Improving livelihoods of smallholder livestock producers through
peri-urban dairy production in West Africa

# Background and Justification

Past and projected trends in production and consumption of dairy
products in West Africa point to enormous opportunities for dairy sector
growth with extendable benefits to smallholder livestock producers who
own and manage more than 85% of the regional cattle stock. In 1999,
about 224,000 t of milk valued at US \$ 368.5 million was imported into
West Africa to offset the gap between demand and supply. With overall
human population projected to grow at 2.1% per year and urban population
at 4% per year through 2015, the demand for milk and dairy products is
expected to grow rapidly because ILRI dairy consumption research has
shown that urban consumers consume more dairy products than rural
consumers in the same income group (Jansen, 1992; Staal and Mullins,
1996). Furthermore, as income grows, the demand for dairy products can
be expected to grow because, unlike most crop products, dairy products
have a high income elasticity of demand. With a cattle herd size of 57
million mostly owned by smallholder pastoralists and crop-livestock
farmers, the potential for a viable dairy industry built around
smallholders exists but poor livestock productivity linked to poor
quality feeds and animal diseases, inappropriate processing techniques
and lack of policy support have hindered the development of the dairy
sector. Collaborative research activities aimed at alleviating these
constraints have been conducted within the framework of ILRI supported
Cattle Research Network (CARNET) and have resulted in feed production,
feed utilization and disease control technologies that have been
evaluated in several smallholder dairy projects initiated by development
agencies and governments in the region (Agyemang, 2002). One such
project is the Co-operative Dairy Development Program initiated in 1992
in Kaduna State of Nigeria under the World Bank Assisted Second
Livestock Development Project (SLDP). The program was fashioned after
the Anand Model of Dairy Development Programme in India, which involves
co-operative based milk production, processing and marketing revolving
around a vertically integrated farmer organization that is owned and
controlled by its member producers.

Through the activities of this program, implemented by the National
Livestock Projects Division (NLPD), about 20 village milk producers'
co-operatives with a total membership of 1,500 smallholders have been
registered. An apex organization -- the Kaduna Federation of Milk
Cooperative Association Limited -- was also registered to handle the
collection, processing and marketing of the milk produced by the village
cooperative societies. Over the years and as recently as 2000 through a
USAID funded project on dissemination of improved technologies to
resource poor farmers and processors in Nigeria, ILRI together with NLPD
have disseminated improved feed, calf management, animal health and milk
processing technologies to farmers in these co-operatives resulting in a
two-fold increase in milk offtake (from 1.6 l per cow per day to 3.4 l
per cow per day) and about 12% reduction in calf mortality. The
additional returns per cow per lactation obtained by adopting these
technologies were about 18,184 Naira (US \$ 140) with a marginal rate of
return of 190%. The World Bank identified the program as one of the few
successful livestock projects in West Africa.

The success of this program and recent characterization studies of
peri-urban dairy production systems in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal
carried out under the auspices of CARNET suggest that there is scope for
extending (scaling out) a similar approach to other countries and sites
to reduce the demand-supply gap and to improve the livelihoods of
smallholder livestock producers through increased dairy output and
household income. Dairy production presents an opportunity for
smallholder households to become more integrated into high-value
agricultural markets while improving their nutrition. Furthermore,
nearly all the governments in the region are interested in increasing
domestic dairy production in order to reduce dependence on imports
(Adomefa, 1998; Agyemang, 2002).

Peri-urban dairying has also been identified by CORAF-WECARD as an
important area of research cooperation and a priority production system
for its dry savanna and coastal agroecological zones. This has led the
CORAF-ILRI collaborative research program, which is a component of the
CORAF Livestock Research Network, to develop plans to work on peri-urban
dairy issues with the endorsement of the CORAF Executive Committee. This
concept note, therefore, builds upon and will actualize earlier
proposals on smallholder peri-urban dairy production in West Africa
developed by the CORAF-ILRI collaborative research program.

**Purpose and objectives**

###### Purpose

The purpose of this project is to disseminate through participatory
methods proven technologies that will increase milk output and incomes
of smallholder crop-livestock producers while promoting sustainable use
of natural resources.

*Specific objectives*:

-   To disseminate feed, animal health, calf management and milk
    processing technologies to crop-livestock producers around a major
    city each in Ghana, Niger and Nigeria.

-   To determine and implement appropriate marketing strategies to
    ensure good market access for dairy producers.

-   To develop in collaboration with farmers and development agencies
    appropriate institutional mechanisms that will facilitate technology
    transfer and adoption and sustainable growth of smallholder dairy
    production, processing and marketing.

Technologies to be transferred

This project will build on previous work done by ILRI and its partners
and use participatory approaches to disseminate proven, profitable and
productivity enhancing technologies to smallholder peri-urban dairy
producers. These technologies will be disseminated to overcome the
critical constraints of poor quantity and quality of feeds, animal
diseases and ineffective processing and storage that reduce output and
market value of dairy products and prevent smallholders from fully
capturing the income-enhancing benefits of dairying. These technologies
will be presented to smallholders as "baskets of options". In this way,
smallholders will be able to choose and implement those technologies
that are most relevant to their biophysical and socioeconomic conditions
and thus actively participate in the technology dissemination process.
Related institutional strategies to improve market access and sustain
the technology transfer process will also be developed. Four interweaved
technologies will be disseminated.

1\. Feed production and preservation technologies. Feed production
technologies that takes into consideration the biophysical and
socioeconomic characteristics of each project site and make optimum use
of natural and cultivated fodder and agro-industrial by-products will be
disseminated to improve the quantity and quality of feed for dairy
cattle, particularly during the dry season when the supply of quality
feed is low. This will include:

a)  Intercropping of improved varieties of dual purpose legumes (cowpea
    and groundnuts) with cereals (sorghum, millet and maize) to provide
    grains for human consumption and high quality feed for animals while
    improving soil fertility;

b)  Establishment of fodder banks/intensive feed gardens -- plots of
    herbaceous legumes (e.g. *Stylosanthes hamata, S. guianensis*) or
    dual purpose legumes (cowpea and groundnuts) and/or grasses (e.g.
    Panicum maximum) to supplement native pasture grazing during the wet
    and dry seasons and improve soil fertility;

c)  Boundary planting of shrubby legumes (e.g. pigeon pea, *Cajanus
    cajan*) around homesteads and farms for cut and carry feeding;

d)  Establishment of seed production plots that will be managed by
    producers' cooperatives to ensure ready availability of herbaceous
    legume seeds and possible sale to other farmers to generate
    additional income;

e)  Feed storage and preservation techniques involving drying and
    pelleting using locally fabricated equipment.

2\. Feeding strategies. Strategic supplementation of milking cows and
calves based on appropriate combination of natural pasture, cultivated
fodder and agro-industrial by-products (e.g. cotton seed cake, ground
nut cake, palm kernel cake, brewers waste) available in each location.
For cows, the aim of the supplementation will be to increase milk output
and to initiate estrous cycling early in lactation thereby shortening
the calving interval, while for calves the aim will be to reduce
mortality and promote faster growth thereby reducing the age to first
calving.

3\. Disease control strategies. In West Africa, the major contagious and
often fatal diseases of cattle (rinderpest, anthrax, contagious bovine
pleuro pneumonia (CBPP) etc) are kept under control through regular
vaccination leaving the vector-borne and parasitic diseases caused by
ticks and helminths as the major health problems. Ticks are very
important vectors that cause haemoparasitic diseases such as babesiosis,
anasplasmosis but also play important roles in the establishment of skin
diseases such as dermatophilosis. Helminthosis leads to mortality in
young stock and morbidity in adults. Proven disease control strategies
that will eliminate and/or reduce disease risk and boost animal
productivity will be disseminated. This will include vaccination of
animals and applications of drugs to control external- (e.g. ticks) and
internal- (e.g. helminths) parasites. Particular attention will be given
to health management of calves to reduce mortality. An important
component of this activity will be the training of smallholders in
improved animal health care to promote hygiene and control bacterial
infections that lead to diseases such as mastitis.

4\. Dairy processing technologies. Alternative low-cost milk processing
technologies, based on refined traditional processing methods, developed
by ILRI and the Faculties of Food Science and Technology of Obafemi
Awolowo University, Nigeria and University of Science and Technology,
Ghana will be disseminated to smallholders to add value and prolong the
shelf life of milk. Development specialists participating in this
project will use the milk processing training manuals developed by ILRI
to train smallholder producers. The dissemination of improved milk
handling and processing technologies to smallholders is meant to further
empower them and provide alternative milk processing facilities at the
homestead. It will complement the organized milk collection and
processing that will be handled by an apex or commercial organization
that will be linked to this project.

In implementing this project, smallholders will be encouraged to form
cooperatives where such associations do not already exist in order to
facilitate the technology transfer process and reduce the transactions
costs associated with dealing with widely scattered individual
producers. Appropriate institutional strategies (e.g. a revolving credit
scheme) to ensure rapid uptake and continued use of the technologies
will be developed as part of this project.

Relevance of chosen technologies for productivity growth and reduced
risk

The feed and animal health technologies described above provide
solutions to inadequate feed availability and poor animal health that
have lowered milk output and made milk production highly seasonal and a
source of fluctuating income to smallholder dairy producers in West
Africa. By disseminating these proven and low-cost technologies the
productivity of dairy cattle will be increased to ensure a stable
year-round supply of dairy products. This will generate employment
opportunities, enhance the income of smallholder households and reduce
its fluctuation while improving household nutrition. Improved processing
and storage technologies that will be disseminated will reduce health
risks, add value to the products, increase reliability of market supply
and allow for improved prices to producers and the women engaged in
processing and marketing of dairy products thus enabling them to capture
a better share of the value addition in the dairy production and
marketing chain.

## Target areas

This project will be implemented in Ghana, Niger and Nigeria. Previous
peri-urban dairy production systems characterization studies have shown
that the Accra Plains in Ghana, Niamey in Niger and the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja in Nigeria are appropriate sites where this project can
be implemented. By working with smallholders in these countries and
sites, the project will build upon and benefit from knowledge and
partnerships developed over the years through past ILRI projects e.g. a
DfID funded project in the Accra Plains and Kumasi in Ghana on improving
marketing and processing and reducing public health risks in peri-urban
smallholder dairy production systems, the USAID funded project on
technology dissemination to smallholder peri-urban dairy producers
undertaken jointly with NLPD in Kaduna, Nigeria and work with the
Ministry of Animal Resources on dairy production in Toukounous in Niger.

## Potential for market linkages

The sites where this project will be implemented have been carefully
chosen to ensure good market linkages for the smallholder producers.
Within 20-40 km radius of Accra in Ghana, Niamey in Niger and Abuja in
Nigeria are large numbers of smallholder cattle that are well integrated
into the local crop-livestock farming systems. These cities are well
served by good network of roads that will facilitate milk collection and
good access to markets. They are also the fastest growing cities in the
study countries with industrial establishments to supply the inputs
(agro-industrial by-products, concentrates and veterinary drugs) needed
in the project and provide readily accessible markets for dairy
products. There are commercial companies located in these cities (e.g.
Office du Lait du Niger (OLANI) in Niamey, West African Milk Company
(WAMCO) in Nigeria and Amarhia Farms in Ghana that have processing
facilities and are willing to buy raw milk at remunerative prices from
smallholder producers. Linking these companies to this project will
provide another avenue for collection and processing of milk and a
gateway for smallholders to the lucrative markets of high-income earners
who consume brand dairy products.

## Partners

**Ghana**: Animal Research Institute; Animal Husbandry Division of the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture; University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi; Accra Milk Producers' Association; Amarhia Farms; Heifer Project
International and World Vision International.

**Niger**: Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger
(INRAN); Ministry of Animal Resources; Kirkissoye and Dembou Dairy
Producers Cooperative Societies; ICRISAT; OLANI and NigerLait

**Nigeria**: National Livestock Projects Division (NLPD); National
Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI); Miyetti Allah Association; Obafemi
Awolowo University; WAMCO; IITA; ICRISAT and Land O' Lakes.

## Work program (See Table 1 for summary of project activities and time frame)

-   A pre-implementation planning workshop involving stakeholders from
    the 3 participating countries will be convened by ILRI to seek their
    involvement in the design and elaboration of the main components of
    the project. Thereafter, country-specific workshops will be
    organized to plan project activities, assign tasks to various
    partners and initiate contacts with dairy cooperative societies.

-   Participatory rapid appraisals of smallholder producers, markets and
    local-level institutions will be undertaken to obtain baseline
    information on current animal performance, milk collection,
    processing and marketing practices and to determine the best options
    to facilitate successful adaptation, targeting and dissemination of
    technologies to farmers.

-   Based on information gathered from participatory rapid appraisals
    feed, animal health and milk processing technologies will be
    presented as baskets of options to enable smallholders organized in
    cooperative societies to choose the most appropriate to implement.
    The basket of options will vary according to location and prevailing
    biophysical and market conditions as identified from previous
    research experience as well as subsequent indications from the
    participatory rural appraisals.

-   Training will be conducted for smallholders in herbaceous legume
    seed production, basic animal health care and milk handling and
    processing.

-   Market analysis will be undertaken to identify lingering market
    access problems and measures to eliminate them.

-   Monitoring and evaluation of the technology dissemination process to
    improve adoption.

Table 1. Project activities and timeframe

+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ##                                    | # |   |   |   | # |   |   |   |
|                                       | # |   |   |   | # |   |   |   |
| ## Activity                           |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
|                                       | Y |   |   |   | Y |   |   |   |
|                                       | e |   |   |   | e |   |   |   |
|                                       | a |   |   |   | a |   |   |   |
|                                       | r |   |   |   | r |   |   |   |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
|                                       | 1 |   |   |   | 2 |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
|                                       | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Phase 1: Planning phase            | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Regional workshop                  | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## National workshops                 | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Selectio                           | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
| n/meeting with farmers\' cooperatives | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Participatory rapid appraisals     | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ##                                    | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Phase 2: Technology dissemination  | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Feed production/conservation       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Feeding strategies                 | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Health management                  | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Dairy processing and handling      | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Training in seed producti          | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
| on, animal health and milk processing | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Market and institutional analysis  | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ##                                    | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Phase 3: Monitoring and evaluation | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Monit                              | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
| oring surveys and internal evaluation | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## Project reports                    | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| ## External evaluation                | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       | # | # | # | # | # | # | # | # |
|                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

## 

## Technology delivery and adoption pathways

The project will work through existing milk producers' cooperatives and
associations and use participatory methods to identify, adapt and
disseminate feed, animal health and dairy processing technologies that
are economically profitable and fit the social and institutional setting
of the study sites. Through knowledge sharing, members of the
cooperatives will be able to adapt and evaluate the performance of the
technologies and spread them through farmer-to-farmer contacts.
Non-governmental organizations (e.g. Heifer Program International, Land
O' Lakes, World Vision International) with dairy development programs
will be included as partners in this project and will work with
producers' cooperatives and government agencies to put in place
institutional strategies (e.g. revolving credit schemes) that will
facilitate access to inputs, increase and sustain technology adoption
long after the project has ended. The market and institutional analysis
that will be conducted in the course of implementing this project will
provide policy options to improve market access and technology adoption
by smallholders. Commercial companies like OLANI, NigerLait, Amarhia
Farms and WAMCO will be linked to the project to collect and process any
excess milk that the producers' apex organizations cannot handle and
will also provide extension and other services to producers to ensure
profitable and long-lasting use of adopted technologies.

## 

## Expected outputs

-   Increased dairy production leading to higher household incomes and
    improved food security for smallholder livestock producers and
    availability of milk to consumers at affordable prices;

-   Local-level associations and cooperatives that are better able to
    cater for the production needs and welfare of smallholder
    pastoralists and crop-livestock producers;

-   Methods and tools for better targeting of dairy production and
    processing technologies and marketing strategies to improve adoption
    and enterprise profitability;

-   Enhanced skills of national collaborators in development activities
    related to the design, implementation and evaluation of dairy
    production and processing technologies and marketing strategies.

## Expected impacts

-   1,000 smallholder households in each participating country making a
    total of 3,000 households will be linked to high-value agricultural
    markets through dairy production. With a two-fold increase in milk
    offtake alone, additional benefits of about US \$ 140 per cow per
    year can be expected. Assuming 6 cows per household, the additional
    income that would accrue to smallholder households participating in
    this project will be about US \$ 2.52 million per year. Dairy
    production will thus increase income and improve the well being of
    participating households.

-   Women who are predominantly responsible for dairy production in the
    participating countries will be empowered through training and
    acquisition of new skills in dairy processing which will improve
    their income-earning capacity. The milk collection scheme that will
    be implemented will release women from long-distance hawking of milk
    and dairy products thereby leaving them with more time for child
    rearing and social activities.

-   The increase in milk production will improve household nutrition.
    The high quality protein and micro-nutrients in milk will relieve
    protein malnutrition and micro-nutrient deficiency in the most
    vulnerable household members -- malnourished children and
    child-bearing women and further act as a prophylactic against
    opportunistic diseases that attack malnourished people.

-   The co-operative nature of the program will strengthen collective
    action, reduce transactions costs involved in dairy processing and
    also provide a forum through which problems affecting the pastoral
    and agro-pastoral communities will be discussed and solutions
    offered.

-   The project and associated activities will create a viable
    smallholder dairy industry with employment generating multiplier
    effects.

-   Collaboration between ILRI, the national partners and development
    agencies will be enhanced through information exchange and knowledge
    sharing.

**Budget**

Table 2. Budget summary

'000 US \$

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 16%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 10%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td colspan="4">Year 1</td>
<td colspan="4">Year 2</td>
<td>Total</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Budget line</td>
<td>ILRI</td>
<td>Ghana</td>
<td>Niger</td>
<td>Nigeria</td>
<td>ILRI</td>
<td>Ghana</td>
<td>Niger</td>
<td>Nigeria</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Coordinator &amp; support staff</td>
<td>50.0</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>5.0</td>
<td>52.5</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>5.0</td>
<td>126.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Consultants</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>42.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Toyota</p>
<p>Hi-Lux</p></td>
<td>23.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>23.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Motorcycles</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>6.5</td>
<td>6.5</td>
<td>6.5</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>19.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Computers</td>
<td>3.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>9.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Supplies</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>1.9</td>
<td>1.9</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>1.8</td>
<td>1.8</td>
<td>1.8</td>
<td>19.2</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Vehicle maintenance</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>14.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Travel</td>
<td>19.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>20.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>81.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Workshops</td>
<td>19.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>7.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>40.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Technology dissemination</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>32.0</td>
<td>32.0</td>
<td>35.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>30.0</td>
<td>30.0</td>
<td>34.0</td>
<td>193.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Training</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>5.0</td>
<td>5.0</td>
<td>6.0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>28.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Communicat.</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.5</td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>2.0</td>
<td>20.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><h3 id="subtotal">Subtotal</h3></td>
<td>129.0</td>
<td>73.9</td>
<td>73.9</td>
<td>80.0</td>
<td>87.5</td>
<td>55.3</td>
<td>55.3</td>
<td>60.8</td>
<td>615.7</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Overhead (22.8%)</td>
<td>19.32</td>
<td>8.76</td>
<td>8.76</td>
<td>9.55</td>
<td>15.75</td>
<td>7.19</td>
<td>7.19</td>
<td>7.9</td>
<td>84.42</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><h3 id="total">Total</h3></td>
<td>148.32</td>
<td>82.66</td>
<td>82.66</td>
<td>89.55</td>
<td>103.25</td>
<td>62.49</td>
<td>62.49</td>
<td>68.7</td>
<td>700.12</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

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Agyemang K. 2002. Dairy development in West Africa: Results of research
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Institute.

Jansen H.G.P. 1992. Dairy consumption in northern Nigeria: Implications
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Staal, S.J. and G. Mullins 1996. Dairy consumption and its determinants
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Collaborative Research Report. Nairobi, Kenya. ILRI.