of an accident

-   Onsite location where unplanned releases of radioactive materials
    are detected.

#### Categories of Variables

The design and qualification criteria for the instrumentation used to
measure the various variables are divided into three categories that
provide a graded approach to instrumentation criteria, depending on
importance to safety of the variables.

In general, Category 1 provides for full qualification, redundancy, and
continuous real-time display and requires onsite (standby) power.
Category 2 provides for qualification but is less stringent in that it
does not (of itself) include seismic qualification, redundancy, or
continuous display and requires only a high-reliability power source
(not necessarily standby power). Category 3 is the least stringent. It
provides for high-quality commercial-grade equipment that requires only
offsite power.

Category 1 represents the most stringent criteria and is used for key
variables. Key variables are those parameters that most directly
indicate the accomplishment of a safety function. All Type A variables
are considered to be Category 1. For Types B and C, the key variables
are Category 1, while backup variables are generally Category 3.

Category 2 provides less stringent criteria and generally applies to
instrumentation designated for indication of system operating status.
Most Type D variables are classified as Category 2.

Category 3 provides criteria for high quality backup and diagnostic
instrumentation or for other instrumentation where the state-of-the-art
will not support requirements for higher qualified instrumentation.

#### Design and Qualification Criteria

The detailed design and qualification criteria for category 1, 2 and 3
variables are provided in Regulatory. Guide 1.97 for:

-   Equipment qualification

-   Redundancy

-   Power sources

-   Channel availability

-   Quality assurance

-   Display and recording

-   Range

-   Equipment identification

-   Interfaces

-   Servicing, testing, and calibration

-   Human factors

-   Direct measurement

Reference: Information Systems Important to Safety,
<http://japan.nonukesasiaforum.org/lungmen/CH_07/07_05.PDF>

q)  Identify some key performance criteria of Accident Monitoring
    Instrumentation.

Instrumentation shall be provided to monitor variables and systems over
their anticipated ranges for normal operation, for anticipated
operational occurrences, and for accident conditions as appropriate to
assure adequate safety, including those variables and systems that can
affect the fission process, the integrity of the reactor core, the
reactor coolant pressure boundary, and the containment and its
associated systems. Appropriate controls shall be provided to maintain
these variables and systems within prescribed operating ranges.

A control room shall be provided from which actions can be taken to
operate the nuclear power unit safely under normal conditions and to
maintain it in a safe condition under accident conditions, including
loss-of-coolant accidents. Adequate radiation protection shall be
provided to permit access and occupancy of the control room under
accident conditions without personnel receiving radiation exposures in
excess of 5 rem whole body, or its equivalent to any part of the body,
for the duration of the accident. Equipment at appropriate locations
outside the control room shall be provided (1) with a design capability
for prompt hot shutdown of the reactor, including necessary
instrumentation and controls to maintain the unit in a safe condition
during hot shutdown, and (2) with a potential capability for subsequent
cold shutdown of the reactor through the use of suitable procedures.

Means shall be provided for monitoring the reactor containment
atmosphere, spaces containing components for recirculation of
loss-of-coolant accident fluids, effluent discharge paths, and the plant
environs for radioactivity that may be released from normal operations,
including anticipated operational occurrences, and from postulated
accidents.

Reference: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.97,
Criteria for Accident Monitoring Instrumentation for Nuclear Power
Plants, June 2006

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for VSS Motor Control Centers (MCC) (IEEE Std 649-1991; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Identify the three qualification alternatives for VSS MCC equipment.

The three qualification alternatives for VSS MCC equipment are testing,
analysis, and operating.

r)  Identify the three major elements of the qualification process for
    VSS MCC: Equipment specification; the Qualification Program; and,
    the documentation requirement.

Assemblies that include protective devices and other components, such as
motor starters, carry a short circuit withstand rating. This rating
reflects both the interrupting capacity of the device and its ability to
protect the components from catastrophic failure for downstream faults.
If the withstand rating of a motor starter is exceeded, components such
as the contactor and overload relay could fail in such a way as to burst
the enclosure and present a hazard to personnel, even if the current is
successfully interrupted by the protective device.

When specifying mechanical equipment which includes motor starters, the
required short circuit current withstand rating must be included as a
specification item. This value should be available from the electrical
engineer, who must calculate the available short circuit currents for
the electrical system to properly specify equipment such as panel-boards
and MCCs. Note that adequate withstand ratings ensure only that the
equipment will not fail catastrophically; damage to the contactor or
overload relay may still occur, and they should be inspected following
any motor or circuit fault that causes the protective device to operate.

Reference:
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BPR/is_12_16/ai_58348313>

s)  Discuss the Qualification Procedural requirements for VSS MCCs
    relating to Aging, Seismic Qualification, and Harsh Environment
    Events.

The basic principles, requirements, and methods for qualifying Class 1E
motor control centers for both harsh and mild environment applications
in nuclear power generating stations are described in IEEE Std 649-1991,
Standard for Qualifying Class 1E Motor Control Centers for Nuclear Power
Generating Stations. In addition to defining specific qualification
requirements for Class 1E motor control centers and their components
this standard is intended to provide guidance in establishing a
qualification program for demonstrating the adequacy of Class 1E motor
control centers in nuclear power generating station applications.

Reference: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, IEEE Std
649-1991, Standard for Qualifying Class 1E Motor Control Centers for
Nuclear Power Generating Stations. 1991

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for Digital Computers supporting VSS (IEEE Std 7-4.3.2-2003, Annex E; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Discuss some of the configuration requirements for communications
    independence relating to communications between computers in
    different safety channels.

IEEE Std 7-4.3.2-2003, Criteria for Digital Computers in Safety Systems
for Nuclear Power Generating Stations, describes computer specific
requirements addressing firmware, software, and hardware alike for the
development process in an integrated approach. This standard recommends
a minimum set of functional and design requirements for computer
components of a safety system employed in nuclear power generating
stations. Additionally IEEE Std 1228, Standard for Software Safety Plans
provides requirements for the development of a management plan and
performance of safety software activities.

References: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, IEEE Std
7-4.3.2-2003, Criteria for Digital Computers in Safety Systems for
Nuclear Power Generating Stations, 2003 and DOE G 414.1-4, Safety
Software Guide for Use with 10 CFR 830 Subpart A, Quality Assurance
Requirements, and DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance.

t)  Discuss some of the configuration requirements for communications
    independence relating to communications between safety and
    non-safety computers.

See element "a" for a discussion regarding configuration requirements
for communications independence.

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for VSS Protection Systems (IEEE Std 741-1997, and 833-1988; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Identify the key general design criteria for VSS Protection Systems
    (see IEEE Std 741, Section 4.)

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u)  Identify the major criteria for establishing bus voltage monitoring
    schemes (see IEEE Std 741, Section 5.1.2 a) - h)).

v)  Identify the major requirement for selecting protective devices for
    direct-geared valve actuator motors (IEEE Std 741, Section 5.5,
    first paragraph, first sentence).

Criteria that establish protection requirements for Class 1E power
systems and equipment are prescribed in IEEE Std 741-1997, Standard
Criteria for the Protection of Class 1E Power Systems and Equipment in
Nuclear Power Generating Stations. The purpose of and the means for
obtaining protection from electrical and mechanical damage or failures
that can occur within a time period that is shorter than that required
for operator action are described. Testing and surveillance requirements
are included. For information related to electrical safety design
requirements for VSS protection systems see the Institute for Electrical
and Electronic Engineers, IEEE Std 741, Standard Criteria for the
Protection of Class 1E Power Systems and Equipment in Nuclear Power
Generating Stations.

Reference: IEEE Std 741-1997, Standard Criteria for the Protection of
Class 1E Power Systems and Equipment in Nuclear Power Generating
Stations

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for Instrumentation and Control (I&C) Equipment Grounding of VSS (IEEE Std 1050-1996; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Discuss some design considerations for electrical noise
    minimization: Noise sources; noise-coupling methods; and techniques
    for electrical noise minimization.

### Noise Sources

Electrical noise can be annoying when it causes audible or visual
interference in radios and televisions. If it interferes with a depth
sounder, or a back-up camera on a motor coach, then human life may be at
risk.

Noise categorization is complex, but falls into two major types,
radiated and conducted. Radiated noise is propagated through the air,
while conducted noise is present on power and signal lines.

The best rule is to prevent noise from escaping its source, but this is
not always easy to do, and in some cases, proper filtering would cost
more than a manufacturer is willing to pay. In other cases, noise exists
because no one has considered the problem. In such circumstances, noise
might be prevented with easy and inexpensive methods.

High frequency noise is easier to filter than low frequency noise.
Intermittent noise, such as that generated by motors, can sometimes be
minimized by clamping power lines with diodes or tranient absorbers.

Here is a list of devices that can cause noise in some form.

-   Fluorescent lights \...usually high frequency.

-   Alternators \...high frequency noise from the diodes as they switch
    between conducting and blocking state.

-   Alternator regulators \...from 30 Hz to several kHz.

-   Ignition systems \...often broadband noise from the audio range up.

-   Motors! Pumps, trim-tabs, fans, thrusters, windlass, etc. \...
    transient noise as they are turned on and off.

-   Battery Chargers \...from 60 Hz and up, depending on type of unit.

-   Inverters \...same as battery chargers.

-   Radio/radar transmitters \...the transmitted signals can be noise to
    other equipment.

-   Computers, monitors, printers.

-   Radio, television, and audio gear.

-   Cell phones, wireless phones.

To find a noise source, turn everything off, and then turn on one device
at a time until the noise appears. Finding the source of noise is
hardest when the noise is intermittent. Is there a motor that
periodically operates and generates the noise?

Once a noise source is identified, treatment can begin. As mentioned,
clamping diodes may be a simple solution, but in complex situations, the
noise will have to be measured on an oscillscope or spectrum analyzer
before a targeted solution can be applied.

While filtering power to each sensitive device may work, it is always
better to find the source of noise and prevent it from leaving. A filter
on a noise source is always more effective than trying to filter
downstream devices.

Reference: Electrical Noise Sources,
<http://www.amplepower.com/apps/noise/index.html>

### Noise Coupling Methods

Need something here

### Noise Minimization Techniques

Below is a list of techniques to minimize electrical noise:

-   Keep wires as short as possible

-   Loop wires through ferrite cores

-   Add snubber R/C circuit at motor terminals

-   Keep controller, wires and battery enclosed in metallic body

Reference: <http://www.roboteq.com/files/manuals/ax1500man17-110305.pdf>

w)  Describe the purpose or use of, and advantages and disadvantages
    for: Single-point ground systems; multi-point ground systems; and
    floating ground systems.

### Single-Point Ground System

A true single point ground system means just that, everything is
referenced to a single point and that is were everything within your
shelter is tied to the external earth ground system. The external ground
system could include the utility ground, a facility ring ground, tower
ground and your antenna and radial ground systems. The single point is
truly a single point, typically a single bus bar or equal that is
typically 4 or 6 inches by 24 inches. All system grounds terminate to
this single bus bar connecting point. In reality each component and
external source is effectively bonded to a single point, which is then
effectively bonded to the facility or site external ground system.

However, a single-point ground is not suitable for handling the higher
frequencies encountered in modern computing devices. The fundamental
assumption behind the principle of single-point grounding is that the
velocity of light is infinite. Any time designers need to consider the
velocity of light, notably at computer speeds, the single-point ground
technique does not work. A useful rule of thumb is that a single-point
ground is appropriate if the longest dimension of interest is less than
a 1/20 wavelength of the highest-frequency threat. Thus, single-point
grounds are appropriate for handling EMI with audio frequencies in most
cases but inappropriate and unachievable for radio frequencies used in
digital electronics.

Reference: National Electrical Code Internet Connection,
<http://www.mikeholt.com/mojonewsarchive/GB-HTML/HTML/Single-Point-Ground~20040427.php>

### Multi-Point Ground System

A multipoint ground is an alternate type of electrical installation that
attempts to solve the ground loop and mains hum problem by creating many
alternate paths for electrical energy to find its way back to ground.
The distinguishing characteristic of a multipoint ground is the use of
many interconnected grounding conductors into a loose grid
configuration. There will be many paths between any two points in a
multipoint grounding system, rather than the single path found in a star
topology ground.

If installed correctly, it can maintain reference ground potential much
better than a star topology in a similar application. However it is more
complicated to install and to maintain over the long term, and can be
more expensive.

Star toploogy systems can be converted to multipoint systems by
installing new conductors between old existing ones. However, this
should be done with care as it can inadvertently introduce noise onto
signal lines during the conversion process. The noise can be diminished
over time as noisy and failed components are removed and repaired, but
some isolation of high current (e.g. motors and lighting) and sensitive
low current (e.g. amplifiers and radios) equipment may always be
necessary.

Reference: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipoint_Ground>

### Floating Ground

A system where the system ground is not actually connected to earth is
often referred to as a floating ground.

Reference: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_(electricity)>

x)  Identify the IEEE Standard citing requirements for VSS I&C equipment
    signal cable shield grounding requirements (IEEE Std 1050-1996).

At each end the cable shield in a distant host connection shall be
connected through a circuit described below to signal ground. The
circuit consists of two components connected in parallel. (1) A 100K,
1/8 watt resistor provides a path to leak off slow accumulations of
static charge. (2) A .01 mfd, 600 V ceramic capacitor bypasses sharp
noise spikes.

Exception: In cases of severe noise, one end of the shield or the other,
but not both, may have to be tied directly to ground, sacrificing the
symmetry.

Refer to IEEE Std 1050-1996, Guide for Instrumentation and Control
Equipment Grounding in Generating Stations for more information.

Reference: <http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc745>

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level knowledge of electrical safety design requirements for VSS Motor Operated Valves (IEEE Std 1290-1996; and, DOE O 420.1B and DOE G 420.1-1).

a)  Identify the IEEE Standard, citing requirements for motor
    applications, protection, and control for motor operated valve (MOV)
    motor applications (IEEE Std 1290).

For information regarding MOVs see IEEE Std 1290-1996, Guide for Motor
Operated Valve (MOV) Motor Application, Protection, Control, and Testing
in Nuclear Power Generating Stations. 1996

## Additional Reading Requirements {#additional-reading-requirements .Style2}

## Obtain a clear understanding of electrical safety requirements and practices in the following list of regulatory and consensus standards documents, including the relationship between these documents and which are "enforceable" in your site's contractors contract. OSHA (29 CFR 1910 and Subpart S, and 29 CFR 1926 Subparts K and V), NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace/Maintenance, NFPA-70B, Recommended Practice of Electrical Equipment Maintenance, DOE-HDBK-1092, DOE Electrical Safety Handbook; and 10 CFR 851, Worker Safety and Health Program.

a)  Describe the purpose, scope, and application of the requirements
    detailed in the listed standards and Orders.

### 29 CFR 1910, Subpart S

This subpart addresses electrical safety requirements that are necessary
for the practical safeguarding of employees in their workplaces and is
divided into four major divisions as follows:

-   Design safety standards for electrical systems. These regulations
    are contained in Sec. Sec. 1910.302 through 1910.330. Sections
    1910.302 through 1910.308 contain design safety standards for
    electric utilization systems. Included in this category are all
    electric equipment and installations used to provide electric power
    and light for employee workplaces. Sections 1910.309 through
    1910.330 are reserved for possible future design safety standards
    for other electrical systems.

-   Safety-related work practices. These regulations will be contained
    in Sections 1910.331 through 1910.360.

-   Safety-related maintenance requirements. These regulations will be
    contained in Sections 1910.361 through 1910.380.

-   Safety requirements for special equipment. These regulations will be
    contained in Sections 1910.381 through 1910.398.

Reference: 29 CFR 1910, Occupational Safety and Health Standards, July
2006

### 29 CFR 1926, Subpart K

This subpart addresses electrical safety requirements that are necessary
for the practical safeguarding of employees involved in construction
work and is divided into four major divisions and applicable definitions
as follows:

-   Installation safety requirements. Installation safety requirements
    are contained in Sections 1926.402 through 1926.408. Included in
    this category are electric equipment and installations used to
    provide electric power and light on jobsites.

-   Safety-related work practices. Safety-related work practices are
    contained in Sections 1926.416 and 1926.417. In addition to covering
    the hazards arising from the use of electricity at jobsites, these
    regulations also cover the hazards arising from the accidental
    contact, direct or indirect, by employees with all energized lines,
    above or below ground, passing through or near the jobsite.

-   Safety-related maintenance and environmental considerations.
    Safety-related maintenance and environmental considerations are
    contained in Sections 1926.431 and 1926.432.

-   Safety requirements for special equipment. Safety requirements for
    special equipment are contained in Section 1926.441.

Reference: 29 CFR 1926, Safety and Health Regulations for Construction,
July 2006

### 29 CFR 1926, Subpart V

The occupational safety and health standards contained in this subpart V
shall apply to the construction of electric transmission and
distribution lines and equipment.

As used in this subpart V the term construction includes the erection of
new electric transmission and distribution lines and equipment, and the
alteration, conversion, and improvement of existing electric
transmission and distribution lines and equipment.

Existing electric transmission and distribution lines and electrical
equipment need not be modified to conform to the requirements of
applicable standards in this subpart V, until such work is to be
performed on such lines or equipment.

The standards set forth in this subpart V provide minimum requirements
for safety and health. Employers may require adherence to additional
standards which are not in conflict with the standards contained in this
subpart V.

Reference: 29 CFR 1926, Safety and Health Regulations for Construction,
July 2006

### NFPA 70E

This standard addresses those electrical safety requirements for
employee workplaces that are necessary for the practical safeguarding of
employees in their pursuit of gainful employment. This standard covers
the installation of electric conductors, electric equipment, signaling
and communications conductors and equipment, and raceways for the
following: (1) Public and private premises, including buildings,
structures, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, and floating buildings
(2) Yards, lots, parking lots, carnivals, and industrial substations
FPN: For additional information concerning such installations in an
industrial or multi-building complex, see ANSI C2-2002, National
Electrical Safety Code. (3) Installations of conductors and equipment
that connect to the supply of electricity (4) Installations used by the
electric utility, such as office buildings, warehouses, garages, machine
shops, and recreational buildings, that are not an integral part of a
generating plant, substation, or control center.

Reference: National Fire Prevention Association, NFPA 70E, Standard for
Electrical Safety in the Workplace, 2004

### NFPA 70B

This recommended practice applies to preventive maintenance for
electrical, electronic, and communication systems and equipment and is
not intended to duplicate or supersede instructions that manufacturers
normally provide. Systems and equipment covered are typical of those
installed in industrial plants, institutional and commercial buildings,
and large multifamily residential complexes. Consumer appliances and
equipment intended primarily for use in the home are not included.

Reference: National Fire Prevention Association, NFPA 70B, Recommended
Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance, 2006

### DOE-HDBK-1092

The Electrical Safety Handbook presents the DOE safety standards for DOE
field offices or facilities involved in the use of electrical energy. It
has been prepared to provide a uniform set of electrical safety guidance
and information for DOE installations to effect a reduction or
elimination of risks associated with the use of electrical energy. The
objectives of this handbook are to enhance electrical safety awareness
and mitigate electrical hazards to employees, the public, and the
environment.

This handbook provides general information to enhance understanding of
DOE Orders, national codes, national standards, and local, state, and
federal regulations. Each entity should reference its contract documents
and determine what legal requirements are to be followed in the area of
electrical safety. These requirements may vary from location to
location.

Reference: DOE-HDBK-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, December 2004

### 10 CFR 851

This final rule, which becomes effective February 9, 2007, codifies the
Department's worker protection program requirements established in DOE O
440.1A, Worker Protection Management for DOE Federal and Contractor
Employees. Consistent with the intent of Congress, DOE O 440.1A forms
the basis for the rule's substantive requirements. The Conference
Committee for the NDAA recognized that contractors currently operate
under this order, which provides an adequate level of safety.

Reference: Federal Register, February 9, 2006, Department of Energy 10
CFR Parts 850 and 851 Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program;
Worker Safety and Health Program; Final Rule

y)  Discuss the graded approach process that Department line management
    uses to determine an appropriate level of coverage by electrical
    personnel. Include in this discussion the factors that may influence
    the level of coverage.

The process of assuring that the level of analysis, documentation, and
actions used to comply with electrical requirements are commensurate
with

-   the relative importance to safety, safeguard, and security;

-   the magnitude of any hazard involved;

-   the life cycle stage of a facility;

-   the programmatic mission of a facility;

-   the particular characteristics of a facility;

-   the relative importance of radiological and non-radiological
    hazards; and

-   any other relevant factor.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide, September 2001

z)  Determine contractor compliance with the listed documents as they
    apply to contract design requirements and electrical system
    activities at a defense nuclear facility.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

## Demonstrate a familiarity level knowledge of DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance, as it pertains to electrical systems.

a)  Mandatory Performance Activity: Describe how electrical equipment is
    procured based upon its safety function and/or nuclear related
    activity using quality assurance criteria and appropriate national
    or international consensus standards.

The procurement process should ensure that items and/or services
provided by suppliers meet the requirements and expectations of the end
user. The procurement process should be planned and controlled to ensure
that

-   the end user's requirements are accurately, completely, and clearly
    communicated to the supplier;

-   supplier, designer, and end-user requirements are met during the
    production phase; and

-   the proper product is delivered on time and maintained until use.

Procurement processes should prevent introduction of suspect/counterfeit
items and provide a method to detect them before they are released for
use.

The selection of procurement requirements should be commensurate with
the importance of the end use of the purchased item or service.
Management controls exist for DOE procurement and subcontracts through
applicable DOE Orders, the Department of Energy Acquisition Regulation
in 48 CFR subchapters A through H, and the Federal Acquisition
Regulation in 48 CFR 970 et. seq.

The procurement process of DOE nuclear facility contractors must include
a determination of the applicability of 10 CFR 830 to the supplier or
subcontractor. If applicable, procurement documents and contracts for
items and services provided to facilities covered by 10 CFR 830 should
include a statement informing the supplier or subcontractor that it is
subject to 10 CFR 830 and of the potential for enforcement actions under
10 CFR 820.

Specific requirements related to electrical systems include

-   American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee F-18,
    Electrical Protective Equipment for Workers, has developed and
    published a consensus standard for protective grounds, ASTM
    Designation: F-855. This voluntary consensus standard may be used by
    all federal agencies for procurement purposes. Therefore, grounding
    cables, clamps, and ferrules purchased should meet all the
    requirements of ASTM Designation: F-855. Aluminum cables shall not
    be used for personal grounds.

-   Procurement and use of equipment not listed by an NRTL should be
    reviewed by the AHJ. The extensive testing involved in the listing
    process usually cannot be duplicated at the user facility, and many
    of the tests are destructive in nature. The AHJ should develop an
    examination acceptance process to ensure appropriate confidence in
    the safety of the product.

References: DOE G 414.1-2A, Quality Assurance Management Guide, June,
2005; and DOE-STD-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, December 2004

a)  Describe what is meant by implementing quality assurance criteria
    using a graded approach.

A graded approach that doesn't compromise public, employee, or facility
safety or adversely impact the environment and complies with
requirements, rules, and regulations must be used to implement the QAP.
The graded application of facility/activity requirements is dependent on
the hazards and/or level of risk associated with the activity or SSCs
under consideration. The scope, depth, and rigor of the quality
management system's application of requirements should be determined by
the use of a grading process before performing the activity. The purpose
of grading is to select the controls and verifications to be applied to
various items and activities consistent with their importance to safety,
cost, schedule, and success of the program.

Grading is encouraged if a single or uniform method of applying a
requirement across a facility or activity does not add value or reduce
risk. The grading process provides the flexibility to design controls
that best suit the facility or activity. The grading process is not used
to obtain exemptions from the requirements of the QA Rule or Order.

The grading process is used to determine the appropriate controls to
address and mitigate hazards and/or risks. This process is accomplished
by deliberate quality planning and is based on activity-specific or
facility-specific factors such as

-   the relative importance to safety, safeguards, and security;

-   the magnitude of any hazard or risk involved;

-   the life-cycle stage of a facility or activity;

-   impact/consequences on the programmatic mission of a facility;

-   the particular characteristics of a facility or activity;

-   the nuclear safety classification or hazard category of the item or
    activity;

-   adequacy of existing safety documentation;

-   the relative importance of radiological and nonradiological hazards;

-   complexity of products or services involved;

-   performance history of a facility or activity; and

-   any other relevant factors.

The first step in the grading process is to identify the hazards, and
for the facility level their consequences and probability of a failure,
before work begins. The second step is to identify the specific
requirements and controls to be applied. The third step is to determine
the depth, extent, and degree of rigor necessary in the application of
the requirements and controls. The final step is to communicate and
implement the selected requirements and controls and their degree of
rigor by means of documented work processes (procedures, instructions,
specifications, and controls). The logic, method of implementation, and
basis for grading should be documented in the quality management system,
periodically reviewed in light of changes that may have occurred, and if
appropriate, revised to reflect those changes.

The graded approach must not be used to "grade quality assurance
criterion to zero" which has the affect of eliminating all verifications
of the requirement ("to get out of work"). Even in the least stringent
application, compliance with applicable portions of stated requirements
is mandatory unless an exemption is approved through an appropriate
process.

When considering the use of grading of an item or activity, it is
important to consider the impact of safety on personnel, the public, and
the environment. The safety class or safety significance of the item or
activity is critical to the amount of controls imposed which are
necessary to assure the requisite or desired quality.

Reference: DOE G 414.1-2A, Quality Assurance Management Guide, June,
2005

b)  Describe the types of documents related to electrical systems that
    should be controlled by a document control system.

Risk is a fundamental consideration in determining to what extent
controls should be applied at the facility level. The varying degrees of
the controls applied should be dependent upon function, complexity,
consequence of failure, reliability, repeatability of results, and
economic considerations.

These controls are documented and communicated to facility/activity
personnel to ensure appropriate application. This documentation should
take the form of written procedures, practices, requirements manuals,
policy statements, standing orders, or other written and controlled
means as deemed appropriate by facility/activity management. The level
of approval of this documentation is also based on the hazards,
complexity, and/or relative risk.

Documentation specific to electrical systems include the following:

-   All testing methods, apparatus, and facilities shall meet the
    applicable ANSI/ASTM Standard.

-   The method used and the results of such tests shall be documented
    and made available for inspection.

-   Each employer shall document and implement lockout/tagout procedures
    to safeguard employees from injury while they are working on or near
    de-energized electric circuits and equipment. The lockout/tagout
    procedures shall meet the requirement of NFPA 70E 120.2, 29 CFR
    1910.147(c) to (f), 1910.269(d) and (m), 1910.333, and 1926.417.

-   An electrical preventive maintenance (EPM) program is defined as the
    system that manages routine inspections and tests and the servicing
    of electrical equipment so that impending troubles can be detected
    and reduced or eliminated. Where designers, installers, or
    constructors specify, install, and construct equipment with optional
    auxiliary equipment, that optional equipment should be part of the
    EPM program. Records of all inspections, tests, and servicing should
    be documented and reviewed.

-   Electrical equipment should be maintained in accordance with the
    manufacturer's recommendations and instructions for the local
    operating environment. A copy of the manufacturer's recommendations
    should be documented and on file.

-   Areas that contain explosives that are not defined as hazardous
    locations (areas containing no dust, vapor, gas hazards, or exposed
    explosives; for example, storage magazines), shall be evaluated and
    documented by facility management to ensure that electrical ignition
    sources are minimized or shall be regarded as NEC Class II.

-   Maintenance checklists and schedules in compliance with OSHA,
    owner's manuals, and manufacturer's requirements for the specific
    equipment shall be provided as required. Weekly, monthly, and
    semiannual inspections shall be conducted, and comments and
    condition of the inspected part shall be documented and certified.

-   In cable/utility management systems where cables other than those of
    the equipment exist, the decision should be documented that any risk
    posed by the situation is acceptable for the operation to be
    performed and to the functions of the existing cables.

-   Metallic cable/utility management systems that support electrical
    conductors shall be grounded or bonded to the equipment. Grounding
    integrity should be checked by inspection by a qualified worker for
    all components with exposed metal parts. This inspection should be
    documented.

-   Where cable/utility management systems are installed exclusively for
    electrical/electronic equipment usage and where these trays are
    metallic and not grounded or bonded, approved documentation shall
    exist stating the reason for not grounding or bonding the system.

-   Documentation should be developed to substantiate the acceptance of
    any equipment. Such documentation should include but not be limited
    to:

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-   Tests performed

-   Conditions of acceptability

-   Applicable standards to which the equipment was evaluated

-   Limitations of approved use, if any.

References: DOE G 414.1-2A, Quality Assurance Management Guide, June,
2005; and DOE-STD-1092-2004, Electrical Safety, December 2004

c)  Discuss the requirements for revision and distribution of controlled
    documents.

The organization responsible for document control should be notified of
any need to change a document as soon as that need is identified and
approved, typically through the change control or work control
processes. A document change notice may be used for this purpose. The
organization responsible for document control should provide a receipt
acknowledging the notification that a document should be changed. The
organization responsible for document control should take the
appropriate action to update the document and record the status in the
document control database.

The contractor should specifically identify in the change control
process what constitutes a minor change (e.g., inconsequential,
editorial corrections). Major changes to controlled documents are any
changes that are not defined as minor changes. Major changes to
controlled documents must be reviewed and approved by the document
owners. The configuration management process may specify a simpler
review for minor changes.

Pending changes are changes that have been approved for which the
associated documents have not yet been updated and distributed. The
organization responsible for document control should provide notice of
pending changes to the controlled document users for the applicable
documents. A notice of the pending change should also be attached to, or
appropriately referenced on, the affected master document, in order to
alert anyone requesting a copy of the document.

Contractors must incorporate approved changes into controlled documents
in a timely manner. The contractor should control and limit the backlog
of changes that have not been incorporated. Contractors should consider
incorporating small changes in batches, where appropriate. When there is
a large backlog of changes that have not been incorporated on a
document, the documents may not reflect the physical facility or the
approved safety basis consequently diminishing the value of the
documents. Document control procedures should specify the limit of the
number of changes that may be outstanding for a document before the
document is revised. That limit may vary depending upon the type of
document, document priority, complexity of the changes, and the degree
of overlap of those changes.

Whenever a document is issued or superseded by a new revision, the
contractor organization responsible for document control must send a
copy of the new revision to each controlled document user of the
document, along with a request for written receipt acknowledgment.
Contractors can facilitate the return of receipt acknowledgments by
sending a receipt acknowledgment form with the revised document.
Document control procedures should specify guidelines for the maximum
time between issuance of the revised controlled document and
distribution. For example:

  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------
  **Level of importance of controlled    **Maximum time before
  documents**                            distribution**

  Most important (e.g TSRs)              24 hours

  Important                              72 hours

  Least important                        7 days
  -------------------------------------- --------------------------------

The recipients (controlled document users) should update their copy of
the document (for example, by inserting changed pages), and discard any
obsolete pages or copies of documents. The recipient must return a
written acknowledgment of receipt to the document control organization.
The controlled document users should periodically review controlled
copies in use to ensure their accuracy and their consistency with the
master copies.

The contractor should ensure that the document control process includes
measures to ensure that superseded or canceled documents are replaced.
If someone requests a copy of a superseded or canceled document, the
provider should clearly and distinctively mark the document as
"Superseded" or "Canceled" before providing the document.

Reference: DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration Management, October 2003

d)  Discuss the determination of calibration frequency for electrical
    test equipment.

Frequency of calibration should be determined based on the
manufacturers' recommendations, measuring and test equipment (M&TE)
usage, and M&TE historical reliability. Consideration should be given to
the amount and type of M&TE available for use compared with that needed
to support periods of peak activity such as outages. This information
can help determine calibration frequency and schedule requirements that
result in adequate M&TE support for facility needs.

The standards laboratory, in conjunction with each department manager
responsible for M&TE, should establish and maintain a calibration
schedule for the M&TE, including primary, secondary, and working
standards. Specific items may be calibrated on a prior-to-use basis
rather than on a periodic basis.

The schedule should normally be divided by application departments. The
M&TE assigned to a department should be listed in calibration due date
order by the unique identification number and noun name. Calibration
dates for similar M&TE should be staggered to ensure availability for
day-to-day and peak needs. The established scheduling organization
should normally update and distribute the schedule to the responsible
department managers on a quarterly basis. Department managers should
ensure that M&TE under their cognizance is calibrated in accordance with
the master schedule.

The calibration intervals for M&TE should be established by the
cognizant department managers. The initial interval should be based on
the inherent stability characteristics of the device, the rate/level and
purpose of expected use, manufacturer's recommendation, and historical
data for similar equipment. Calibration intervals may be revised based
on a review of previous calibration results and maintenance history.

Revision of calibration intervals should require the approval of the
cognizant department manager. Revisions should be documented on the
calibration interval change authorization form which should be filed in
the maintenance history.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

e)  Describe the effect of using inappropriate calibration standards on
    electrical test equipment.

M&TE found to exceed required calibration tolerance or that has been
subjected to possible damage should be identified as rejected. When
repairs are required to standards or other M&TE, they shall be
re-calibrated to the original requirements prior to being returned to
normal service. When calibration/certification is performed, the
as-found condition and/or minor adjustments to the M&TE should be noted
as part of the equipment history information.

When M&TE is suspected or actually found to be inoperable, unreliable,
defective, or out of calibration, all data recorded since the previous
calibration by affected equipment should be identified through a usage
record. A prompt evaluation should be performed to determine the need
for corrective action. This evaluation shall be documented on a gross
error report. The validity of all applications and data derived since
the previous calibration should be evaluated and dispositioned by the
appropriate owner/operator affected. The owner/operator of the affected
equipment should establish the nature and timing of corrective actions.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

f)  Discuss the key elements of the procurement process for electrical
    systems as described in DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance.

The organization should ensure that procured items and services meet
established requirements and perform as specified. Prospective suppliers
should be evaluated and selected on the basis of specified criteria. The
organization should ensure that approved suppliers can continue to
provide acceptable items and services.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

## Demonstrate a familiarity-level of knowledge of DOE O 430.1B, Real Property Asset Management, with regard to life cycle asset management.

a)  Explain the Department's role in the oversight of contractor
    maintenance operations.

The Department's in the oversight of contractor maintenance operations
is to ensure that safety requirements necessary for a practical
safeguarding of applicable DOE facilities and personnel are being
adequately implemented. Practical safe work procedures include training
of skilled and unskilled personnel who work in maintenance. Safety
measures shall protect personnel against both normal operations and
emergency situations. In addition, only qualified persons who are
capable of working safely in maintenance and are familiar with the
proper use of special precautionary techniques, personal protective
equipment, TSRs, and operating procedures may perform work. Maintenance
management personnel perform DOE line management oversight of their
assigned facilities to ensure that

-   the contractor is operating facilities safely and efficiently (i.e.,
    within the boundaries of those controls invoked in the facility
    authorization basis);

-   the contractor's management system is effectively controlling
    conduct of operation as related to nuclear safety;

-   effective lines of communication between DOE and its operating
    contractors are maintained during periods of normal operation, and
    following reportable events, in accordance with DOE Orders and
    requirements.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September 2001

g)  Identify the key elements of a contractor maintenance plan as
    required by the DOE Orders referenced above.

DOE contractors should develop a maintenance implementation plan (MIP)
for each nuclear facility under their cognizance. Where one contractor
has more than one facility on a site, the contractor may develop a
consolidated plan that can accommodate the facility differences without
losing effectiveness. DOE contractors may include facility-related,
non-safety equipment within the MIP. The MIP should clearly identify and
define the following minimum elements.

-   All SSCs included in the maintenance program (typically all those
    SSCs identified in the nuclear facility safety basis as documented
    in the DSA, Basis for Interim Operation, TSR); SSCs that are
    critical to mission objectives or facility operations; or SSCs that
    may be desirable for inclusion in the maintenance program for other
    reasons. Contractors should develop a detailed master list of
    equipment/SSCs to be included in the maintenance program to help in
    selecting and scheduling preventive maintenance and to evaluate the
    effectiveness of the maintenance program. The list normally is
    developed and controlled by or with assistance from engineering
    support organizations and can be used for other purposes, such as
    determining the safety or code classification of components. The MIP
    should include both safety-related and non-safety related SSCs in
    the maintenance program. Failures of non-safety-related SSCs can
    lead to challenges, failure or undesirable consequences to
    safety-related SSCs. Special tools or equipment should also be
    included in the MIP. This list could be used effectively to help
    establish the maintenance history program and to determine the
    necessary parts required to maintain equipment.

-   Management systems used to control maintenance activities associated
    with the defined SSCs (these include work control, post-maintenance
    testing, material procurement, handling and disposal, control and
    calibration of M&TE).

-   Assignment of organizational roles and responsibilities and
    appropriate maintenance related training and qualification
    requirements.

-   Interfaces between the maintenance organization and other
    organizations (e.g., operations, engineering, quality, training,
    industrial health).

-   Facility/site mission.

-   System for assessing maintenance status.

-   Planned major activities.

-   Summary of maintenance backlog.

-   Performance indicators.

-   Self-assessment program.

-   Schedule for periodic inspection of SSCs, and equipment to determine
    whether deterioration or technical obsolescence that threatens
    performance and/or safety is taking place.

The MIP should establish maintenance priorities based on mission needs,
and the priorities should be tracked directly to maintenance budget
requests. This provides a forum on maintenance priorities between DOE
and the contractor operating a nuclear facility. The maintenance
priorities should be derived from or based on the DSA/BIO/TSR to
preserve the

facility's safety envelope so that the SSCs covered by the MIP are
maintained in a condition suitable for their intended use.

The MIP should describe in detail the integration of the MIP with the
QAP and the safety management system.

The MIP should establish a configuration management process to ensure
the integrity of the identified nuclear facility SSCs using a graded
approach.

The MIP should establish how an accurately documented, computerized
maintenance history engineering database will be maintained locally and
how certain data fields will be incorporated into the DOE corporate
FIMS. The MIP will facilitate DOE maintenance planning, performance
evaluation, and prioritizing in a way that balances safety requirements,
the maintenance backlog, and facility availability so that resources can
be effectively allocated to address safety, programmatic, and
operational considerations

The MIP should establish how performance requirements for those
infrastructure elements identified as part of the nuclear safety basis
will be enforced.

Reference: DOE G 433.1-1, Nuclear Facility Maintenance Management
Program Guide for Use with DOE O 433.1, September, 2001

h)  Describe configuration control and its relationship to the
    maintenance work control process and the maintenance history file.

### Configuration Control

The configuration management process addresses material condition and
aging management (MCA). MCA develops analytical methods and testing
techniques that can be used to meet the requirements of the maintenance
program.

Configuration management programs also interface with the maintenance
program through the change control and document control elements, which
address control of hardware and procedure changes. The main interface is
through the work control process of the maintenance program that manages
and sequences maintenance activities in the field. Another important
interface exists between the preventive and predictive maintenance
activities and the performance monitoring function of the assessment
element. Configuration control is maintained by ensuring that systems
and equipment are restored to their original condition following
maintenance.

### Maintenance History File

Assessments should ensure that

-   equipment repair history is used to support maintenance activities,
    upgrade maintenance programs, optimize equipment performance, and
    improve equipment reliability;

-   the maintenance history program defines what data are to be
    collected, how the data are to be recorded, and how the data are to
    be used;

-   a cost-effective equipment history program is in place for systems,
    equipment and components that warrant special attention based on
    initial cost, cost to maintain, or impact on facility operations or
    safety;

-   maintenance records are closely correlated with the current issue of
    the facility master equipment list;

-   the facility master equipment list is a compilation of system and
    equipment and provides an engineering database;

-   maintenance history records are considered in planning for
    corrective maintenance, modifications, and preventive maintenance,
    and development of facility life-cycle plans;

-   maintenance history records are readily available for use by
    supervisors, work planners, and maintenance or plant engineers;

-   maintenance history is periodically and systematically reviewed to
    identify equipment trends and persistent maintenance problems and to
    assess their impact on facility reliability;

-   equipment maintenance and repair history files contain items such as
    the following: equipment and component identification, maintenance
    records, diagnostic monitoring data, vendor information (or a
    reference to this information), corrective and preventive
    maintenance or modification information, and spare parts
    information;

-   the maintenance record is a chronological list of all maintenance
    repair work and materials expended on a piece of equipment or
    component;

-   equipment repair history data is used for such activities as failure
    analysis, conduct of maintenance assessments, preventive
    maintenance, predictive maintenance, outage planning, budget
    preparation, reviews of DOE-wide experience, and plant life
    extension;

-   vendor information obtained from suppliers is controlled and indexed
    for ready retrieval.

Reference: Senior Technical Safety Manager Reference Guide, April 2006

i)  Describe the mechanisms for feedback of relevant information, such
    as trend analysis and instrumentation performance/reliability data,
    to identify necessary program modifications.

A maintenance history and trending program should be maintained to
document data, provide historical information for maintenance planning,
and support maintenance and performance trending of nuclear facility
systems and components. All records and documentation should be
maintained according to the approved site-specific records retention and
disposition schedule.

Reference: DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear
Facilities, June 2001

j)  Review a contractor preventive maintenance activity and describe the
    preventive maintenance factors to be considered as the activity is
    planned.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

k)  Discuss the importance of post-maintenance testing and the elements
    of an effective post-maintenance testing program.

Before returning equipment to service following maintenance, the
equipment should be tested to demonstrate that it is capable of
performing its intended function. This serves two purposes. The testing
should verify that the maintenance was performed correctly. It should
also prove that no problems were introduced as a result of the
maintenance activities.

The maintenance work control package or maintenance procedure should
specify the type and duration of post-maintenance testing required. For
some facilities, the specific requirements to prove operability of
safety-related systems are identified in the TSRs. An engineering
evaluation should determine whether additional testing or different
methods are required whenever the scope of work is changed, e.g., when
additional work is performed to correct a previously undisclosed problem
that is discovered during maintenance. All equipment functions that may
have been affected by the maintenance should be tested.

Operation of the equipment for testing should be performed by qualified
operations personnel in accordance with approved procedures. Maintenance
personnel should monitor the testing. The operations supervisor is
ultimately responsible for ensuring that the testing proves the
operability of the equipment.

Reference: DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear
Facilities, June 2001

l)  Review the results of post-maintenance testing activities and
    discuss the acceptance of post-maintenance testing.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

m)  Discuss the importance of maintaining a maintenance history.

A maintenance history and trending program should be maintained to
document data, provide historical information for maintenance planning,
and support maintenance and performance trending of facility systems and
components. The documentation of complete, detailed, and usable history
will be increasingly important as plant-life extension becomes an issue.
Trending should be directed toward identifying improvements for the
maintenance program and needed equipment modifications.

The maintenance history program should document SSC maintenance and
performance data as a basis for improving facility reliability. This
history should assist in ensuring that root causes of failures are
determined, corrected, and used in future work planning. This may be
accomplished by a thorough review and analysis of maintenance performed,
diagnostic monitoring data, and industry experience reports.

Reference: DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear
Facilities, June 2001

n)  Review a maintenance history file and discuss the potential
    implications of repeat maintenance items.

This is a performance-based competency. The qualifying official will
evaluate the completion of this competency.

o)  Explain the intent of a Maintenance Problem Analysis Program and
    discuss a maintenance problem where this program has been employed.

A problem analysis program is a system designed to help correct the
causes of equipment and human error problems. This may improve the
reliability of the site by decreasing the probability of recurrence.
Examples of proven and accepted techniques for analyzing for root cause
include the following:

-   Event and causal charts (system utilizing a block diagram to depict
    cause and effect)

-   Barrier analysis (questioning process used to determine what
    programmatic system or barrier may have prevented the problem)

-   Walk-through task analysis (step-by-step reenactment to determine
    the failure mode

-   Change analysis (looks at the problem from the standpoint of what
    was expected and what actually happened)

-   Interviews

An acceptable root cause should meet three criteria:

-   Its correction should prevent recurrence of the unplanned
    occurrence.

-   Its correction should be feasible.

-   Its correction should not adversely impact safety, reliability, or
    operational goals.

The most important aspect of an analysis program is to fix the problem
and not merely conduct an academic, analytical thought exercise.
Therefore, after the root cause has been determined, corrective actions
should be initiated to correct the deficiency and prevent recurrence.
Follow-up should be incorporated into the corrective action to ensure
the fit is appropriate and the problem does not recur.

Reference: DOE O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear
Facilities, June 2001

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**Electrical Systems**

**Qualification Standard**

**Reference Guide**

**[November 2006]{.smallcaps}**