THE ROLE OF "THIRD SECTOR" ORGANIZATIONS

-   Overview

-   Definition of Volunteer and Non-For-Profit Organizations

-   Advantages of Volunteer Organizations

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Examples of Voluntary Organization Disaster Activities

-   A Too Rosy Picture?

-   Trade, Technical, Scientific and Professional Associations

-   Academia

-   Foundations

**Sources to Consult**

Corporation for Public Service. 1999. *Responding to Disasters: Policies
and Procedures for National Service Programs Working With FEMA*.
Washington, DC: Corporation for Public Service. Also available through
the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce
(# PB99169823).

**Objectives**

Acquire an appreciation of the broader community context within which
emergency management takes place in the U.S, by focusing on the role of
such "third sector" entities as not-for-profit and volunteer
organizations, trade and professional associations, and academia.

**Overview**

So-called "third sector" organizations can be play vital roles in all
phases of emergency management and can be valuable allies. Some of the
attributes that third sector organizations can bring to the table are:

Capacity Building

Coalition Building

Commitment Building

Issue Advocacy, Awareness Building and Education

Issue Legitimization via Public Trust

Leadership

Pilot Program Implementation

Policy Formulation

Public Opinion Mobilization

Research

Resource Mobilization

Technical Assistance[^1]

In one comparative case study of post-disaster mitigation planning
(Berke et al. 1993), for example,

The researchers note that third sector entities were essential players
in developing problem-solving capacity in local institutions and groups,
linking community groups in common purpose, and finding support for
mitigation from higher-level organizations (e.g. foundations,
government, and corporations). (Paterson 1998, 208)

Another (Bolton and Orian 1992), "identified professional associations
as among the top two sources that provided the most useful technical
assistance to local governments both before and after the \[Loma
Prieta\] earthquake." (Paterson 1998, 220)

Not-For-Profit and Volunteer Organizations

There are a large number of not-for-profit and volunteer organizations
in the U.S., largely composed of volunteers, that have an interest in
and role to play in emergency management---principally in disaster
relief and recovery, but to some extent in disaster preparedness as
well. As one commentator has written:

Disasters trigger out-pourings of individual contributions of money or
in-kind donations central to the operation and sustenance of many of
these bodies. The established governmental system of disaster management
interacts with these organizations for a variety of reasons. (Sylves
1998)

The aftermath of Hurricane Andrew and many other major disasters have
emphasized the invaluable role that disaster relief voluntary agencies
play in responding to the immediate and long-term needs of individuals
and communities during disasters.

The purpose of this section is to describe and discuss the role of
not-for-profit and volunteer organizations, and the inter-dependence of
governmental and such private sector organizations.

**Voluntary Organizations**

Voluntary organizations, in the disaster context, are defined as any
chartered or otherwise duly recognized tax-exempt local, State, or
national organization or group that has provided or may provide needed
services to the States, local governments, or individuals in coping with
emergencies and disasters free of charge, or for a minimal cost which is
required to defray to cost of services provided (FEMA/EMI 1998b, 1--2).
Organized volunteer resource groups range from those specializing in
communications such as amateur radio groups to search and rescue units
of varying types, to general purpose groups.

Examples are RACES, The National Search and Rescue Association, the
Salvation Army, Volunteers for America, the Mennonite Disaster Service,
the Southern Baptist Convention, Catholic Charities, Church World
Services and the American Red Cross.

Voluntary agencies have been recognized in Federal legislation as the
valuable resource that they are:

> In providing relief and assistance under this Act, the President may
> utilize, with their consent, the personnel and facilities of the
> American National Red Cross, the Salvation Army, the Mennonite
> Disaster Service, and other relief or disaster assistance
> organizations, in the distribution of medicine, food, supplies, or
> other items, and in the restoration, rehabilitation, or reconstruction
> of community services, housing and essential facilities, whenever the
> President finds that utilization is necessary.

**Not-For-Profit Organizations**

Private not-for-profit organizations are any non-governmental agencies
or entities granted tax exempt status. Many such organizations provide
facilities, such as educational, utility, emergency, medical,
rehabilitational and temporary or permanent custodial care facilities
(including those for the aged and disabled), or other facilities that
produce essential services or a governmental nature to the general
public.

**Advantages of Voluntary Organizations**

Voluntary agencies are involved in all four phases of emergency
management---mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. During
mitigation, they educate their constituenceis and communities about what
they can do to reduce the damage of future disasters. They also advocate
for programs and legislation that mitigate disaster damage and loss of
life. During the preparedness phase, voluntary agencies assist in
developing community disaster plans, train disaster responders, and
provide community disaster education. Voluntary agencies provide mass
care services including sheltering, feeding, and clothing of individuals
and families during the response phase. Finally, during disaster
recovery, voluntary agencies work in partnership with the government and
the affected community to identify and meet the remaining long-term
recovery needs of disaster victims.

Voluntary agencies are usually one of the first responders to arrive on
a disaster scene. Because many agencies are community-based, they are
able to mobilize quickly and provide immediate emergency response
activities such as feeding, sheltering, and clothing of victims.
Voluntary agencies are almost always on the scene prior to a
Presidential declaration and often times provide their services when a
Presidential declaration is not needed.

There are also a number of voluntary agencies that are involved in
long-term recovery activities including rebuilding, clean-up, and mental
health assistance. Some voluntary agencies focus solely on the long-term
needs of communities, responding several months after the disaster
event. In some cases, these agencies will continue to work on long-term
activities for a year or two or even more after the original event.

When disaster occurs, a person's basic trust is threatened. Trust is an
essential ingredient to one's sense of well being. The threat to basic
trust can cause feelings of confusion, anger, bereavement, pain and
powerlessness. Voluntary agencies help rebuild trust in individuals and
communities in ways that the government and other disaster relief
entities cannot because they:

-   Have knowledge and awareness of the local community and its unique
    circumstances and sensitivities.

-   Have volunteers who are qualified to address the unique needs of the
    affected community.

-   Have access to and established relationships with local populations
    who may not trust the government.

-   Have staff and volunteers who are representative of the many
    different populations in the community.

-   Are considered "good stewards" of resources and donations.

-   Are skilled in listening to and respecting the privacy of
    confidential information such as immigration concerns, family
    issues, and mental health problems.

Voluntary agencies provide an additional benefit of transferring some of
their credibility within the community to the governmental entities that
provide disaster assistance. By serving as a critical link between the
community and the government, voluntary agencies help promote a quick
and efficient disaster relief effort.

Most voluntary agencies work closely with the populations they end up
assisting in times of disaster. Voluntary agencies are well grounded in
the communities they serve. Often, volunteers within these agencies are
friends and neighbors who are committed to community service. Because of
this relationship with the community, voluntary agencies are able to
incorporate the values, priorities, and spirit of the community in their
disaster relief efforts. Additionally, voluntary agencies are frequently
able to identify specific individuals, families, or groups who have
special needs during disaster, based on their prior experience of
working with the community.

Voluntary agencies are often less hampered than governments by
bureaucratic red tape and political considerations. Decentralized,
bottom-up organizational structures help ensure that their programs
reflect people's needs, and their independence allows them to be more
innovative. Because they rely on the trust of private donors, voluntary
agencies have a strong incentive to use their resources efficiently.
Every disaster, community, and response effort is different, and
voluntary agencies have the flexibility, innovation, and resourcefulness
to "think outside the box" and provide service to the most people in the
most effective manner possible.

While government disaster assistance programs are critical to the
recovery of affected communities, they are limited in scope and range of
services. For example, the maximum Individual and Family Grant award is
\$13,200 per family per disaster. Voluntary agencies can help families
make this money go as far as possible by providing supplementary
services where possible, as well as providing advice on how to use the
money for the greatest gain.

Throughout the emergency management cycle, voluntary agencies assist the
government in a wide range of activities including damage assessment,
search and rescue missions, mass feeding and sheltering, cleanup and
debris removal, construction of temporary housing, and rebuilding
private homes. Additionally, voluntary agencies have trained volunteers
with unique skills that can not be provided by governmental employees.
For example, many of the faith-based agencies have clergy and other
individuals who are specially trained in providing spiritual counseling
to disaster survivors.

**\
**

**National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster**

A growing trend in the U.S. is the cooperation and coordination of
volunteer organizations active in disaster. At the national level is the
National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disaster (NVOAD). NVOAD is a
group of voluntary national organizations that have made disaster
response a priority.

Its history is that after 1969's Hurricane Camille, organizations that
had been involved in providing resources and services to victims and
communities affected by disaster shared their mutual concern about the
frequent duplication of services they were providing as well as the
fragmented and uncoordinated manner of service provision.[^2]
Representatives from these organizations began to meet together on a
regular basis. The purpose of those early meetings was for participants
to share their respective activities, concerns, and frustrations in
order that duplication of effort would be minimized and more efficient
handling of disaster services would occur. (FEMA/EMI 1998, p. 2-10)

NVOAD coordinates planning efforts by many voluntary organizations
responding to disaster. Member organizations provide more effective
disaster aid and less duplication in service by getting together before
disasters strike. Once disasters occur, NVOAD or an affiliated State
VOAD encourages members and other voluntary agencies to convene on site.
This cooperative effort has proven to be the most effective way for a
wide variety of volunteers and organizations to work together in a
crisis.

NVOAD serves member organizations through:

-   Communication: Disseminating information through electronic
    mechanisms, its Newsletter, the directory, research and
    demonstration, case studies, and critique.

-   Cooperation: Creating a climate for cooperation at all levels
    (including grass roots) and providing information.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Coordination: Coordinating policy among member organizations and
    serving as a liaison, advocate, and national voice.

-   Education: Providing training and increasing awareness and
    preparedness in each organization. Putting on seminars, meetings,
    board meetings, regional conferences, training programs, and local
    conferences.

-   Leadership Development: Giving volunteer leaders training and
    support so as to build effective State VOAD organizations.

-   Mitigation: Supporting the efforts of federal, state, and local
    agencies and governments and supporting appropriate legislation.

-   Outreach: Encouraging the formation of and giving guidance to state
    and regional voluntary organizations active in disaster relief.

NVOAD notes the VOAD mission as: "The role of a VOAD group is not to
manage disaster response operations; it is to coordinate planning and
preparations in advance of disaster incidents and operations. When an
incident happens, the role of the VOAD chair is to convene or co-convene
with an appropriate partner a meeting of all of the voluntary response
organizations as soon as possible. Within a reasonable period of time,
it is also appropriate for VOAD to convene or co-convene with an
appropriate partner a meeting of the recovery organizations to discuss
what form the long-range coordinating entity for unmet needs should
take."

VOAD's (Volunteer Organizations Active in Disaster) can also be found at
the State level in most States, and in some instances at the sub-State
level. Through an agreement process, a State VOAD may become a partner
with NVOAD. Experience has demonstrated increased effectiveness and
efficiency in disaster response when a State VOAD exists.

**NVOAD Membership** (as of 21 August 1998):

**(Descriptions of these organizational web sites can be found in the
Internet resources section)**

**-Adventist Community Services:**
[http:www.adventist.communityservices.org/]{.underline}

**-American Radio Relay League:** [http://www.arrl.org/]{.underline}

**-The American Red Cross:** [http://www.redcross.org/]{.underline}

**-Ananda Marga Universal Relief Team:**
[http://www.amurt.org/]{.underline}

**-Catholic Charities USA:**
[http://www.catholiccharitiesusa.org/]{.underline}

**-Christian Disaster Response:**
[http://www.cdresponse.org/]{.underline}

**-Christian Reformed World Relief Committee:**

[http://www.crcna.org/MissionNews/crwrc.html]{.underline}

**-Church of the Brethren General Board:**
[http://www.brethren.org/]{.underline}

**-Church World Service National Disaster Response:**
[http://bruno.ncccusa.org/CWS/emre/]{.underline}

**-Council of Jewish Federations/United Jewish Appeal Partnership:**

[http://www.cjfny.org/]{.underline}

**-The Episcopal Church Fund for World Relief:**
[http://www.pbfwr.org/]{.underline}

**-Friends Disaster Service, Inc.:**
[http://www.quaker.org/]{.underline}

**-International Association of Jewish Vocational Services:** [Phone \#
Only (215) 854-0233]{.underline}

**-International Relief Friendship Foundation:** [E-MAIL ONLY to
IRFFint@aol.com]{.underline}

**-Lutheran Disaster Response:**
[http://www.lcms.org/bhcm/ldr.html]{.underline}

**-Mennonite Disaster Services:**
[http://www.menno-disaster-service.org/]{.underline}

**-National Emergency Response Team:** [E-MAIL ONLY to
usanert@aol.com]{.underline}

**-National Organization for Victim Assistance:**
[http://www.try-nova.org/]{.underline}

**-Nazarene Disaster Response:** [http://ndr.nazarene.org/]{.underline}

**-Northwest Medical Teams International:**
[http://www.nwmti.org/]{.underline}

**-The Phoenix Society for Burn Survivors:**
[http://www.burns-phoenix-society.org/]{.underline}

**-The Points of Light Foundation:**
[http://www.pointsoflight.org/]{.underline}

**-Presbyterian Church (USA), Presbyterian Disaster Assistance:**

[http:www.pcusa.org/pcusa/wmd/pda/index.html]{.underline}

**-REACT International, Inc.:** [http:www.reactintl.org/]{.underline}

**-The Salvation Army:**
[http://www.salvationarmyusa.org/home.htm]{.underline}

**-Second Harvest National Food Bank Network:**
[http://www.secondharvest.org/]{.underline}

**-Society of St. Vincent de Paul:**

[http://www.northcoast.com/\~crusader/stvinny/stvincent.html]{.underline}

**-Southern Baptist Convention:**
[http://www.namb.net/dr/beginnin.htm]{.underline}

**-United Methodist Committee on Relief:**
[http://gbgm-umc.org/units/umcor/]{.underline}

**-United States Service Command:** [PHONE \# ONLY (847)
689-2545]{.underline}

**-Volunteers in Technical Assistance:**
[http://www.vita.org/]{.underline}

**-Volunteers of America:** [http://www.voa.org/]{.underline}

**-World Vision:**
[http://www.worldvision.org/worldvision/master.nsf/stable/home]{.underline}

For more information concerning participating NVOAD members contact
NVOAD National Headquarters at 17th & D Street NW, Washington, DC 20006,
(301) 270-6782, or through the NVOAD Internet address:
http:\\\\www.vita.org\\nvoad.

The organization publishes a quarterly newsletter to enhance networking
among its members and provides information concerning Federal and State
government activity related to disasters, and participating member
activities. Its address is: NVOAD Newsletter Editor, 12501 Old Columbia
Pike, Silver Spring, MD 20904.

While it is perhaps unfair to highlight particular organizations, some
of the organizations mentioned above have a longer history in the
disaster field and/or generally a more engaged presence.

**Examples of Voluntary Organization Activity**

During the Great Mid-West Floods of 1993 in Missouri, the Voluntary
Agency Coordination function in the Federal Disaster Field Office
contacted the Christian Reformed World Relief Committee Disaster
Response Services, the Presbyterian Church, and local ecumenical groups
to staff a phone bank to contact all disaster applicants and guide them
through the disaster relief assistance process. Volunteers staffed the
phones for 34 days, calling 21,148 of the 30,000 applicants and gave
2,477 hours of service. As the after-action report of the Missouri
operation notes, "Because the callers were not government employees, but
volunteers, they were well received by the applicants." The report also
notes that the volunteers were able to correct misunderstandings and
clarify confusing processes. (Pugh 1993, 59)

**The American Red Cross**

Foremost among U.S. Voluntary and Not-For-Profit organizations is the
American Red Cross which is a humanitarian organization chartered by
Congress and made up mostly by volunteers.

> ...the American Red Cross stands out as the largest non-profit in
> terms of institutional resources (spending nearly \$1.5 million on
> disasters between 1982 to 1992, scope of action (it has nearly 2,500
> local chapters active nationwide), and importance to federal efforts
> (the Red Cross is the only nongovernmental member of the federal
> emergency response system). (Paterson 1998, 211)

The Red Cross has chapters in most localities in the country. These
chapters have Disaster Services sections and each is responsible for
providing disaster relief services in the community served. Example
disaster relief services would be the provision of food, first-aid,
clothing, bedding and medicines to disaster victims. In addition, in
most communities served, the Red Cross is also responsible for staffing
and managing shelters. In many communities the Red Cross has implemented
community disaster preparedness programs.

The Red Cross reports that in 1998 its paid and volunteer staff
responded to 239 major disasters in 41 States, Guam, Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands (Rottman 1999, 1).

While best known for these disaster response and preparedness
activities, in early 1994 the Red Cross announced a new "Disaster
Mitigation Initiative" aimed at reducing the impact of disasters,
working in partnership with government and the private sector (Paterson
1998, 211).

**Catholic Charities, USA:** Food, clothing, short-term housing.

**Civil Air Patrol:** Blood transportation, disaster damage surveys.

**Mennonite Services:** Cleanup, building repair, rebuilding.

**Salvation Army:** Clothing, appliances and food.

**Southern Baptist Convention:** Cleanup, feeding, child care,
rebuilding.

## A Too Rosy Picture?

A very positive picture has thus far been painted on the role of
voluntary organizations in hazards, disasters and emergency management
-- justifiably so. But, any time an individual or an organization with
resources to give comes into contact with an individual or organization
in need of those resources, the possibility of friction arises. This is
even more the case in the wake of a disaster when emotions and stress
can run high. A high degree of sensitivity to the needs of those who
have experienced disaster needs to brought to bear. In his treatment of
the response to the Waco and San Angelo, Texas tornadoes of May, 1953,
Perry states the following:

Considerable hostility to the Red Cross was discovered. The Red Cross
may have oversold itself as a disaster relief agency leading victims to
have too high expectations of it. And it may have been too military and
authoritarian and not 'folksy' enough. Perhaps too, the Red Cross
exercised or attempted to exercise too much control and operated with a
strict adherence to policy which led to resentment on the part of local
people and agencies. Many noted that the Red Cross, in the immediate
emergency period was generous and open with supplies but that later it
required detailed demonstration of need before it would help with long
term rehabilitation. Moore (1958, pp. 179-180) commented that 'all the
while the Red Cross worker in her crisp uniform is filling in forms as
she asks questions. And gradually the uniformed worker is transmitted
from Great Mother to Wicked Witch, and is cursed accordingly' (Perry
1988, 264).

# Trade, Technical, Scientific and Professional Associations

# 

# American Academy of Veterinary Disaster Medicine

## American Association of Avalanche Professionals

**American Association of Wind Engineers**

**American College of Emergency Physicians**

**American Engineers for Disaster Relief**

# American Institute of Architects

## American Institute of Certified Planners

## American Meteorological Society

# American Planning Association

## American Psychological Association

## American Public Health Association

**American Public Works Association**

## American Society for Public Administration

## American Society of Civil Engineers

**American Society of Landscape Architects**

**American Society of Professional Engineers**

## American Water Resources Association

## Applied Technology Council

## Association of Contingency Planners

**Association of Engineering Geologists**

**Association of State Dam Safety Officials**

**Association of State Floodplain Managers** (<http://www/floods.org>)

## Association of State Wetlands Managers

## Building Seismic Safety Council

## Business and Industry Council for Emergency Planning

**Business Emergency Preparedness Council**

**Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian
Assistance**

**Center for the Study of Emergency Management**

**Central United States Earthquake Consortium**

**Disaster Emergency Response Association International**

**Earthquake Engineering Research Institute**

**Government Finance Officers Association**

**Insurance Information Institute**

**Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction**

**Insurance Research Council**

**International Association of Chiefs of Police**

**International Association of Emergency Managers**

**International Association of Fire Chiefs**

**International Association of Wildland Fire**

**International City/County Managers Association**

**International Critical Incident Stress Foundation**

**Mid-America Earthquake Center**

**Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research**

**National Association of County Governments**

**National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies**

**National Center for Atmospheric Research**

**National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research**

**National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder**

**National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards**

**National Emergency Management Association**

## National Fire Protection Association

## National Governors Association

**National Institute for Urban Search and Rescue**

**National Institute of Building Sciences**

**Building Seismic Safety Council**

**Multihazard Mitigation Council**

**National Institute of Municipal Legal Officials**

**National League of Cities**

**National Lightning Safety Institute**

**National Recreation and Park Association**

**National Sheriffs' Association**

**New England States Emergency Consortium**

**Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center and National
Information Service**

**for Earthquake Engineering**

**Public Risk Management Association**

**Seismological Society of America**

**Society for Risk Analysis**

**State and Local Emergency Management Data Users Group**

**The Tornado Project**

**Urban and Regional Information Systems Association**

**U.S. Conference of Mayors**

**Western States Seismic Policy Council**

**Academia**

# 

# Universities have made important contributions to efforts to reduce losses from natural hazards...Universities contribute information to policy debate, influence public opinion through a variety of educational and information channels, and shape the intellectual focus and technical training of professionals and others who operate government and affect the build environment... (Paterson 1998, 223)

# 

**Center for Earthquake Research and Information**, University of
Memphis (TN)

**Center for Hazards Research**, California State College, Chico

**Center for Hazards Research and Policy Development**, University of
Louisville

**Center for Public Health and Disaster Relief**, University of
California, Los Angeles

**Center for Technology, Environment and Development**, Clark University

**Disaster Preparedness Resource Centre**, University of British
Columbia

**Disaster Research Center**, University of Delaware

**Earthquake Engineering Center**, Stanford University

**Earthquake Engineering Center for the Southeastern United States
(ECSUS),**

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech)

**Environmental Social Science Research Institute**, University of New
Orleans

**Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center**, Texas A&M University

**Hurricane Center**, Louisiana State University

**Institute for Crisis and Disaster Management, Research, and
Engineering**, George

Washington University

**Institute for Disaster Research**, Texas Tech University

**Institute for Environmental Studies**, Louisiana State University

**Institute for Hazard Mitigation Planning and Research**, University of
Washington

**Institute for a Sustainable Environment,** University of Oregon

**Institute of Emergency Administration and Planning**, University of
North Texas

**International Hurricane Center**, Florida International University

**National Drought Mitigation Center**, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

**Natural Disaster Project, Institute for Social and Economic
Research**, Cornell Univ.

**Natural Hazards Center**, Pennsylvania State University

**Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center**,
University of

Colorado at Boulder

**Program for the Study of Developed Shorelines**, Duke University

**Seismological Laboratory**, University of Nevada, Reno

**Wind Hazard Mitigation Consortium**, Virginia Tech University

**World Institute for Disaster Risk Management**, Virginia Tech Graduate
Center

### Foundations

Foundations motivate, organize, and finance a variety of institutions
that bring information and affected stakeholders together; engage
universities and think tanks in policy-relevant research; fund natural
experiments to evaluate new but untested ideas; and create forums where
experts and citizens can collaborate to resolve problems. (Paterson
1998, 224)

Examples of Disaster-Related Foundation Giving 1993-1994[^3]

Almanson Foundation Low-income home repair, Northridge

American Express Foundation Repair damage to facilities, Hurricane Iniki

California Community Foundation Homeless aid and facility repair,
Northridge

Hawaii Community Facility damage repair, Hurricane Iniki

Knight Foundation Community Charette for Andrew recovery

McKnight Foundation Recovery assistance, Mississippi floods

Needmor Fund Disaster Relief, Mississippi floods

Ryder System Charitable Foundation/Low-income home repair, Hur. Andrew

Weingart Foundation Facilities repair, Northridge Earthquake

### Others

**Association of Bay Area Governments**

## California Bay-Area Regional Earthquake Preparedness Project

**Colorado Natural Hazard Mitigation Council and Foundation**

Since its inception, the council has supported over 100 projects ranging
from hazard-vulnerability mapping to post-disaster mitigation projects.
The council is composed of almost 300 appointed, ex officio, and
volunteer committee members. Thirty-five members and a chairperson are
appointed directly by the governor. The council has six hazard
subcommittees that give in-depth attention to mitigation of the
following conditions statewide; severe weather, drought, geologic
hazards, dam safety, wildfire, and floods. By far the greatest portion
of the council's work relies on volunteer efforts and collaboration with
other voluntary and governmental agencies. For example, in 1994, the
council collaborated with the National Civilian Community Corps to
provide a post-disaster mitigation workshop and post-disaster mitigation
field work in the community of Lyons, Colorado. (Fred Sibley, Office of
Local Government Affairs, State of Colorado, personal communication,
1995)." (Paterson 1998, 226.)

## National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council

**New England States Earthquake Consortium**

**The National Trust**

**The Nature Conservancy**

**Western States Seismic Policy Council**

#### 

### References Used or Cited

Berke, Philip, Jack Kartez, and Dennis Wenger. 1993. Recovery After
Disaster: Achieving Sustainable Development, Mitigation, and Equity.
*Disasters* 17, no. 2: 178-199.

Bolton, Patricia, and Carolyn Orians. 1992. *Earthquake Mitigation in
the Bay Area.* BHARC-800/92/041. Seattle, WA: Battelle Human Affairs
Research Center.

The Foundation Center. 1995. *National Guide to Funding for Community
Development*. New York: The Foundation Center. Cited in Paterson 1998,
p. 225.

Moore, Harry E. 1958. *Tornadoes Over Texas: A Study of Waco and San
Angelo in Disaster*. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Paterson, Robert G. 1998. The Third Sector: Evolving Partnerships in
Hazard Mitigation. Chapter Seven in *Cooperating with Nature*, edited by
Raymond Burby. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Joseph Henry
Press.

Peacock, Walter Gillis, with A. Kathleen Ragsdale. 1997. Social Systems,
Ecological Networks and Disasters---Toward a Socio-Political Ecology of
Disasters. Chapter 2 in *Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the
Sociology of Disasters*, edited by Walter Gillis Peacock, Betty Hearn
Morrow, and Hugh Gladwin. London and New York: Routledge.

Perry, Joseph B. Jr. 1988. "Tornadoes Over Texas: A Study of Waco and
San Angelo in Disaster and its Impact Upon the Study of Disaster."
*International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters*, Vol.6, No.3
(Nov.), pp. 253-281.

Pugh, Warren M., Jr. 1993. *The Great Flood of '93---Missouri, An After
Action Report*. Jefferson City, MO: FEMA.

*Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of
1974,* P.L. 93-288, as amended by P.L. 100-707 in 1998 \[*U.S. Code*
Vol. 42, sections 5121--5204c\]. Reprint, Washington, DC: FEMA (May
1995).

Rottman, Steven. 1999. Director's Message. *Center for Public Health and
Disaster Relief Newsletter* 1, no. 2 (Winter). Los Angeles, CA: UCLA
School of Public Health, Department of Community Health Sciences.

Sibley, Fred, Office of Local Government Affaris, State of Colorado.
1995. Personal communication quoted in Paterson 1998.

FEMA. EMI. *Disaster Response and Recovery Operations* Instructor Guide.
Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA/EMI. 1998. *The Political and Policy Basis of Emergency
Management.* Written by Richard Sylves for the Higher Education Project.
Emmitsburg, MD: EMI.

FEMA/EMI. 1998b. *The Role of Voluntary Agencies in Emergency
Management.* Independent Study Course No. 288. Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency
Management Institute.

[^1]: For elaboration of some of these points see Robert G. Paterson
    1998, 207.

[^2]: Competition still can occur, though. Peacock and Ragsdale (1997,
    34) note the unhealthy competition and lack of coordination that
    took place in the volunteer sector following Hurricane Andrew in
    South Florida in 1992.

[^3]: Information taken from Foundation Center 1995, 225.