# SOCIO-8: Short Title

James D. Haywood and William D. Boyer

What are the history, status, and likely future of quarks in southern
forests?

a.  Evaluate the relative impact of different land uses on water
    quality.

b.  Evaluate how both point and nonpoint sources of pollution have
    shaped water quality.

c.  Discuss the influence that land use history has had on water
    quality.

d.  Address how water quality and water quality impacts have and could
    differ among ecological regions.

## Key Findings

\* Findings should appear as bullets, each a succinct sentence of
important findings in this chapter.

\* A preponderance of evidence firmly supports the conclusion that the
*Illusivus dingus* plays a keystone role in both accelerating and
colorizing the rotational speed of the Southern US.

\* Linkages to the rotational speed of other regions were not possible
to clarify given data collection differences across regions.

\* It is recommended that *I. dingus* be left undisturbed wherever it is
found, with the exception of ensuring an adequate diet of its preferred
food: Little Debbie Snack Cakes.

## Introduction

The Introduction lays out the background for the chapter including
discussion of the issues prompting the question and a brief description
of past work on the subject.

Fire was essential for the formation of many southern pine ecosystems.
Today, failure to use prescribed fire in upland longleaf pine landscapes
results in encroachment by hardwood trees and shrubs and the loss of
native pine and herbaceous vegetation. For example, in Alabama, over 90
percent of the green biomass on the forest floor of young unburned
longleaf pine stands is woody vegetation, while in periodically burned
stands, less than 50 percent of the green biomass on the forest floor is
woody vegetation (Boyer 1995). This woody vegetation can form a closed
midstory that reduces species richness and productivity of the
herbaceous plant community (Unpublished field notes. James Haywood.
1997. Research Forester, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service,
2500 Shreveport Highway, Pineville, LA 71360.)

In January 1993, the Kisatchie National Forest and the Southern Research
Station began monitoring the effects of operational-scale burning in
longleaf pine forests on overstory and midstory trees and shrubs and
understory vegetation. In addition, research studies on the Catahoula
Ranger District (RD) have provided useful information about the effects
of fire. We are reporting on the fire effects from operational-scale
burns done on two Ecosystem Management Project (EMP) sites and compare
those results to research findings.

## Methods

This section describes the approach used by the Question Manager to
address the question including literature references for any standard
methods employed, and description of any statistical models or analytic
approaches employed.

This study was founded on exemplary procedures, carried out exactingly
and with thorough recognition of the data's idiosyncrasies and foibles.
Strict procedures for animal care were followed to ensure that no
wombats were harmed in the course of the study, although some complained
of a scarcity of cable channels.

On RES1, total current-year herbaceous production was determined in
February 1994 by clipping the aboveground foliage on 12 systematically
located 0.22 m^2^ subplots located within each 0.04-ha plot. Dry matter
production (oven-dried at 80 ^o^C for at least 24 hours) was determined
after the samples were subdivided into six taxa: pinehill bluestem;
other bluestems\--mostly broomsedge (*Andropogon virginicus* L.),
Elliotts bluestem (*A. elliottii* Chapm.), big bluestem (*A*.
*gerardii* Vitm.), and slender bluestem (*S. tenerum* Nees); longleaf
uniola (*Chasmanthium sessiliflorum* (Poir) Yates); other
grasses\--mostly switchgrass *(Panicum virgatum* L.), yellow indiangrass
(*Sorghastrum avenaceum* (Michx.) Nash), low panicums (*Dichanthelium*
spp), lovegrass (*Eragrostis* spp.), and threeawn (*Aristida* spp.).;
grasslikes\--mostly nutrush (*Scleria* spp.), sedge (*Carex* spp.),
flatsedge (*Cyperus* spp.), spikesedge (*Eleocharis* spp.), rush
(*Juncus* spp.), and beakrush (*Rhynchospora* spp.); and forbs. In March
1994, all woody, blackberry, and vine stems were counted and heights and
crown spreads estimated on five systematically located 40 m^2^ subplots.

On RES2, EMP1, and EMP2, 0.04-ha plots were established for measuring
heights and diameters at breast height of the overstory and midstory
trees. There were 16 plots on the uplands in RES2 and 10 plots on both
EMP1 and EMP2. Inventories were made in May 1996 on EMP1 and EMP2 and
July 1996 on RES2.

Within each 0.04-ha plot, five 4--m^2^ subplots were systematically
established for identifying and counting understory woody stems,
blackberry stems, and vines and for measuring heights and crown cover of
the woody and blackberry stems. This brush was inventoried in April 1995
on EMP2, August 1995 on EMP1, and August 1996 on RES2.

## Data Sources

This section should have strong links to the Methods section (Section
3), detailing the origin of key data used for the analyses described in
Section 3. Descriptions are needed regardless of data source, whether
online, commercial or intra-agency. Note that unless copyright prohibits
it, the data sources listed here will by summer 2001 be made available
on the Assessment web site with links from this section of the report to
appropriate metadata for those data. Note that this section will likely
be relatively short in comparison to other sections of the chapter.

All sites are on the Catahoula RD, Kisatchie National Forest, Grant
Parish, Louisiana. Elevations of the sites range from 53 to 76 m. These
sites are within the historical range of the Upland Longleaf Pine Forest
type of the Humid Temperate, Subtropical, Outer Coastal Plain Mixed
Forest, and are located in the Coastal Plains and Flatwoods Western Gulf
Ecoregion of the Southern United States (McNab and Avers 1994). The mean
January and July temperatures are 10 and 28 ^o^C, respectively
(Louisiana Office of State Climatology 1995). Yearly precipitation
averages 143 cm and growing-season

precipitation averages 82 cm. The growing season is more than 200 days
long; it usually begins before or during early March and ends because of
dry weather in October.

We relied on several sources of information for this work:

\* the Dallas, TX phone book

\* Farmer\'s Almanac, 1977 edition

\* Sweepstakes rules from Publisher\'s Clearinghouse

## Results

Here will appear the results from statistical tests or summarizations,
pointing out what the data and analyses described above say about the
simple hypotheses or questions originally addressed without speculation
or discussion of broader consequences.

### Overstory and Midstory Vegetation

On RES2, EMP1, and EMP2, total stocking and basal area ranged from 54 to
279 stems per hectare and 8.0-- to 24.4--m^2^ per hectare (table 1).
Canopy cover was too sparse to measure accurately on RES2 but averaged
67 percent on EMP1 and EMP2. Longleaf pine dominated the overstory on
all sites and made up from 81 to 96 percent of the total basal area.
These three stands were classed as pure longleaf pine based on basal
area (Ford-Robertson 1971).

More species of overstory and midstory trees and shrubs occurred on EMP1
and EMP2 than on RES2. Species other than longleaf pine represented a
greater portion of the stand basal area on EMP1 and EMP2 than on RES2
(table 1).

EMP1 had nine common overstory and midstory species\--longleaf pine,
mockernut hickory (*Carya tomentosa* \[Poir\] Nutt.), flowering dogwood
(*Cornus florida* L.), sweetgum (*Liquidambar styraciflua* L.), loblolly
pine, southern red oak (*Q. falcata* Michx.), post oak (*Q. stellata*
Wangenh.), black oak (*Q. velutina* Lam.), and sassafras (*Sassafras
albidum* \[Nutt.\] Nees). The common species on EMP2 were longleaf pine,
mockernut hickory, blackgum (*Nyssa sylvatica* Marsh.), loblolly pine,
southern red oak, blackjack oak (*Q. marilandica* Muenchh.), post oak,
and black oak. On RES2, the common species were longleaf pine, sweetgum,
southern red oak, and post oak.

### Common Understory Woody Plants

Excluding blackberry, there were 16 tree, 15 shrub, and 15 vine species
on EMP1 and 12 tree, 15 shrub, and 12 vine species on EMP2. Excluding
pine seedlings, there were 60,100 tree, shrub, and blackberry stems per
hectare on EMP1 and 74,100 per hectare on EMP2 (table 2). Height of this
brush averaged 0.8 m on EMP1 and 0.5 m on EMP2. Vines numbered 86,600
per hectare on EMP2 and 71,100 per hectare on EMP1.

Excluding blackberry, there were six tree, nine shrub, and five vine
species on RES2 and three tree, six shrub, and three vine species on
RES1. Excluding pine seedlings, there were 24,500 tree, shrub, and
blackberry stems per hectare on RES2 and 9,700 per hectare on RES1
(table 2). Vines numbered 27,800 per hectare on RES2 and 4,900 per
hectare on RES1.

The number of longleaf pine seedlings in the grass stage ranged from
none on RES1 to 260,000 per hectare 21 months after burning on EMP2. The
number of loblolly pine seedlings ranged from 150 per hectare 30 months
after burning on RES2 to 9,300 per hectare on EMP2. However, these small
pine seedlings failed to develop because of the presence of overstory
trees on RES2, EMP1, and EMP2 or because of continual cutting on RES1.
While each successive burn reduced the number of pine seedlings, the
population recovered between burns. This cycle should continue until
there is either a natural disturbance or change in management.

Tree species common in the understory were red maple (*Acer rubrum* L.),
flowering dogwood, sweetgum, blackgum, black cherry *(Prunus serotina*
Ehrh.), southern red oak, post oak, and sassafras, although the stocking
and average height of these species varied among sites (table 2). Red
maple was not in the overstory on RES2, EMP1, and EMP2. However, red
maple is susceptible to fire, and it may be being curtailed by burning
on these upland sites (Haywood 1995).

Other hardwoods are also susceptible to fire (Chen and others 1975).
Prescribed burning kills back the tops of hardwood stems but the root
system is affected less (Silker 1961). This results in an increase in
stem numbers, but the regrowth is smaller. However, continual
burning\--especially on an annual or biennial basis\--eventually reduces
the numbers and vigor of woody stems (Chen and others 1975, Lotti 1956).

On both EMP1 and EMP2, the overstory species not well represented in the
understory were mockernut hickory, black oak, and blackjack oak. On
RES2, the overstory species not well represented in the understory was
post oak. Thus, it appears that oaks and hickories are not completely
regenerating.

### Common Herbaceous Plants

On all four sites, the most well distributed plants were pinehill
bluestem, low panicums, swamp sunflower (*Helianthus angustifolius* L.),
grassleaf goldaster (*Heterotheca graminifolia* \[Michx.\] Shinners),
and bracken fern (*Pteridium aquilinum* var. *pseudocaudatum* \[Clute\]
Heller).

#### Common grasses

There were 19, 26, and 18 taxa of grasses commonly found on RES2, EMP1,
and EMP2, respectively. The grasses that occurred most frequently were
pinehill bluestem and low panicums on RES2 and EMP2 and pinehill
bluestem and big bluestem on EMP1 (table 3). Spreading panicum (*Panicum
anceps* Michx.) was also common on these three sites. On RES1, pinehill
bluestem made up 58 percent, other bluestems 14 percent, and all of the
other grasses 7 percent of the total current-year herbaceous production.

#### Other herbaceous plants

The grasslike plant most common on all uplands was nutrush. There were
22, 9, and 22 species or genera of composites on RES2, EMP1, and EMP2,
respectively. The composite most common on these three uplands was
grassleaf goldaster. Swamp sunflower was common on RES1, RES2 and EMP2.
Both of these species are indicators of well-developed herbaceous plant
communities.

## Discussion and Conclusions

This section is used to relate the simple results from Section 5 to
broader issues, and is necessarily a less statistical and more
qualitative discussion of findings and their importance. It is here that
the authors will synthesize the technical findings and other literature
to provide a comprehensive answer to the general Assessment question.

The amount of current-year herbaceous production on each site was partly
associated with overstory and midstory basal area, canopy cover, and
number and size of understory trees and shrubs. EMP1 had the greatest
canopy cover, the tallest understory vegetation, and the least
current-year herbaceous production. RES1 had no overstory, the fewest
understory woody stems, and the greatest herbaceous production.

If overstory competition and understory brush are controlled, these
upland longleaf pine sites can support rich and productive herbaceous
plant communities dominated by pinehill bluestem. Also, these results
suggest that pinehill bluestem could be used as an indicator of
management success in establishing and maintaining herbaceous plant
communities on upland longleaf pine sites in the West Gulf Coastal
Plain. Examples of other species that could be used as indicators on
similar sites are swamp sunflower and grassleaf goldaster.

## Needs for Additional Research

The most critical issues that could not be addressed in this study
should be noted and prioritized in this section.

The above research was conducted in exemplary fashion at a ridiculously
low cost to the public. However, not everything has been discovered yet,
so more funding is needed. This is particularly so with understanding
rotational controls in other regions such as the South Pacific, the
Southern Coast of France, and Lake Taho.

## Acknowledgments

Whether or not you wish to thank any non-authors for their contributions
to this work, this section will be here and in the other chapters, so
you might reconsider the implications of leaving it blank.

This work would not have proceeded without the encouragement of our
mothers, for which we are eternally grateful.

## Literature Cited

Boyer, W.D. 1995. Responses of groundcover under longleaf pine to
biennial seasonal burning and hardwood control. In: Edwards, M.B., comp.
Proceedings of the eighth biennial southern silvicultural research
conference; 1994 November 1-3; Auburn, AL. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-1.
Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
Research Station: 512-516.

Chen, M.Y.; Hodgkins, E.J.; Watson W.J. 1975. Prescribed burning for
improving pine production and wildlife habitat in the hilly Coastal
Plain of Alabama. Bull. 473. Auburn, AL: Auburn University, Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station. 19 p.

Ford-Robertson, F.C., editor. 1971. Terminology of forest science,
technology practice and products. Washington, DC: Society of American
Foresters. 349 p.

Grelen, H.E. 1976. Responses of herbage, pines, and hardwoods to early
and delayed burning in a young slash pine plantation. Journal of Range
Management. 29: 301-303.

Haywood, J.D. 1995. Prescribed burning and hexazinone herbicide as
release treatments in a sapling hardwood-loblolly pine stand. New
Forests. 10: 39-53.

Louisiana Office of State Climatology. 1995. Louisiana monthly climate
review. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.

McNab, W.H.; Avers, P.E., comps. 1994. Ecological subregions of the
United States: section descriptions. Admin. Publ. WO-WSA-5. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 267 p.

Silker, T.H. 1961. Prescribed burning to control undesirable hardwoods
in southern pine stands. Bull. 51. Austin, TX: Texas Forest Service. 44
p.

Vissage, J.S.; Miller, P.E.; Hartsell, A.J. 1992. Forest statistics for
Louisiana parishes\--1991. Resour. Bull. SO-168. New Orleans: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
Station. 65 p.

## Endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes are discouraged because of their layout
difficulty but if you must set small explanatory material out from the
body of the text put it here. In the printed report they will appear on
the page from which they are referenced.

## Tables 

### Table 1\--Initial hardwood species composition

  ---------------- -------------- -------------- ------------- -------------
  Species          Stand                         Stem density  

                   basal area                                  

                                                               

                   *Ft^2^/ac*     *%*            *No./ac*      *%*

                                                               

  Sweetgum         5.7            42             1,102         35

  Water oak        2.3            16             601           19

  Southern red oak 1.3            9              304           10

  Black cherry     0.8            6              128           4

  Red maple        0.4            3              142           4

  Florida maple    0.3            2              136           4

  Dogwood          0.3            2              64            2

  Eastern redcedar 0.3            2              39            1

  Persimmon        0.2            2              35            1

  Others           2              16             618           20

  Total            13.6           100            3,169         100
  ---------------- -------------- -------------- ------------- -------------

### Table 2\--Initial stand attributes

  -------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ----------------
  Attribute            Slash Pine       Turkey Oak       Vaccinium spp.

  Height (ft)          25               10               4

  D.B.H. (in.)         3.7              \-^a^            \-

  Basal area^b^        43               40               1
  (ft/ac)                                                

  Stocking (stems/ac)  504              2031             380

  Volume (ft^3^/ac)    540              \-               \-
  -------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ----------------

^a^ No data.

^b^ Basal area at groundline for turkey oak and *Vaccinium* spp.

## Figure Captions

### Figure 1\--The height of woody vegetation on four sites on the Catahoula Ranger District.

### Figure 2\--Changes in herbaceous plant biomass with increasing overstory basal area.