**United States Department of Agriculture**

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Miscellaneous Publication No. \_\_\_\_

**Innovative Solutions to Human--Wildlife Conflicts**

National Wildlife Research Center Accomplishments, 2007

**United States Department of Agriculture**

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

**National Wildlife Research Center**

4101 LaPorte Ave.

Fort Collins, CO 80521--2154

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/nwrc

*Main telephone number*

\(970\) 266--6000

FAX: (970) 266--6032

*Information Services*

\(970\) 266--6015

FAX: (970) 266--6010

email: nwrc@usda.gov

*Animal Care*

\(970\) 266--6204

*Research Programs*

Agriculture and Resource Protection: (970) 266--6133

Invasive Species and Technology Development: (970) 266--6159

Wildlife Diseases: (970) 266--6133

NWRC Field Stations:

Bismarck, ND

\(701\) 250--4468

FAX: (701) 250--4408

Gainesville, FL

\(352\) 375--2229

FAX: (352) 377--5559

Hilo, HI

\(808\) 961--4482

FAX: (808) 961--4776

Kingsville, TX

\(361\) 593--2426

FAX: (361) 593--4311

Logan, UT

\(435\) 797--2505

FAX: (435) 797--0288

> Millville, UT, Office
>
> \(435\) 245--6091
>
> FAX: (435) 245--3156

Olympia, WA

\(360\) 956--3925

FAX: (360) 534--9755

Sandusky, OH

\(419\) 625--0242

FAX: (419) 625--8465

Starkville, MS

\(662\) 325--8215

FAX: (662) 325--8704

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in
all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national
origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status,
familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic
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individual's income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not
all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program information
(Braille, large print, audiotape, etc., should contact USDA's TARGET
Center at (202) 720--2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of
discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400
Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250--9410, or call (800)
795--3272 (voice) or (202) 720--6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.

Mention of companies or commercial products does not imply
recommendation or endorsement by USDA over others not mentioned. USDA
neither guarantees nor warrants the standard of any product mentioned.
Product names are mentioned solely to report factually on available data
and to provide specific information.

This publication reports research involving pesticides. All uses of
pesticides must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal
agencies before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals,
desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife if they are not handled or
applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow
recommended practices for disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide
containers.

Issued January 2008

**Contents**

**Introduction**

**Developing Methods**

Agriculture and Resource Protection Program

Wildlife Disease Research Program

Invasive Species and Technology Development Research Program

Registration Program Support

**Providing Wildlife Services**

National Support

International Cooperation

**Valuing and Investing in People**

2006 Publication Awards

Supporting Student Research

Staff Changes

**Information and Communication**

Information Services

Seminars

Meetings, Workshops, and Conference Presentations

Publications

**Introduction**

**National Wildlife Research Center**

The National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) is a world leader in
providing science-based solutions to complex issues of wildlife damage
management. As the research arm of the Wildlife Services (WS) program
within the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service, NWRC works with WS operational staff to
provide Federal leadership and expertise to resolve wildlife conflicts
related to agriculture, livestock, human health and safety (including
wildlife diseases), invasive species, and threatened and endangered
species. NWRC is committed to finding nonlethal solutions to reduce
wildlife damage to agricultural crops, aquaculture, and natural
resources. As part of WS' strategic plan to improve the coexistence of
people and wildlife, NWRC has identified four strategic program goals:
(1) developing methods, (2) providing wildlife services, (3) valuing and
investing in people, and (4) enhancing information and communication. WS
is dedicated to helping meet the wildlife-damage management needs of the
United States by building on NWRC's strengths in these four key areas.
This annual research highlights report is structured around these
program goals.

**Expertise**

NWRC employs more than 160 scientists, technicians, and support
personnel at its Fort Collins, CO, headquarters and at field stations in
several other States. NWRC scientists have expertise in a wide range of
disciplines, including animal behavior, wildlife biology, wildlife
sensory biology, epidemiology, chemistry, wildlife diseases, immunology,
reproductive physiology, statistics, toxicology, wildlife genetic
forensics, and veterinary medicine.

In August 2007, NWRC realigned its organizational structure and related
project-management system to better address WS program, agency, and
departmental priorities. This new project alignment permits NWRC to
continue to effectively address both the current and rapidly emerging
new priorities of APHIS, the WS program, and the Center in the area of
human--wildlife conflict mitigation.

Although agricultural and plant health are still highlighted in the
vision and goals of the new APHIS Strategic Plan for 2007--12, they also
encourage a stronger emphasis on invasive species; emerging wildlife
diseases, such as avian influenza; and emergency response. These APHIS
goals are consistent with USDA's 2005--10 Strategic Plan
priorities---particularly "Enhance Protection and Safety of the Nation's
Agricultural and Food Supply" and "Reduce the Number and Severity of
Agricultural Pests and Disease Outbreaks."

As a result of this new emphasis, the Center\'s current research
projects have been realigned under three new Research Programs:

**• Agriculture and Resource Protection---**Focuses on reducing wildlife
damage to crops, aquaculture facilities, and timber resources;
developing new repellants; reducing predation losses to livestock and
property damage; and examining the ecology, behavior, and management of
mammalian predators.

**• Invasive Species and Technology Development---**Develops methods for
reducing invasive species damage to native wildlife and ecosystems and
encompasses studies for pesticide registration, formulation chemistry,
chemical analysis, benefit--cost analysis, and wildlife contraceptive
development.

**• Wildlife Disease---**Explores ways to reduce the spread and
transmission of diseases from wildlife to humans and domestic animals;
develops disease diagnostic methods; develops methods and strategies to
monitor wildlife pathogens; provides risk assessments for agriculture
and human health and safety; and assists WS operations for surveillance
and monitoring efforts.

**Construction Update**

NWRC's 43--acre headquarters campus is located on Colorado State
University (CSU) land in Fort Collins, CO. During fiscal year 2007,
several planning and construction activities took place, related to
completing the Master Plan for the NWRC site.

**Invasive Species Research Building---**On December 6, 2006, WS
celebrated the opening of its new 25,000-ft^2^ Invasive Species Research
Building (ISRB). More than 100 people attended the opening ceremony,
including representatives from USDA, the builders (a Federal--private
sector partnership), and CSU.

The facility, built by the General Services Administration (GSA) and
Everitt/Keenan Associates (a private developer), expands upon NWRC's
existing capabilities to conduct wildlife research by providing a
state-of-the-art complex where invasive wildlife can be properly cared
for and studied. The ISRB also enhances NWRC's ability to study the
ecology, biology, behavior, and physiology of invasive wildlife species
and to develop management tools and strategies for mitigating their
damage and controlling their spread. The building is designed to
simulate temperature and humidity ranges from temperate to tropical
ecosystems. The flexibility of these environmental controls allows for
the year-round study of invasive wildlife species. Examples of invasive
species NWRC will study in the facility include nutria; Norway, roof,
and Gambian giant pouched rats; European starlings; brown treesnakes
(BTSs); nile monitors; Burmese pythons; and Caribbean tree frogs.

**Biosafety Level--3 Suite---**In early 2007, the Biosafety Level--3
(BSL--3) laboratory suite opened at the NWRC Fort Collins campus. The
new 2,500--ft^2^ suite, located in the existing Animal Research Building
(ARB), includes two large animal-research rooms, six smaller animal
rooms, a virology laboratory, and showers and autoclave rooms for
decontamination of staff and clothing. The suite contains four levels of
protection for the safety of the surrounding community and staff, as
well as air locks and separate HEPA (high-efficiency particulate
air)-filtered air ventilation systems.

NWRC\'s Master Plan includes the development of a larger Wildlife
Disease Research Building (WDRB). Until the completion of that building
in 2010, the smaller BSL--3 suite in the ARB provides an intermediate
solution to WS BSL-3 research needs. Wildlife disease biologists are
able to (1) study the ecology and epidemiology of endemic, emerging, and
foreign animal diseases in wildlife; (2) carry out research concerning
management of wildlife diseases impacting U.S. agriculture and human
health and safety; (3) determine species susceptibility to pathogens;
and (4) carry out vaccine efficacy and challenge studies. Anticipated
future animal and laboratory studies will be conducted using BSL--3
agents such as histoplasma; the viruses that cause Saint Louis
encephalitis, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), and Rift Valley
fever; and the bacterium that causes bovine tuberculosis (bTB).

**More Details on the Planned Wildlife Disease Research Building---**The
new 28,500-ft^2^ facility will greatly expand WS' ability to respond to
wildlife disease emergencies and resolve important disease issues that
involve livestock--wildlife and human--wildlife interactions.

To support both experimental and field investigations, a complete
laboratory infrastructure and animal testing capability will be included
in the new BSL--3 Ag research facility to provide support for
diagnostics methods development, vaccine development, risk assessments,
and wildlife-disease surveillance and monitoring activities. (The "Ag"
designation in the BSL--3 description of the WDRB indicates that each
animal room is being designed as primary containment for diseased
animals, meaning the animals can roam freely in the rooms.) Diagnostic
methods development will include rapid diagnostics for wildlife
diseases, such as avian influenza (AI), rabies, bTB, and West Nile
virus.

In addition, activities will focus on development of diagnostic and
screening assays for multiple diseases from single samples. The ability
to process large numbers of samples for multiple diseases in any
surveillance effort requires expanded capabilities for high-throughput
testing (robotic processing) of samples. It also requires controlled
biosafety environments for development and validation of multiplex
diagnostic methods for zoonotic and animal pathogens. ("Zoonotic" refers
to pathogens or diseases that are naturally transmitted between wildlife
species and humans.) The infrastructure of the new WDRB will include
diagnostic capabilities in the areas of mycology, virology, and
bacteriology.

The new BSL--3 Ag WDRB will expand NWRC's existing BSL--3 wildlife
disease research capabilities and increase opportunities for
collaborative research with CSU. The WDRB will include offices, a BSL--3
laboratory, BSL--3 Ag animal holding and testing quarters, and other
support spaces for wildlife disease-research purposes. Final design and
construction will take place in 2008 with a planned completion date of
2010.

**Developing Methods**

**Agriculture and Resource Protection Research Program**

**TITLE: Defining Economic Impacts and Developing Strategies for
Reducing Avian Predation in Aquaculture Systems**

**GOAL:** Develop an understanding of the economic impacts of damage
inflicted on aquaculture production systems by cormorants, pelicans,
wading birds, and waterfowl and develop tools and techniques for
reducing that damage.

In the past 30 years, populations of fish-eating birds have increased
dramatically and caused substantial economic impacts to aquaculture
production. Aquaculture industry costs associated with bird damage and
damage prevention are estimated to exceed \$25 million annually for
double-crested cormorants (DCCOs) alone. The goal of NWRC's research is
to determine the impact of fish-eating birds on aquaculture production
and natural resources and to develop methods to reduce depredations of
catfish, baitfish, and crawfish industries in the Southeast. Current
research is aimed at gaining information about the abundance,
distribution, and foraging behavior of fish-eating birds; the economic
impacts associated with their foraging activities; and the diseases they
transmit at aquaculture facilities. This information will help to
develop new techniques for reducing damage.

**NWRC Scientists Study the Reproductive Status of DCCOs in the Eastern
United States---**The recent abundance and foraging habits of DCCOs have
thrust this species into conflict with the aquaculture industry and
fisheries interests over both perceived and documented impacts to
natural and commercial resources. Consequently, resource managers are
aggressively employing control measures on DCCOs' breeding, migratory,
and wintering areas to alleviate damage. Unfortunately, the breeding
biology of cormorants is poorly understood, and without this basic
knowledge, scientists cannot accurately predict the effects of
management on cormorant populations nor attribute observed changes in
reproductive success and population size to management actions. To
better understand the breeding biology of cormorants, NWRC scientists
began a study in 2007 to determine their reproductive status in the
Northeastern, Midwestern, and Southern United States. This study will
allow researchers to determine the proportion of nonbreeding individuals
associated with breeding assemblages of cormorants and use this
knowledge to improve population estimates of cormorants across the
breeding range.

**The Role of American White Pelicans in the Life Cycle and Spread of
the Bolbophorus Catfish Trematode---**The bolbophorus catfish trematode
*(Bolbophorus damnificus)* is associated with high mortality rates in
catfish fingerlings and the formation of cysts in the fillets of mature
catfish. NWRC scientists collaborated with parasitologists from the
Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine to determine
the role American white pelicans play in the life cycle and spread of
*B. damnificus* in catfish. NWRC scientists confirmed the life cycle of
this trematode and compared it to the known life cycle of a similar
species. The research provided further evidence that *B. damnificus* is
a distinct species and the causative agent for trematode-associated
deaths in catfish. The research also showed that the American white
pelican is the definitive avian host.

Additional studies were conducted to identify other potential
intermediate hosts for the infectious trematode. Results confirmed that
the *Planorbella trivolvis* (a freshwater snail) population native to
the Mississippi Delta is a first intermediate host for *B. damnificus.*
The studies also demonstrated that the *P. trivolvis* population found
in North Dakota may also serve as intermediate hosts. Populations of
these snails are present in both the breeding and wintering ranges of
the American white pelican and are susceptible to *B. damnificus*
infection, which may serve to perpetuate the *B. damnificus* life cycle
in the North-Central United States.

**Cormorant Movement Patterns Identified---**NWRC scientists attached
satellite telemetry transmitters to DCCOs captured at roosts near
aquaculture facilities in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi
to develop a better understanding of the winter and summer movements of
cormorants using aquaculture farms in the Southeastern United States.
The winter home ranges for all cormorants averaged 37,384 km^2^, with
3,467 km^2^ in the core use area. In summer, cormorants occupy a smaller
territory---29,300 km^2^ on average---and 2,889 km^2^ in the core use
area. There were no differences in the ranges of adult *v.* immature
birds or between capture regions (e.g., the Mississippi River flood
plain of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi or eastern Mississippi and
western Alabama).

This study verified that cormorants using aquaculture facilities in the
Southeast are from the same population as those that are thought to
impact natural resources in the Great Lakes region. Data from this study
may be used to Number range CHAPTERprovide information necessary for
regional and/or flyway-based DCCO population management strategies.

**Scope of Cormorant Damage to Mississippi Catfish Production---**The
U.S. catfish industry is valued at more than \$650 million, with nearly
65 percent of catfish production originating from Mississippi.
Biologists at NWRC's Mississippi field station completed a study that
evaluates the distribution and numbers of DCCOs on catfish aquaculture
facilities, tying together almost a decade of research on cormorant food
habits, bioenergetics, and abundance data.

A significant finding is that most depredation occurs on food-fish
production ponds, where economic losses are high. Study results
demonstrate that cormorants used these ponds extensively during January
through April, with the greatest economic damage occurring in February
and March. During the years of this study (winter 2000--01 and
2003--04), an estimated 1,775 and 1,347 metric tons of catfish were
consumed by cormorants in the delta region of Mississippi. This
depredation translated into a loss to the industry of \$10.3 million to
\$13.2 million annually.

Future studies will aim to develop efficient methods for monitoring
cormorant abundance and distribution for purposes of damage estimation
and cormorant management.

**Development of New Aging Techniques for Birds---**With collaborators
at West Virginia University, NWRC scientists have found pentosidine
concentrations in the skin of DCCOs to be a linear predictor of age.
This information may lead to a rapid, more cost-effective technique for
identifying the age of cormorants and many other species of birds.
Pentosidine concentration analysis will provide scientists a better
understanding of the demographics of cormorants that are impacting
catfish production in the Southeast. In addition, NWRC scientists are
developing aging techniques for other bird species of concern, including
monk parakeets and black vultures.

**Cormorant Distribution and Abundance on Catfish Ponds in the Delta
Region of Mississippi---**Biologists evaluated the efficiency of aerial
and ground surveys conducted twice monthly for detecting changes in
cormorant abundance on aquaculture facilities. Results showed that the
sampling effort would need to be increased by approximately 40 percent
in order to meet the desired level of detection (a 15-percent change in
population levels). Habitat modeling efforts evaluated the factors that
affect cormorant use of catfish facilities. Results suggest that
cormorants are most likely to be present at food-fish ponds *v.*
fingerling and broodfish ponds. Additionally, bird use of catfish pond
clusters was related to season of the year, distance of ponds from
cormorant roosts, distance from roads, and the number of cormorants in
nearby roosts.

**Response of DCCOs to Management Activities on the Breeding Grounds in
the Les Cheneaux Islands of Lake Huron, Michigan---**Scientists from
NWRC's Mississippi field station collaborated with the WS Operational
Program in Michigan and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources to
use DCCO management as a means of improving the local yellow-perch
fishery. Several studies addressed different aspects of the damage
attributed to cormorants or the management approach for dealing with the
damage.

Management efforts resulted in more than a 90-percent reduction in the
number of young cormorants produced annually and more than a 60-percent
reduction in cormorant numbers overall. Research results indicate that
cormorants from the colonies in question are feeding extensively in the
specific areas where perch populations have declined, and that perch
numbers following the first 3 years of management have improved.

**TITLE: New Technologies To Deter Wildlife Away From Airports and
Aircraft**

GOAL: Develop and evaluate methods and technologies for reducing the
risks of wildlife strikes to civil aviation and provide scientifically
valid methods and techniques to be used on airfields to manage hazardous
wildlife.

In order to be certified for commercial passenger traffic by the U.S.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), many U.S. airports are required
to develop and implement a wildlife hazard-management plan. The FAA
strongly discourages any management practice that might increase
wildlife in the vicinity of an airport. NWRC's research is focused on
understanding the nature of wildlife hazards at airports, developing
management tools to reduce those hazards, and providing WS and airport
personnel with information on the latest strategies for controlling
wildlife hazards.

**Validation of Avian Radar To Detect and Track Birds---**In a
multiagency effort, researchers from NWRC's Ohio field station, WS
Operations, the FAA, the U.S. Department of the Navy, academia, and
industry joined together to validate the ability of digital avian radar
systems to accurately detect and track birds hazardous to aviation on
three U.S. military airfields. Their results confirm that these new
radar systems provide an accurate and valuable tool to monitor bird
movements on and near airfields. Knowledge of avian movements allows
biologists to alter environmental attractants that bring birds into the
proximity of aircraft. A second objective of the research is to develop
an integrated representation of networked radar systems. This effort
will allow wildlife biologists to view a composite representation of
multiple radar systems positioned at various locations on an airfield,
rather than viewing the individual displays of each radar.

**Assessing Potential Risks That Ospreys Pose for Bird--Aircraft
Strikes---**Osprey populations in North America have shown a dramatic
recovery in the past decade, with breeding populations continuing to
expand along the Atlantic coast. From 1973 to 1996, the Chesapeake Bay
population increased from 1,400 breeding pairs to more than 3,500. These
factors suggest that ospreys can be a serious safety and economic
concern to military flight operations. A multiagency research project
was initiated in 2006 to quantify the risk of osprey--military aircraft
collisions. Risk levels were derived from satellite tracking of breeding
and migratory movements of ospreys in relation to military flight
operations in the mid-Atlantic Chesapeake Bay region. NWRC scientists
captured and attached global positioning system (GPS) satellite
telemetry transmitters to six adult ospreys on their nesting territories
near Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. Satellite-tagged ospreys were
monitored daily during the breeding (summer), fall migration, and
wintering periods of 2006. Intensive monitoring of the birds during the
breeding season suggested that adult ospreys are active (i.e., flying)
about the same amount of time during daylight hours.

Four ospreys completed their fall migration to their wintering grounds
in the Caribbean or South America, traveling an average distance of
4,828 km; contact with the other two ospreys was lost during migration
over open ocean. All six adult ospreys traveled similar migration routes
along the eastern coast of the United States. Females began their fall
migrations in August; males departed in September. Adults migrated
during daylight hours and roosted at night. Migratory routes and flight
characteristics (e.g., altitude) of ospreys will be evaluated to assess
the risk that migrating ospreys pose to military aircraft operations
along the eastern seaboard.

During May 2007, an additional seven adult ospreys were fitted with
satellite telemetry transmitters near Langley Air Force Base.
Information obtained from this study will be used to measure the
effectiveness of osprey management practices, develop long-term risk
management strategies, and support legal requirements that would allow
ospreys and military aircraft to coexist in a safer flying environment.

**Movements of Resident Canada Geese in New York City---**Canada geese
are one of the most hazardous species to aviation because of their large
body size and flocking behavior. Among all birds responsible for
economic losses to the aviation industry in North America between 1990
and 2005, Canada geese caused the most damage. In a collaborative effort
with the WS program in New York and the FAA, NWRC scientists fitted 200
Canada geese with neck collars in New York City parks near John F.
Kennedy International Airport (JFKIA). The movements of these geese are
being monitored and recorded to determine how far and in which
directions they travel from their banding sites.

Knowledge of goose movements will allow airport biologists to make more
efficient use of time and money to control geese that might threaten
safety of aircraft in the New York City area. An added benefit of the
study is that, by understanding movement patterns of geese, biologists
can avoid harassing geese in a manner that creates a safety hazard.
During the molt (June--July), more than half of the geese were resighted
in the parks where they were banded. Since they were banded and fitted
with neck-collars, the geese have been sighted in four Northeastern
States and at JFKIA. In addition, several of the geese are known to have
been shot by hunters during the hunting season. The appearance of
neck-collared geese at JFKIA indicates that the geese in at least some
of the New York City parks frequent the airport.

**Enhancing the Perceived Threat of Vehicle Approach to Deer---**In
North America and Europe, the cost of deer--vehicle collisions exceeds
\$1 billion in association with human injury and property damage, as
well as injury and death to the animals involved. Given that the
majority of such collisions occur during the twilight hours of dawn and
dusk, scientists at the NWRC Ohio field station investigated whether the
perceived threat to deer posed by vehicle approach could be enhanced.
The investigators hypothesized that a vehicle-based lighting system that
produces an emission spectrum covering peak visual capabilities of deer,
as well as being brighter than standard tungsten--halogen (TH) lighting
alone, would elicit a greater flight-initiation distance (FID) by
free-ranging white-tailed deer.

The lighting system comprised two TH lamps and a single Xenarc
high-intensity discharge (HID) lamp. Deer exposed to the combination of
TH lamps and constant illumination of the HID lamp exhibited the
greatest mean FID of 136 m (446 ft). In contrast, deer exposed to only
TH lamps initiated flight on average at 116 m (380 ft), and those
exposed to the combination of TH lamps and the HID lamp exhibited a mean
FID of 89 m (292 ft). The combination of TH lamps and constant
illumination of the HID lamp contributed significantly to the
probability of a FID ≥ 94 m (308 ft).

Given the results, scientists concluded that vehicle-based lighting is
the main object of a deer's focus, not necessarily the vehicle itself.
Therefore, vehicle-based lighting can be designed to enhance the
perceived threat to deer posed by an approaching vehicle and yield
greater FIDs.

**TITLE: Evaluation of Wildlife Food Plots, Repellants, and DRC--1339
"Take Models" for the Management of Blackbirds and Starlings in
Sunflower Fields, Feedlots, and Dairies**

**GOAL:** Develop new and scientifically valid methods to reduce
blackbird and starling damage to ripening sunflower crops, feedlots, and
dairies.

**Starling Take Model---**DRC--1339 is a selective and effective avicide
for reducing troublesome populations of blackbirds, starlings, pigeons,
and other species of birds. However, the lack of standardized and
reliable techniques to estimate mortality during baiting operations is a
major concern of WS. Such estimates are needed to satisfy requirements
of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the Government
Performance and Results Act.

NWRC scientists developed a bioenergetics model in 2007 that estimates
bait consumption and mortality based on daily energy requirements of
birds and species-specific toxicity of DRC--1339. The model was
constructed for starlings and CU Bird Carrier (fat pellets) baits
diluted 5:1 (untreated:treated), but it can be modified for use with
other species, baits, and dilutions. The model is a user-friendly,
Excel™ program that provides a bioenergetically based method of
estimating mortality during DRC--1339 baiting operations.

**Blackbird Repellants---**NWRC scientists evaluated the repellancy of
caffeine and garlic oil for reducing depredations by blackbirds on
intact sunflower heads. Damage was significantly reduced on heads
treated with caffeine (compared to untreated heads), but not on heads
treated with garlic. Average consumption of sunflower by blackbirds was
less for the caffeine-treated heads (2,826 μg/mL) than for those treated
with garlic oil (0.02 g/mL). Overall, mean consumption (cm^2^ of seeds
per bird) was significantly less for the birds fed 3 mL (4,747 μg/mL) of
caffeine per head than for birds fed 2 mL (2,212 μg/mL) of caffeine per
head.

Garlic oil had no apparent effect on sunflower consumption. In the tests
conducted in 2005, when the entire seeds were coated with garlic oil at
2 percent, 1 percent, and 0.5 percent by weight, feeding was reduced 80
percent, 40 percent, and 22 percent, respectively, compared to
consumption of untreated sunflower heads. This suggests that treating
only the exposed portion of the seeds with garlic oil---as was done in
the 2007 experiments---is not sufficient to deter feeding, particularly
when the birds do not have access to alternate foods.

Additional studies are needed to determine whether free-ranging birds
are deterred by low levels of garlic oil when alternative foods are
available. During September 2006, three treatments of a water--caffeine
solution applied by helicopter to sunflower did not provide a sufficient
amount of repellant to the drooping seed heads. This study adds to the
growing body of evidence indicating that caffeine can reduce feeding by
blackbirds, *provided* that birds encounter the repellant. However,
additional research is needed to develop methods of applying adequate
spray coverage on developing seeds in ripening sunflower fields.

**TITLE: Development of Repellants and Other Techniques for Managing
Blackbird Depredations to Rice**

**GOAL:** Develop a blackbird repellant for rice, improve the
effectiveness of DRC--1339 for managing blackbird populations, determine
local and regional movement patterns of blackbirds, and develop new or
improved management strategies for reducing blackbird damage to rice.

Red-winged blackbirds, common grackles, and brown-headed cowbirds cause
an estimated \$11.5 million worth of damage to newly planted and
ripening rice in Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas
every year. Some individual growers report 100-percent losses due to
bird depredation. NWRC scientists routinely work with rice producers,
rice commodity groups, rice research boards, universities, and local,
State, and Federal agencies to develop safer and more effective methods
to reduce bird depredation on seeded and ripening rice and improve
profitability for growers.

To develop new methods and tools, Center scientists conduct multifaceted
research studies involving the use of both captive and free-ranging
birds. These studies will determine the status of blackbird populations
in the southern rice-growing States, estimate the economic impacts of
birds on the rice crop, evaluate and develop nonlethal repellants for
deterring birds, and improve the effectiveness and safety of avicides
for reducing depredating populations.

**Potential Blackbird Repellants for Rice---**Tests were conducted at
the NWRC outdoor animal facility in Fort Collins, CO, to identify
potential nonlethal repellants for reducing bird depredation on newly
planted rice seed and ripening rice. Based on a series of feeding trials
with captive red-winged blackbirds, Tilt® and caffeine were identified
as two promising repellants.

NWRC scientists, in cooperation with researchers at the University of
Missouri Delta Center, Southeast Missouri State University, and Missouri
WS, conducted controlled tests in large netted enclosures to evaluate
the effectiveness of Tilt and caffeine as repellants for red-winged
blackbirds in ripening rice fields. During these field trials, Tilt did
not result in any differences in damage between the treated and
untreated plots, probably because chemical residues of the repellant
were far below the repellancy threshold. For caffeine, damage was
slightly less (although not at statistically significant levels) at the
conclusion of the test in treated plots than in untreated plots.
Chemical analysis of the spray formulation indicated 2.67 percent
caffeine. Caffeine residues on rice panicles immediately following the
spray application averaged 407 μg/g and at the conclusion of the test
(24 days after spray application) averaged 195 μg/g. The insignificant
difference in repellancy between treated and untreated plots for both
repellants could have been due either to low residue levels of the
repellants on the rice panicles and/or to increased feeding pressure due
to the high number of birds in each enclosure, thus overwhelming the
treatment.

**Chromaflair® "Crow Buster" Ineffective at Dispersing American Crows
and Red-Winged Blackbirds---**NWRC scientists evaluated the ChromaFlair
Crow Buster, a device developed in Japan to repel Asian crows from
garbage cans, fruit trees, and utility structures. The Crow Buster
consists of an iridescent green-purple strip (1.5--3.5 cm wide) of
stiff, shiny plastic cut into a spiral shape.

Scientists estimated the influence of the Crow Buster on the foraging
distribution of red-winged blackbirds and American crows in the NWRC
outdoor flight pen in Fort Collins. During the study, scientists
monitored daily food consumption from feed dishes placed 5 m, 10 m, or
15 m from a vertical post used to suspend the Crow Buster.

The Crow Buster had no apparent effect on the foraging distribution of
blackbirds. American crows were repelled only during the first day of
the test, and even then only up to 10 m from the suspended device.
Results show the Crow Buster is not likely to be effective at repelling
red-winged blackbirds and American crows under field conditions, where
most applications would require efficacy for at least several days and
at distances greater than 10 m.

**Viability and Potential Distribution of Crop Seeds Ingested by
Birds---**The expansion of genetically modified pharmaceutical and
industrial crops to outdoor plantings has generated concerns that birds
may ingest and disperse seeds from these crops to other areas,
potentially resulting in the contamination of the human food supply.
NWRC scientists, in cooperation with APHIS' Biotechnology Regulatory
Services, conducted studies to determine digestion and physical
transport of commercial agriculture seed corn, barley, safflower, and
rice by captive mallards, ring-necked pheasants, red-winged blackbirds,
and rock pigeons.

Corn, barley, safflower, and rice seeds that were either free fed or
orally force-fed did not pass through the digestive tracts of mallards,
pheasants, blackbirds, or pigeons. However, birds retained viable seeds
in their esophagus, crop, and gizzard. For instance, mallards and
ring-necked pheasants retained 228 and 192 barley seeds, respectively,
in their esophagus/crop after foraging for 6 hours. Of the seeds
recovered from the esophagus/crop of these two species, respectively, 93
percent and 50 percent subsequently germinated.

Birds transported seeds away from the feeding site, but there were only
five instances of seeds attaching to the feet or legs of birds. The risk
of corn, barley, safflower, or rice germinating offsite when transported
by a bird either internally or externally will depend on environmental
conditions, soil types, temperature, timing, seed quality, and location.
Isolating planting locations away from commercial agricultural crops and
migrating birds would reduce the probability of seeds' being transported
and germinating in similar sites.

More research is needed to (1) determine the extent of seed removal by
birds from experimental pharmaceutical and industrial crops sites, (2)
determine germination rates of seeds recovered from birds after a
year-long exposure to environmental conditions, (3) identify the species
of birds most likely to visit experimental pharmaceutical and industrial
crops sites, and (4) develop a risk model for pharmaceutical and
industrial seeds transported and germinated offsite.

**TITLE: Defining Impacts and Developing Strategies To Reduce Mammalian
Damage in Forested and Riparian Ecosystems**

**GOAL:** Develop an understanding of the economic and ecological
impacts of damage inflicted on forested and riparian systems by
herbivorous and omnivorous mammals and develop tools and techniques for
reducing that damage.

Damage to timber resources by wildlife occurs in a variety of
environments, ranging from bottomland hardwood forests to upland conifer
farms. Wildlife impacts on forest resources can be extensive. For
example, attempts to replace trees after a harvest or a fire can be
compromised because of foraging wildlife. Reforestation efforts are
greatly hindered by bears, beavers, deer, elk, mice, mountain beavers,
pocket gophers, porcupines, and voles cutting and gnawing on seedlings.
Some of the same species that damage seedlings also damage and destroy
established trees after canopy closure.

Developing nonlethal methods to manage wildlife damage is a priority in
the ongoing research conducted at NWRC's Olympia, WA, field station.
Scientists are conducting research to develop alternatives to lethal
control, including physical deterrents, repellants, frightening devices,
habitat and behavior modification, and improved capture methods.

**NWRC Scientists Develop Integrated Approach for Managing Mountain
Beavers---**Trapping is currently the most common and effective method
employed for controlling mountain beaver damage. However, research
conducted by scientists at the NWRC Olympia field station demonstrated
that the effects are short lived. Mountain beavers often reinvade newly
harvested units in just a few weeks and are, therefore, present when new
seedlings are most vulnerable to damage. Scientists at the field station
have also conducted research to develop a baiting strategy for reducing
seedling damage by mountain beavers in reforested areas.

The results demonstrated that using an integrated pest management (IPM)
system of trapping and baiting with chlorophacinone, a rodenticide, may
allow for additional seedling protection between trapping and the
emergence of herbaceous vegetation, thus decreasing long-term costs of
retrapping and replanting. Based on these results, the Washington and
Oregon State departments of agriculture approved Special Local Need
registrations for use of Rozol™ Pellets (active ingredient
chlorophacinone) to control mountain beavers in forested lands west of
the Cascade Crest.

**Using Natural Tree Chemistry To Prevent Browsing by
Ruminants---**Browsing by deer and elk can cause significant ecological
and economic impacts. Research has shown that area repellants are not
effective at reducing deer/elk browsing and that exclusion devices
(e.g., fences) are generally cost prohibitive. Thus, new, nonlethal
approaches need to be identified.

Working in collaboration with the British Columbia Ministry of Forests,
NWRC scientists studied deer diet selection by offering captive deer
cloned copies of western redcedar seedlings of known monoterpene
content. (Monoterpenes are a type of terpene or hydrocarbon produced by
conifers and are a major component of resin. They are used by plants to
deter herbivory.)

Results demonstrated that black-tailed deer made foraging decisions
based on the monoterpene content of the seedlings. Because monoterpene
content is a highly heritable trait, it is possible to breed seedlings
with elevated monoterpene levels and thus potentially reduce deer/elk
browsing in certain areas.

**TITLE: Documenting Impacts, Developing Control Strategies, and
Applying Knowledge of Predator Behavior and Demographics To Protect
Livestock and Natural Resources**

**GOAL:** Improve current knowledge of predator ecology, physiology, and
behavior relative to depredations on species of human concern; assess
predator responses to management practices; and develop control
approaches that effectively target alpha coyotes.

Data on predator population dynamics, ecology, and behavior are
necessary to understand predation patterns on livestock, game species,
and threatened and endangered species. These data are also needed for
effective depredation management, but significant gaps of knowledge
exist with regard to predator--prey, predator--livestock, and
predator--predator relationships.

NWRC scientists use a multidisciplinary approach to study interactions
among predators and the impact of predators and predator removal on
ecosystems and wildlife population dynamics. Results from these studies
are fundamental to selective predator management, as well as to
providing necessary information in the NEPA process.

**Interactions Among Wolves, Coyotes, and Pronghorn Antelope: Does Wolf
Recovery Help Pronghorns?---**High coyote predation rates on pronghorn
fawns are common throughout the Western United States. Scientists at the
NWRC Logan, UT, field station used a natural experiment created by wolf
recolonization in the southern Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem to evaluate
whether wolf recovery would decrease the abundance of coyotes and
subsequently increase pronghorn fawn survival due to reduced coyote
predation.

Results from a 3-year study involving spatial contrasts of wolf
densities, coyote densities, and pronghorn fawn survival at control
(wolf-free) and experimental (wolf-abundant) sites provided strong
evidence of wolves' decreasing coyote numbers and increasing fawn
survival. The scientists documented a more than fivefold increase in
pronghorn fawn survival at sites used by wolves during summer and a
nearly sixfold increase in fawn survival at sites used by wolves year
'round. Results indicated a negative relationship between coyote and
wolf densities, suggesting that interspecific competition facilitated
the increase in observed fawn survival. Whereas densities of resident
coyotes were similar between control and experimental sites, the
abundance of transient coyotes was markedly lower in areas used by
wolves. Thus, differential effects of wolves on solitary coyotes may be
an important mechanism by which wolves limit coyote populations.

These results suggest that widespread extirpation of wolves may
contribute to high rates of coyote predation on pronghorn fawns. The
results also support a growing body of evidence demonstrating the
importance of top carnivores' influencing smaller predators and their
prey in structuring the dynamics of terrestrial systems.

**Effects of Coyote Population Reduction on Swift-Fox Demographics in
Southeastern Colorado---**The distribution and abundance of swift foxes
have declined from historic levels. Causes for the decline include
habitat loss and fragmentation, incidental poisoning, changing land-use
practices, trapping, and predation by other carnivores. Coyotes overlap
the geographic distribution of swift foxes, compete for similar
resources, and are a significant source of mortality for swift-fox
populations. Current swift-fox conservation and management plans to
bolster declining or recovering fox populations may include coyote
population reduction to decrease predation. However, the role of coyote
predation in swift-fox population dynamics is not well understood.

To better understand the interactions of swift foxes and coyotes,
scientists at the NWRC Logan, UT, field station compared swift-fox
population demographics (survival rates, dispersal rates, reproduction,
density) between areas with and without coyote population reduction. On
the Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site in Colorado, NWRC scientists monitored
141 swift foxes for 65,226 radio-days from 1998 to 2000 with 18,035
total telemetry locations collected. In areas where coyotes were
removed, the juvenile swift-fox survival rate increased and survival was
temporarily prolonged. Survival patterns for adult foxes also were
altered by coyote removal, but only following late-summer coyote
removals, and again only temporarily. Coyote predation remained the main
cause of juvenile and adult swift-fox mortality in both areas.

The increase in juvenile fox survival in the coyote removal area
resulted in a compensatory increase in the juvenile dispersal rate and
an earlier pulse in dispersal movements. The adult-fox dispersal rate
was more consistent throughout the year in the coyote removal area.
Coyote removal did not influence the reproductive parameters of the
swift foxes. Even though juvenile survival increased, swift-fox density
remained similar between the areas due to the compensatory dispersal
rate among juvenile foxes. NWRC scientists concluded that the swift-fox
population in the area was saturated because all suitable habitat was
being used by foxes.

**TITLE: Improved Technologies and Nonlethal Techniques for Managing
Predation**

**GOAL:** Identify, develop, and evaluate improved technologies and
tools, especially nonlethal methods for managing predation.

Livestock predation costs U.S. producers approximately \$93 million each
year. Developing acceptable and effective predator-management tools to
reduce these livestock losses is a high priority for WS. Concerns for
public health and safety, as well as animal welfare, put wildlife
managers under pressure to seek immediate solutions when predators cause
conflicts. Research conducted by scientists at NWRC's Utah field station
is focused on finding alternative, nonlethal tools and techniques to
prevent predatory behavior through the use of disruptive (frightening)
and aversive (behaviorally conditioning) stimuli. In addition, NWRC
researchers are developing improved methods for capturing predators and
monitoring their behaviors and movements.

**Electrified Fladry as a New Approach for Protecting Livestock From
Wolves---**Scientists at the NWRC Utah field station conducted an
experiment to test the effectiveness of electrified fladry for
protecting food resources from 10 captive wolf groups (n = 36, range =
2--7 wolves/group). (Fladry is simply a line of flags hung along the
perimeter of a pasture.) In this study, researchers combine an animal\'s
fear of a novel stimulus (flags) with conditioning from an unpleasant
electric shock.

An electrified fladry system (turbo-fladry) was used to partition an
18.6-m^2^ area of wolves' pens and prevent access to food. A fresh
carcass was available in the protected area for 5 days. On the sixth and
seventh days, wolves were given a fresh carcass in the unprotected area
in addition to having a carcass in the protected area. Trials continued
for 2 weeks, or until the barrier failed (i.e., all wolves moved freely
to the protected food resource).

Tracks and signs of scratching in front of the turbo-fladry indicated a
high frequency of investigation without learning to cross the barrier.
Several wolves that investigated the turbo-fladry barrier either bit or
touched the electric wire with their nose and quickly retreated. Eighty
percent of the wolves never crossed the turbo-fladry barriers during the
2-week trials.

Because of the promising preliminary results, NWRC scientists have
expanded the research and currently are examining the effectiveness and
ease of use of electrified fladry in pastures in Montana.

**Trap Monitors for WS Operational Personnel---**Public interest in
capture devices and potential injuries to animals has resulted in
changes in trapping regulations in various States and countries. In this
country, some States have altered regulations to require that traps be
checked every 24 hours. Such a reduction of trap-check intervals could
seriously impact WS Operations and reduce their ability to provide
timely and efficient services over wide areas. The capability to monitor
traps remotely would enable WS specialists to respond to stakeholder
requests and monitor traps more effectively.

Working in collaboration with WS biologists in several States,
scientists at the NWRC Logan field station evaluated several types of
trap monitors to alert wildlife specialists when an animal is captured
in a trap. The devices, which can be used with any type of trap, consist
of small radio transmitters that emit unique pulse rates when an animal
is captured. WS personnel tested the device using conibear, foothold,
and cage traps, as well as foot snares and bait stations. Species
studied included coyote, black bear, mountain lion, wolf, feral pig, and
beaver.

Results indicated that trap monitors, when used in appropriate
situations, can save WS specialists time and resources. Furthermore,
trap monitors allowed specialists to prioritize visual inspection of
trap sites, to reduce the amount of disturbance at the sites, and to
more easily find equipment and animals.

**Wildlife Disease Research Program**

**TITLE: Controlling Wildlife Vectors of Bovine Tuberculosis**

**GOAL:** Study the ecology of tuberculosis in wildlife; assess the risk
of disease transmission among wildlife, domestic animals, and humans;
and develop methods that reduce or eliminate such transmission.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a contagious disease affecting wildlife,
livestock, and humans caused by the bacterium *Mycobacterium bovis*. The
disease is transmitted through direct contact, inhalation of aerosolized
bacilli, or indirect contact via shared feed. Although once common in
the United States in cattle, bTB has been historically rare in wildlife.
However, since 1994, cases of bTB have been found in Michigan
white-tailed deer; and research indicates that the disease is
transmitted from deer to other wildlife and cattle by shared feed.

The presence of a wildlife reservoir for bTB has implications for
Michigan's livestock industry. Since 1997, cattle on 40 farms and 527
wild white-tailed deer have tested positive for bTB. The situation is
exacerbated by the sharing of feed and resources between wild deer and
domestic cattle, and most cattle farms have only limited fencing and
other techniques suitable for preventing deer access.

**Evaluation of Potential Shedding of *M. bovis* by Experimentally
Infected Coyotes---**In cooperation with CSU's departments of Biomedical
Sciences and Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, NWRC scientists
are evaluating the potential shedding of *Mycobacterium bovis* by
coyotes. *M. bovis* causes bTB in domestic cattle and other animals. In
some areas of Michigan, the prevalence of bTB infection in coyotes has
been as high as 33 percent.

In BSL--3 facilities at CSU, four coyotes were inoculated with *M.
bovis* isolates in order to identify whether coyotes are a potential
transmission source for bTB. Oral swabs, nasal swabs, feces, and blood
samples were taken every 2 weeks. In addition, coyote feces were mixed
in the bedding litter of guinea pigs to determine if the feces contained
enough viable organisms to infect the guinea pigs.

Preliminary culture results for coyotes have been negative for bTB, and
no negative effects were observed in the guinea pigs. Information from
this study will be used for APHIS' National Bovine Tuberculosis
Eradication Program in the United States.

**Using Coyotes as a Sentinel Species To Detect the Presence of bTB in
Michigan---**Between 12 and 33 percent of coyotes in the bTB-affected
area in Michigan are positive for bTB. If they shed *M. bovis*, coyotes
could be an important source of infection for cattle. In this field
study, NWRC scientists are determining if coyotes are shedding *M.
bovis.* Another objective is to determine whether the prevalence of bTB
in coyotes in Michigan has changed from past years.

Researchers caught and euthanized 46 coyotes from 1 deer-infected county
and performed necropsies on the animals. Nearly 160 carcasses remain to
be sampled over the next 18 months. To date, seven coyotes have been
found positive for bTB. Preliminary results from one county in Michigan
show that bTB prevalence has not changed in the past 2 years and remains
near 30 percent.

**Evaluating Risk Factors Associated With Transmission of bTB From
White-Tailed Deer to Cattle---**In 2007, NWRC researchers began a study
to evaluate risk factors associated with the transmission of bTB from
white-tailed deer to cattle.

Eighteen adult deer were trapped and collared in bTB outbreak areas in
the northeastern lower peninsula of Michigan from January through March
2007 with traps provided by Minnesota and Michigan departments of
natural resources. Deer movements in relation to farming practices,
feeding areas, barns, outbuildings, feed storage areas, water sources,
etc., are currently being monitored.

Data from this study will aid in the development of new methods to
decrease potential interaction between cattle and wild deer. Such
measures may include moderate changes to livestock management and/or
feeding practices and increased exclusionary techniques, such as
additional fencing. Reducing the interaction between wild deer and
domestic cattle via shared feed and other resources may be a key
component in eliminating the transmission of bTB from deer to cattle.

**TITLE: Evaluation and Management of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD)
Transmission**

**GOAL:** Assess the potential for CWD transmission at the interface
between wild and domestic cervids and develop methods to reduce
transmission and spread.

The spread of CWD in wild and captive cervids is of great concern for
the health of these species. While CWD infects elk, white-tailed deer,
mule deer, and moose, it is not known to infect other species of
wildlife naturally (including predators and scavengers). Nor does it
infect livestock or humans. There is no treatment for CWD, and it is
typically fatal in cervids. Realized and perceived threats of CWD have
immense implications for Federal and State wildlife-management agencies,
domestic cervid farmers, hunters, and businesses and economies reliant
on deer and elk. As a consequence, more and better tools and techniques
are needed to reduce the transmission, prevalence, and persistence of
CWD in wild and captive cervids.

**Automated Species Recognition System for Controlling Animal Access to
Resources---**Automated, species‑specific access by animals to resources
could be a powerful tool in wildlife disease management. Efficiency of
delivering vaccines, pharmaceuticals, contraceptives, or toxins could be
enhanced if target species were allowed access to treated baits but
nontarget species were excluded. Researchers at the National Centre for
Engineering in Agriculture at the University of Southern Queensland, the
School of Animal Studies at the University of Queensland, and RPM
Livestock in Australia have developed a prototype of a computerized
video monitoring system to control gated access to resources enclosed
within fenced areas automatically. NWRC researchers have initiated a
collaborative study with these organizations to acquire video imagery of
domestic and wildlife species required to adapt and test the prototype
system for use in North America. Primary efforts have focused on cervids
susceptible to CWD and on other domestic and wildlife species similar in
body type to cervids that may "confuse" the computer system.

NWRC scientists acquired the prototype camera system and species
recognition software in 2007 and have fabricated a filming lane similar
to that used by Australian researchers. The filming lane is designed to
encourage single-file passage of large animals to facilitate the clear
lateral imagery required for species identification. To date (October
2007), the trial has resulted in high-quality imagery of 15 elk, 13 mule
deer, and 15 white-tailed deer. The trials continued throughout 2007 so
that scientists can evaluate the accuracy of the species recognition
software and its potential uses.

**CWD Vaccine---**NWRC research into a CWD vaccine continues to move
forward along several fronts. An experimental vaccine trial in the
widely used RML mouse scrapie model system yielded two promising
candidates for further study. Currently, the two CWD vaccine candidates
have been resynthesized, formulated, and used to vaccinate mule deer,
making this the first known application of a CWD vaccine in the target
species. This pivotal CWD vaccine study is a model of cooperation
between State and Federal agencies. With guidance from USDA--APHIS'
Veterinary Services, collaboration with the Colorado Division of
Wildlife and CSU, and support from WS, scientists have already
accumulated important efficacy data on the CWD vaccine.

Currently, prime and booster injections of the vaccine have been
administered to mule deer housed at CSU's Animal Population Health
Institute paddocks, a CWD-free environment. The experimental animals
were subsequently transferred to the Colorado Division of Wildlife's
CWD-infected paddocks at the Foothills Wildlife Research Facility in
Fort Collins.

Preliminary results show that the mule deer are producing good antibody
titers to peptides 4 and 6 in response to the vaccine. Data also show
that these antibodies have high affinity to the prion protein. The deer
have already passed more than 120 days since their disease challenge in
an environment that simulates natural CWD transmission routes.
Conclusive results on how well the CWD vaccine works in mule deer will
not be known for another year to 18 months. Additional vaccine work
using a mouse model is being initiated, including the design of an oral
CWD vaccine.

**Testing of Hydrolysis and Rendering Effects on Prion
Infectivity---**Infectious prions are inherently resistant to
destruction. With support from the beef industry, NWRC biologists are
testing how effective hydrolysis and rendering procedures are at
destroying infectious prion material to determine if these methods are
viable carcass waste-disposal options.

Hydrolysis is a process of using lye under increased pressure and
temperature to degrade biological material. Proteins are broken down
into component amino acids during the process. Rendering is a process of
cooking material in oil. NWRC biologists are testing the effects of
hydrolysis and rendering using a mouse model of prion disease with
infected mouse brain as the test material. Following hydrolysis and
rendering, the material was injected into test mice.

Six months after inoculation, some of the mice are showing signs of
developing the disease. Preliminary results showed none of the 23 mice
injected with hydrolyzed material died, while 16 out of 23 mice injected
with rendered material died within about 244 days of injection. These
results demonstrate that hydrolysis is effective at destroying
infectious prions. Rendering, on the other hand, is not as effective as
hydrolysis and does not remove all of the infectious material.

**Enzymatic Decontamination of Infectious Prion Material---**In 2007,
NWRC scientists completed an 18--month study testing the ability of two
enzymes to destroy the infectivity of prion material. Enzyme 1 protected
57 percent of the mice tested from becoming infected and developing CWD
and prolonged the time before the disease was noted in the rest. The
level of infectious material destruction appears to be very high, almost
to the point of complete removal of infectivity. Enzyme 2 also showed
substantial reduction in disease material under even less favorable
digestion conditions (i.e., lower temperatures). All negative control
mice survived the entire study period and all positive controls
developed the disease. With modifications to the treatment conditions,
complete removal of infectious potential may be possible. It is clear
that enzymes will be a useful tool for the decontamination of infectious
prion material.

**Validation of a Live Test for CWD---**In 2006, a practical live test
for CWD in elk was developed by NWRC scientists in cooperation with CSU
and APHIS' Veterinary Services. Scientists are continuing to refine the
methods and are now fully developing, evaluating, and validating a
rectal biopsy method so it can be used as a tool for detecting CWD in
cervids that have been infected but have not yet begun to show signs of
disease. The technique is currently being used in pen studies to
determine time to infection relative to transmission route.

**CWD Blood Bank---**Researchers from several Federal and State agencies
and universities are developing diagnostic tests and other techniques to
determine whether animals are infected with CWD or other transmissible
spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) diseases. One limitation to the
development of these methods is access to positive samples for
evaluating the tests. To address this need, NWRC has initiated a CWD
blood bank to store blood and other tissues that can be made available
for research. As of October 2007, blood and tissue samples have been
collected and stored from 7 and 56 CWD-positive deer, respectively.

**TITLE: Surveillance, Monitoring, Research and Response for Wildlife
Diseases**

**GOAL:** Understand the role wildlife play as hosts and reservoirs for
zoonotic diseases (e.g., AI, plague, West Nile virus) and diseases of
agricultural importance (e.g., AI, salmonellosis).

Considerable concern exists around the world about emerging infectious
diseases. Of these emerging diseases, 75 percent are zoonotic. Some
zoonotic diseases carried by wildlife also can be transmitted to
economically important domestic animals, such as West Nile virus to
horses and AI to poultry. Thus, wildlife populations often play a key
role in the transmission of diseases that directly impact humans and
agriculture. NWRC is actively involved in the monitoring and
surveillance of and research on many of these diseases.

**National Early Detection System for HPAI (H5N1 Subtype) in Wild
Migratory Birds---**The occurrence of HPAI subtype H5N1 continues to
cause considerable concern regarding the potential impact on wild birds,
domestic poultry, and human health should it be introduced into the
United States. One potential route for introduction of the virus into
the country is migration of infected wild birds. As part of the U.S.
Interagency Strategic Early Detection System for Highly Pathogenic H5N1
Avian Influenza in Wild Migratory Birds, NWRC continues to be
responsible for developing field sampling methods, directing collection
of field samples, and analyzing environmental (water and avian fecal)
samples in the United States. As part of this strategy, NWRC convened a
committee to design a nationwide monitoring program for environmental
samples, provided initial guidance for sampling, developed a field
collection system, developed assays for both water and fecal samples,
and performed diagnostics analysis of the initial samples collected in
Alaska.

In 2006, NWRC staff analyzed 50,184 avian fecal samples from all 50
States and the Pacific Islands and detected low-pathogenic AI in 4.0
percent of the sample pools; 0.2 percent of the sample pools were
positive for H5 and H7 subtypes. However, no HPAI H5N1 was detected.

In 2007, NWRC staff continued to assist the national surveillance
program by analyzing an additional 25,000 avian fecal samples that were
collected using a more targeted approach based on the sampling conducted
in 2006.

**Human Health Risks From Nesting Waterbirds on Alcatraz
Island---**Preliminary surveys were conducted on Alcatraz Island, CA, to
identify and measure the frequency and intensity of wildlife diseases in
western gulls that may threaten the health of human visitors to this
National Park. In particular, research focused on AI, pathogenic
intestinal bacteria, Lyme disease, and histoplasmosis.

All of the 238 fresh fecal samples collected tested negative for the
virus that causes AI. Ticks known to transmit the bacteria that causes
Lyme disease*---Borrelia burgdorferi---*were not detected. Thirty-one
different intestinal bacterial types were identified from the
representative 481 bacterial isolates taken from 243 fresh fecal,
tracheal, and cloacal swabs and regurgitation swabs. *Escherichia coli*
was the most abundant intestinal bacterium identified from "contact"
sites (where visitors could contact gull feces) and "source" sites
(where gulls bred in high densities). *Proteus mirabilis* was the second
most abundant intestinal bacterium identified. While isolated less
frequently, some bacteria identified (e.g., *Salmonella* spp. and
*Shigella* spp.) are of interest because they can cause illness in
humans.

**Role of Backyard Poultry in the Transmission of AI---**Backyard
poultry are common in many areas of the United States but are not
regulated or tracked by State or Federal agencies. Therefore, little is
known about the density or spatial configuration of backyard farms. In
cooperation with CSU, NWRC biologists established spatial adjacency
matrices for backyard poultry and game-bird farms in Colorado and
developed epidemiologic network models of AI virus on backyard farms.
These models can be used to assess connectivity of backyard farms based
on distance between farms, the number of neighboring farms, and
landscape features that impact wildlife movement between farms.

An understanding of connectivity in farm networks can be used to predict
patterns of the spread of AI virus and to prioritize sites for biosafety
and control measures. Typically, control measures are applied to a
circular buffer around an impacted farm. Identifying highly connected
farms and landscape features conducive to wildlife movement will allow
control measures to be applied to a more meaningful and efficient area.

**TITLE: Investigating the Ecology, Control, and Prevention of
Terrestrial Rabies in Free-Ranging Wildlife**

**GOAL:** Study the ecology of wildlife and evaluate risk factors that
may be involved with the transmission of rabies among wildlife and
rabies virus trafficking across landscapes and develop methods and
strategies that reduce or eliminate such transmission.

Rabies is an acute, fatal viral disease most often transmitted through
the bite of a rabid mammal. The disease can infect people as well as
animals. Impacts to society from this and other wildlife diseases can be
great. For instance, the cost of detection, prevention, and control of
rabies in the United States is about \$300 million a year.

In the United States, terrestrial rabies can be found in many wild
animals, including raccoons, skunks, gray fox, arctic fox, and coyotes.
In an effort to halt the spread and eventually eradicate terrestrial
rabies here, NWRC scientists are conducting research on the behavior,
ecology, movements, and population structures of raccoons and gray
foxes. The researchers are also evaluating methods and techniques used
to vaccinate free-roaming wildlife against rabies.

**Use of Rhodamine B as a New Biomarker for Raccoons**---The Oral Rabies
Vaccination (ORV) program, administered by WS, has long desired an
effective, easy-to-use biomarker that would allow for noninvasive
identification of animals that have been exposed to ORV baits. The ORV
program currently uses tetracycline, an antibiotic deposited in growing
bone and teeth. Tetracycline has proven to be reliable, but evaluating
this biomarker is invasive and expensive. Research conducted at NWRC
examined rhodamine B as a possible alternative biomarker for the ORV
program.

Rhodamine B is a chemical dye that, when ingested, stains the oral
cavity and is absorbed systemically into growing tissues such as hair
and vibrissae (whiskers), producing fluorescent orange bands under
ultraviolet (UV) light. Researchers fed 18 raccoons rhodamine B and
monitored their whiskers and fur for fluorescence for 15 weeks.

All raccoons exhibited fluorescence in their whiskers. On any given
sampling-day, an average of 55 percent of whiskers sampled from each
individual fluoresced. Evaluations of whiskers using a UV-equipped
microscope and hand-held UV lights were compared to determine if
evaluation of whiskers can be done in the field. To a limited degree,
field evaluations were successful.

At the conclusion of the study, researchers conducted necropsies on all
raccoons to look at the systemic effects of the dye. Gross and
histopathologic examination of tissues revealed only subtle lesions
consistent with those previously reported in wild raccoons.

Rhodamine B appears to be a safe and effective biomarker that may reduce
the need for invasive sampling techniques to assess the success of the
ORV program. The next step will be to assess whether raccoons readily
consume fishmeal polymer baits containing rhodamine B. Confirmation that
raccoons do not exhibit a taste aversion to rhodamine B baits will allow
scientists to make a recommendation for the use of rhodamine B as part
of the national ORV program.

**NWRC Researchers Evaluate Potential for the Spread of Raccoon Rabies
Across Northern Ohio---**Rabies in the United States occurs primarily in
wildlife species. Genetically distinct rabies virus strains are
maintained within a number of carnivore and bat species in distinct
geographic areas. Until the early 1970s, rabies caused by the raccoon
virus strain was predominantly found in Florida and Georgia. However,
during that decade, rabies-infected raccoons were transported from
Florida to the Virginia--West Virginia border, quickly spreading the
disease to a large number of animals in the region. Since then, the
disease has expanded throughout the Eastern United States, presenting a
significant human health risk over a large geographic area.

Currently, eastern Ohio serves as one boundary to the westward spread of
the raccoon variant of rabies. The primary means of controlling this
variant of rabies in the United States is the ORV Program conducted by
WS Operations. The ORV Program's vaccine-laden baits have been
distributed throughout the Eastern and Southeastern United States since
1990 and on the current western edge of the raccoon rabies strain (the
Ohio--Pennsylvania border) since 1997.

The goal of the ORV Program in Ohio is to contain raccoon rabies in the
natural corridor consisting of the Allegheny Mountains in the north and
the Ohio River in the southeast. With the spread of rabies into Lake,
Geauga, and Cuyahoga Counties of northeastern Ohio, movements of
raccoons there need to be examined. NWRC scientists are attempting to
identify if there are barriers and/or corridors that may affect the
spread of raccoon rabies in the area.

NWRC researchers have begun capturing and radio-collaring raccoons in
both urban areas and rural--suburban interfaces. Raccoons are being
located weekly using VHF (very high frequency) telemetry. Genetic
sampling, which will be used to evaluate raccoon movements in northern
Ohio over time, is being done on approximately 180 samples. The majority
of genetic sampling occurred simultaneously during a raccoon density
study in the late summer and early fall of 2007. The raccoon location
information is being entered into a geographic information system (GIS)
program in an effort to follow raccoon movements and evaluate any
barriers to or corridors for movement (e.g., rivers, roads, greenbelts,
etc.). Preliminary results show raccoons are not moving long distances.

Information gleaned from this study will be used to facilitate the ORV
Program in planning strategies in an attempt to halt the westward spread
of the raccoon variant across northern Ohio and possibly into other
States to the west.

**TITLE: Development of Surveillance Strategies and Management Tools To
Control Pseudorabies and Other Wildlife Diseases That Affect Humans and
Livestock**

**GOALS:** Provide basic ecological information as related to (1)
developing management tools to control pseudorabies in feral pigs and
(2) managing other wildlife diseases (in particular, Texas cattle fever
and heartwater) that affect livestock.

As increased urbanization leads to a loss of traditional wildlife
habitat, the potential for conflicts between people and wildlife
increases. Such conflicts can take many forms, but recently the
potential for the transmission of diseases among wildlife, livestock,
and humans has received greater attention.

Feral hogs' high reproductive rate and adaptability have dramatically
increased their population size and distribution. This invasive animal
now exists in 32 States, where it causes a range of agricultural and
environmental damage through depredation, rooting, and wallowing
activities. Furthermore, feral hogs compete with native wildlife and
livestock for habitat, are carriers of exotic and endemic diseases, and
transmit parasites to livestock and humans.

One disease of particular concern to the commercial swine industry is
pseudorabies (PRV), also known as Aujeszky's disease. PRV is an
infectious, often acute, herpesviral disease that affects the nervous
system of livestock and wildlife. The disease poses a potential hazard
to humans (although documented cases are rare) and a major hazard to the
swine industry. Feral hogs have been found to be seropostive for
pseudorabies in 11 States where they are believed to be a free-ranging
reservoir for the disease.

**A Landscape--Genetic Approach to the Management of Feral Pigs---**The
feral pig is considered an exotic invasive species in the United States.
Feral pigs cause significant agricultural damage, and they are a public
health risk because they can harbor numerous diseases, including
brucellosis, pseudorabies, and foot-and-mouth disease. Currently, feral
pig populations are controlled through trapping or shooting. However,
these methods are labor intensive and inefficient because pigs from
neighboring areas quickly recolonize managed areas. NWRC scientists and
cooperators are using microsatellite DNA markers to assess the
broad-scale population structure of feral pigs in South Texas and to
evaluate recolonization after local removals.

Preliminary results indicate that pig populations display a moderate
degree of population structuring at a large scale (\~120 mi^2^),
suggesting that at broad geographic scales, populations are functionally
independent of each other. However, genetic similarity was not a simple
function of geographic distance, implying that movement and dispersal
are not equal among populations. This may be due to the presence of
terrain features that promote dispersal (e.g., river systems) or inhibit
it (e.g., urban areas, vast areas of farmland).

At a local scale, feral pig samples taken before and after removal were
genetically different, indicating rapid recolonization into the
controlled area. Overall, results indicate that knowledge of feral pig
population structure in some areas of South Texas could be used to
improve control efforts. But high rates of movement and dispersal would
likely require control efforts over a very broad region, possibly an
entire watershed. Attempts will be made to identify fine-scale genetic
structure and landscape features that could be used to focus management
efforts.

**Surveillance for the Pathogenic H5N1 Strain of AI in Feral Hogs---**An
influenza pandemic is currently regarded by many health officials as a
significant threat to global public health. The next influenza pandemic
will likely be caused by a virus that possesses surface proteins to
which humans have no immunity. Previous influenza pandemics occurred via
genetic reassortment in an animal coinfected by avian and human
influenza virus strains. One likely "mixing vessel" is the feral hog.

The invasive feral hog exists across North America, and large
populations inhabit areas frequented by bird species that serve as
influenza reservoirs. NWRC scientists conducted surveillance on feral
hogs for the presence of avian-origin influenza viruses (including the
highly pathogenic H5N1) in Texas, a State where millions of migratory
and resident waterfowl and shorebirds winter among a large population of
feral hogs.

Nasal swabs and blood serum from hunter-harvested animals and nuisance
animals removed by Texas WS were obtained during 2006 and 2007. Samples
were screened for all 16 hemagglutinin and 9 neuraminidase subtypes of
the influenza virus. As of October 2007, more than 600 samples had been
tested with no avian-origin influenza viruses detected.

Early detection is critical for disease management strategies to be
successful. This study is an important step in understanding the
dynamics of this highly publicized zoonotic disease and will aid in
understanding potential routes of human exposure.

**High Rates of Multiple Mating in Feral Pigs: Risk of Disease
Transmission---**Feral pigs are susceptible to diseases that affect
wildlife, livestock, and humans---a fact that raises serious concerns
about the role these animals play in the maintenance and transmission of
disease. However, predictions of disease transmission by feral pigs are
hampered by a lack of information on their ecology and behavior. As a
result, estimates of contact rates and other vital information for
disease risk models and management are tenuous at best.

NWRC scientists are developing a database of genetic information from
free-ranging pregnant sows and embryos to provide a robust estimate of
rates of multiple mating across South Texas. The goal of this ongoing
study is to investigate the mating behavior of feral pigs using genetic
methods. Because some diseases (e.g., pseudorabies and brucellosis) are
transmitted by contact among individuals, including sexual contact, the
frequency of multiple mating provides a means of estimating rates of
contact among individuals.

As of October 2007, more than 30 litters have been obtained, and
researchers have found evidence for multiple paternity (siring of
offspring by more than one boar) in 48 percent of litters. That high
rate of multiple mating suggests that the risk of transmitting diseases
spread by direct contact is significant. Results demonstrate the value
of genetic techniques to provide insight into difficult
wildlife-management problems and supply timely information for
predictions of disease transmission within feral pigs.

**Evaluation of Population Estimation Techniques for Feral Pigs---**For
land managers, feral pigs are a concern because they cause environmental
and economic damage. Population estimates for feral pigs are critical in
determining efficient management strategies. However, density estimation
techniques used for native ungulate species, such as white-tailed deer,
are inaccurate and unreliable in determining feral pig populations. New
techniques using motion-sensing cameras and ingestible biological
markers help reduce the cost, manpower, and time necessary to obtain
population density estimates of free-ranging wildlife and may prove
useful for feral pigs.

NWRC scientists and cooperators evaluated population-monitoring
techniques at study sites located in southern and central Texas. They
assessed (1) a mark--recapture technique using the biological marker
tetracycline, which is an antibiotic that produces a fluorescent mark on
growing bone; (2) traditional aerial surveys and spotlight surveys; and
(3) passive and active tracking indices using motion-sensing cameras.
Results showed that tetracycline is a suitable biological marker for
feral pigs; aerial surveys and spotlight surveys did not provide
reliable estimates for feral pig populations; and motion-sensing cameras
showed promise in monitoring feral pig populations.

**Mammalian Visitation to Candidate Feral-Hog Attractants---**Few data
exist regarding suitable feral-hog attractants in the United States.
NWRC researchers compared species-specific visitation and contact rates
of mammals to 11 candidate feral-hog attractants at scent stations using
motion-sensing digital photography. Of the 720 scent stations monitored,
scientists found feral hogs had greater visitation to stations featuring
apple and strawberry scents than to control stations. Raccoons and
collared peccaries were less likely to visit stations with strawberry
versus other scents, such as berry or apple.

NWRC scientists recommend that natural-resource managers consider using
strawberry attractants for feral-hog-specific applications. If, however,
a general feral-hog attractant is needed, then apple, berry, or caramel
attractants may perform well.

**Potential for the Transmission of Diseases Between Feral Swine and
Domestic Pigs---**Swine diseases such as brucellosis, PRV, and classical
swine fever (CSF) have been eradicated from domestic pig populations.
But domestic pigs raised in traditional farm facilities or "backyard"
settings are vulnerable to diseases harbored by feral swine. The
objectives of this study were to determine (1) serum antibody levels to
PRV, brucellosis, CSF, and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
(PRRS) in Texas feral swine populations; and (2) the frequency of feral
swine contact with domestic swine.

Results showed the prevalence of antibodies to brucellosis, PRV, and CSF
in feral swine was 11, 30, and 0 percent, respectively. Also, feral
swine from southern Texas were 8 times more likely to have been exposed
to PRV than to brucellosis; whereas, feral swine from eastern Texas were
1.3 times more likely to have been exposed to brucellosis than to PRV.
Seven radio-collared feral swine (19 percent of the study group) came
within 300 feet of domestic swine facilities, providing opportunities
for disease transmission by fenceline contact, while 33 feral swine (89
percent) used habitats within 1 mile of domestic swine. (Contact closer
than 1 mile is considered a threat to the health of domestic swine via
aerosol transmission.)

**Invasive Species and Technology Development Research Program**

**TITLE: Development and Assessment of Methods and Strategies To Monitor
and Manage Mammalian Invasive Species, With an Emphasis on Rodents**

**GOAL:** Review the current biological status of established and
potential invasive mammalian species, with an emphasis on rodents in the
United States and its territories, and investigate promising methods and
strategies for surveillance, management, and eradication.

The National Invasive Species Council has documented the serious threat
posed by invasive or introduced plants, invertebrates, disease agents,
and vertebrates to agriculture, property, natural resources, and human
health and safety in the United States. It is estimated that invasive
species result in at least \$138 million per year in losses, damage, and
control costs. About 300 species of invasive vertebrates have been
accidentally or purposefully introduced into the country, including
about 20 species of mammals. These include omnivores (rats and feral
pigs), predators (mongoose, foxes, and feral dogs and cats), and
herbivores (feral livestock and nonnative deer).

WS has a long history of involvement in managing invasive species, not
only on the U.S. mainland, but in Hawaii, the Caribbean, South America,
Africa, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Research continues to improve
methods and strategies to (1) prevent introductions, (2) detect new
introductions, (3) eradicate nonnative vertebrates already established,
and (4) support sustained control for well-established invasive species
where eradication is not feasible.

**NWRC Biologists Develop and Test a Multiple-Capture Trap for
Nutria---**An invasive aquatic rodent from South America, nutria cause
substantial damage to marsh vegetation in many parts of the United
States. NWRC researchers designed and tested a multiple capture trap
(MCT) at the Mandalay National Wildlife Refuge in coastal Louisiana. Six
MCTs were baited with food (carrots, corn, and sweet potatoes), and six
were baited with fertilized marsh plants.

During a 10-day trial, nutria were caught in both types of MCT sets: 10
in the food traps and 12 in plant lure traps. As many as three nutria
were captured overnight in one trap. On two occasions, nutria escaped
the traps when approached by a person. No nontarget animals were
captured; however, investigators suspected that swamp rabbits were
entering the MCTs to feed and then were able to escape through the
traps' one-way door.

Using a FLIR (forward-looking infrared) unit at night and
motion-activated cameras, observers saw several nutria around some of
the traps, but the animals were never caught. Clearly, more-effective
attractants for nutria need to be developed before the MCT will be
highly effective in catching nutria. Additional field trials, perhaps
using nutria auditory cues, are planned to be conducted in the Pacific
Northwest.

**NWRC Biologists Study Wild Norway Rat Behavior for Better Management
Strategies---**A better understanding of invasive rat behavior would
allow for better detection of invading rats on islands and a greater
likelihood of rapid and successful eradication. NWRC biologists used
operant-conditioning behavior paradigms to study wild Norway rats' rate
of learning certain behaviors (wheel spinning and lever pressing), using
a food-pellet reward system. Rats required about 14 sessions to reach a
steady-state performance in wheel trials but at least 21 sessions during
the lever-pressing trials. Considerable variation in individual behavior
was noted. Researchers concluded that individual activity levels may
influence exploratory behavior, which may be correlated to the
likelihood of rats' entering traps or bait stations used in detection
and control efforts. It is possible that multiple detection devices will
need to be employed to assure detection of newly arriving rats on an
island.

**TITLE: Methods and Strategies To Manage Invasive Species Impacts to
Agriculture in Hawaii**

**GOAL:** Develop safe and effective methods and strategies to manage
the effects of invasive species on agriculture, natural resources, and
human health and safety in Hawaii and other island ecosystems.

Oceanic islands like the Hawaiian chain are more susceptible to invasive
species than mainland areas because islands have few predators or
competitors, have a lot of air and sea traffic, and typically provide a
favorable climate for many species. Furthermore, native species on the
islands have evolved in the absence of many introduced threats and
usually respond poorly to invasive animals or disease.

Invasive species are the single greatest threat to Hawaii\'s
agricultural economy and natural environment and to the health and
lifestyle of its people. Invasive species cause millions of dollars'
worth of crop losses, the extinction of native species, the destruction
of native forests, and the spread of disease and also reduce the health
and safety of residents. This project investigates a variety of methods
to resolve small-mammal damage to agriculture, reforestation, and
structures and equipment.

**Rodenticide Development---**The efficacy of many commercially
available rodenticide products on wild black rats *(Rattus rattus),*
Polynesian rats *(R. exulans),* and mice *(Mus musculus)* is unknown.
The few successfully used products have not been systematically tested
in a common laboratory environment or compared to other available
products. Products vary according to their toxicity to nontarget
animals, speed and method of action, and bioaccumulation and
biomagnification potential. Thus, a product appropriate for one
application may not be appropriate for another, and limiting the pool of
potential products restricts a manager's ability to mitigate the effects
of an eradication effort. Two major data gaps are the effectiveness of
these products on rats typically found on Pacific islands and a
comparison of the effectiveness of the products available.

NWRC scientists have completed the initial testing of rodenticides on
three rodent species (black rat, Polynesian rat, and mouse) and have
evaluated their effectiveness over 3-day and 7-day exposure periods. As
expected, the acute toxicants were more effective than the
first-generation anticoagulants. However, there was a marked difference
in the toxicity of some products to these rodent species. These
differences in toxicity are partially explained by differences in the
amount of bait consumed and the toxicity of the product. Rodent
preference for bait compared to laboratory chow diet varied greatly by
product and rodent species.

**Development of Mongoose Lures---**Introduced small Indian mongooses
are major predators of birds in Hawaii. The eggs and nestlings of
ground-nesting birds are especially vulnerable to these invasive
mammals, which occupy diverse habitats on all the major islands except
Kauai. Trapping and bait stations have been used to reduce high mongoose
populations near and around native-bird nesting habitats. However, the
method has been less successful in areas with low mongoose density or
high alternate prey density. Recent sightings of mongooses on Kauai and
the potential for accidental introductions on other mongoose-free
islands in the Hawaiian chain or other Pacific locations highlight the
need for improved index and capture techniques utilizing traps,
scent-visitation stations, baits, lures, or attractants to quickly
respond to reported sightings or incipient mongoose populations.

NWRC scientists at the Hilo, HI, field station identified several baits
that were effective in trapping mongooses, but their effectiveness in
attracting mongooses from a distance was unclear. Thus, scientists
evaluated the distance that these lures were effective by using radio
telemetry and automatic microchip readers to track mongooses.

Mongoose home ranges averaged 15--20 ha, and some covered more than 50
ha. Several baits were identified that encouraged mongooses to travel
long distances (\>1 km). Results suggest that trap spacing for mongooses
should be increased, as all mongooses easily detected baits at distances
over 100 m and covered large areas during daily activities. Furthermore,
several of the baits identified could be used to trap incipient mongoose
populations or for the development of toxicant baits specific for
mongooses.

**TITLE: Resource Protection Through Avian Population Management**

**GOAL:** Develop methods for estimating avian populations for species
of concern; develop and evaluate antifertility methods to reduce
nuisance avian populations; evaluate the impacts of wildlife damage
management methods on targeted avian populations.

As land-use patterns change and urban populations spread into previously
uninhabited areas, human--wildlife conflicts inevitably increase. Of
growing concern are problems associated with vultures and crows, species
that have shown the capacity to readily adapt to residential settings.
Additionally, populations of nonnative species, such as feral pigeons
and monk parakeets, continue to grow with increasing detrimental impacts
to human health and safety.

Researchers at NWRC's field station in Gainesville, FL, conduct research
to resolve problems caused by vultures, crows, and other species of
overabundant birds. This research facility is a uniquely designed,
26-acre site with large outdoor flight pens and aviaries that allow bird
research to be conducted throughout the year under natural environmental
conditions.

**Diazacon Used To Reduce Monk Parakeet Reproduction---**The monk
parakeet, which is native to South America, constructs its nest of
sticks and branches and maintains it throughout the year. Unfortunately,
parakeets often build their bulky nests in electrical substations and
other utility structures. In close proximity to energized equipment,
nest material or the birds can create short circuits and produce power
outages. This problem has been troublesome for electric utility
companies in Florida and other parts of the United States for more than
20 years. To help address this problem, NWRC biologists are
investigating ways to slow the growth of the monk parakeet population.
Reproductive control using the chemical diazacon, a
cholinesterase-inhibiting compound, is one approach that shows promise.

In collaboration with a south Florida utility company, NWRC biologists
established bait stations at several electrical substations where monk
parakeets were nesting. At some sites, the bait stations contained
diazacon-treated sunflower seeds; at other sites, no treated bait was
offered. The treated bait was presented for 10 days, and visits to the
bait stations by parakeets were documented with motion-activated digital
cameras. Then, 7--8 weeks later, nests at treated and untreated
substations were removed, and the numbers of eggs and nestlings were
recorded.

Nest examinations revealed that average productivity at the treated
sites was 0.65 nestlings/nest, compared to 3.07 nestlings/nest at
untreated sites. These numbers indicate a 79-percent reduction due to
the treatment and are consistent with results obtained in 2006.

**Vulture Movements Tracked by Satellite---**Black vultures and turkey
vultures represent serious safety hazards for high-speed, low-flying
military aircraft. Winter surveys indicate that vulture numbers in South
Carolina are two to three times higher than national averages. In
recognition of the potential danger to its pilots and aircraft, the U.S.
Navy contracted with WS to investigate options for vulture management at
the Marine Corps Air Station in Beaufort, SC. The goal of the study is
to document vulture movements and activity in the area of the air base,
and devise a management plan to alleviate potential hazards.

Working with wildlife biologists from the South Carolina WS office, NWRC
researchers attached solar-powered GPS satellite transmitters to eight
black vultures and eight turkey vultures. Hourly readings provided data
on each vulture's location, altitude, and speed. The GPS locations were
processed into a GIS database that permits analyses of daily and
seasonal movements, night communal roost locations, and daytime activity
centers. In addition to the 16 birds with transmitters, WS biologists
also marked more than 120 vultures with conspicuous, white wing tags.
Resightings of these birds within the study area provided important
supplementary information on vulture movements and resource use.

As of October 2007, the longest movement by a "transmittered" bird was
approximately 500 miles, from Beaufort, SC, to Homestead, FL. Most of
the birds with transmitters have remained within 10 miles of Beaufort.

An unexpected benefit of the study was the collection of new information
on daily vulture activity. Data showed that the majority of vulture
activity occurs later in the day, whereas bird surveys are usually
conducted within 4 hours of sunrise. Thus, most black vultures are not
detected during these surveys; consequently, vulture population sizes
may be underestimated. These findings are being incorporated into
revised protocols for estimating the size of vulture populations.

**TITLE: Development of Chemistry-, Biochemistry-, and
Computational-Based Tools for Wildlife Damage Management**

**GOAL:** Develop and apply chemistry-, biochemistry-, and
computer-modeling-based techniques and tools for improved management of
pest wildlife by WS and the wildlife damage-management community.

Due to the increasing need for new, federally approved chemical tools
that can be used by wildlife damage-management professionals, NWRC
scientists are investigating methodologies to identify, analyze, and
develop new drugs, repellants, toxicants, DNA markers, and other
chemistry-based products. These methodologies could potentially be used
to support APHIS registration requirements through the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).

**Development of a Model for Estimating Pesticide Efficacy and Nontarget
Impacts---**Chemistry Project staff developed a probabilistic model
consisting of exposure and effects modules to improve the ability to
estimate the effects of pesticides on both target and nontarget species.
The exposure module is based on the energy requirements of animals
potentially exposed to pesticides via consumption of pesticide baits or
other species containing pesticide residues. The effects module utilizes
the slope and LD~50~ (median lethal dose) of the dose *v.* response
curve.

In collaboration with other government agencies, NWRC scientists have
applied this model to a variety of scenarios pertinent to WS and APHIS,
including:

• Estimation of target species "take" associated with DRC--1339 (an
avicide) baiting,

• Estimation of nontarget mortality associated with DRC--1339 baiting,

• Prediction of the improved DRC--1339 formulation procedures to
optimize the ratio of target:nontarget mortality,

• Estimation of acute and subacute effects to nontarget avian species
potentially exposed to rodenticides in conjunction with control of
invasive rodent species, and

• Estimation of the percentage of human population that would exceed
EPA-recommended mercury exposure limits via the consumption of
freshwater and saltwater fish.

**TITLE: Development of Reproductive Control Methods for Overabundant
Birds and Mammals**

**GOAL:** Obtain FDA approval for use of porcine zona pellucida (PZP)
and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) immunocontraceptive vaccines
for white-tailed deer and develop new oral contraceptive agents for use
in controlling reproduction in overabundant avian species (e.g., monk
parakeets and crows) and in mammalian species (e.g., California ground
squirrels and prairie dogs).

Research on the reproductive management of various avian and mammalian
species that cause damage or threaten public health and safety is a high
priority for WS. The severity of human--wildlife conflicts often is
directly related to wildlife population density, and many problems are
exacerbated as wildlife populations become larger. In many urban and
suburban settings, for example, overabundant deer create safety hazards
for motorists, consume ornamental shrubs, harbor and transmit diseases
and parasites, and degrade habitat quality in public parks and other
locations. Rodents also carry a variety of diseases and damage
rangelands and crops, causing the loss of millions of dollars' worth of
agriculture production. Overabundant feral hogs, horses, cats, and dogs
also cause damage and create ecological and political problems.

**Immunocontraception To Control Deer Populations and Reduce Human--Deer
Conflicts---**In several regions of the United States, white-tailed deer
herds that inhabit urban and suburban environments have become
overabundant and are creating conflicts with their human neighbors.
Typical problems include damage to vegetation and increases in
deer--motor vehicle collisions. Wildlife contraception may be one tool
that can help manage overabundant deer herds in urban and residential
areas where other management methods, such as hunting, are not an
option.

NWRC has developed and tested many types of wildlife contraceptives,
including GonaCon^™^ (an immunocontraceptive vaccine), which has been
highly effective in producing safe and reversible infertility in captive
white-tailed deer and in other mammalian species, such as bison, wild
horses, domestic and feral swine, domestic cats, California ground
squirrels, and rats. GonaCon is a one-injection formulation that is much
more practical for field delivery to free-ranging wildlife than earlier,
two-injection contraceptive agents. NWRC regularly receives inquiries
from concerned citizens regarding the possibility of using GonaCon to
address local problems with overabundant deer and other species of
wildlife.

Two major field studies of the efficacy of GonaCon as a contraceptive
for deer are underway in the United States. The first study was
initiated in Silver Spring, MD, during July 2004, on a fully fenced,
forested site that is managed by GSA. Overabundant deer were creating
numerous conflicts with humans, and WS was asked to resolve the
problems. NWRC scientists worked with Maryland-based WS biologists to
capture and vaccinate 28 adult does with GonaCon. An additional 15 does
were captured, marked, and released without injections as untreated
control animals.

After 1 year, 88 percent of the GonaCon-treated does did not produce
fawns, as indicated by lactation. After two years, 47 percent of the
treated does did not produce fawns. Necropsy observations and
histological examination of selected reproductive and other relevant
tissue samples taken from treated and control deer identified no adverse
effects associated with the GonaCon vaccine except for localized,
injection-site reactions in 29 percent of treated deer.

A second major field study of GonaCon as a deer management tool began in
the Morristown, NJ, area during July 2005 on a completely enclosed,
privately owned, corporate office campus where overabundant deer were
damaging vegetation and creating traffic hazards. NWRC scientists are
collaborating on this study with biologists from White Buffalo, Inc., a
nonprofit deer-management organization based in Connecticut. This 2-year
field study is similar in design and scope to the Maryland study.
Twenty-eight adult does were captured and injected with GonaCon, and 14
other does that are serving as control animals were captured and given
sham injections before being released. As in Maryland, the reproductive
success of free-ranging treated and control deer is being monitored and
compared for 2 years to measure the efficacy of GonaCon as a deer
contraceptive under field conditions.

After 1 year, 67 percent of the GonaCon-treated does did not produce
fawns, as indicated by lactation. The reproductive performance of study
deer in New Jersey will be assessed again to determine the second-year
contraceptive efficacy of GonaCon vaccine in free-ranging, white-tailed
female deer.

**Use of GonaCon To Control Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs---**Many prairie
dog colonies exist across the Western United States. In some areas,
particularly suburban settings, prairie dog colonies have expanded to
the point that they have denuded the landscape. Conflicts have arisen in
urban areas between resource managers, who must manage natural areas to
maintain native plant life, and residents who oppose lethal control of
prairie dog colonies. In October 2006, a study was initiated in Larimer
County, CO, to evaluate the feasibility of using GonaCon
immunocontraceptive as a nonlethal management tool for black-tailed
prairie dogs in urban and suburban settings.

Prairie dogs were captured on control and treatment sites, weighed,
sexed, and marked with ear tags and fur dye. In addition, each captured
prairie dog was vaccinated with either a sham vaccine or GonaCon.
Beginning in May 2007, prairie dogs were recaptured at both sites to
determine breeding status and to collect blood samples for analysis of
anti-GnRH antibody titers. Pup counts were also conducted during May and
June 2007.

Preliminary data show that none of the prairie dogs treated with the
GonaCon vaccine produced litters, whereas 83 percent of those receiving
the sham vaccine successfully reproduced.

**TITLE: Economic Research of Wildlife-Caused Agricultural,
Public-Health, and Natural-Resource Impacts**

**GOAL:** Quantify the benefits and costs of WS products and activities
that aim to mitigate the impacts of wildlife diseases, wildlife damage
to agriculture and natural resources, and wildlife risks to public
health or safety.

The scope of wildlife damage-management activities continues to expand
as conflicts with humans and wildlife increase. NWRC's economists seek
to quantify the potential savings (benefits) and costs derived from
mitigating the impacts of wildlife diseases; wildlife damage to
agriculture, property, and natural resources; and wildlife risks to
public health and safety.

**Economics of Oral Vaccination for Domestic-Dog--Coyote Rabies in
Texas---**In 1988, a domestic-dog--coyote (DDC) variant of rabies was
identified in Texas. Coyotes served as the main reservoir of this new
variant. By 1995, DDC rabies was present in 20 counties of south Texas,
and the disease was predicted to spread northward at approximately 72
km/year, potentially covering the whole of Texas by 2007. To control
this outbreak, the Texas Department of State Health Services, in
collaboration with the WS National Rabies Program, initiated in 1995 a
series of oral rabies vaccination (ORV) baiting campaigns.

Annually between 1995 and 2006, ORV baits (19--27 baits/km^2^) were
dispensed over selected southern Texas counties. By 2002, this program
had evolved into annual bait distributions within an ORV "maintenance"
zone north of the Rio Grande to prevent future cases of DDC rabies in
Texas.

In 2006, NWRC economists and scientists were asked to conduct an
economic assessment of the Texas DDC ORV Program. The objective of the
study was to provide a cost--benefit analysis of the program from 1995
to 2006. Costs were the total expenditures of the DDC ORV Program from
1995 to 2006 (i.e., salaries, aircraft operation, and baits). Benefits
were the savings associated with the potential reduced number of human
postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatments and animals tested (AT) for
the DDC variant.

To estimate savings, the annual numbers of PEP and AT were averaged
across the 20 original southern Texas counties to determine the case
frequency prior to DDC ORV baiting. These frequencies were then
extrapolated northward throughout the rest of the State, based on the
human population in each county. It was assumed that, without an ORV
baiting program, PEP and AT cases would have spread through the rest of
the State at either the same rate as in the original 20 counties,
three-fourths of that rate, or half of that rate. Benefits or savings
were then calculated using the number of PEP and AT cases avoided and
their estimated expense.

Total DDC ORV Program benefits from 1995 to 2006 were calculated for
three case-frequency rates. Estimated benefits ranged from about \$98
million to \$354 million. Total costs of the DDC ORV program exceeded
\$26 million from 1995 to 2006. The estimated benefits were then
compared to the total program costs for the 1995 to 2006 time period.

To determine the overall economic efficiency of the program,
benefit--cost ratios were calculated. A benefit--cost ratio greater than
1 signified economic efficiency (i.e., savings exceeded program
expenses). Benefit--cost ratios were calculated at between 3.7 and 13.4,
depending upon the level of PEP and AT case frequency.

Currently, only an 80-km-wide zone is baited annually to deter
translocation of rabid dogs across the border between the United States
and Mexico. The analysis revealed that this level of continued baiting
will be economically efficient from between 2016 to 2030, depending on
the case frequency.

**Estimating Economic Impacts to Hawaii From the Invasive BTS---**In
2004, NWRC economists undertook a study to estimate the economic impacts
likely to occur to the Hawaiian Islands by the hypothetical
translocation of the BTS from the Territory of Guam. The approach of
this study was to collect and compile data from Guam to glean an
understanding of the snakes' impact to that island. There were three
general categories of economic impact related to the BTS' invasion:
medical treatments, electrical outages, and tourism losses. Data
gathered on Guam for medical and electrical impacts were used to derive
results for Hawaii. Impacts associated with the tourism sector of the
economy were projected using an input--output model.

Results indicate that, at \$351,706 annually, expenditures in Hawaii for
medical treatments will be the smallest portion of the costs associated
with the BTS. Electrical outages resulting from the presence of the BTS
on Hawaii will likely cost residents, business, government, and tourists
\$335 million to \$454 million annually.

Impacts to Hawaii's tourism from the BTS have never before been
estimated. In this study, a hypothetical range of decreased tourist
numbers (1 percent--10 percent) was used, resulting in an annual
decrease in revenue to the Hawaiian economy of \$137.5 million to \$1.4
billion and 1,339 to 13,000 jobs lost in the local economy. The total
annual economic impacts of the translocation of the invasive BTS to
Hawaii fall within the range of \$473 million to \$1.8 billion.

**Estimating the Value of a Beef Cow for Wolf Predation Payments---**The
reintroduction of Mexican gray wolves into the Blue Range Wolf
Reintroduction Area in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona
has involved indemnity payments to ranchers for depredated livestock.
Currently, ranchers are reimbursed for only the market value of a cow.
In 2007, NWRC economists developed an economic model to better assess
the value of a cow in New Mexico. Computations focused on the actual
valuation of a range beef cow in New Mexico, with estimates of the
impacts to cattle producers if the cow is killed at various life stages
and replaced with a weanling heifer. Although no change in indemnity
payment schemes has occurred, ranchers found the results more reflective
of the "true" loss incurred from wolf predation. Results are consistent
with calculated actual production and animal value loss incurred from
wolf predation.

**TITLE: Field Evaluation of Chemical Methods for BTS Management**

**GOAL:** Develop techniques to help control the BTS on Guam and prevent
its dispersal from that island.

The BTS is one of the most ecologically damaging invasive species. In
just the half-century since the BTS was accidentally introduced to Guam,
it has exterminated most of that island's native forest birds and
greatly reduced its population of fruit bats and native lizards. While
managing the BTS population on Guam, WS actively works to prevent its
spread to other Pacific islands, especially Hawaii. In the past, NWRC
has received funding from the Department of Defense (DoD) Legacy
Resource Management Program to research methods to manage the BTS. NWRC
currently receives funding from the U.S. Department of the Interior's
Office of Insular Affairs. BTS research efforts at NWRC encompass
development of repellants, attractants, toxicants, fumigants,
reproductive inhibitors, and improved trapping methods.

**Commercial Paper Products as Parachutes for Aerial Delivery of Baits
to BTSs---**NWRC continues to evaluate parachutes for the aerial
delivery of baits to BTSs in inaccessible, remote, forested areas on
Guam. In an attempt to provide practical, economical parachutes,
investigators evaluated four commercial paper products: paper cups,
paper plates, and two types of white marking flags---a "single-ender"
white flag with a 10-foot paper streamer attached to a chipboard card
and a "double-ender" flag with a 16-foot paper streamer attached to the
standard chipboard card with a smaller chipboard card at the tail end of
the streamer.

As a test of the efficacy of these parachutes for their ability to
deliver baits to BTSs, untreated dead neonatal mice (DNM) with radio
transmitters were attached to each of the four types of paper products
and hand-dropped from a helicopter over a forested site. Twenty each of
the single- and double-enders and 15 each of the cups and plates were
dropped. Location (canopy or ground landing) for each of the mice was
recorded by visual inspection or radio signal.

Canopy entanglements for the single-ender flags, double-ender flags,
cups, and plates were 85 percent, 95 percent, 67 percent, and 80
percent, respectively. Single-ender flags are preferred because they are
less expensive than double-ender flags. Also, baits can be more
conveniently attached to the single-enders with glue while cups and
plates require labor-intensive thread connections to attach baits.

The next step in the development of a single-ender product will be
assessment of their aerial deployment from a helicopter by an automated
electromechanical dispenser.

**Alternative Baits and Trap Lures for the BTS---**An alternative bait
to replace DNMs for baiting BTSs is highly desirable because the mice
are expensive, may become ant and maggot infested, and putrefy after 2
to 3 days of field exposure. Two baiting evaluations with unadulterated
DNM (uDNM), freeze-dried DNM (fdDNM), and dehydrated DNM (dDNM) were
conducted in January--February 2007 (dry season) and July--August (wet
season) on Guam. Baits destroyed by ants and maggots (as evidenced by
skeletons or skulls) were not used in calculating cumulative consumption
of baits (bait-take) in each of the two baiting periods.

During the dry season, the 4-day cumulative bait-take was 86 percent, 84
percent, and 73 percent for uDNM, fdDNM, and dDNM, respectively. During
the wet season, the 6-day cumulative bait-take was 96 percent, 55
percent, and 48 percent for uDNM, fdDNM, and dDNM, respectively.
Although the bait-take did not differ significantly among treatments,
neither the fdDNM nor the dDNM offers benefits over the uDNM in terms of
bait take; however, the former may provide a benefit in terms of ease of
handling and longevity in the field.

Five live trap lure treatments (empty trap, live mouse, uDNM, fdDNM,
dDNM), totaling 180 trap-nights for each treatment, were also evaluated
for capturing snakes. Traps were checked daily for 6 days, and captured
snakes were removed daily from each site. The empty traps captured no
snakes; the fdDNM, 1; dDNM, 2; uDNM, 10; and traps baited with a live
mouse, 95. Based on these results, the fdDNM and dDNM do not have
potential as lures for live-trapping BTSs.

**Evaluation of Mechanical Mice as Lures for BTS Live Traps---**It is
well known that both visual and olfactory cues are important in the
foraging behavior of BTSs and that a live mouse is an excellent lure for
capturing snakes in live traps. However, there are logistical and
maintenance concerns with using live mice in traps. Inanimate lures
similar to those used in mammalian predator-control programs would be
highly desirable. Two types of mechanical mouse (MM) lures were
evaluated for capturing snakes in live traps under field conditions on
Guam. MMs were activated by either an electronic (MM1) or a quartz clock
movement (MM2). Snake capture was evaluated in seven live-trap
treatments: (1) no lure, (2) live mouse, (3) DNM \[as the source of dead
mouse odor\], (4) MM1, (5) MM1 plus DNM, (6) MM2, and (7) MM2 plus DNM.

Thirty-two snakes were captured with the live mouse lure, nine with MM2
plus DNM, four with DNM, two with MM1 plus DNM, and one with no lure. No
snakes were captured with either the MM1 or MM2 alone.

The primary value of this work is that it shows that mechanical mouse
MM2 with a dead mouse odor is attractive for capturing snakes and raises
the potential for investigating a mechanical mouse with other candidate
odors as lures.

**BTS Sex Pheromone Research---**NWRC scientists investigated the
potential use of female BTS sex pheromones and synthetic versions as a
tool for detecting small, incipient populations of BTSs in locations on
and off Guam. In an initial study, scientists assessed responses of
adult males to substrate-borne skin secretions of adult females in an
outdoor seminatural enclosure on Guam. It is thought that females
produce the pheromone only when in estrus. Therefore, males were given a
simultaneous choice of investigating poles to which the scent of either
a vitellogenic (breeding) female or nonvitellogenic (nonbreeding) female
had been applied or a no-scent control pole.

Males spent more time, and exhibited a greater frequency of
investigative "nose-probes," on poles contacted by vitellogenic females
than by nonvitellogenic females or no-scent controls.

**Registration Program Support**

[]{.mark}

The NWRC Registration Unit is responsible for ensuring that the
registrations for chemical-based vertebrate-management tools used in WS'
operational program are current and meet State and Federal regulations.
The Unit works closely with APHIS' Policy and Program Development,
Environmental Services office in all product-registration activities.

APHIS continues to hold registrations with EPA for rodenticides,
predacides, avicides, repellants, snake toxicants, and one avian
repellant. In addition, APHIS holds Investigational New Animal Drug
(INAD) applications with FDA for immobilizing and contraceptive agents
used in animal damage management. To maintain or expand authorized use
of these products, the Registration Unit works closely with NWRC
scientists to ensure that studies conducted for regulatory purposes meet
EPA and FDA recommendations. In addition, the Registration Unit responds
to requests from WS Operations personnel for new products or
improvements to existing products. The Registration Unit also provides
technical assistance and information to State WS programs, Federal and
State agricultural and conservation agencies, academic institutions,
nongovernmental groups, and private industry.

**Regulatory Oversight of Contraceptives and Immobilizing Agents**

The primary regulatory event impacting APHIS during the past year is a
change in the regulatory oversight of the immobilizing and contraceptive
agents. In early fiscal year (FY) 2007, FDA and EPA began negotiations
to draft a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between themselves. The
draft MOU specifies that the regulation of contraceptive materials for
wildlife and feral animals deemed to be pests under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act's definition of pest species
would be transferred to EPA, and that FDA would retain regulation of
contraceptives used in companion animals, livestock, and zoo animals. In
conjunction with this MOU, FDA notified APHIS that all of the INADs
APHIS holds should be closed.

In response, APHIS has closed the INAD for DiazaCon, an oral
contraceptive under development for monk parakeets and prairie dogs.

FDA will retain regulatory authority over immobilizing agents used for
wildlife management. APHIS currently holds INADs for propiopromazine HCl
used in the tranquilizer trap device, and alpha chloralose for nonlethal
removal of problem birds. FDA is requesting APHIS close the INADs for
these products also. Given the limited use of either of these products,
it is unlikely that full new-animal drug authorizations will be
obtained. Consequently, APHIS is evaluating alternatives through FDA and
EPA that would allow continued use of alpha chloralose by WS.

**Wildlife Contraceptives---**One wildlife contraceptive likely to
receive EPA registration is GonaCon, an immunocontraceptive vaccine
based on GnRH. GonaCon is the first immunocontraceptive vaccine to
provide multiple years of infertility following a single injection. The
first product registration will be for use in female white-tailed deer.
Data submission for EPA registration is expected during the winter of
2007--08. In preparation for this registration, NWRC and WS personnel
are working closely with the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies
to ensure the final label meets the needs of State game and fish
management agencies.

GonaCon is currently being tested on a wide variety of wildlife species
and may be registered for others in the future.

**Rodenticide and Avicide Use for Island Conservation**

The NWRC Registration Unit and APHIS have been integrally involved in
national, interagency efforts to eradicate rodents on islands for the
conservation of critical habitats and the preservation of native flora
and fauna. Work done by WS; the U.S. Department of the Interior's U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National Park Service (NPS), and U.S.
Geological Survey; and many other national and international
organizations has demonstrated that removing introduced rodents from
island ecosystems can have beneficial effects on native organisms and
birds. These efforts have led APHIS to submit three registration
applications to EPA and one application to the Hawaii Department of
Agriculture for applying anticoagulant rodenticides (diphacinone and
brodifacoum) for the eradication of introduced rodents. EPA granted the
first registration, for a diphacinone-based rodenticide, in July 2007.
Registrations for the remaining products are expected in 2007 and 2008.

As a supplement to the body of work on rodent eradication, the
Registration Unit, in cooperation with FWS, published a risk assessment
for aerial diphacinone applications to Hawaiian forests.

The Registration Unit worked closely with two rodent-eradication efforts
conducted by WS Operations, one on a small island off St. Johns in the
U.S. Virgin Islands and one on Grassy Key in Florida. Both of these
efforts were conducted under Emergency Use Permits granted by EPA. The
goal of the Virgin Islands effort was to prepare habitat for the
reintroduction of the endangered Virgin Islands boa. The brodifacoum
bait proposed for registration was hand broadcast at the maximum
application rate. Rats were not observed on the island for at least 6
months. However, trapping efforts 1 year after application revealed that
rats were once again on the island. Failure of this eradication effort
may have been due to the complexity of the physical structure of the
island (e.g., numerous crevices and cliff faces where bait was not
adequately distributed) or because of reinvasion from the neighboring
island 260 yards offshore. Scientists are currently collecting DNA
samples from rodents in the treated area as well as on nearby islands to
identify possible sources of reinvading rodents.

The Registration Unit has also assisted with the eradication of the
recently introduced Gambian giant pouched rat in Florida. Because of
poor containment by the pet trade, this rat became established on Grassy
Key. The FWS, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, and
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services were fearful of
the impacts that the Gambian giant pouched rat could have on southern
Florida and the entire gulf coast region if it became established on the
Florida mainland.

Working with these agencies, NWRC helped obtain a quarantine emergency
exemption from EPA to conduct an eradication effort using specially
formulated zinc phosphide bait. Bait application for this eradication
effort began in June 2007 and continues.

**Rodenticide and Avicide Use for Agricultural Protection**

Rodenticides continue to be a critical tool for the protection of
agricultural resources. During FY07, the Registration Unit responded to
requests from EPA for additional data for zinc phosphide and strychnine.
The Registration Unit also responded to numerous requests for regulatory
assistance from State agencies and WS. Many of the requests for
assistance came from WS Operations personnel looking for help
interpreting product labels to ensure that proposed applications were
legal. However, State agriculture and pesticide agencies also requested
label modification to meet growers' needs and requested scientific
review of registration application material for vertebrate pesticide
products proposed for registration within their States.

All APHIS strychnine products are now officially reregistered with EPA.
These strychnine products are restricted to subterranean baiting for
pocket gophers. The final data requirement for reregistration, a product
storage stability study, was completed and submitted to EPA in FY 2007
by the Registration Unit, in cooperation with the NWRC Analytical
Chemistry Project and the Pocatello Supply Depot.

At the request of EPA, APHIS voluntarily cancelled its two inactive
product labels that allowed aboveground baiting. With the exception of
one Nevada State registration, all aboveground uses of strychnine have
been terminated.

APHIS worked with the State of California on two agricultural protection
studies involving an avicide (DRC--1339) and a rodenticide (zinc
phosphide). To secure a registration for using DRC--1339 in feedlots,
the California EPA asked APHIS to conduct a storage stability study. In
cooperation with the NWRC Analytical Chemistry Project and the Pocatello
Supply Depot, the Registration Unit completed and submitted this study
to the California EPA. With this product approval, all five of the APHIS
DRC--1339 products are now registered for use in California.

The California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) requested an
amendment to the APHIS zinc phosphide concentrate label to include use
with artichokes. CDFA provided all the data needed to ensure product
efficacy and worker safety. APHIS submitted a label amendment request to
EPA in April 2007. Use of this product in artichokes is expected to be
approved in late 2007. In addition to this label modification, APHIS
also submitted a request to EPA to allow use of this product in food and
feed crops, including alfalfa, barley, dry beans, sugar beets, and
wheat.

In FY 2007, the NWRC Registration Unit finished a multiyear cooperative
study with a private rodenticide registrant, the NWRC Olympia Field
Station, and the forest-products industry in the Pacific Northwest to
develop a rodenticide product containing chlorophacinone for controlling
mountain beavers in reforestation areas. The Registration Unit's role in
this project involved obtaining two Experimental Use Permits from EPA to
conduct efficacy trials and trials looking at the economics of baiting
techniques. In addition, the Registration Unit worked closely with the
private rodenticide registrant to ensure a successful product
registration. Through these efforts, the product received State
registrations in Oregon and Washington.

**Providing Wildlife Services**

**National Support**

**NWRC Begins Gull Monitoring Program---**In April and May 2007, NWRC
biologists from the Sandusky, OH, field station and the Illinois WS
program banded and wing-tagged 580 nesting ring-billed gulls. Prior to
the banding and tagging, Illinois WS personnel oiled ring-billed gull
eggs in two nesting colonies in Chicago. This work was done at the City
of Chicago's request in response to beach closures, over the past few
summers, attributed to high bacteria counts thought to be from
ring-billed gulls loafing and feeding at the beaches. From the tagging,
biologists hope to determine whether the nesting colonies are the source
of gulls contaminating the beaches, and whether oiling the eggs of
nesting gulls causes them to abandon the area at the conclusion of the
nesting season. Beaches in Chicago were monitored throughout the summer
to determine if marked gulls use the beaches and if there is a
difference in beach use between gulls that had their eggs oiled and
those that did not. The data are currently being evaluated and will be
published in 2008.

**Biologists Conduct Laughing Gull Nest Survey---**In June 2007,
biologists from the NWRC Sandusky field station, the New York WS
program, the NPS, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, and
other groups conducted a ground-truth census of the laughing-gull
nesting colony in a 600-acre marsh complex in Jamaica Bay near New York
City. The marshes, on NPS property, are adjacent to JFKIA, where
gull--aircraft collisions have posed a serious bird-strike problem. All
gull nests were counted in ten 100- x 100-foot ground-truthing plots
established in the marsh. Aerial photographs will be taken of the entire
marsh complex, and researchers will obtain a nest census of the marsh by
counting all nests, including those in the ground-truth plots, on the
enlarged aerial photographs. Counts on the photographs of the
ground-truth plots will allow for determining the accuracy of the aerial
census. Results of a previous census indicate that the colony contained
about 2,500 nests in 2006, a decline of 66 percent from the 7,600 nests
counted in 1990.

Management programs by WS at JFKIA from 1991 through 2006 have reduced
laughing gull--aircraft collisions by 76 to 99 percent annually compared
to 1988--90, when the airport averaged more than 150 strikes per year.
Although the local population of laughing gulls next to JFKIA has
declined as a result of these management actions, the regional
population from Virginia to Maine has shown an increase during 1990
through 2006, based on analysis of North American Breeding Bird Survey
data. This NWRC-developed census technique is a critical component of
the gull management program at JFKIA and may be of use in other
situations where colonial-nesting waterbirds conflict with human
activities.

**Exotic Wildlife Rapid Response Team Initiated in Florida---**In August
2007, two biologists from the NWRC Gainesville field station and one
biologist from Florida WS met with representatives from various State,
Federal, and tribal entities to form a Rapid Response Task Force for
invasive animal species that threaten the Everglades ecosystem. This
meeting was a result of the Everglades Cooperative Invasive Species
Management Area Summit held in Miami July 25--27, 2007, where groundwork
was laid for cooperative education, research, and funding to address
management of invasive animals. At the Rapid Response Team meeting, WS
was nominated as the primary response agency for the eradication of
newly detected invasive wildlife species.

Cooperative agreements are being developed to facilitate yearly funding
of the necessary management and research activities. The long-term goal
of the team is to extend coverage beyond south Florida to other areas of
the State with invasive wildlife conflicts.

**NWRC Scientists Consulted on Predator-Proof Fencing**---In September
2006, two researchers from the NWRC Hilo, HI, field station were
consulted by the FWS on plans to erect a 45-ha predator-proof fence. The
researchers had previously provided technical assistance in constructing
and testing various fence designs. The proposed placement of the fence
is designed to protect endangered birds, including the Hawaiian crow.
The researchers noted that placement of the fence on lava substrates may
provide fissures that allow rodents to bypass the fence. Final plans for
the fence are still being discussed.

**International Cooperation**

**NWRC Scientists Consult With Mexican Scientists on Bat Control Program
To Protect Cattle---**In September 2006, scientists from APHIS'
International Services Program in Mexico City and the Mexican National
Campaign of Paralytic Rabies in Bovines (SAGARPA) visited NWRC in Fort
Collins. The scientists are collaborating with NWRC researchers on
methods to control bat rabies transmission to cattle in Mexico.

**NWRC Scientists Participate in Avian Influenza Training in
Cambodia---**In January 2007, USDA conducted a cooperative workshop with
the Cambodian Wildlife Protection Office (WPO) in Sihanoukville,
Cambodia. The primary objective of the course was to train 24 WPO
biologists to respond to wild bird morbidity or mortality events. Five
WS personnel from NWRC and the WS National Wildlife Disease Program
instructed participants on wild bird capture, necropsy, and AI sampling
techniques using classroom and field exercises. The success of the
training was well demonstrated during the last field exercise that
required the newly trained staff to respond to a mock
morbidity--mortality event. Staff accurately assessed the status of the
event and then made an appropriate response, wearing protective
equipment to gather birds and collect samples to test for potential AI.

**NWRC Hosts Chinese International Visitor Leadership Program
Scientists---**This leadership program is funded by USDA and hosted by
the U.S. Meat Export Federation for visiting scientists from the
People\'s Republic of China. The program focuses on U.S. implementation
of the World Trade Organization agreement on the application of sanitary
and phytosanitary measures. This year\'s program addressed pathogens and
residues in food exports. The Chinese scientists toured a variety of
U.S. laboratories during the course of the summer program. NWRC
headquarters in Fort Collins was identified by USDA as one of the
laboratories to be included in the training program.

In July 2007, Chinese scientists visited NWRC. Fifteen Chinese
scientists were given a tour of the NWRC headquarters facilities and an
overview of NWRC research programs and activities. Of particular
interest to the Chinese delegation was NWRC research relating to
diagnostic methods development, environmental decontamination, and
vaccine development for prions responsible for chronic wasting disease.
The delegation was also interested in NWRC research relating to
development of AI diagnostic methods for environmental samples and
models for spatial sampling.

Earlier in February 2007, NWRC scientists hosted Mr. He Yubang, Deputy
Director of the Qinghai Lake Nature Reserve in China. The reserve is a
key migratory-bird nesting area and receives between 60,000 and 100,000
birds between the months of March and October each year. In May 2005,
6,000 birds at the lake died of H5N1 AI---the same strain of bird flu
that was found in birds as far away as Russia, Turkey, and several other
Western European countries. Mr. He visited NWRC to learn more about
surveillance and monitoring of animals and wildlife diseases. He
received an overview of NWRC research and later met with bird and
wildlife-disease research scientists, who discussed bird research
activities and NWRC's AI surveillance program.

In July 2007, NWRC Wildlife Disease Research Program scientists hosted
Dr. Ma Guiping, Director of the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
Test Laboratory and Technical Center, Beijing, China. Dr. Ma is a
scientific advisor to the Chinese government on animal disease
prevention and control. Dr. Ma visited NWRC to learn more about the
Center's research on CWD, how he could use the Center's findings to
prevent CWD introduction into China, and how NWRC's work could be useful
to him as related to BSE. NWRC scientists discussed several of their
studies with Dr. Ma and highlighted the capabilities of our facilities.

**Collaboration in Australia To Evaluate Mark--Recapture Population
Estimation---**Mark--recapture is the most common method in wildlife
research and management for estimating abundance of small-mammal
populations. As part of an ongoing collaboration on mark--recapture
estimation, government researchers with Australia\'s Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) visited NWRC in
November 2006 to discuss mark--recapture results from an intensive,
multiyear rodent study from Bribie Island, Australia. Mark--recapture
requires much consideration in its application and interpretation of its
results.

**Collaboration on Indexing Dingoes and Coexisting Species in
Queensland, Australia, To Examine Impacts of Baiting Programs---**An
NWRC scientist is collaborating with a researcher from the Queensland
Department of Natural Resources and Mines to calculate passive tracking
indices for dingoes and 19 other species from three shires in
Queensland. Data have been collected in each of the three shires for 4
years. Passive tracking index values will be assessed for both baited
and unbaited areas within each shire before and after baiting programs.
The results will help discern the effects the bait programs have on
dingo populations, the effects the bait programs have on other species,
and the effects the dingo removal has on the other species.

**Scientists Present AI Workshop in Laos---**In March 2007, WS hosted a
3-day workshop in Vientiane, Laos, on surveillance techniques for the
detection of HPAI virus in wild birds. The goal of the workshop was to
increase the understanding of AI and help develop a framework for a Laos
National Surveillance System for AI in wild birds. In addition to
learning capture, handling, and sampling techniques for gathering AI
samples in wild birds, participants were trained in laboratory
diagnostics and data management. The workshop was similar to one
conducted in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in March 2006.

**Valuing and Investing in People**

NWRC values and invests in its people to support their professionalism,
competency, and innovation as Federal leaders of wildlife damage
management.

**NWRC Biologist Receives APHIS Administrator\'s Civil Rights
Award---**Susan Jojola, a biologist with NWRC\'s Mammals Research
Program, was honored on October 26, 2006, with the USDA--APHIS Civil
Rights Award for her efforts as a Tribal Liaison for the APHIS Native
American Working Group. In that role, Jojola has facilitated
partnerships and information exchange between APHIS and Native Americans
on topics such as AI surveillance, emergency response and preparedness
procedures, and surveillance for chronic wasting disease in deer and
elk. She has also served as a mentor providing career guidance to a
Native American high school student in Fort Collins, CO.

**NWRC Researchers Submit Winning Posters---**Dennis Kohler and Paul
Oesterle, both researchers at NWRC who are pursuing graduate degrees at
CSU, received awards and recognition for their research at the 2006
Zoonotic Disease Colloquium at the university. The two winning posters:

Kohler, D.; Bowen, R.A.; Dunbar, M.R.; McLean, R. G. Duration of
protective immunity in raccoons *(Procyon lotor)* immunized with oral
rabies virus vaccine V-RG.

Oesterle, P.; Hall, J.; McLean, R. G.; Clark, L. Cliff swallows as a
sentinel in West Nile virus surveillance.

**Biologist Honored at Florida Wildlife Society Meeting---**NWRC
biologist John Humphrey was honored with an award in appreciation of his
dedication, support, and promotion of the Florida Chapter of The
Wildlife Society during its ninth annual spring conference in St.
Petersburg, FL.

**World Rabies Day Walk---**On September 7, 2007, about 40 NWRC
employees participated in a 4-km Fun Run/Walk in honor of World Rabies
Day. Each participant received a commemorative T-shirt and information
regarding the WS' National Rabies Management Program and NWRC rabies
research.

The mission of World Rabies Day is to raise awareness about how human
and animal rabies impact world health, how easy the disease is to
prevent, and how its main global sources can be eliminated. Sponsored
events occurred worldwide, including educational programs in Africa,
dances in Brazil, special television programs in Asia, and races run
competitively in Europe.

**2006 Publication Awards**

NWRC's Publication Awards Committee selected these two journal articles
as outstanding research publications for 2006:

Blejwas, K. M.; **Williams, C. L.;** Shin, G. T.; McCullough, D. R.;
**Jaeger, M. M.** Salivary DNA evidence convicts breeding male coyotes
of killing sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 1087--1093.

Kitchen, A. M.; **Gese, E. M.;** Waits, L. P.; Karki, S. M.; Schauster,
E. R. Multiple breeding strategies in the swift fox, *Vulpes velox.*
Animal Behaviour 71: 1029--1038.

Both publications highlight the value of genetic testing as a new tool
in wildlife damage research. Kitchen and coworkers used a combination of
genetic analyses and observational data to closely examine the genetic
relationships and social interactions within a population of
free-ranging swift foxes. The authors documented, for the first time,
extrapair paternity and mate switching in swift foxes. The paper by
Blejwas and coworkers describes the use of a DNA analytical technique
that permits the identification of livestock-killing predators and
distinguishes between individual animals that killed wildlife and those
that merely scavenged wildlife.

**Supporting Student Research**

**Ecological Effects of Coqui Frogs---**Utah State University graduate
student Nathania Tuttle completed her master's thesis on the potential
ecological effects of coqui frogs on Hawaiian invertebrates, plants, and
forest nutrient dynamics. Her research was supported by NWRC. Coqui
frogs, native to Puerto Rico, have rapidly spread across the Hawaiian
islands in the 15 years since they were first documented there. Frog
populations in Hawaii have exceeded 55,000 per hectare. Tuttle found
that the frogs were affecting plant growth and that they may also affect
insect communities. Typically, predators may affect plants by limiting
herbivores. However, she found that frogs were recycling nutrients by
eating a lot of insects, converting them into accessible nutrients, and
then releasing the nutrients for plants to absorb. Her research is
critical because nutrient availability for plants may influence the
competitive balance among native and invasive plants.

**Student Receives Award for Research on Coyote Lure Operative
Devices---**Julia Figueroa, a biological science technician at NWRC and
a CSU Hughs Undergraduate Research Scholar, was awarded honors for her
poster presentation entitled "Obtaining Genetic Data From Activated
Coyote Lure Operative Devices" at the CSU College of Natural Sciences'
"Celebrate Undergraduate Research and Creativity Showcase." Figueroa\'s
poster highlights her work contributing to the development of methods
for extracting DNA from coyote lure operative devices (CLODs) to
identify individual coyotes or nontarget species.

CLODs are a management tool being investigated by NWRC. They orally
deliver active compounds (e.g., contraceptives, vaccines, marking
agents, and toxicants) to coyotes. Other uses include censusing and
monitoring wild populations of coyotes from genetic data collected from
activated (chewed) CLODs.

**Staff Changes**

**Dr. Dale Nolte Accepts Position as WS International Liaison---**In
April 2007, Dale Nolte, NWRC\'s Mammal Research Program Manager,
accepted a new position with the WS Wildlife Disease Coordinator's
office to focus on WS' international training and outreach development.
Nolte will be detailed to APHIS--International Services in Bangkok,
Thailand, to assist in AI wildlife-surveillance training and capacity
building for APHIS and WS. Bangkok is the regional office for
International Services' AI activities in Southeast Asia.

**Dr. Scott Barras Becomes Virginia WS State Director---**In May 2007,
Scott Barras became the new State Director for the Virginia WS program.
Barras has served as the field station leader of the NWRC Starkville,
MS, field station since 2002. In that capacity, he developed research
projects related to understanding and reducing the conflicts between
fish-eating birds and aquaculture producers. From 1999 to 2002, he
served as a Research Wildlife Biologist at the Sandusky, OH, field
station, where he developed and conducted research aimed at reducing the
factors that contribute to wildlife--aircraft collisions. He is
currently an Assistant Adjunct Professor with the Department of Wildlife
and Fisheries Sciences at Mississippi State University and is a
certified wildlife biologist with the Wildlife Society.

**NWRC Research Chemist Stationed at Monell Chemical Senses
Center---**Dr. Bruce Kimball, a research chemist with NWRC, has been
assigned to a duty station at the Monell Chemical Senses Center. Kimball
will continue to report directly to the project leader for "Development
of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Computational-Based Tools for Wildlife
Damage Management" project within NWRC's Invasive Species and Technology
Development Research Program.

NWRC and the Monell Chemical Senses Center have a long history of
working together, and Kimball's move allows NWRC to capitalize on the
chemosensory expertise available at Monell. There are a number of
potential research areas that could be investigated through this
collaboration, including chemosensory evaluation of baits for vaccine
delivery, tools to reduce urban deer browsing, evaluation of
attractants, repellants, physiological responses to avoidance stimuli,
and chemosensory evaluation of baits for invasive species eradication.

**Retirements**

**Jean Bourassa** retired from NWRC in August 2007, after 34 years with
the Center and its predecessor organization, the Denver Wildlife
Research Center. He worked in the electronics lab designing and
producing electronic instrumentation for wildlife research, including
telemetry designs and attachment techniques. In 1996, upon relocation to
Fort Collins, he added duties working on GIS data.

Since **John Cummings** started working for WS in 1974, in his role as a
Supervisory Research Wildlife Biologist, he has been instrumental in
NWRC\'s efforts to develop new tools and techniques for reducing
blackbird damage to rice and other crops. Mr. Cummings worked on methyl
anthranilate as a goose repellant for turf; aerial mass-marking of
blackbirds in rice fields to determine movements and distribution in
southern rice-growing areas; a "take\" model to estimate take of
blackbirds with DRC-1339 on staging areas; Aqua-blok™ as a covering
material for contaminants at Eagle River Flats in Alaska; and capture
techniques such as mini-cannons and nets, the air cannon, the
groove-cock, and the night-hawker to capture birds.

Since **Marge Goodall** joined NWRC in 1989, she has been the supervisor
of the Analytical Services group (part of the Invasive Species and
Technology Development Research Program). She persevered through the
chemistry lab remodelling project at the Denver Wildlife Research Center
and the move from Denver to two different Fort Collins locations. Marge
retired in April 2007.

**Paige Groninger** began work in the fiscal office of the Denver
Wildlife Research Center in 1964. She then obtained her degree in math
and computer science under an upward mobility program and began working
on a new career path as a computer programmer. She has helped numerous
NWRC scientists through her expertise in SAS databases and programming.
She retired in March 2007.

**Joyce Jones** has retired after 23 years of civilian Government
service. She served as NWRC's Administrative Officer since 2003. In this
role, she had oversight responsibilities of administrative, facilities,
Information Technology, and security sections of the Center. In
retirement, Ms. Jones plans to travel overseas, spend more quality time
with her grandchildren, and pursue her hobbies of birding, golfing,
volunteering, reading, and relaxing.

**Fred Knowlton** worked for 43 years at NWRC focusing on

predator behavior and ecology. He initially started at the Denver
Wildlife Research Center, but was transferred to Utah in 1972. Dr.
Knowlton was primarily responsible for the development and construction
of the predator research facility and field station at Logan, UT. In
retirement, he plans to continue working with the field station staff
and Utah State University students.

**Charlotte Miller-**Charlotte retired from her position as WS'
Information Technology Project Leader and Training Coordinator in
December 2007. She also served as the National Wildlife Services Equal
Employment Opportunity Advisory Committee Chair working in the areas of
employee recruitment, training, and outreach and was active on the Board
of Directors for the Combined Federal Campaign of Larimer County. Dr.
Miller plans to spend more time with her three children, five
grandchildren, and one great grandchild.

**Information and Communication**

**Information Services**

**TITLE: Enhancing Information and Communication**

**GOAL:** Collect and analyze internal and external information to
monitor and enhance program effectiveness. Communicate internally and
externally to accomplish NWRC's mission and to build an understanding of
the Federal role in wildlife damage management.

**Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species Symposium---**On August 7 through
9, 2007, NWRC hosted an international symposium in Fort Collins on
managing invasive birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. About 160
people attended. The goal of the symposium was to highlight research,
management, and public education campaigns associated with invasive
wildlife. Speakers at the plenary sessions provided national and
international perspectives and summaries of invasive species problems.
More than 50 additional speakers, from the United States and 8 foreign
countries, presented information on economic and other impacts of
invasive species; the regulatory environment; the need for coordination
of efforts among agencies and nations; pathways and means-of-entry for
invasives; and detection, prevention, eradication and monitoring of
individual species. An additional 20 technical posters were displayed.
Smaller gatherings, focusing on specialized topics, followed the
conference. NWRC employees provided tours of the Center's headquarters,
including the new ISRB.

**Economics of Wildlife Damage Management Leaflet---**NWRC's Economic
Research Project and the use of economics in wildlife damage management
are highlighted in a new leaflet entitled "Solutions Through Science:
Economics of Wildlife Damage Management." The full-color publication is
aimed at WS Operations and wildlife managers who are interested in
conducting economic assessments.

**Library---**While the library's catalog holdings increased by 378
items in 2007, its journal print subscriptions were reduced by about 20
percent as serial online access increased through the USDA's Digital
Desktop service. A library-materials inventory has been implemented to
identify and locate items checked out by NWRC staff over the last 10
years.

Three new taxidermic displays have been added to the library. Visitors
can now view male and female red-winged blackbirds in a cattail marsh
arrangement, an invasive BTS, and an invasive Gambian giant pouched rat.
The displays are used in tours and as educational tools by staff
members.

Library staff contributed to several new NWRC outreach products. The
library coordinated a Center-wide effort that resulted in production of
11 new wall posters explaining NWRC research programs and various
invasive species problems. These posters were used as educational
materials in the newly opened ISRB. The posters were updated later in
the year to reflect organizational changes. Library staff also
coordinated a new "Solutions Through Science" leaflet on wildlife damage
management economics research at NWRC. This publication was released as
a USDA Program Aid in August. Library staff redesigned the Annual
Publication List, implementing new NWRC graphics.

Information Services Unit staff borrowed, photocopied, or downloaded
more than 1,000 items from other libraries in response to information
requests from the WS program and lent 142 items in return. Additionally,
staff photocopied nearly 2,273 inhouse journal articles, reports, and
NWRC-authored reprints for distribution to researchers and WS Operations
staff. More than 1,000 copies each of the NWRC-produced annual
accomplishments report, Research Update, and Publication List were
mailed. More than 10,000 other NWRC or WS information products were
distributed, including children's activity sheets, factsheets, and
information packets.

**NWRC Web Site---**Extensive work was directed toward reformatting and
organizing NWRC's Web-based information into the new USDA-required Web
template. In addition to updating and reorganizing project and program
content pages, the NWRC Webmaster renamed several hundred photos and
resized them to meet new guidelines.

**Archives---**The mission of the NWRC Archives/Records Management Unit
is to collect, preserve, and make available the research records and
materials that document the history of NWRC. To that end, much of the
Unit's work in the past year focused on tasks to organize and make
accessible historical records. The Unit also highlighted, in exhibits
and staff-outreach activities, materials that tell the story of NWRC's
research.

The Sixth Annual NWRC Archives Week, from October 1 through 5, 2007, was
a time to internally publicize NWRC archival records. An open house in
October featured exhibits and a presentation on the Center's telemetry
research.

Archives staff developed and displayed a hallway exhibit on NWRC's
rodent research. The exhibit focused on the Center's past and present
rodent research, including current work on the eradication of the
Gambian giant pouched rat in Florida. The hallway exhibit provides an
opportunity to highlight both current and past research to visitors and
staff.

**Trapping Oral History Initiative---**This initiative, the brainchild
of NWRC's Dr. John Shivik, began in 2005 as a WS collaborative effort
between Operations and the NWRC. With its focus on interviewing retired
and current WS employees, the initiative emphasizes the trapping and
hunting aspects of the program. The idea of the interviews grew out of
conversations between John and field personnel, who noted the loss of
knowledge as people retired or passed on.

In 2005 and 2006, Nancy Freeman and Diana Dwyer, both members of NWRC's
Information Services unit, conducted 24 interviews, mainly in the West.
Additional interviews are planned for covering the eastern part of the
United States in 2007--08 if funding becomes available. The transcribed
interviews will become part of the NWRC Archives.

The overriding similarity in the interviews is that the current and
retired employees loved their work. They may not have liked everything
about it, but overwhelmingly, they say they'd have worked for no one
else and would not have done any other type of work.

In the words of Dale Booth, current Utah WS employee, ". . . \[I\]t's
been a good job. It's been my life, you know, I mean, that's what I've
enjoyed. After working 38 and a half years, if I could be young again,
I'd do the very same thing."

**Media Relations---**In 2007, NWRC and APHIS Legislative and Public
Affairs staff responded to roughly 89 media and community requests for
information regarding WS research activities. NWRC also hosted three
reporters at its headquarters office in Fort Collins. Visits included
tours of the facilities and interviews with experts on the topics of
wildlife contraceptives, invasive species, and product registration.

**Seminars**

The NWRC seminar program offers a valuable forum for the exchange of
ideas among Center staff, field station personnel, visiting scientists,
and WS Operations staff. During 2007, NWRC hosted about 17 seminars,
including presentations by speakers from various universities and
foreign wildlife organizations, NWRC headquarters and field staff, and
potential candidates for employment. Topics included economic
assessments, bear--human conflicts, wildlife toxicology, and wildlife
diseases. The following table lists the 2007 presentations.

**Presentations by NWRC scientists and visitors during 2007**

+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| **Speaker**   | **Affiliation**   | **Title**                       |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Camilla Myers | Wildlife          | Wildlife Research: New          |
|               | Research, CSIRO   | Directions and Opportunities    |
|               | Publishing Co.    | for Publication                 |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Teresa Howes, | APHIS Legislative | Standing on Top of the World:   |
|               | and Public        | Lessons Learned From an         |
| Gail Keirn    | Affairs           | Interagency Media Event in      |
|               |                   | Barrow, AK                      |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Charles R.    | University of     | Ecology of Buggy Creek Virus,   |
| Brown         | Tulsa             | an Arbovirus in the Western     |
|               |                   | Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus  |
|               |                   | Complex, in Western Nebraska    |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| George Linz,  | NWRC, Bismarck,   | Current Research Topics at the  |
|               | ND                | North Dakota Field Station and  |
| Jeff Homan    |                   | Starling Research in Urban      |
|               |                   | Environments                    |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Bob Kling     | CSU               | Economic Assessment of Canada   |
|               |                   | Goose Management Efforts in the |
|               |                   | Puget Sound Area                |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| John Johnston | NWRC, Fort        | NWRC Sabbatical Seminar: PBPK   |
|               | Collins           | Modeling and Piedmont Blues     |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Darlene       | WS Information    | Using SQL Builder To Access MIS |
| Blaney,       | Technology        | Data                            |
|               | Support Center    |                                 |
| Scott         |                   |                                 |
| Peterson,     |                   |                                 |
|               |                   |                                 |
| Mike Moxcey   |                   |                                 |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Stewart Breck | NWRC, Fort        | The Emergence of Bear--Human    |
|               | Collins           | Conflict: Understanding the     |
|               |                   | Bear Necessities and            |
|               |                   | Development of Carrots and      |
|               |                   | Sticks                          |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Jeff Root     | NWRC, Fort        | Sabbatical Seminar: A Search    |
|               | Collins           | for Rodent-Borne Viruses in     |
|               |                   | East Africa                     |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Gary Witmer,  | NWRC, Fort        | Big Effort To Rid Florida of    |
|               | Collins           | Big Rats Before They Become a   |
| Rick Engeman  |                   | Big Problem                     |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Geoffrey      | Moi University,   | The Status of Human--Wildlife   |
| Wahungu       | Eldoret, Kenya    | Conflict in Kenya               |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Erik Osnas    | University of     | Spatial Epidemiology of Chronic |
|               | W                 | Wasting Disease in Wisconsin    |
|               | isconsin--Madison |                                 |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Seth Britch   | USDA Agricultural | Rift Valley Fever Virus, a      |
|               | Research Service  | Potential Emerging Threat to    |
|               |                   | Wildlife, Livestock, and Humans |
|               |                   | in the U.S.--A Review of Issues |
|               |                   | and Concerns, and a GIS         |
|               |                   | Early-Warning System for RVF    |
|               |                   | Vectors                         |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| John Shivik   | NWRC, Logan, UT   | Logan, UT, Field Station        |
|               |                   | Update, 2007                    |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Susan Shriner | NWRC, Fort        | An Epidemiological Network      |
|               | Collins           | Model for AI in Backyard        |
|               |                   | Poultry in Colorado             |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Barnett       | U.S. Geological   | Wildlife Toxicology Studies at  |
| Rattner       | Survey            | the Patuxent Wildlife Research  |
|               |                   | Center                          |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
| Susan Wilzer, | National          | DigiTop Overview                |
|               | Agricultural      |                                 |
| Tanya Tanner  | Library           |                                 |
+---------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+

**Meetings, Workshops, and Conference Presentations**

To help promote collaboration and the exchange of scientific
information, NWRC scientists often present at, host, or attend national
and international scientific meetings. Some of the meetings recently
attended or hosted by NWRC scientists include the follwing:

American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Conference

Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Meeting

National Tribal Invasive Species Conference

Engineering Safety and Maintenance for Overhead Lines Conference

American Chemical Society National Meeting

Annual Wyoming Weed and Pest Conference

Aquaculture American 2005

Association for Chemoreception Sciences Annual Meeting

Bird Strike Committee--U.S.A./Canada

Electric Power Research Institute

International Mammalogical Congress

International Rodent Symposium

International Society of Chemical Ecology

International Symposium on Zoo and Wildlife Disease

International Wildlife Fertility Control Workshop

Managing Invasive Vertebrate Species

Michigan Annual Bovine TB Conference

Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference

National Reindeer Herders Conference

Oregon Forest Industries Council Annual Meeting

Prion 2006: Strategies, Advances, and Trends Toward Protection of
Society

Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry--Europe

Special Libraries Association Meeting

Sunflower Grower Meeting

Texas Cattle Fever Meeting

United States Animal Health Association

Washington Forest Protection Association

Western States and Provinces deer and elk workshops

Western States Nutria Workshop

Wildlife Damage Management Symposium

Wildlife Disease Association Meeting

Wildlife Society Meeting

**Publications**

Authors' names printed in **boldface** type are NWRC employees.

**Arjo, W. M.** 2007. Mountain beaver: a primitive fossorial rodent. In:
Begall, S.; Burda, S.; Schleich, C. E., eds. Subterranean rodents: news
from underground. Berlin, Germany: Springer--Verlag: 309--321.

**Arjo, W. M.; Nolte, D. L.** 2007. Mountain beaver home ranges, habitat
use, and population dynamics in Washington. Canadian Journal of Zoology
85: 328--337.

**Arjo, W. M.; Nolte, D. L.** 2006. Boomer or bust: managing a Pacific
Northwest pest species. In: Timm, R. M.; O'Brien, J. M., eds.
Proceedings of the 22d vertebrate pest conference; 6--9 March 2006;
Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA: University of California, Davis: 181--186.

**Arjo, W. M.; Gese, E. M.**; Bennett, T. J.; Kozlowski, A. J. 2007.
Changes in kit fox--coyote--prey relationships in the Great Basin
Desert, Utah. Western North American Naturalist 67: 389--401.

**Arjo, W. M.; Wagner, K. K.; Nolte, D. L.; Stahl, R. S. Johnston, J.
J.** 2006. Potential non--target risks from strychnine--containing
rodent carcasses. Crop Protection 25: 182--187.

Atwood, T. C.; **Gese, E. M.**; Kunkel, K. E. 2007. Comparative patterns
of predation by cougars and recolonizing wolves in Montana\'s Madison
Range. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 1098--106.

Atwood, T. C.; **VerCauteren, K. C.; DeLiberto, T. J.; Smith, H. J.;
Stevenson, J. S.** 2007. Coyotes as sentinels for monitoring bovine
tuberculosis prevalence in white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife
Management 71: 1545--54.

**Avery, M. L.; Humphrey, J. S.; Tillman, E. A.**; **Milleson, M. P.**
2006. Responses of black vultures to roost dispersal in Radford,
Virginia. In: Proceedings of the 22d vertebrate pest conference; 6--9
March 2006; Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA: University of California, Davis:
239--243.

**Avery, M. L.; Keacher, K. L.; Tillman, E. A.** 2006. Development of
nicarbazin bait for managing rock pigeon populations. In: Proceedings of
the 22d vertebrate pest conference; 6--9 March 2006; Berkeley, CA.
Davis, CA: University of California, Davis: 116--120.

Balliette, J.; O'Brien, J. M.; **Eisemann, J. D.** 2006. Efficacy of
strychnine and zinc phosphide cabbage baits in controlling ground
squirrels in Diamond Valley, Nevada. In: Proceedings of the 22d
vertebrate pest conference; 6--9 March 2006; Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA:
University of California, Davis: 151--155.

Bangs, E.; Jiminez, M.; Niemeyer, C.; Fontaine, J.C.M.; Krischke, R.;
Handegard, L.; **Shivik, J.**; Sime, C.; Nadeau, S.; Mack, C.; Smith, D.
W.; Asher, V.; Stone, S. 2006. Non--lethal and lethal tools to manage
wolf--livestock conflict in the northwestern United States. In: Timm, R.
M.; O'Brien, J. M., eds. Proceedings of the 22d vertebrate pest
conference; 6--9 March 2006; Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA: University of
California, Davis: 7--16.

Beasley, J. C.; **DeVault, T. L.**; Retomsa, M. L.; Rhodes, O. E., Jr.
2007. A hierarchical analysis of habitat selection by raccoons in
northern Indiana. Journal of Wildlife Management 71(4): 1125--1133.

Bentler, K. T.; Hall, J. S.; Root, J. J.; Klenk, K.; **Schmit, B.;
Blackwell, B. F.**; Ramey, P. C.; **Clark, L.** 2007. Serologic evidence
of West Nile virus exposure in North American mesopredators. American
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76: 179.

**Berentsen, A. R.; Johnston, J. J.; Mauldin, R. E.; Schmidt, R. H.**
2006. Using the CLOD to deliver pentachlorobenzene to coyotes *(Canis
latrans).* In: Proceedings of the 22d vertebrate pest conference; 6--9
March 2006; Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA: University of California, Davis:
277--281.

Berger, K. M.; **Gese, E. M.** 2007. Does interference competition with
wolves limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes? Journal of
Animal Ecology 76:1075--85.

**Blackwell, B. F.; Avery, M. L.**; Watts, B. D.; Lowney, M. S. 2007.
Demographics of black vultures in North Carolina. Journal of Wildlife
Management 71(6): 1976--1979.

**Blackwell, B. F.; Seamans, T. W.; Washburn, B. E.** 2006. Use of
infrared technology in wildlife surveys. In: Proceedings of the 22d
vertebrate pest conference; 6--9 March 2006; Berkeley, CA. Davis, CA:
University of California, Davis: 467--472.

**Blackwell, B. F.; Wright, S. E.** 2006. Collisions of red--tailed
hawks *(Buteo jamaicensis)*, turkey vultures *(Cathartes aura)* and
black vultures *(Coragyps atratus)* with aircraft: implications for bird
strike reduction. Journal of Raptor Research 40: 76--80.

Blejwas, K. M.; **Williams, C. L.**; Shin, G. T.; McCullough, D. R.;
**Jaeger, M. M.** 2006. Salivary DNA evidence convicts breeding male
coyotes of killing sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 1087--1093.

**Breck, S. W.** 2006. Sampling rare or elusive species: concepts,
designs, and techniques for estimating population parameters: a review.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 34: 897--898.

**Breck, S. W.; Lance, N.**; Callahan, P. 2006. A shocking device for
protection of concentrated food sources from black bears. Wildlife
Society Bulletin 34: 23--26.

Bucknall, J.; Suckow, J.; Miller, E.; **Seamans, T.**; Stern, C.;
Trumbull, V. L. 2006. USDA APHIS Wildlife Services employs cooperative
partnerships and use of alternative capture methods to retrieve flighted
birds affected by oil on the Delaware River. In: The effects of oil on
wildlife: proceedings of the 8th international conference; 3--5 August
2005; St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada. Newark, DE: Tri--State Bird
Rescue & Research, Inc.: 29--36.

**Bynum, K. S.; Eisemann, J. D.; Weaver, G. C.; Yoder, C. A.;
Fagerstone, K. A.; Miller, L.** 2007. Nicarbazin OvoControl G bait
reduces hatchability of eggs laid by resident Canada geese in Oregon.
Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 135--143.

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