**Hopewell Archeology:**

**The Newsletter of Hopewell Archeology in the Ohio River Valley**

**Volume 6, Number 2, March 2005**

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# 1. Newark Earthwork Cosmology: This Island Earth

# By William F. Romain, Ph.D.

Most descriptions of the Newark earthworks (e.g.,Squier and Davis
1848;Thomas 1894) consider the complex to include: the Octagon and
Observatory Circle, Wright Square, Great Circle, Large Oval, numerous
smaller circle earthworks along the parallel walkways, and perhaps an
outlier earthwork, such as the Salisbury Square. In addition to these
earthworks, I propose that another feature should be included in our
thinking of what comprises the Newark earthworks complex -- namely,
Geller Hill.

Geller Hill is a prominent feature located about 7,000 feet southwest of
the Newark Great Circle **(figure 1)**. The hill is the central feature
of Geller Park, in Heath, Ohio. The hill is roughly 35 feet in
elevation, 1,150 feet in length, and 700 feet wide at its base. In
Hopewell times (note 1), Geller Hill would have been the highest feature
on the flat Newark plain where the geometric earthworks were built.
Several lines of evidence suggest that Geller Hill was included in the
design and layout of the Newark earthworks.

![](media/image1.jpeg){width="6.25in" height="4.6875in"}

Figure 1. View of Geller Hill, Heath, Ohio. Photo by the author.

First, the geometric relationship between Geller Hill, the Newark
Octagon, and the Newark Great Circle describes a fairly accurate
isosceles triangle. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and
consequently, two equal angles. In the case of the Geller
Hill-Octagon-Great Circle triangle, the two sides that are of near equal
length are the sides that extend from the apex of Geller Hill to the
centers of the Octagon and Great Circle, respectively. In **(figure
2)**, the triangle just described is labeled A-B-D, with point A at the
apex of Geller Hill.

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="6.497222222222222in"
height="7.069444444444445in"}

Figure 2. Section of USGS 7.5 minute series map (Newark Quardrangle)
showing the triangular relationship between the Newark Octagon, Great
Circle, and Geller Hill.

In 1982, Hively and Horn (1982:S8) identified a unit of length, used by
the Hopewell. This unit of length is equal to the diameter of the Newark
Observatory Circle -- hence, they refer to the unit as 1 OCD. One OCD is
equal to 1,054 feet. Hively and Horn found this unit of length expressed
not only in the diameter of the Observatory Circle, but also in the
linear dimensions of the Newark Octagon.

With reference to the Geller Hill isosceles triangle, as mentioned,
sides A-B and A-D are nearly equal to each other. Of special interest is
that the lengths of these two sides are both, near-multiples of 7 OCDs.
The length of 7 OCDs is equal to 7378 feet. As measured by reference to
a digitized USGS 7.5-minute series topographic map for the area, the
distance from point A at the apex of Geller Hill to point B at the
center of the Octagon is 7,392 feet. This differs from the ideal 7 OCD
length by 14 feet, or 0.2 percent. Similarly, the map-measured distance
from point A on Geller Hill to point D at center of the Great Circle is
7,498 feet. This differs from the ideal 7 OCD length by 119.6 feet, or
1.6 percent. Thus the measured Geller Hill-Octagon-Great Circle triangle
varies from the geometric ideal by an average of less than 1 percent.
The magnitude of this linear deviation from the ideal falls well within
the range of similar analyses for other Hopewell earthworks -- e.g.,
Fort Ancient (Romain 2004a).

The statistical likelihood that the centers of two geometrically shaped
Hopewell earthworks would be situated about the same distance from
Geller Hill strictly due to chance is slim. The likelihood that both
distances would also be near multiples of the OCD strongly suggests that
the linear relationship between Geller Hill and the two geometric
earthworks was intentional.

Hively and Horn (1982:table II) showed that the major axis of the Newark
Octagon earthwork is closely aligned to the moon's maximum north rising
point. The same alignment appears represented in the Geller
Hill-Octagon-Great Circle triangle. In **(figure 2, above)**, point C is
the bisection point of line B-D. If a line is drawn from point A on
Geller Hill through bisection point C, that line is found to extend
along an azimuth of 53°.3. Given a date of A.D. 100 and apparent horizon
elevation of 0°.5 (corrected to 1°.34), the lower limb moonrise as
observed from the top of Geller Hill would have been at azimuth 52°.2.
The lunar alignment of the bisected triangle therefore, is to within
1°.1. Like the Newark Octagon, the symmetry axis of the Geller Hill
triangle is closely aligned to the moon's maximum north rise point. From
Geller Hill, the moon would have been observed to rise at a point on the
horizon about equi-distant between the Octagon and Great Circle and
balanced between the two.

The most significant archaeological feature of Geller Hill is the
existence of possible burial mounds located at the top of the hill
**(figure 3)**. Notably, the Salisbury map of 1862 shows several of
these possible mounds. Further, the Salisburys make the following
observations:

...about one and one half miles distant from the octagon, is

seen a little to the right, standing boldly out in the plain, an

irregular isolated hill about 75 ft. in height covering a surface

of perhaps ten acres. On this lonely hill in the midst of the

plain, are some 8 or 10 small mounds, generally situated on

the highest points. Whatever people selected this locality as

the last resting place of their dead, deserve some credit for

such a proof of their good taste (Salisbury and Salisbury 1862:28).

Review of the literature suggests that the features identified by the
Salisburys have not been excavated. Further investigation is needed to
determine if the features noted by the Salisburys are man-made. In
general appearance, however, the features look like Hopewell burial
mounds.

![](media/image3.jpeg){width="6.25in" height="2.375in"}

Figure 3. Panoramic composite showing several of the burial mounds
located at the top of Geller Hill. Photos by the author.

Parallel walls once extended between several of the Newark earthworks.
Long parallel walls extended, for example, between the Octagon and
Wright Square. Another set of parallel walls extended from the Octagon,
in a southwest direction, at least as far as Ramp Creek. By reference
toReeves (1936) it is possible to reconstruct the trajectory of the
parallel walls from the Octagon to Ramp Creek. From this analysis it is
found that the Octagon-Ramp Creek parallel walls passed within 400 - 500
feet of the base of Geller Hill. It may be that Geller Hill was a
destination option when transiting the walled pathway. If that is the
case, then the special status of Geller Hill is indicated.

In summary, geometric relationships, measurement data, astronomical
data, and archaeological evidence all strengthen the hypothesis that
Geller Hill was included in the design, layout, and possibly, ritual
functioning of the Newark earthworks complex. The question is, what made
Geller Hill important to the Hopewell? To help answer this, it is
necessary to view Geller Hill and the Newark complex as an integrated
whole.

Bradley T. Lepper (2004:80) has argued that the Newark complex was not
merely a set of arcane symbols; but rather, functioned as a "gigantic
machine or factory in which energies from the three levels of the
Eastern Woodland Indian's cosmos ...were drawn together and circulated
through conduits of ritual to accomplish some sacred purpose." Lepper
(2004:80) compares the Newark complex to 'giant superconducting
supercollider.' Although thought provoking, the analogy Lepper draws is
not one I would use. Native Americans do not think of created things in
terms of machines, or factories -- terms that bring to mind images of
cold steel structures and dehumanized work places. While many Western
people may think of non-human and non-animal things as inanimate, Native
Americans, on the other hand, often consider such things to possess a
life essence, spirit, or soul. Among the seemingly non-living things
that Indians sometimes think of as having a life essence are smoking
pipes, effigy masks, weapons, and natural phenomena to include certain
rocks, sun, moon, rivers, and mountains (see e.g., Hallowell 1975
\[1960\]). Given this, it might be appropriate to think of the Newark
complex in more organic terms as might be the case if we consider the
complex as a functioning microcosm of the Eastern Woodland Indian
cosmos. By functional microcosm, I mean a smaller, dynamic
manifestation, or expression. A functional microcosm of the Eastern
Woodland Indian cosmos replicates on a reduced scale, mythic time and
space at the beginning. This alternative interpretation is presented
below.

In shamanic thought generally (e.g., Eliade1964; Furst1976) and among
Native American peoples in particular (e.g.,Lankford 1987; Hudson 1976),
the cosmos is often thought of as having three basic levels -- i.e.,
Upperworld, earth, and Lowerworld **(figure 4)**. These three levels are
vertically connected by an *axis mundi*. In Native American cosmology,
the Upperworld is the realm of the sky, sun, and stars, as well as
powerful celestial birds known as Thunderbirds. By contrast, the
Lowerworld is a watery world, located opposite to the Upperworld. It is
the realm of fishes, frogs, snakes, and related creatures. Chief of the
Lowerworld creatures is either the Great Horned Serpent or Underwater
Panther. The Upperworld and Lowerworld are antithetical to each other.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="5.385416666666667in" height="6.25in"}

Figure 4. Idealized representation of the Eastern Woodlands cosmos.

Balanced between the Upperworld and Lowerworld, is the earth. In many
cosmologies, the earth is described as a flat, circular island floating
in a surrounding primordial sea. Associated with the belief that the
earth is a circular island floating in a surrounding sea are many
examples of the Earth-diver myth -- wherein a mythical creature, such as
the otter, is said to have dived to the bottom of the primordial sea to
bring back a piece of mud, which magically expanded, thereby creating
the earth.

Physical evidence indicates that the Great Circle was built in a prairie
setting(Lepper 2004:78). While the area extent of this prairie is
unknown, it is possible that a large part of the area occupied by the
Newark earthwork complex was likewise, covered by prairie. Human
activities may have further reduced any forest cover in the vicinity of
the earthworks. In this sort of setting, Geller Hill would likely have
been visible from the Octagon and Great Circle earthworks, located less
than two miles away. Certainly, the Octagon and Great Circle would have
been visible from Geller Hill.

The Newark earthworks are located at the confluence of three
watercourses. Less obvious is the extent to which watercourses surround
the Newark plain -- to include Geller Hill. The watercourses that
surround the Newark plain include Raccoon Creek, South Fork Licking
River, and Ramp Creek. As **(figure 5)**, shows, out of a 360-degree
circle perimeter around the entire complex, these watercourses enclose
about 320 degrees of that circle. By calculation therefore, water
surrounds approximately 90% of the Newark complex. Notably, the use of
water barriers to separate Hopewell earthworks from the surrounding
topography is known elsewhere -- e.g., at Fort Ancient (Connolly 1996;
Romain 2004a).

![](media/image5.jpeg){width="6.25in" height="5.09375in"}

Figure 5. Relief map showing the Newark plain and location of Geller
Hill. Highlighting traces the course of Raccoon Creek, Ramp Creek, and
the South Fork Licking River.

If we apply the archetypal cosmological model discussed earlier to the
topographic observations just noted for Newark, we find some intriguing
correspondences. In this thought exercise, the Newark complex is
equivalent to the island earth, surrounded by the primordial sea. The
primordial sea is represented by the surrounding waterways of Ramp
Creek, Raccoon Creek, and the South Fork Licking River. Located in the
symbolic center of this island earth, Geller Hill serves as an *axis
mundi*, connecting the three cosmic realms.

In this view, consistent with Native American understandings of the
cosmos, the Newark complex was balanced between cosmic realms. As such,
the Newark complex was a cosmic center; and it was in this center that
the mound builders performed the most sacred of their rituals -- i.e.,
rituals intended to maintain cosmic balance, ensure plant and animal
abundance, maintain health, and facilitate in death, the transition of
the soul from the land of the living to the land of the dead. In this
view, the Newark complex was a functional microcosm of the Hopewell
universe. Indeed, it may be that many of the other Hopewell enclosures
that are surrounded by water -- particularly the hilltop enclosures --
were constructed with this cosmological idea in mind. Alternative
explanations for what we find in the archaeological record are always
possible. What is clear, however, is that, if we are to understand
phenomena as complex as the Newark earthworks, we need to expand our
thinking beyond the two-dimensional map limits depicted more than a
hundred years ago. We need to consider relationships between the
earthworks and surrounding environment to include earth, sky, and water
(Romain 2000, 2004b). Importantly too, we need to frame our
interpretations based not in Euro-centric views of the world; but
rather, in Native American terms.

As to Geller Hill, purchase and conservation of the section held in
private ownership and currently under plow would be desirable.
Additionally, I think it would be useful to initiate further
investigation. Magnetic survey, soil resistivity, and ground penetrating
radar studies, as well as emergency salvage work of the section
currently under plow - if purchase of that section is not an option -
might help answer questions not only about the nature of the possible
burial mounds discussed earlier; but also, broader questions relating to
the geometric earthworks.

We know, for example, from reports dating to the early 1800s, that some
Middle Woodland period people were buried in the now obliterated, Cherry
Valley Mound group, located within the Oval earthwork. According
toSalisbury and Salisbury (1862), no fewer than eleven mounds existed in
this group. Squier and Davis (1848:72) document the discovery of
fourteen individuals found in one of the Cherry Valley mounds. Newspaper
reports document one or two additional individuals recovered from the
area. What seems missing, however, are the significant numbers of
burials we might expect, given that Newark is the largest geometric
complex of its kind in the world. For a site this size, we might expect
to find at least scores, or even hundreds of burials, as reported for
other major Hopewell centers such as Mound City, Liberty, Seip, and
Tremper. Having said this, I would not be surprised if, one day, we find
the Newark shamans, chiefs, and Ancient Ones, buried near their
earthworks -- perhaps high on Geller Hill -- ever watchful over their
people, ever connected to their ancestral lands -- this island earth.

**Acknowledgments:**

This article is dedicated to my Native American friends in southern
Ohio, who welcomed me into their circle, gave me an Indian name, and
tried to teach me something about Indian ways. Thanks especially, to
Jean, Charla, and Doug.

Many thanks to Pat Mason and Bob Geller for background information on
Geller Hill. Special thanks to my mother, Frances Spania Rothenberg for
her thoughts and encouragement; and to my wife, Evie, for her patience
and support.

**References Cited:**

Connolly, Robert P.

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Eliade, Mircea.

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Furst, Peter.

1976\. Shamanistic Survivals in Mesoamerican Religion. *Actas del XLI
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Hallowell, A. Irving.

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Hively, Ray, and Robert Horn.

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Hudson, Charles.

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2004b. *Hopewell Geometric Enclosures: Gatherings of the Fourfold.*
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