![](media/image1.jpeg){width="8.125in" height="5.417361111111111in"}

**Big River Bottomland Forest Management in Missouri**

**Preface**

Management of Big River bottomland forests in Missouri is a challenging
issue. Big River bottomland forests are dynamic ecosystems that are
prone to periodic flood events. In addition, these big rivers and
associated bottomland forests have been severely altered by levee
systems, locks and dams, channelization, and other practices designed to
move water through the system. All of these changes have combined to
dramatically change historic flow patterns in Missouri Big Rivers and
add unique complexity to the river system.

This document is intended to serve as an introductory guide for land use
managers and private landowners who are interested in learning about big
river bottomland forests and their successful management. General
information on Missouri Big River bottomland forests -- ecology,
history, issues and needs, and potential economic markets are covered in
this guide along with essential planning guidance and activities needed
to successfully create a site specific management plan. While this
document focuses on major bottomlands associated with the Mid-west
sections of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, many of the management
techniques and recommendations discussed in this document can apply to
both major and minor bottomlands. The difference in sediment origin, as
well as flooding intensity, duration, and frequency, need to be
considered carefully for each site specific management area.

Table of Contents

Preface

Introduction

**Big River Issues and Needs**

> *Restoration Levels*
>
> *Catastrophic Flood Events*
>
> *Altered Wildlife Habitat*
>
> *Species of Concern*
>
> *Terrestrial Natural Communities*
>
> *Exotics*
>
> *Markets and Economic Opportunities*
>
> [Forest Products]{.underline}
>
> [Wildlife Products]{.underline}
>
> [Future Products and Markets]{.underline}

Bottomland Forest Planning Considerations

Introduction

**Step 1: Identifying Goals and Objectives**

**Step 2: Inventory Resources**

> *Climate*
>
> *Hydrology*
>
> *Landscape Information and Resources*
>
> [Soil Survey]{.underline}
>
> [Internet Sites]{.underline}
>
> *Wildlife*
>
> [Birds]{.underline}
>
> [Mammals]{.underline}
>
> *Forests*
>
> [Types of Forest Inventories]{.underline}
>
> **Variable-radius**
>
> **Fixed-radius**
>
> **Plot layout**

**Step 3: Analyze Resource Data**

> *Wildlife Assessment*
>
> *Soil Assessment*
>
> *Forest Assessment*

**Step 4: Develop the Plan**

> *Prescriptions*

**Step 5: Evaluate and Monitor the Plan**

> *Cost Share Opportunities*

Bottomland Forest Management Alternatives

**Reforestation -- New Plantings**

*Species Selection*

> *Site Preparation*
>
> [Specific Guidelines]{.underline}
>
> **Cropland/Grassland Cover**
>
> **Woodland Cover**
>
> *Planting Stock Considerations*
>
> [Direct seeding]{.underline}
>
> [Bare-root Seedlings]{.underline}
>
> [Containerized Stock]{.underline}
>
> [Cuttings]{.underline}
>
> *Planting Techniques*
>
> [Calculating Number of Seedlings]{.underline}
>
> [Care of planting stock]{.underline}
>
> [Establishment methods]{.underline}
>
> **Hand Tree Planting**
>
> **Machine Planting**
>
> **Natural Regeneration**
>
> [Additional Planting Considerations]{.underline}
>
> *Post-planting Considerations*
>
> [Vegetational control]{.underline}
>
> **Chemical application**
>
> **Prescribed burning**
>
> **Mulches**
>
> **Mechanical disking**
>
> [Browse protection]{.underline}

**Regeneration/rehabilitation -- Existing Stands**

> *Silvicultural activities*
>
> [Regeneration]{.underline}
>
> [Thinning]{.underline}
>
> *Best Management Practices*
>
> [Wildlife habitat]{.underline}
>
> [Water quality]{.underline}
>
> [Aesthetic]{.underline}
>
> [Planting/site preparation]{.underline}
>
> [Harvesting]{.underline}
>
> [Roads and skid trails]{.underline}

Acknowledgements

Glossary

Appendix

Introduction

The Missouri River drains one-sixth of the United States and encompasses
529,350 square miles. It flows 2,341 miles from its headwaters at the
confluence of the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson Rivers in the Rocky
Mountains at Three Forks, Montana, to its confluence with the
Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri. From bluff to bluff, the
river-floodplain or bottomland below Sioux City, Iowa, covers 1.9
million acres. (Missouri River Natural Resources Committee, 1998)

![](media/image2.jpeg){width="2.94375in" height="2.207638888888889in"}

In Missouri, two distinct types of bottomlands can be found: major
bottomlands and minor bottomlands. A **major** bottomland is associated
with large rivers and is formed with alluvium of regional origin (Hodges
1997). Major bottomlands often experience a long flooding duration that
is less frequent than a minor bottomland. Because of the flooding
duration and intensity, soils formed from material of regional origin
vary greatly in texture and content and are often richer and more
productive than a minor bottomland. **Minor** bottomlands are associated
with smaller streams having alluvial soil deposits formed of local
origin and more consistent texture and mineralogy (Hodges 1997).
Consequently, minor bottomlands may be less rich and productive,
although that is not always the case.

Throughout any major bottomland, very subtle but distinct differences in
topography can have profound impact on the soils and other abiotic
features that ultimately influence the species composition of the
forests found there. A concise examination of bottomland relief and
soils is presented in the section *"Landscape Information and
Resources*".

**Big River Issues and Needs**

Historically the bottomland areas adjacent to the Mississippi and
Missouri rivers were forested. These forests provided many important
economic and ecological services for early inhabitants. Since this time
of settlement, over 95% of these forests have been converted to
agricultural land and other uses. The remaining forestlands have been
impacted by changes in hydrology due to channelization, locks and dams,
levees, loss of wetlands, harvesting activities, and other human induced
causes.

These remaining bottomland forests provide: 1) important nurseries for
channel fish and invertebrates, 2) food resources for migrating birds,
waterfowl and mammals, and 3) diverse economic resources. Additional
services provided by bottomland forests are flood mitigation, bank
stabilization, and the deposition of nutrient rich sediments. Although
these services may be difficult to quantify, the restoration and
management of today's bottomland forests can provide valuable benefits
to an individual landowner and society in general.

*Restoration Levels*

Current restoration efforts are attempting to revitalize important
ecological and economic services of bottomland forests through the
establishment, management, and/or enhancement of big river bottomland
areas.

The Society of Restoration Ecology defines restoration as "returning
damaged ecosystems to a condition that is structurally and functionally
similar to the pre-disturbance state". This definition is incomplete,
however, as it applies to current large river management. Two unresolved
issues constraining restoration efforts are the competing interests in
the management of these rivers and defining when an ecosystem is
restored. Clearly there are many competing interests on the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers that inhibit effective restoration of bottomland
forests to a "pre-disturbance" condition. The current altered hydrology
and geomorphology needs to be maintained as many communities now depend
on the changed river landscape for their economic and social well-being.
Complicating this issue are restoration activities that mean different
things to different individuals and organizations. For example, the
restoration of a big river ecosystem to a conservation biologist may
mean using management practices that mimic the natural factors that
allowed endangered species such as the palid sturgeon (*Scaphirhynchus
albus)* and least tern (*Sterna antillarum)* to survive and reproduce.
However, for a duck hunter, restoration may mean that wetland areas are
managed to allow for the re-establishment of duck populations regardless
of the previous natural factors associated with these areas.

Regardless of differing restoration goals and objectives, even a partial
restoration of bottomland forests can bring back some of the original
ecological services once provided by these forests. For example,
researchers (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000) have discussed the need to
restore altered acres in the Mississippi river floodplain to reduce the

effects of hypoxia at the Gulf of the Mississippi. While wholesale land
conversion would

be impractical, linear belts of riparian forest buffers along major
rivers and adjacent upstream tributaries could have a significant impact
on the hypoxia situation.

Other examples of the ecological services provided by the restoration of
bottomland forests include improved protection of levees, increased
floodwater storage, and greater bank stabilization. Researchers at the
University of Missouri (Dwyer *et al.* 1997; Allen *et al*. 2003) found
during the flood of 1993 that levee breaks along the Missouri River were
less common in areas that had at least 300 feet of forest between the
levee and the main channel. Other researchers from the Midwest (Burkhart
and Todd, 1998; Geyer et al., 2000) found that lateral stream migration
was greatly reduced in areas with trees because of greater bank
stabilization compared to agricultural areas with no trees.

*Catastrophic Flood Events*

The devastating floods of 1993 throughout the Missouri and upper
Mississippi River systems provided an important thrust for the current
interest in floodplain forest research. The floods of 1993 caused a
\$500 million dollar loss to Missouri's economy with floodplain crop
losses put at \$247 million dollars. It is estimated that Missouri alone
lost 14% of its corn and 11% of its soybean 1993 production. In
addition, to the loss of crops that year, 237,000 acres of agricultural
land were covered with at least six inches of sand deposited by the
flood (Soil Conservation Service
1993a,b).![](media/image3.jpeg){width="3.2291666666666665in"
height="2.2916666666666665in"}

University of Missouri forest researcher (Colbert 1998, MS thesis) found
that normal mortality rates in bottomland forests increased between four
and twenty-five times the expected rates following the 1993 flood.
Notwithstanding, one-third of all forest tree species died as the result
of the flood. In particular, hackberry (*Celtis occidentalis*) and pin
oak (*Quercus palustris*) exhibited especially high mortality rates
regardless of tree size. On the other hand, two species - black willow
(*Salix nigra*) and sycamore (*Plantanus occidentalis*) showed the least
mortality.

*Altered Wildlife Habitat*

While several environmental impacts combine to affect the big river
ecosystem, habitat loss is by far the most pervasive and dramatic. The
pre-settlement Missouri River basin represented one of North America's
most diverse ecosystems with channels, riparian lands, chutes, sloughs,
islands, sandbars, and backwater areas. Currently, much of the Missouri
River ecosystem has been impacted by human actions. Today, 35% of the
entire Missouri River system is impounded, 32 % has been channelized,
and 33% is unchannelized. Channelization alone has shortened the river
by 72 miles, resulting in the loss of 127 miles of river shoreline
habitat. In addition, 168,000 acres of aquatic habitat was lost as
sediment accumulated behind wing dikes, forming new land (Missouri River
Natural Resources Committee, 1998).

Another type of activity which has contributed significantly to the loss
of wildlife habitat, was the conversion of nearly 354,000 acres of
**meander belts** to urban and agricultural floodplain development. This
meander belt conversion is considered critical habitat loss because it
contained a variety of fish and wildlife habitats, including wetlands,
wet prairies, and bottomland forests (Missouri River Natural Resources
Committee, 1998).

As a result of these human-induced changes, populations for many fish,
bird, and mammal species that were once abundant in and along Missouri
big rivers, are now in a state of decline, some to the extent that they
are now federally or state-listed as threatened or endangered species.

Even though many of Missouri's threatened and endangered plants and
animals are linked more closely with the loss of wetlands and hydrologic
alterations, there are species that would benefit from the restoration
of woodlands and bottomlands along the Missouri River. Appendix, Tables
A and B, are examples of endangered wildlife found in Missouri, their
requisite habitat, and some actions landowners and land managers can
take to help prevent further population losses.

*Species of Concern*

The Missouri Ecological Classification System (ECS) Project has
identified 31 ecological sub-sections in Missouri. An ecological
classification system is a conceptual framework that allows natural
resource managers to identify, describe, and map units of land with
similar physical and biological characteristics for planning and
management. The *Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions,* (Nigh and Schroeder,
2002) that was the creation of the ECS project, has identified 7
subsections that contain big river components along with comments on
plant and animal species that are considered rare or endangered.
Discussions on the rare or endangered species found in the 7 subsections
follow.

![](media/image4.jpeg){width="3.120833333333333in"
height="2.5590277777777777in"}The **Missouri River Alluvial Plain**
subsection contains about 73 state-listed species, many of which are
fish, mussels, birds, and plants associated with the river and wetlands
along it. Two species of federal concern are the bald eagle (*Haliaeetus
leucocehpalus)* and pallid sturgeon (*Scaphirhynchus albus)*.

The **Gasconade River Hills** subsection contains approximately 76
state-listed species, with caves, bottomland forests, river, and stream
habitats supporting an exceptionally high number of listed species. In
addition to the state-listed species, federally listed species include
the gray bat (*Myotis grisescens)* and the Indiana bat (*Myotis
sodalis)*, as well as the bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocehpalus)*.

The **Outer Ozarks Border** subsection contains approximately 156
state-listed species. This incredibly high number of species and are
mostly associated with cliffs, caves, and bottomland forests. Federally
listed species from this region include: decurrent false aster
*(Bolyonia decurrens)*, running buffalo clover *(Trifolium
stoloniferum)*, pink mucket *(Lampsilis abrupta)*, Topeka shiner
*(Notropis topeka)*, bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocehpalus)*, gray bat
(*Myotis grisescens)* and Indiana bat (*Myotis sodalis)*.

The **Missouri River Alluvial Plain** subsection of the Ozarks Highlands
Section contains about 47 state-listed species, 18 of which are fish
species. Seven species are of federal concern, including the bald eagle
(*Haliaeetus leucocehpalus)*, decurrent false aster *(Bolyonia
decurrens)*, running buffalo clover *(Trifolium stoloniferum)*, pink
mucket *(Lampsilis abrupta)*, gray bat (*Myotis grisescens)*, Indiana
bat (*Myotis sodalis)* and pallid sturgeon (*Scaphirhynchus albus)*.

The **Black River Alluvial Plain** subsection contains approximately 117
state-listed species. This is an exceptionally high number given the
almost complete land conversion to agricultural uses. Many of the rare
species are fish, reptiles, and amphibians associated with the streams
and backwaters of the region. Bottomland forests, swamps, and dune-swale
habitats are also important to rare species. Three species of federal
concern for this region are the bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocehpalus)*,
pink mucket *(Lampsilis abrupta)*, and pondberry *(Lindera
melissifolium)*.

The **St. Francis River Alluvial** subsection contains approximately 60
state-listed species. Most species in this area are associated with the
streams and backwaters of the region, but bottomland forests and swamps
are also important habitats.

The **Mississippi River Alluvial Plain** subsection contains
approximately 132 state-listed species, 16 of which have more than 80%
of their statewide occurrences in this subsection alone. Most of the
listed species are fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mussels associated
with the streams and backwaters of the region, but bottomland forests
and swamps are also important habitats to maintain. Only three species
of federal concern are known: bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocehpalus)*,
fat pocketbook mussel *(Potamilus capax)*, and interior least tern
*(Sterna antillarum athalassos)*.

*Terrestrial Natural Communities*

Terrestrial Natural Communities are interrelated assemblages of plants,
animals and other living organisms, including geologic substrate, soils,
topography and aspect. Table 1 reflects the bottomland terrestrial
communities in Missouri that are considered to be the most threatened
and why their loss has become a cause for concern (Nelson 2002; Missouri
Natural Heritage Program 2003).

**Table 1. Terrestrial Natural Communities of Conservation Concern**

  --------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------
  **Community**   **Type**               **Reason for Concern**

  **Forest**      Mesic sand forest -    Imperiled in the state because of
                  beech, sugar maple and rarity or due to factors that make it
                  sweetgum               vulnerable to extirpation from the
                                         state (6 -- 20 occurrences or few
                                         remaining individuals or acres)

  **Forest**      Mesic bottomland       Imperiled in the state because of
                  forest - red oak,      rarity or due to factors that make it
                  sugar maple and        vulnerable to extirpation from the
                  bitternut hickory      state (6 -- 20 occurrences or few
                                         remaining individuals or acres)

  **Woodland**    Wet-mesic bottomland   Critically imperiled in the state
                  woodland - bur oak,    because of extreme rarity or due to
                  swamp whit oak,        factors making it especially
                  shellbark hickory,     vulnerable to extirpation from the
                  cottonwood and willow  state (typically 5 or fewer
                                         occurrences or very few remaining
                                         individuals or acres)

  **Woodland**    Bottomland flatwoods - Imperiled in the state because of
                  pin oak, post oak, and rarity or due to factors that make it
                  cherrybark oak         vulnerable to extirpation from the
                                         state (6 -- 20 occurrences or few
                                         remaining individuals or acres)

  **Woodland**    Mesic bottomland       Historical: Elements occurred
                  woodland - bur oak,    historically in the state
                  swamp whit oak,        
                  shellbark hickory,     
                  cottonwood and willow  
  --------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------

*Exotics*

Missouri does have some issues with introduced exotics such as zebra
mussel, purple loosestrife, Johnson grass, Reed canary grass, kudzu, and
others. However, there are few exotic species directly associated with
either the loss or the hindrance of restoration activities associated
with bottomland forests.

*Markets and Economic Opportunities*

Because bottomlands are some of the most highly productive agricultural
lands in the Missouri, it may be a challenge to take much of this land
out of agricultural production and into trees. However, agricultural
land that is marginal due to flooding damage on crops or disrupted field
access offers improved opportunities for land conversion to bottomland
forests.

How the landowner and others value the bottomland forest resource
equates directly to its market potential. With proper marketing and
market recognition, managed bottomland forest offer many opportunities
for landowners to realize improved returns on their investment.

In the case of a bottomland forested situation there are a number of
market opportunities which may or may not directly translate into an
assessed price or dollar amount. However, most markets are related to
some value that individuals or society place on the forested
environment. This may either be for the production of material goods or
be a value resulting from its role and function in a larger
environmental system. These markets may be well defined, as in the case
of timber and lease hunting, or it may be less well defined relying more
on the entrepreneurial spirit of the landowner, such as the promotion
and sale of specialty forest products.

[Forest Products]{.underline}

![](media/image5.jpeg){width="3.058333333333333in"
height="2.2875in"}Numerous material goods come from a bottomland forest.
And, while the value of a given tree is related to any number of
factors, ranging from species and wood-quality to end-product use and
consumer demand, most tree species have the potential to be marketed for
use as a wood product. These products can range from fine furniture
construction to bio-fuel cuttings.

Quality and volume are two typical specifications that will improve or
detract from the ultimate value of timber. Quality wood is typically
free from branches and any evidence that at one time there existed a
branch at that spot. Also, a quality tree is a tree that grows straight.
Additionally, large trees are typically more highly valued than small
trees. Combine high quality and high volume with high value species and
you have a product with good market potential.

Other non-timber products that may grow in the bottomland forest
environment are often referred to as alternative or specialty forest
products. Often the markets are less well defined for special forest
products and becomes the landowner\'s responsibility to identify
products and buyers. A few specialty forest products that may be grown
in the bottomland forest include: mushrooms, berries, nuts, fruit, woody
decorative florals, and medicinal and botanical plants.

[Wildlife Products]{.underline}

In addition to the wood and other specialty products being grown on the
site, the wildlife aspects associated with bottomland forests are
increasingly being recognized as valuable. An example of this use is
leasing access rights for wildlife hunting. Hunting leases are a part of
a broader concept of recreational leases, all of which may provide
supplemental income from a given land area.

Access to land and its associated wildlife is often marketed as fee
hunting. The most common types of fee hunting are lease fees
(\$/acre/year), daily fees (\$/day), and seasonal fees (\$/game-season).
In the case of wildlife, the hunting lease holder, although retaining
rights to access the land for hunting, is still responsible to only take
game in accordance with state and federal game laws and seasons. For
more on lease hunting, including a sample agreement, please refer to the
following publication :

University of Missouri Outreach and Extension guide sheet, G9420, *Lease
Hunting: Opportunities for Missouri Landowners* by Robert A. Pierce II.

[]{.mark}

[Future Products and Markets]{.underline}

There are several areas that hold promise for landowners looking to
market their bottomland forest outside traditional wood products. These
markets have potential, but are still in their infancy. It is therefore
recommended that any forest planning that relies on these markets
proceed with caution. Two areas of immediate potential include using
bottomland forests for "carbon sequestration" (the storage of carbon
removed from the atmosphere) and the use of wood for power generation.

The world market is moving towards recognizing and rewarding efforts
that remove greenhouse gasses from the environment. One of the important
atmospheric gasses is carbon. Trading exchanges are being established to
create forums around cap-and-trade programs that hope to reduce
emissions of greenhouse gasses through market based solutions. A
commodity likely to be traded will be the long term storage
opportunities afforded through tree establishment and maintenance.
Several states have passed legislation recognizing the potential of
trees established for carbon sequestration including Oklahoma (HB 1192)
and Nebraska (LB 957).

Additionally, wood has the potential to reduce our reliance on fossil
fuels. Wood can be chipped and then burned in the production of power so
that the amount of coal and other energy sources is decreased.
Similarly, wood can be processed to produce ethanol, methanol, and
diesel based products. As technologies improve and the cost of fossil
fuels increases (both directly as in the cost of oil and indirectly as
in the environmental cost) the feasibility of utilizing wood for power
becomes more realistic.

**References used in this section:**

Allen, S.B., J.P. Dwyer, D.C. Wallace, and E.A. Cook, 2003. "Missouri
River Flood on 1993: Role of Woody Corridor Width in Levee Protection."
Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39(4): 923-933.

Burkhart and Todd, 1998."Riparian Forest Effect on Lateral Stream
Channel Migration in the Glacial Till plains". Journal of the American
Water Resources Association 34(1): 179-184.

Colbert, K. 1998. *Height-diameter equations and mortality rates for
thirteen Midwest bottomland hardwood species*. MS thesis, University of
Missouri-Columbia. 68pp.

Dwyer, J.P., D. Wallace, and D.R. Larsen, 1997. "Value of Woody River
Cooridors in Levee Protection Along the Missouri River in 1993." Journal
of the American Water Resources Association 33(2): 481-489

Geyer, W.A., T. Neppl, K. Brooks, and J. Carlisle, 2000. "Woody
Vegetation Protects Streambank Stability During The 1993 Flood in
Central Kansas". Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 55(4): 483-486.

Hodges, J.D. (1997). "Development and ecology of bottomland hardwood
sites." *Forest\
Ecology and Management* 90, 117-125.

Missouri Department of Natural Resources. *Missouri River Corridor
Inventory Report.* February 1981.

Missouri Natural Heritage Program, 2003. *Missouri Species and
Communities of Conservation Concern Checklist*. Missouri Department of
Conservation. Jefferson City, MO. 29 pp.

Missouri River Natural Resources Committee, June 1998. "Missouri River
Environmental Assessment Program". 33 pp.

Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. (2000) *Wetlands, 3rd Edition*, edn.
NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nelson, Paul. 2002. *The Terrestrial Natural Communities of Missouri*.
Missouri Department of Conservation. Jefferson City, Missouri. 90 pp.

Nigh, Timothy A., and Walter A. Schroeder. 2002. *Atlas of Missouri
Ecoregions*.

Conservation Commission -- State of Missouri. 212 pp.

Soil Conservation Service, 1993a. Impacts of the 1993 Flood on
Missouri's Agricultural Land. USDA, Columbia, Missouri, 1p.

Soil Conservation Service, 1993b. Estimate of 1993 Disaster Damage to
Soil and Water Conservation Practices in Missouri. USDA, Columbia,
Missouri, 1p.

Bottomland Forest Planning Considerations

A critical element in the management process for a forested area is the
development of a comprehensive plan or prescription. Without laying out
a course of action it is difficult for the landowner or land manager to
know where to begin and where to go. A management plan serves as a "road
map" or "blueprint\" for the future. This process involves a number of
steps or actions that will facilitate the development of the management
plan. Each individual should take the time to plan out what ultimately
is wanted from their land and the timeframe for all this to occur. The
planning process is a step-by-step approach to help the land owner
manage their bottomlands toward a\
\
desired future condition (adapted from NRCS National Planning Procedures
Handbook, 2003). These steps are listed below and will be covered in
detail in separate sections.

**Step 1---Identify Goals and Objectives:** Identify resource problems,
opportunities, and concerns in the planning area. Identify and document
the client's goals and objectives.

**Step 2---Inventory Resources:** Inventory the natural resources and
their condition, and the economic and social considerations related to
the resources. This includes on-site and related off-site situations.

**Step 3---Analyze Resource Data:** Analyze the resource information
gathered in planning step three to clearly define the natural resource
conditions, along with economic and social issues related to the
resources. This includes problems and opportunities.

**Step 4---Develop the Plan:** Formulate actions that will achieve the
client's objectives, solve natural resource problems, and take advantage
of opportunities to improve or protect resource conditions.

**Step 5---Evaluate and Monitor the Plan:** Evaluate the effectiveness
of the plan as it is implemented and make adjustments as needed.

**References used in this section:**

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation
Service, March 2003. National Planning Procedures Handbook, Amendment 4.
Washington D.C.

**Identifying Goals and Objectives**

![](media/image6.jpeg){width="3.652083333333333in" height="2.4125in"}An
essential first step in any management planning scenario is the
identification of landowner or user goals and objectives. With any
forestry management plan, the major issues and concerns need to be
considered and addressed. When developing a plan for bottomlands that
have been mismanaged, neglected, or have been used as agricultural
lands, there are two main avenues of addressing these issues:
reforestation or rehabilitation. Reforestation seeks to re-establish the
forest where there currently is none. This is mainly done through
planting, seeding, or natural regeneration. Rehabilitation repairs an
already existing forest by manipulating the existing stand. Intermediate
treatments can be used to release good quality trees.

Once the user has developed a vision of the desired future condition of
their land, it should be recorded somewhere. This vision should be broad
and general in nature stating what the landowner sees their land
producing or becoming in the future. After it is written down, it is
time to ask some questions. These questions will determine how the land
is going to get from point "A" (current condition) to point "B" (desired
future condition). Some suggested questions that could be addressed are:
What are the current land uses and what might be some of the desired
land uses? Are trees going to be introduced on the land? Is the
rehabilitation of an existing forest desired?

Next the user should consider what issues or challenges exist between
the current land condition and the vision. These issues should be
clearly stated in the management plan. These issue statements should not
become overwhelming or too numerous to handle but should try to cover
all the major questions which the landowner needs to address. An issue
statement could address questions such as these: Are the site conditions
(i.e. hydrology, topography, competing vegetation) going to pose a
challenge to this desired future condition? Does your land currently
have the habitat necessary for the desired wildlife? What are the
economic costs of managing for this desired future condition?

Achieving this vision and successfully addressing the issues is highly
dependant on clearly defined goals. Set a goal or series of goals that
directly relates to each issue, remembering to vary the time durations
for the individual goals. This helps see results in the short term. An
example of a specific goal might be *"Increase hazelnut shrubs on the
farm for improved turkey habitat".*

After the goals have been established, the next step is to list the
objectives. Objectives answer the question: What will be done to
accomplish these goals? They are concise statements that tell what will
be accomplished, when it will be accomplished, where it will be
accomplished and by whom. These statements are the "building blocks" of
guidance for the forest prescription. The development of the vision,
issues, goals and objectives may find some redundancy in ideas and
wording, however each of these are important aspects to consider in
devising a well thought-out plan.

**Inventory Resources**

This second step is extremely important. It is absolutely imperative
that a comprehensive knowledge of critical resources associated with the
forest bottomland site be known. In conducting a site inventory of the
natural resources, there are certain methods and procedures for
collecting, recording and analyzing site information. Site evaluation
can be formal involving elaborate techniques and equipment or more
informal such as walking through each field and taking notes. Whatever
the method, this information will then become the basis for determining
the current condition of site resources *(Analyize Resource Data -- Step
3)* and help determine a future course of action (*Develop the Plan -
Step 4)* that will become a plan for reaching user objectives.

Some important basic resources to inventory include climate, hydrology,
landscape information (such as topography and soils), wildlife, and
trees.

*Climate*

Climate variations are important considerations when making a schedule
of management activities. Climatic factors influence tree growth and
development through precipitation (distribution and amount), temperature
range, and evapo-transpiration. (Allen, et. al. 2001) Missouri's climate
is characterized as a continental climate that has\
\
distinct summer and winter seasons. In Table 2 several important
differences are shown for the various regions of Missouri's big river
subsections. This table is a compilation of climate data from Nigh and
Schroeder's (2002) *Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions*. These differences can
influence the species selection and limit the regions from which nursery
stock should be utilized. For example, the Mississippi River Alluvial
Basin Section experiences 220 to 250 growing season days per year.
Therefore, seed stock taken from this region would be best utilized
where the growing season is a similar length. Similarly, stock taken
from a region or state where the growing season is significantly shorter
would not be well suited for regions with a longer growing season. It is
best to utilize stock collected in a similar climate with similar
growing conditions relative to the site under management consideration.

**Table 2**. Climate data by selected ecoregion subsections

  --------------------- ----------- -------------- --------- --------- -----------
  **Ecoregion**         **MA        **Wettest      **Min.    **Max.    **Growing
                        Precip.**   Months**       Temp.**   Temp.**   Season**

                        Inches      Months         January   July (F)  Days
                                                   (F)                 

  **Missouri River      40          May-June and   17 to 18  90        210
  Alluvial Plain                    September                          
  Subsection**                                                         

  **Missouri River      34 to 39    May-October    12 to 17  89 to 90  200 to 208
  Alluvial Plain                                                       
  Subsection**                                                         

  **Mississippi River   40 to 47    March-May and  18 to 22  90        210 to 215
  Alluvial Plain                    August                             
  Subsection**                                                         

  **Mississippi River   48 to 52    Equal Monthly  25        91        220 to 250
  Alluvial Basin                    Distribution                       
  Section**                                                            
  --------------------- ----------- -------------- --------- --------- -----------

*Hydrology*

![](media/image7.jpeg){width="3.75in" height="2.8125in"}

A second direct effect of flooding is physical damage to vegetation from
scouring, debris and ice. Typically, smaller diameter trees are more
susceptible to damage from scouring and debris carried in flood waters
(Ponnamperuma 1972).

Indirect flooding effects are largely the result of nutrient
availability due to soil oxygen levels. The availability of two
nutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen, may limit forest productivity.
Phosphorus is bound to sediments. The phosphorus content of some
floodplain forests is high due to sediment deposition, however its
availability to plants is dependent on many factors. Nitrogen primarily
moves in solution and is also brought in by flooding events and is
thought to be the most limiting nutrient in flooded soils (Ponnamperuma
1972). Anaerobic conditions convert nitrate (NO~3~) to nitrous oxide
(N~2~O) where it is lost from the bottomland system. These direct and
indirect effects on floodplain forest composition are regulated by the
hydrologic regime of the floodplain.

The important factors of a hydrologic regime, as they relate to forest
communities, are: 1) timing - time of year that the flooding occurs; 2)
duration - the length of time that the floodplain is inundated with
water; 3) frequency - how often the flooding occurs during the year and
between years; 4) depth - height of water above the floodplain surface;
5) rate of change - how fast the water rises or falls (Poff and Allen
1997).

The combination of these five factors plays a large role in the woody
species that can be successfully established on particular sites. In
addition, growth rates can also be affected by these five factors. On
certain microsites a number of species, such as Eastern cottonwood
(*Populus deltoides*), silver maple (*Acer saccharium*) and willow
(*Salix* spp.), may be successfully regenerated in response to timing
and duration of flooding events. On sandy soils near the active channel,
flooding events kill competing herbaceous vegetation and allow for
adequate soil moisture for cottonwood establishment. Moreover, the speed
at which the waters recede is critical to the survival of cottonwood
reproduction (Segelquist, et al., 1993). Timing also plays a large role
in the management of Green Tree Reservoirs (GTR). These GTRs are flooded
in late fall and winter when\
trees are dormant and the flooding is thought not to have a large affect
on the survival of the trees (Fredrickson and Batema, 2000). This
interaction between frequency and duration of flooding events is less
well studied.

There are situations that flooding into the growing season restricts
species establishment and growth. An example in Missouri of the effect
of flooding frequency on species composition was evident at Ted Shanks
MDC Conservation Area, near Hannibal, Missouri. Increased flooding
frequency prior to the 1993 flood stressed pin oak (*Quercus palustris*)
to the extent that it was removed from the bottomland community.

Depth of flooding also has important implications for both seedling and
tree survival. Research studies have found that hardwood seedling
survival is directly related to flooding depth (Siebel *et al*., 1998;
Yanosky, 1983).\
\
Landowners typically possess a good knowledge of the flooding events
(frequency and duration) on their property. Existing information on
precipitation events, soils, vegetation cover, size and shape of the
watershed, and micro relief of the floodplain can assist landowners in
understanding the hydrology of these areas.

*Landscape Information and Resources*

Landscapes and their features can be characterized in many different
ways. Important resources associated with bottomland forested landscapes
are topographic maps, aerial photography, soil maps, and ownership
boundaries. The following discussion illustrates these different
representations.

**Topography** -- Topography is characterized by the length, shape,
aspect, elevation and degree of slope. It is important in determining
and influencing the pattern and distribution of soils, vegetation and
hydrology. While distinct topographic features exist in big river
bottomland floodplains, relief on the alluvial floodplain is generally
less than 10 feet in any square mile. These small differences in relief
(micro-relief) can, none-the-less, have strong influences in bottomland
floodplain responses.

Floodplain micro-relief features include meander scroll, natural levee,
chute, oxbow, splay, slough, swamp, ridge and flat (Figure 1). The
rivers within these areas have periodically shifted courses during flood
events. This shifting has resulted in the

![](media/image8.jpeg){width="5.43125in"
height="4.072916666666667in"}development of meandering river channels.
These abandoned channels, called meander scrolls, exist as ridges
(remnants of a natural river levee) and depressions (remnants of the
river channel). Natural levees develop along river banks due to the
deposition of heavier sand and silt sediments in the area adjacent to
the river channel during flood events. These natural levees are often
the highest and better drained areas within a floodplain. A gentle
back-slope occurs on the floodplain side of the natural levee, so the
effective floodplain typically contains low flats far from the river.
Oxbow lakes are formed within floodplains when meanders are cut off from
the main river channel. These oxbow lakes hold water permanently.
Sloughs are smaller than oxbows and form within the meander scrolls
previously discussed. Sloughs also hold water but they are often dry
during part of the year. The formation of meander scrolls, natural
levees, sloughs, and other features result in a fairly complex
floodplain topography dominated by micro-relief features (Flynn 1999).

These topographic features are represented visually on a topographic
map. These maps represent horizontal and vertical positions of physical
features by using standard symbols. Standard topographic maps are
published in quadrangles bounded by lines of latitude and longitude.
Generally, topographic quadrangles cover 7 ½ minutes of latitude and
longitude with a scale of 1:24,000. The scale symbolizes 1.0-inch on the
map to 24,000 inches (2,000 feet) on the ground. A quadrangle map area
typically represents an average of 63 square miles.

Topographic maps of Missouri are highly detailed maps of the Missouri
landscape, showing hills, valleys, forest cover, roads, streams, houses,
barns, and other landscape features. Topographic maps accurately
represent the natural and man-made features of the land. They do so
through the use of symbols, lines, text and color. Color plays an
important role in designating major features on topographic maps. Black
is used for human developed features such as buildings, roads,
transmission lines, names and boundaries. Blue symbolizes water, showing
lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Red is used to show major roads or
highways, section lines and numbers. Green depicts woodland cover and
orchards. Brown is used for contour lines, which symbolize land shapes
and elevations. Contour lines are imaginary lines that follow the ground
surface at a constant elevation, meandering around hills and up and down
valleys. Contour lines are useful for determining elevations and the
shapes of the land (Figure 8).

The 71/2-minute, 1:24,000-scale map series of Missouri was completed in
1988 through the cooperative effort of the U.S. Geological Survey and
the Missouri Department of Natural Resources. There are 1,283 maps in
the series for Missouri, and each one has a unique name. The number of
71/2-minute maps needed to cover an entire\
county varies from 1 to 20 depending upon the size and shape of the
county.

![](media/image9.png){width="6.0in" height="4.489583333333333in"}:
<http://pubs.usgs.gov/>

**Aerial Photos** -- Aerial photography is one of the oldest and most
versatile forms of remote sensing to assist in documenting visual
information. A useful aerial photograph is the orthophotograph. An
orthophotograph is an aerial photograph with nearly all the image
displacement and scale errors removed. Photographs are routinely taken
in black and white panchromatic, black and white infrared,
color-visible, color-infrared, and multiband types. Aerial photographs
may be taken in vertical, low-oblique or high-oblique positions;
standard air photos are vertical views of the ground. Vertical
photographs are normally acquired in overlapping pattern, so as to
create a stereoscopic effect when adjacent pairs are viewed together.
Aerial photos can be obtained from county USDA Service Centers or
through various internet sites.

**Ownership Boundaries** - Ownership boundaries are important reference
points for inventory activities. Failure to distinguish accurate
boundaries can result in incorrect resource information and possible
legal problems.

Ownership boundaries are based on a legal description of the parcel or
parent land tract taken from the title of record maintained at the
County Court House, Recorder of Deeds. The survey shows sufficient data
(distances and directions) to positively locate the parcel surveyed
within the United States Public Land Survey area. The deed descriptions
of tracts divided by the rectangular system of public land survey
includes the principal meridian, township, range, section, and fraction
of section (Figure 3). (Code of State Regulations, 2001). A 40 acre
tract in Callaway County might read: the NE ¼, SW ¼, Section 6, T47N,
R9W, 5^th^ Principal Meridian. (Figure 9)

![](media/image10.png){width="3.5520833333333335in"
height="3.3958333333333335in"}

*\
*

**Soil** - Soil is a natural, three-dimensional volume at the earth's
surface. It is capable of supporting plants and has properties resulting
from the integrated effects of climate and living matter acting on
parent material, as conditioned by topography over periods of time
(United States Department of Agriculture, 1993). Knowing what soils are
present on any tract of land is basic inventory information that is
critical to resource management activities relating to plant growth,
potential uses, and site limitations.

Soils associated with the big river bottomlands in Missouri are very
deep and were formed from alluvial sediments. Subsoil development is
generally young and soil profile textural stratification is common. Soil
texture, drainage, flooding, and deposition, vary depending on the
topography within the floodplain (Figure 10).

*Figure 10. Example of a typical pattern of soils, topography, and
parent material (From Callaway County Soil Survey, 2001 )*

![](media/image11.jpeg){width="5.75in" height="4.354166666666667in"}
Sandy soils occur in **splay deposits** and natural levees. Silty soils
are on natural levees and ridges. Clayey soils are generally farthest
from the river on broad flats and within depressional areas such as
**sloughs** and **chutes**. In certain areas, older deposits are
inter-fingered with newer ones, creating a mosaic of texture, drainage,
and elevation within relatively short distances. In addition, some soils
have strongly contrasting textures within the profile, reflecting
changes in river position and flooding periods. Soil drainage varies
widely throughout the floodplain and are related primarily to elevation
and textural differences. In general, however, many soils are somewhat
poorly to poorly drained. The soils of lower elevations will experience
more frequent and longer periods of flooding or saturation than will
higher sites. Elevation and textural differences generally influence the
boundaries of soils and drainage conditions (United States Department of
Agriculture, 1993).

All soils contain properties that determine their suitability for
specific uses and their influence on plant growth. The following is a
listing of major soil properties that affect the suitability of
bottomland soils for selected uses. (United States Department of
Agriculture, 1993)

-   *[Permeability (Hydraulic conductivity)]{.underline}* (the rate at
    which a saturated soil transmits water down through the profile.)
    The ability to move water through the soil profile will have an
    impact on species composition and plant growth. Moderate
    permeability is the optimum condition in most cases. Too slow or too
    rapid are both undesirable rates.

-   *[Available water capacity]{.underline}* (the capacity of soil to
    hold water available for use by most plants.) It is commonly defined
    as the difference between the amount of soil water at field moisture
    capacity and the amount at wilting point. The higher the available
    water capacity the better potential plant growth.

-   *[Soil texture]{.underline}* (the relative proportions of sand, silt
    and clay particles in a mass of soil.)\
    The basic textural classes in order of increasing fine particles
    are: sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay
    loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay.
    Extremely fine or coarse textures may have a negative influence on
    plant growth and other site uses.

-   *[Flooding]{.underline}* (overland flow of free water from a storm
    event). Flooding impacts are related to flooding frequency,
    duration, velocity and depth. Species composition, plant survival
    and growth, and potential uses will vary with the type of flooding
    the site experiences.

-   *[Ponding]{.underline}* (standing water in closed depressions). The
    duration, depth and time of year of standing water have a strong
    influence on site use and species composition.

-   *[Soil drainage]{.underline}* (frequency and duration of the
    existing wetness condition). The natural drainage is related to soil
    texture, depth to water table, and landscape position. (See Figure
    5). The basic drainage classes in order of increasing wetness are:
    excessively drained, somewhat excessively drained, well drained,
    moderately well drained, somewhat poorly drained, poorly drained,
    and very poorly drained.

*Figure 11. Relationship of water table and topography to drainage
classes. In general, as the water table gets closer to the land surface,
the soil drainage will decrease.*

**River** **Water Table**

[Soil Survey]{.underline}

A soil survey contains information that can be used in land planning
activities. Soil maps can be obtained from completed soil surveys
available at local USDA Service Centers. A modern soil survey contains a
wealth of useful information about the soils of a county. Some soils are
seasonally wet or subject to flooding; some are shallow to bedrock; some
are too unstable to be used as a foundation for buildings or roads; some
are too clayey or wet soils to use as septic tank absorption fields; and
some have a high water table that makes soil poorly suited to basements
or underground installations. These and many other soil properties that
affect land use are described in a soil survey.

Soil survey information includes discussions on the use and management
of soils, data on soil properties, detailed soil descriptions and
classification of the soils. The soil survey contains predictions of
soil behavior for various land uses. The survey also highlights
limitations and hazards inherent in the soil, improvements needed to
overcome the limitations, and the impact of selected land uses on the
environment.

One of the most valuable pieces of information in a soil survey is the
detailed soil map. The location of each soil is shown on the detailed
soil maps through the use of lines representing soil map unit
boundaries. Each map unit (identified with a map symbol) represents an
area on the landscape and consists of one or more soils for which the
unit is named (See Figure 12 ). A map unit is identified and named
according to the taxonomic

## *Figure 12. Example of a soil survey map from Callaway County Soil Survey along the Missouri River*

![](media/image12.jpeg){width="3.5256944444444445in" height="3.75in"}

> Legend:

#### Symbol Name

35 C2 Menfro silt loam 3-9% slopes

35 F2 Menfro silt loam 20-30% slopes

18 F Goss-Gasconade-Rock 5-35% slope

39 Hodge fine sand, loamy substratum

40 Grable very fine sandy loam

40 Leta silty clay loam, sandy substratum

44 Dupo silt loam

### Map symbols consist of numbers or a combination of numbers and a letter. The initial number represents the kind of soil. The capital letter following the map number indicates the class of slope. The higher the letter is in the alphabet the steeper the slope. Symbols without a letter are nearly level. Symbols with the number of "2" following the slope letter indicate the soil is eroded. The newer soil surveys in Missouri use a 5-digit number sequence that represents a given Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) and land form within the sequence.

classification of the dominant soils. Map unit areas rarely can be
mapped without including areas of other taxonomic classes due to scale
of mapping. As a result, every map unit is made up of the soils for
which it is named and other closely associated minor components (United
States Department of Agriculture, 1993).

### [Internet Sites]{.underline}

### Several Internet sites have been developed to assist in providing natural resource information to the public. Below is a listing of sites that may be beneficial.

[www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov](../www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov) This is the home page
for the Missouri Natural Resources

Conservation Service. You can find out about Soil Survey (hard copy)
status and other services offered.

[www.cares.missouri.edu/soils](../www.cares.missouri.edu/soils) The
Center for Agricultural, Resource and Environmental Systems
(CARES)Missouri Digital Soil Survey website can be used to view online
surveys, develop maps based on your queries, and download data.

[www.statlab.iastate.edu/soils/nssc](../www.statlab.iastate.edu/soils/nssc)
This is the USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Center website. It provides
information on soil science education, soil survey maps, soil
information and data, soil geography, soil use and management, standards
for soil surveys, research and investigations and professional
development.

[www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/ssur_data.html](../www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/ssur_data.html)
This is the USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO)
website. Options for further exploration include general SSURGO
description, SSURGO listing, archived SSURGO map, SSURGO Data Users
Guide, download SSURGO data, order SSURGO data on CD-ROM.

[www.misdis.missouri.edu](http://misdis.missouri.edu/) Digital soils
data for Missouri are available for download on the Missouri Spatial
Data Information Service (MISDIS) website as ArcInfo coverages and
ArcView shapefiles. Many other types of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) data for Missouri are also available for download on this site.

#### *Wildlife*

#### Numerous wildlife species depend on big river bottomland forests and their associated habitats for feeding and breeding sites in order to sustain their populations. While it may be difficult or impractical for a user to inventory wildlife on a farm, there are numerous reference sources that can provide information relating to the potential occurrence of any given species. Knowing the type of species that could use habitat in the area will allow the landowner to develop activities and actions in the plan that will encourage or support interested wildlife species. In many cases, the wildlife inventory will simply be a visual catalog of species noted while moving around on the bottomland tract. Species occurrences for common birds and mammals follow.

#### Birds

The Missouri River valley is an important breeding and wintering ground
for many native songbirds, migratory waterfowl, and shore bird species
as it lies between the Mississippi Flyway and the Central Flyway.
Mallards (*Anas platyrhincos)* and Canada geese (*Branta Canadensis)*
are the most common migratory waterfowl in the Missouri River valley.
Other common species are shown in Table 3.

*Table 3. Migratory waterfowl common to the Missouri River Valley.*

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  [Common Name]{.underline}          [Scientific Name]{.underline}

  snow goose                         *Chen caerulescens*

  American black duck                *Anas rubripes*

  northern pintail                   *Anas acuta*

  green-winged teal                  *Anas crecca*

  blue-winged teal                   *Anas discors*

  cinnamon teal                      *Anas cyanoptera*

  Shovelers                          

  American widgeon                   *Anas Americana*

  wood duck                          *Aix sponsa*

  Redhead                            *Aythya americana*

  Canvasback                         *Aythya valisineria*

  lesser scaup                       *Aythya affinis*

  Bufflehead                         *Bucephala albeola*

  ruddy duck                         *Oxyura jamaicesis*

  pied-billed grebe                  *Podilymbus podiceps*

  American coot                      *Fulica Americana*
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

![](media/image13.jpeg){width="3.625in"
height="2.259027777777778in"}Bottomland forests along the river provide
a rich habitat for many forest-dwelling birds. This habitat is important
for several species near the edge of their range, such as the
red-shouldered hawk *(Buteo lineatus)*, pileated woodpecker (*Dryocopas
pileatus)*, Carolina chickadee (*Parus carolinensis)*, white-eyed vireo
(*Vireo griseus)*, yellow-throated vireo (*Vireo flavifrons)*, and
blue-winged warbler (*Vermivora pinus)*.

Furthermore, the state-wide reintroduction of wild turkeys (*Meleagris
gallpavo)* has returned this species to game status in many bottomland
forest corridors.

#### Mammals

Wild mammal populations in the Missouri River corridor depend on
bottomland habitat and bordering uplands for their maintenance and
survival. Mammals use forest, marsh, backwater meadow, and sandbar and
dune areas located on or near the banks of the Missouri (Table 4). The
bluff caves along the river and the dense bottomland

*Table 4. Typical mammal species found in riverine woodland habitats*.

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  [Common Name]{.underline}          [Scientific Name]{.underline}

  White tailed deer                  *Odocoileus virginiana*

  Beaver                             *Castor canadensis*

  Mink                               *Mustela vison*

  Raccoon                            *Procyon lotor*

  Red fox                            *Vulpes vulpes*

  Gray fox                           *Urocyon cinereoargenteus*

  Opossum                            *Didelphis virginiana*

  Squirrels                          Family *Sciuridae*

  Skunks                             Family *Mephitidae*

  Coyote                             *Canis latrans*

  Shrews                             Family *Soricidae*

  13-lined ground squirrel           *Spermophilus franklinii*

  Mice and voles                     Family *Muridae*

  Gray bat                           *Myotis grisescens*

  Indiana bat                        *Myotis sodalis*
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

woodlands provide good habitat for several species of bats in addition
to many other wildlife species (Schwartz and Schwartz, 2001).

*Forests*

The purpose of a forest inventory is to acquire detailed information
about a forest. An inventory may be needed to buy or sell timber
products, to evaluate damage to the forest, or to determine the
condition or extent of a forest. The forest inventory is a compilation
of information that becomes the essential starting point for bottomland
forest management decisions. The information collected will help clarify
the condition of the forest resource and serve as a guide to future
management decisions.

Floodplain forests are typified by tree species that are adapted to an
environment that is characterized by frequent flooding events (Table 5).
The flooding events create dynamic landscapes that continually modify
soil resources and affect species distribution and composition.

*Table 5. Species typically found in floodplain landscapes.*

Swamp privet *Foresteria acuminate*

Green ash *Fraxinus pennsylvanica*

Deciduous holly *Ilex decidua*

Water elm *Planera aquatica*

Overcup oak *Quercus lyrata*

Nuttall oak *Quercus nuttallii*

Black willow *Salix nigra*

Baldcypress *Taxodium distichum*

Boxelder *Acer negundo*

Red maple *Acer rubra*

Silver maple *Acer saccharinum*

Native pecan *Carya illinoensis*

Sugarberry *Celtis laevigata*

Hackberry *Celtis occidentalis*

Persimmon *Diospyros virginiana*

Sweetgum *Liquidambar styraciflua*

Sycamore *Platanus occidentalis*

Cottonwood *Populus deltoides*

Pin oak *Quercus palustris*

Water oak *Quercus nigra*

Willow oak *Quercus phellos*

River birch *Betula nigra*

Shellbark hickory *Carya laciniosa*

Green hawthorn *Crataegus virdis*

Honeylocust *Gleditsia triacanthos*

Swamp white oak *Quercus bicolor*

Bur oak *Quercus macrocarpa*

American elm *Ulmus Americana*

Cherrybark oak *Quercus pagodaefolia*

Red elm *Ulmus rubra*

![](media/image16.jpeg){width="4.625in" height="3.44375in"}

Because tree growth is intricately linked with factors of site
productivity, areas of existing forest are often broken down into
manageable divisions called stands for inventory purposes. The forest
stand is the unit by which large forested areas are subdivided and each
individual stand managed for improved sustainability. There is no set
size for this land unit. Rather, the soils, topography, or other natural
land features that affect tree growth are often used to delineate the
forest stand. Since variations including size, density, composition, and
age exist across the forested land area, it is important to break the
forest area into homogeneous stands prior to making management
recommendations. Forest inventories should include a map that references
where each forest stand is located and how many acres it contains.

How is a forest inventoried? Typically only a portion of the forest is
sampled or inventoried. For example, if there were 300 trees per acre on
40 acres that means there are 12,000 trees that would have to be
measured to do a complete inventory. This is a formidable of a task, so
an inventory should attempt to obtain information on a representative
sample of the trees that are of interest. If all trees were identical on
the 40 acres then only one tree would have to be sampled to get a
picture of the total forest. In reality, trees in a forest, or any
natural resource for that matter, are never uniform in species, size,
distribution, or any other characteristic. Therefore, the forest stand
is partially sampled using various methods to inventory or "cruise" the
forest to provide an estimate of the actual forest stand (Husch, et
al.,1972).

[Types of Forest Inventories]{.underline}

Basically, there are two types of inventories used to sample trees:
fixed-radius plot inventory and variable-radius plot inventory.
Regardless of the inventory type, the tree measurements observed on each
sample plot should include most, if not all of the following pieces of
data, recorded by species: diameter at breast height (DBH) measured in
inches at 4.5 feet above ground line, the age (years) of a few
representative mature trees, the tree height measured as total or to
some point on the bole (main tree trunk) specified as merchantable, and
maybe something about tree quality or grade. From these inventories
basal area (BA) measured in square feet, tree count, and volume can be
determined (Husch, et al.,1972).

The fixed-radius plot is a fixed area that is established for
inventorying. All trees within this plot radius are measured. These
plots can be randomly or systematically located within the forest stand.
The arrangement and number of plots will depend upon the uniformity of
the forest, site conditions, type of information needed, and landowner
time and objectives. The typical fixed radius plot has a plot center
from which a known radial distance is measured out from that plot
center. The size of the fixed plot should vary with the size of the
vegetation.

Whether using a variable plot size or a fixed plot size, each counted
tree should have its diameter measured at DBH. This may then be used to
calculate BA per acre (BA/acre = 0.005454 x DBH^2^ x the expanded \# of
trees per acre). The tree count can also be used to calculate an average
diameter for the stand and will be useful in making management decisions
based on a stocking guide (Husch, et al.,1972).

**Variable-radius.** The variable-radius (prism plot) is a plot whose
center is fixed but whose radius varies depending upon the size of the
individual tree. Two specialized forestry tools, the wedge prism and
angle gauge, are used to sample trees with this type of inventory. Both
tools are used to project a fixed angle from the plot center to a tree
at DBH. These tools create a visual perspective that when held at a set
distance from the eye and superimposed on the tree of interest determine
whether the tree is to be inventoried.

The wedge prism (Figure 15) is a wedge-shaped piece of glass calibrated
to a pre-determined angle factor *(In the Midwest, a 10-factor prism is
commonly used).* The prism is held over plot center and rotated in a
360-degree circle to view trees in the line of sight of the prism. When
viewing the tree through the prism the tree will appear to be displaced.
Any tree whose bole image is superimposed over the real tree is counted
as an "in" tree.

![](media/image17.jpeg){width="2.875in" height="1.9777777777777779in"}

Individually, or in combination, basal area and tree count will provide
an estimate of stand density within a stand. Another term often used
when referring to stand density is stand stocking. Stocking becomes a
significant measure of how much space is being utilized by trees.
Ideally, a stand density or stocking is sought that will provide for
optimum utilization of the sites resources (light, water and nutrients),
while providing for consistent tree growth rates for a given site.
Stocking guides are available for many forest stand types and is an
important parameter used in forest assessment.

Basal area and trees per acre (TPA) relate directly to the density of a
forest stand. Basal area is the cross-sectional area in square feet of
each individual tree measured at DBH. In most cases a 10-factor prism or
angle gauge is used to count basal area.

See *Forest Management for Missouri Landowners* for an in-depth
description of taking a sample plot basal area.

**Fixed-radius.** A second way to sample the forest is through the use
of fixed plots. These fixed plots allow sampling of trees within a
certain sized (fixed) area, and each tree counted in that area is
representative of a certain number of trees within the forest stand. The
expansion factor of each counted tree is based on the size of the sample
area relative to an acre. For example, in a fifth acre plot of radius
52.7 feet, each tree counted would be multiplied by five, giving then
TPA based on that one sample plot. Likewise, in a twentieth acre plot of
radius 26.3 feet, each counted tree would be multiplied by 20 to arrive
at TPA. Typically, one size of sample plot is used to count overstory
trees and another, much smaller plot, is used to count smaller
regeneration species. While they may share the same plot center,
regeneration plots are often 1/750^th^ or 1/1000^th^ acre in size. The
smaller plot size reflects the fact that many more stems of regeneration
(smaller trees by nature) can be grown or carried on a site of a given
level of productivity.

As a general rule, you should establish at least 1-plot per acre in
stands of 30-acres or less.

For stands greater than 30-acres there should be 24 sample plots plus
one additional plot for each 5-acres of the total stand acreage. For
example, on a 50-acre stand you would have a total of 34 plots (24 +
(50/5) = 34 sample plots). Increasing the number of sample plots will
improve the accuracy of the inventory. However, the number of sample
plots established is typically a balance between the time and cost as
compared to some level of improved accuracy. The goal with sampling
should be to take enough plots to account for variability in the stand
(tree size, height, species composition, etc. (Husch, et al.,1972)).

**Plot layout.** There are typically three methods of layout for
locating sample plots within a forest stand: systematic line plot,
systematic strip plot and random plot. The systematic line plot
establishes plots on transects at predetermined spacings across the
stand. Systematic strip plots are similar except that samples are taken
from strips of predetermined widths, on either side of the transect. On
the other hand, the random plot method of sampling places variable or
fixed radius plots in nonsystematic locations within the stand. For ease
of sampling within the bottomland forest the systematic line plot method
is highly recommended (Husch, et al.,1972).

**References used in this section**:

Allen, J.A., B.D. Keeland, J.A. Stanturf, A.F. Clewell, and H.E. Kennedy
Jr. 2001. A guide to bottomland hardwood restoration: U.S. Geological
Survey. Report USGS/BRD/ITR-2000-0011. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Research Station, General Technical Report
SRS-40. 132 p.

Code of State Regulations, 2001. Missouri Minimum Standards for Property
Boundary Surveys. Rules of Department of Natural Resources, Division 30
-- Land Survey. 10 CSR 30-2, 1-7.

Fredrickson, L.H. and Batema, D.L. (2000) *Greentree Reservoir
Management Handbook*, Puxico, MO: Gaylord Memorial Laboratory.

Husch, B., C.I. Miller, and T.W. Beers, 1972. *Forest Mensuration*,
Second Edition. Ronald Press Company, New York. 410p.

Missouri Department of Conservation. Forest Management for Missouri
Landowners. Missouri Department of Conservation. 108p.

Nigh, Timothy A., and Walter A. Schroeder. 2002. Atlas of Missouri
Ecoregions.

Conservation Commission -- State of Missouri. 212 pp.

Poff, N.L., Allen, J.D., Bain, M.B., Karr, J.R., Prestegaard, K.L.,
Richter, B.D., Sparks, R.E. and Stromberg, J.C. (1997) The Natural Flow
Regime: A Paradigm for River Conservation and Restoration. *BioScience*
**47**, 769-784.

Ponnamperuma, F.N. (1972) The Chemistry of Submerged Soils. *Advances in
Agronomy* **24**, 29-96.

Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 2001. The wild animals of Missouri.
University of Missouri Press and Missouri Department of Conservation,
Columbia. Pp. 368.

Segelquist, C.A., Scott, M.L. and Auble, G.T. (1993) Establishment of
Populus deltoides under Simulated Alluvial Groundwater Declines.
*American Midland Naturalist* **130**, 274-285.

Siebel, H.N., Van Wijk, M. and Blom, C.W.P.M. (1998) Can Tree Seedlings
Survive Increased Flood Levels of Rivers? *Acta Bot. Neerl.* **47**,
219-230.

United States Department of Agriculture, 1993. Soil Survey Manual.
Agricultural Handbook No. 18. U.S. Government Printing Office. 437p.

Weaver, H.D., 1998. The Topographic Quadrangle: Missouri's All-Purpose
Map. *Missouri Resources*. Fall. 3p.

Yanosky, T.M. (1983) Professional Paper 1296, Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office.

**Analyze Resource Data\
**

The next important step (step 3) is to analyze the resource information
gathered during the inventory phase to clearly define the natural
resource conditions, along with any economic and social issues related
to the natural resources. This assessment step will help to identify
problems, concerns, and opportunities that can be addressed with the
plan.

Analysis of the resources can be used to appraise and evaluate the
status of existing resource conditions, such as:

-   desirability of tree species for the products, production, and
    economic returns desired

-   health of existing forest stands

-   effects of current management programs on plant and animal
    communities

-   wildlife habitat values in relation to potential for the site

-   significance of cultural resources, if present

-   presence of endangered or threatened plant or animal species

-   opportunity for new enterprises

-   feasibility of the current forest community and site management
    providing the desired attributes of production, habitat, water
    quality and quantity, air quality, and soil protection.

The basis for all management decisions comes from the knowledge gleaned
through inventory work. By understanding the potential of a site for
growing trees (identified through soil types and profiles, and such
factors as flood duration), potentials for wildlife development, soil
limitations and potentials and comparing those issues to inventory
results, a more realistic picture is gained concerning what to plant,
when to thin, where to place roads, and potential soil productivity
levels.

*Wildlife Assessment*

![](media/image18.jpeg){width="3.75in"
height="2.5097222222222224in"}When a landowner wants to restore wildlife
habitats to attract desirable species, an effective approach is to use
wildlife assessment guides. One such example of an assessment tool is
the NRCS Wildlife Habitat Appraisal Guide (WHAG). This guide is a field
evaluation procedure designed to measure the quality of habitat for a
particular species of wildlife. It not only rates the quality of
existing vegetative cover, but also accounts for man's use and
management of the habitat. The appraisal guide will produce a habitat
quality index for a specific field, woodland, or wetland as well as for
an entire farm or management unit of land.

The wildlife habitat appraisal guide sheet breaks habitat into the most
important characteristics that are rated on a 1 -- 5 or 1- 10 scale,
depending on their importance. The assessment index ranges from a low of
0.1 to a high of 1.0, resulting in a rating of excellent, good, fair or
poor which can then be applied to the numerical index.

Another benefit to using wildlife habitat appraisal guide sheets is that
the appraisal can identify weak or missing elements in the habitat as a
basis for making improvements. For example, if a landowner wants to
attract wild turkey, using the guide sheet dominant tree species other
than oak species (\<50%) rate a point value of 1. However, by changing
the woodland's dominant tree species to a mix of white and black oaks,
the landowner could raise the value of their woodland for that
characteristic, from 1 to 10, a gain of 9 value points. There are
different NRCS WHAG sheets for many other species such as deer, turkey,
quail, squirrel, songbirds, and migratory waterfowl.

*Soil Assessment*

![](media/image19.jpeg){width="3.845833333333333in"
height="4.905555555555556in"}Accurate soil resource assessments and
analyses can be made using soil interpretation information found in
county Soil Surveys (Figure 17). Soil interpretations provide numerical
and descriptive information pertaining to a wide range of soil
properties. Knowledge of soil properties that limit the land use or
establish the severity of limitations related to the use of resources is
important. A number of considerations should be kept in mind with the
use of soil interpretations:

-   An interpretation has a specific purpose.

-   Application of interpretations for a specific area of land has an
    inherent limitation related to the variability in the composition of
    delineations within a map unit.

-   The inherent variability of soils in nature defines the restraints
    in soil interpretations and the precision of soil behavior
    predictions for specific areas.

-   Certain considerations that determine the economic value of land are
    not part of soil interpretations.

-   Some interpretations are more sensitive to changes in technology and
    land uses than others.

-   Interpretations based on properties of the soil in place are only
    applicable if characteristics of the area are similar to what they
    were when the soil mapping was done.

Soil map unit interpretations for forestry-related activity are an
integral part of analysis and decision making. These interpretations
help provide guidance into what problems and/or opportunities may occur
based on inherent soil characteristics by map units (United States
Department of Agriculture, 1993).

For example, a soil map unit on a bottomland field may have a clay
surface texture rated "very limited -- low strength" for a "natural
surface road." This rating indicates that the road needs to be relocated
or that mitigation for low strength properties should be developed to
make the road functional for the intended use.

Typical interpretation tables found in soil surveys include Forest
Productivity, Forest Management, Physical Properties, Water Management,
Water Features, Engineering Properties. An example of a Forest
Management interpretation table is shown in the Appendix, Table C.

*Forest Assessment*

When conducting an inventory of the forest, its condition should be
continually assessed. Following the field inventory, it may be useful
for analysis to refer to site index\
\
curves for individual species (i.e. cottonwood, silver maple, green ash,
etc.) that are desirable components of the stand. Site index curves
represent tree growth potential, expressed in height, as a measure of
site productivity. Site index is the average height of a dominant or
co-dominant tree species at a given age.

![](media/image20.jpeg){width="3.3513888888888888in"
height="2.3055555555555554in"}To measure site index, select 5 to 10
dominant or co-dominant trees of a given species that are representative
of an identified stand. Measure the height of those selected trees. Then
carefully age those trees by taking an increment core and counting
growth rings. Based on charts developed for a specific species, use the
collected information to identify the site index of that forest stand.
The higher the site index the better the productivity potential for each
specific species (Missouri Department of Conservation, 2000).

Based on the tree count and diameters measured from the sampling
inventory, a diameter distribution can be created. The diameter
distribution graph places tree diameters on the X-axis and TPA on the
Y-axis. By graphing the diameters in such a fashion the progression of a
stand's development, and the impacts of management, can be more clearly
identified. This graph will also facilitate management that emphasizes
making changes to specific size classes, and improve the likelihood of
achieving stated or desired objectives. Distributions can also be
created for individual species within a stand and is useful for
identifying size classes of desirable species that are deficient in
numbers of trees. A gap or deficiency in desirable trees of a certain
size may indicate future problems.

Much of the data collected will be useful in understanding the stocking
level of the forest stand and the resultant management implications.
Stocking is important for many reasons that relate directly to health
and forest vigor. As trees become crowded (high density or too many TPA)
the competition between trees increases both above and below ground.
This is typically reflected in a reduction of crown area (breadth and
height of a tree\'s crown) for individual trees. While some competition
is desirable and facilitates straight stem development and dieback of
lower limbs which are ultimately beneficial for log quality, too much
competition causes extensive crown dieback and decreases the growth rate
of a tree (reduced vigor). It is desirable to maintain one-half to
one-third of the trees total height in a live crown. All forest and
trees suffer mortality as a natural part of forest development.
Therefore, when taking an inventory also be aware of each sampled tree's
crown health. If a tree has numerous dead limbs or leaves when all the
other trees are in full leaf, then a problem may exist with that tree.
The role of a forest manager through inventory work is to select when
and which trees are to be removed from the forest, and to notice when
inappropriate tree death may be a result of abnormal disease and insect
problems.

For answers to questions related to tree health, there are several good
sources of information. The Missouri Department of Conservation has a
publication titled *Manual to Common Insects and Diseases of Trees in
Missouri*. The USDA Forest Service also has a colored publication *Oak
Pest: A Guide to Major Insects, Diseases, Air Pollution and Chemical
Injury* (General Report SA-GR11). In addition to State and Federal
agencies, local University Extension offices will typically provide
assistance with identifying the cause of tree decline or death, as well
as making recommendations to correct undesirable tree loss.

A final source of excellent forest health issues can be found on the
internet. The following selected web sites provide up-to-date forest
health alerts, diagnostic help and informational data.

*Forest and Shade Tree Pathology*. This site is provided as an aid to
those learning forest and shade tree pathology.  It is maintained by the
State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and
Foresty. <http://www.forestpathology.org/>

*Forest Health Protection*. U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant
Quarantine, Forest Health Protection (FHP) has built an organization of
specialists trained to provide technical assistance on forest
health-related matters, particularly those related to disturbance agents
such as native and non-native insects, pathogens, and plants. They are
part of the State and Private Forestry Deputy Area of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service and offer specialized
assistance to incorporate disturbance considerations into forest plans
and decisions.
[http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/](http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/FHP_News.shtml)

*Plant Disease Diagnostics*. Plant Disease Diagnostics is a web page
designed to help individuals diagnose plant disease problems in their
yard and garden. Diagnoses made by \'Plant Disease Diagnostics\' are
based on visual observations of symptoms expressed by the infected
plant.
<http://www.extension.umn.edu/projects/yardandgarden/diagnostics/>

*Integrated Pest Management Center*. Pest Alerts from the North Central
Region network of Pest Management Centers was authorized by Section 406
of the Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of
1998.As the result of a competitive process, four Pest Management
Centers spread geographically across the United States were formed.
<http://www.ncpmc.org/NewsAlerts/index.html>

**References for this section:**

Missouri Department of Conservation. Forest Management for Missouri
Landowners. Missouri Department of Conservation. 108p.

United States Department of Agriculture, 1993. Soil Survey Manual.
Agricultural Handbook No. 18. U.S. Government Printing Office. 437p.

**Develop the Plan**

![](media/image21.jpeg){width="3.93125in" height="2.651388888888889in"}\
A key to assessing the progress of forest management activities is
developing a forest management plan *(Step 4).* This plan will serve as
a guide to direct the activities associated with establishment and the
use of the natural resources, as well as specify various intermediate
activities that will carry the developing forest through to maturity.
The documentation of these management activities becomes an essential
tool by which the achievement of "desired future conditions" is
assessed. This set of written activities for a given forest area are
typically referred to as a plan (Figure 19). A forest plan is not only
essential in defining the activities to be implemented, but also for
defining the timeline of their application to the management of the
forest land (Missouri Department of Conservation, 2000).

A plan will assist in guiding the growth and development of the forest
in an effort to maximize their value related to a final product. A
plan's details may indicate the appropriate species to plant based on
local sawmill markets. It might mean thinning an existing forest to
promote the growth of a preferred species. It could involve developing
critical habitat to attractive specific wildlife species. In any event,
the specifications related to the final product or forest utilization
will influence management decisions associated with the plan.

Simply stated, a comprehensive management plan answers the basic
questions - **what, where, who, and when** in relation to desired
activities. These identifiable descriptors are intricately linked to one
another and to the objectives of any management plan. By utilizing
aerial photographs, topographic maps, soil survey maps and an intimate
knowledge of the land, certain areas can be identified, by the landowner
or resource professional, for unique management opportunities. This
essentially involves an evaluation of the site data previously collected
under *Inventory Resources*. Identification of *where* certain
management or silvicultural practices (such as tree planting, thinning,
weed control, etc.) should occur is essential for developing any plan of
action. Often, in the process of defining *where*, the question of
*what* needs to be addressed or more specifically *what* practice or
practices should be implemented.

For instance, when viewing a piece of property that boarders a river, it
may be possible to note changes or variations in land features, soils or
topography, any or all of which may dictate dividing that land area into
smaller more manageable zones. For example, a zone adjacent to the
waters edge, a middle piece of ground, or a zone furthest from the river
is generally is identifiable by unique topographic and soil
characteristics. Topography, soils, and hydrology can all indicate
differences in duration and depth of flooding, as well as the depth to
the water table. In this example, these three distinct zones, associated
with the representative piece of property, become the *where* identifier
that is tied to *what* different management activities will be applied.

Having identified *what* and *where* associated with the parcel of land
to be managed, it is often prudent to consider options for *who* will
conduct the planned management. Is a trained resource professional,
either a consultant or a government employee, needed to oversee this
project? Is there specialized equipment needed, for the desired practice
to be implemented, and is that equipment available to the landowner or
the resource professional? Based upon the answer to these questions,
*who* will be able to conduct the planned management for the specified
land will be answered?

Next, an activities schedule will need to be established for *when*
these various management practices will take place. *When* identifies a
logical timeline for achieving specific objectives through appropriately
timed activities. The schedule describes the timing, methods and
conditions by which the vegetation and other resources should come under
management. One example might be the activity of establishing seedlings
in a floodplain. There may be several activities that need to be
implemented prior to planting. Understanding when these must take place
in order for a spring planting is important. The schedule of activities
should be as explicative as possible. Perhaps a landowner has noted that
each April, in three of the past five years, flooding has been a problem
on a specific piece of ground. Further, by referring to the USGS web
site, it is confirmed that this land will normally be under water at
various times, during the month of April. So, a plan for tree planting
on this example property may indicate an activities timeline that
dictates tree establishment sometime in May. The plan might also include
an alternate timeline for a fall tree planting date in the fall.

In addition to identifying who, what, when, and where in a plan, record
keeping should involve tracking progress and the economic costs
associated with various management activities. The monetary cost should
be recognized for each specific management practice associated with
achievement of the stated objectives. These costs may include, but are
not limited to, site preparation (clearing, burning, disking, etc.),
competition control (herbicide, burn, etc.) fertilization, soil
mounding, seedlings, regeneration cost (planting or seeding),
intermediate treatments (thinnings), or logging operations. The benefits
of good record keeping will be realized in developing a future budget
for similar operations or practices, and for tax purposes.

Plan schedules that include when activities occur, should be flexible
and adjusted according to this treatment tracking and monitoring data.

*Prescriptions*

After the plan is developed, site specific activities or prescriptions
should be developed for planned activities. Prescriptions offered
detailed information on how to complete the identified practice,
detailing site specific parameters such as which trees need to be
removed from stand B, what species of trees and shrubs will be planted
along a stream in field C, which area should be used for a log landing
during a timber harvest, or where wildlife openings need to be developed
in stand A.

Prescriptions should be developed at the time the practice or activity
is to be implemented and provide sufficient detail to insure its
successful installation and completion of all outlined standards and
specifications.\
**References used in this section:**

Missouri Department of Conservation. Forest Management for Missouri
Landowners. Missouri Department of Conservation. 108p.

**Evaluate and Monitor the Plan**

An often overlooked final step *(Step 5)* of the planning process is
determining how outcomes will be assessed and measured. Careful record
keeping from the beginning can help detail the condition of land
resources over time. Success or failure to achieve stated objectives may
not be realized without records of treatment effects, survival and
growth of seedlings or the condition of an existing forest stand.
Monitoring of growth at specified intervals allows numerical projections
that directly relate to future management activities such as
intermediate treatments that might include thinnings or future logging
events. Thus, measurements should be taken periodically before and after
the initiation of the management practice so that a determination of
success can be made. Possible measurements include, but are not limited
to, seedlings per acre (planted or natural), seeds planted or number of
seedlings growing, trees per acre (TPA), and basal area (BA). Positive
or negative variations in these measures over a specified time period
can help better understand the resource and allow for planned
intermediate management practices. This tracking over time of a
particular resource will also enable a land owner to set and change
budgets as well as allocation of other resources. These records may also
have important implications for tax purposes (Missouri Department of
Conservation, 2000).

.*Cost Share Opportunities*

In an effort to reduce cost, improve income opportunities, and provide
societal benefits to landowners willing to implement conservation
practices, government monetary incentives are often available. These
incentives, often titled cost-share programs, reduce the direct cost to
the landowner by reimbursing actual costs from the implementation of
approved practices. In addition, incentive payments for certain
conservation practices may also be available.

![](media/image22.jpeg){width="2.9375in" height="1.9791666666666667in"}

**References used in this section:**

Missouri Department of Conservation. 2000. Forest Management for
Missouri Landowners. Missouri Department of Conservation. 108p.

Bottomland Forest Management Alternatives

This section discusses management alternatives or options associated
with big river bottomlands. There are two basic situations that will be
considered -- reforestation and regeneration/rehabilitation, each
situation possessing its own unique requirements and issues.

**Reforestation -- New Plantings**

*Species Selection*

Woody species selection is a critical aspect of any reforestation
project. Inappropriate or unsuitable choices can lead to planting
failures, poorly stocked stands, landowner disappointment, site damage,
or loss of income. Species choice should be guided by landowner goals
and objectives, site characteristics, natural near-by species
composition, geographic location, and costs (Natural Resources
Conservation Service, 2002).

**Landowner objectives**. To meet any expected desired future condition,
careful thought should be given to choosing species that will accomplish
the landowner's goals and objectives. Examples of goals that would
influence species selection include production of high quality timber,
improvement of wildlife habitat, control of soil erosion, enhancing site
aesthetics, or even changing existing land use.

**Site characteristics**. Site characteristics can have a major
influence on the successful establishment of any species. On bottomland
sites, micro-site changes such as soil drainage, depth to water table,
flooding duration, elevation, and soil texture will influence the growth
and survival of any species. Be sure and choose species that will be
compatible with any of these micro-site characteristics.

**Existing species.** Woody species growing near-by on similar sites can
be an effective means of choosing appropriate species for the site.
These natural growing woody plants have been "tested" over time and have
experienced many environmental conditions and should be given initial
consideration when decided what species may do well on the site.

**Geographic location.** National plant hardiness zones can be used as a
guide to help select species. Many plants can be planted outside
suggested zones but may be susceptible to floral damage, vegetative die
back or increased disease or insect problems. Generally, species can be
planted easier south than north from their suggested planting zones.
Native ranges of species are also important to think about when making
species selection. If ecological integrity is an objective or
consideration, choosing species that are native to the general area is
important and may limit the type of species that would adaptive to the
site.

**Costs.** The availability of species, type of species, type of
planting stock, or size of plants will all have variable costs
associated with each factor. If cost is a limiting factor, this may
reduce the number of species or type and size that can used to reforest
the site. This is a highly personal factor and therefore will vary
considerably from landowner to landowner.

The following tables provide guidance in the selection of species. Table
6 gives relative flooding tolerances for selected species found in
Missouri. Tables 7 and 8 give examples of potential hardwood woody
species for use with various potential landowner objectives. Table 9
provides additional guidance on flooding tolerance and values plus
estimates of species characteristics relative to bottomland concerns.

*Table 6. This table combines research results from the Lower
Mississippi Valley and the Missouri River divisions. Since
classification is relative, flood tolerances ratings should be viewed as
a guide to flooding tolerance and not an absolute determination. Most
species can be planted in a less tolerant flooding situation but not the
opposite.(adapted from US Forest Service, 1993)*

**Very Tolerant.** Able to survive deep, prolonged flooding for more
than one year.

Water hickory *Carya aquatica* Baldcypress *Taxodium distichum*

Buttonbush *Cephalanthus occidentalis* Black willow *Salix nigra*

Swamp privet *Foresteria acuminate* Nuttall oak *Quercus nuttallii*

Green ash *Fraxinus pennsylvanica* Overcup oak *Quercus lyrata*

Water locust *Gleditsia aquatica* Water elm *Planera aquatica*

Deciduous holly *Ilex decidua* Water tupelo *Nyssa aquatica*

**Tolerant.** Able to survive flooding for one growing season, with
significant mortality occurring if flooding is repeated the following
year.

Boxelder *Acer negundo* Willow oak *Quercus phellos*

Red maple *Acer rubra* Water oak *Quercus nigra*

Silver maple *Acer saccharinum* Pin oak *Quercus palustris*

Native pecan *Carya illinoensis* Sycamore *Platanus occidentalis*

Sugarberry *Celtis laevigata* Hackberry *Celtis occidentalis*

Persimmon *Diospyros virginiana* Sweetgum *Liquidambar styraciflua*

Eastern cottonwood *Populus deltoides*

**Somewhat tolerant.** Able to survive flooding or saturated soils for
30 consecutive days during the growing season.

Hazel alder *Alnus rugosa* Red elm *Ulmus rubra*

Cherrybark oak *Quercus pagodaefolia* River birch *Betula nigra*

Shellbark hickory *Carya laciniosa* American elm *Ulmus Americana*

Green hawthorn *Crataegus virdis* Shingle oak *Quercus imbricaria*

Honeylocust *Gleditsia triacanthos* Bur oak *Quercus macrocarpa*

Blackgum *Nyssa sylvatica* Swamp white oak *Quercus bicolor*

*Table 7. Examples of potential hardwood tree species for use in
bottomlands (adapted from Natural Resources Conservation Service,
2002a).*

  ------------ ----------- ------------ -------------- ------------ --------- -------------------
  *Common      *Wood       *Biomass\    *Food          *Wildlife\   *Canopy   *Comments*
  Name*        Products*   /fuelwood*   Products^1^*   Food*        Shade*    

  Basswood     X                                                    full      Wood used for
                                                                              carving

  Black walnut X                        X              X            light     Deep well-drained
                                                                              sites

  Bur oak      X                                       X            full      Drought and flood
                                                                              tolerant

  Green ash    X                                                    medium    Adapted to many
                                                                              sites

  Honey locust             X                           X            light     Use thornless
                                                                              variety

  Hybrid       X           X                                        light     Rapid growth; deep
  poplar                                                                      rooting

  Paulownia    X           X                                        medium    Wood prized in the
                                                                              orient

  Pecan        X                        X              X            medium    Use native stock
                                                                              for grafting

  Silver maple X                        X                           full      Maple syrup and
                                                                              wood

  Sycamore     X           X                                        medium    Tolerates wet sites

  Yellow       X                                                    medium    Fast growing
  poplar                                                                      
  ------------ ----------- ------------ -------------- ------------ --------- -------------------

1.  *Includes fruits, nuts, jellies, jams, wine, syrup, honey, herbals,
    etc.*

*Table 8. Examples of potential shrub/small tree species for use in
bottomlands (adapted from Natural Resources Conservation Service,
2002a).*

  --------------- ----------- ------------ ---------- ---------- --------------------
  *Common Name*   *Human      *Wildlife\   *Showy\    *Plant     *Comments*
                  Products*   Food*        Flowers*   size       
                                                      (feet)*    

  American plum   X           X            X          15 to 20'  Jellies, preserves,
                                                                 and wine

  Crabapple                   X            X          20 to 25'  Jellies, preserves

  Hazelnut        X           X                       3 to 10'   Sweet nuts

  Pawpaw          X           X                       Up to 30'  Large, edible,
                                                                 nutritional fruit

  St. John's Wort X                        X          Up to 6'   Herbal remedies;
                                                                 nectar source

  Witch hazel     X                                   Up to 30'  Numerous medicinal
                                                                 uses
  --------------- ----------- ------------ ---------- ---------- --------------------

*Table 9. Potential Plant List for Use in Riparian Buffers (Natural
Resources\
Conservation Service, 2000b).*

Species Flooding Large Shade Wildlife Height Growth Soil

(Common/Scientific) Tolerance Debris Value Merit (feet) Rate Group

ash, green *Fraxinus pennsylvanica* M M H M 60 H 1,2

white *Fraxinus americana* M M H M 70 M 1

baldcypress *Taxodium distichum* VH M M M 80 M 1,2

birch, river *Betula nigra* M H M M 50 M 1,2

buttonbush *Cephalanthus occidnetalis* VH L L L 10 M-H 2

cottonwood *Populus deltoides* H H M H 90 H 1.2

dogwood, silky *Cornus obliqua* H L L H 12 M-H 1,2

red-osier *Cornus stolonifera* H L L H 12 M-H 1,2

hackberry *Celtis occidentalis* M-L M M M 60 M 1

hawthorn, green *Crataegus virdis* M L L H 20 M 1,2

hickory, shellbark *Carya laciniosa* M M H H 70 M 1

holly, deciduous *Ilex opaca* VH L L M 16 M 1,2

maple, boxelder *Acer negundo* M H M M 40 H 1

silver *Acer saccharinum* M-H H H M 80 H 1,2

red *Acer rubrum* M M H M 70 M 1

oak, bur *Quercus macrocarpa* H M H H 80 L 1,2

pin *Quercus palustris* M-L H M H 75 M-H 1,2

Nuttall *Quercus nuttallii* VH M H H 70 M 2

willow *Quercus phellos* M M H H 70 M 1

overcup *Quercus lyrata* VH M H H 70 M 2

swamp white *Quercus bicolor* M-H M H H 70 M 1,2

cherrybark *Quercus pagodafolia* M M H H 75 M 1

shumard *Quercus shumardii* M M H H 80 M 1

pecan *Carya illinoensis* M M H H 80 L-M 1,2

persimmon *Diospyros virginiana* M M M H 50 L 1

privet, swamp *Forestiera acuminata* VH L L L 14 M 1,2

sugarberry *Celtis laevigata* M-L H M M 60 M 1

sycamore *Platanus occidentalis* H H M H 90 H 1,2

wahoo *Euonymus atropurpureus* M-L L L M 12 M 1

walnut, black *Juglans nigra* M-L M M H 80 M 1

willow, black *Salix nigra* VH-H H L M 60 H 1

sandbar *Salix exigua* *(interior)* VH L L L 6 H 1,2

peachleaf *Salix amygdaloides* H L L L 30 H 1,2

pussy *Salix discolor* H L L L 20 H 1,2

**Notes**: **VH = very high; H = high; M = medium; L = low**

**Flooding Tolerance**. General capacity of the plant to withstand
standing water. VH = able to survive deep, prolonged flooding for more
than one year; H = able to survive deep flooding for one growing season,
with mortality occurring if flooding is repeated the following year; M =
able to survive flooding or saturated soils for 30 consecutive days
during the growing season; L = unable to survive more than a few days of
flooding during the growing season without mortality.

**Large Debris**. Potential for the plant to produce debris larger than
ten inches in diameter before secensence. H = large debris likely within
life span of the plant; M = large debris possible within life span of
the plant; L = large debris unlikely within life span of the plant.

**Shade Value**. The density or fullness of shade provided by an
individual plant\'s crown in full leaf-out condition. H = large crown
providing full shade; M = paritally open or medium sized crown that
provides patchy or incomplete shade; L = very open or small crown that
provides minimal shade.

**Wildlife Merit**. The potential for the plant to provide useful cavity
sites and/or quality fruit production for wildlife. H = excellent large
cavity potential and/or high quality fleshy fruit or nut production; M =
moderate cavity potential or fruit production; L = low cavity potential
and dry, non-nut fruit production.

**Height.** Typical potential height at physical maturity.

**Growth Rate**. The rate at which the plant grows in height during its
development period (after seedling stage and before final maturity
stage). H = Rapid growth of 3 or more feet per year; M = Medium growth
of 1 to 3 feet per year. L = Low growth rates of generally less than 1
feet per year.

**Soil Group**. Trees and shrubs based on soil suitability. Group 1 =
somewhat poorly drained soils with a water table at 1 to 3 feet in the
spring or subject to flooding. Permeability is moderately slow to rapid.
Group 2 = poorly drained soils with slow to rapid permeability or
somewhat poorly drained soils with slow permeability. Subject to ponding
and/or frequent flooding.

*Site Preparation*

![](media/image23.jpeg){width="4.25in" height="2.7423611111111112in"}

Site preparation may not always be necessary, but if warranted, follow
these important general criteria:

1.  Maintain necessary filter strips and/or riparian forest buffer
    areas.

2.  Reduce or remove slash and debris to minimize habitat for harmful
    levels of pests, or hinder needed equipment operations, or create
    undue fire hazard.

3.  Control excessive erosion and/or runoff.

4.  Minimize soil compaction and soil displacement.

5.  Comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws and
    regulations.

6.  Use all chemicals in accordance with label guidelines. Chemical
    containers should be disposed in a safe, approved manner.

7.  Fence out livestock to prevent damage to site preparation areas and
    new woody plants.

8.  Protect cultural resources, wildlife habitat, springs, seeps,
    wetlands and other unique areas.

9.  Consider visual quality objectives when selecting site preparation
    methods..

10. Consider the affect that carry-over herbicide residue could have on
    the planted tree species when preparing sites in cropland fields.

![](media/image24.jpeg){width="5.80625in" height="3.8784722222222223in"}

[Specific Guidelines]{.underline}

Proper site preparation methods are needed to reduce competition from
existing vegetation so newly planted trees have the best chance for
survival. Use Table 10 as a guide in determining appropriate site
preparation methods.

*Table 10. Suitable site preparation guidelines. (NOTE: Specific site
conditions may not allow indicated site preparation guidelines. Make
appropriate adjustments)*

  --------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
  **Cover**       *Establishment Methods:*\
                  \
                  **Direct Seeding Natural Regeneration Seedlings**

  *Cropland\      C,N C,N C,N\
  *Residue level\ \
  \< 50% cover\   C,M,MC C,M,MC C,M,MC
  \               
  \>50% cover     

  *Grassland*     C,M,MC C,M,MC C,M,MC

  *Woodland*\     C,H C,H\
  understocked\   \
  \               C,M,MC,B,MB,CMB,H C,M,MC,B,MB,CMB,H C,M,MC,B,\
  undesirable     MB,CMB,H
  --------------- ---------------------------------------------------------

M - Mechanical\
C - Chemical\
B - Prescribed Burning\
N - Not necessary\
MB - Mechanical and prescribed burning\
MC - Mechanical and chemical\
CB - Chemical and prescribed burning\
CMB - Chemical, mechanical and prescribed burning\
H - Harvest cut

**Cropland/Grassland Cover.** Cropland residues with cover less than 50%
may not require site preparation. With the exception of soybean residue,
residue cropland covers greater than 50% will generally require site
preparation. In cases where soil compaction is severe, the cropland
field should be subsoiled by using a chisel plow or deep ripper.
Subsoiling should be done when the soil is dry (at or below field
capacity) and should be done in advance of planting to allow the soil to
re-settle. Normally ripping should be done to a depth of 18 to 24
inches.

Grassland covers should always have some type of site preparation.
Uncontrolled grass competition can cause severe mortality and/or growth
rates. For either type of residue cover, follow one or more of the
following methods (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001):

***Mechanical***: Expose mineral soil with tillage operations. Limit
tillage to no more than 2 months prior to planting or seeding. Till
earlier if flooding is a possibility. Fall tillage is an option for
early spring planting. Use contour strip tilling on slopes greater than
3 percent. Planting strip widths should be greater than 3 feet in width
with inter-widths of 5 feet or greater.

***Chemical*:** Apply appropriate chemical(s) in 3 to 4 feet bands over
projected planting rows. If slopes exceed 3 percent, apply on contour.
Use a pesticide risk-assessment tool to evaluate leaching and runoff
potentials. Pesticide/soil hazard risk ratings of "extra high" or "high"
should be accompanied by mitigating practices and/or substitution of
pesticides to lower risk ratings. Use low volatile formulations. Some
chemicals need extended time to work. If that is the case, consider
applying the chemicals in the fall or early spring prior to
establishment activities.

*[Cover Crops]{.underline}*

If a permanent cover crop is needed or desired after site preparation,
use one of the following species at the specified rates to control
potential erosion or weed competition between woody planting zones:

*Table 11. Recommended crop cover species for tree planting (Natural
Resources Conservation Service, 2001)*

  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------
  **Species**                        **Rate -- Pure Live Seed /Acre**

  *Ladino clover*                    *2.25 lbs/acre*

  *Annual lespedza*                  *5.6 lbs/acre*

  *Orchardgrass*                     *3.2 lbs/acre*

  *Kentucky bluegrass*               *1.6 lbs/acre*

  *Timothy*                          *2.3 lbs lbs/acre*

  *Redtop*                           *1.3 lbs/acre*

  *Virginia wild rye*                *7.0 lbs/acre*
  ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------

*Note: Above rates are for good planting conditions. Rates should be
increased by 50% for fair planting conditions.*

**Woodland Cover**

***Desirable Vegetation***

Reduce competition from woody plants less than 2 inches DBH and other
herbaceous competitors by mechanical or chemical means before
underplanting. Make a harvest cut and leave a well-spaced overstory of
no more than 55 percent stocking. No cutting is necessary if the stand
is already 55 to 65 percent stocked. Remove the remaining overstory
during the dormant season after 3 to 6 years.

***Undesirable Vegetation***

First harvest any merchantable material from the site. Then use one or
more of the following site preparation methods (Natural Resources
Conservation Service, 2001):

*Mechanical***:** Remove remaining cover and expose mineral soil. Pile
debris in windrows. On slopes greater than 3 percent, operations should
be on the contour. On land that is gullied, some additional grading or
erosion control may be necessary.

*Chemical***:** Apply appropriate chemical(s) in 3 to 4 feet bands over
projected planting rows. If slopes exceed 3 percent, apply on contour.

*Prescribed Fire***:** Conduct burning only under controlled,
predetermined conditions as outlined in a prescribed burn plan. To
reduce surface litter, burn after leaf fall in late November or early
December. To control competing vegetation, burn in late spring.

*Planting Stock Considerations*

When deciding to plant trees several general factors must be considered.
First, what stock type is going to be planted? Second, what is the
source of the seed to be planted? A general rule (Smith 1997) is that
seeds should be gathered no more than 100 miles north or south in
latitude of the area to be planted. Additional considerations presented
in the section "*Climate*" also apply.

There are several stock types to consider when establishing new
reproduction in a forest. These stock types are: 1.) direct seeding, 2.)
bare-root seedlings, 3.) containerized seedlings, and 4.) cuttings.
There are many advantages and disadvantages with each of these stock
types.

[Direct seeding]{.underline}

Sowing seeds is a low cost, easy endeavor. However, establishing trees
with seeds may be more difficult than other methods. The collection,
handling, and timing of sowing are critical for successful
establishment. When collecting seed, the timing of maturation and the
seed storage requirements are species-specific considerations. Nursery
operators and foresters are a valuable source of information regarding
seed collection storage. The timing of seeding has been shown to be
significant. (Wood 1998) found that willow and Nuttall oaks were 70%
successful when sown in December, whereas, 50% were successful in March,
and only about 15% of the acorns germinated
![](media/image25.png){width="1.7909722222222222in"
height="3.625in"}when planted in June. Seeking the advice of a nursery
operator or forester will help insure the success of the seeding
operation. Species-specific seed maturity and storage requirements can
also be found in two volumes of *The Silvics of North America.* (Burns
et al., 1990) Also included in these volumes is the number of seeds per
pound, which is critical when determining the amount of seed to order
from your supplier. A number of techniques may be employed to sow seed.
These include aerial, broadcast, and mechanical sowing. A further
discussion on direct seeding can be found on page 82.

[Bare-root Seedlings]{.underline}

The main advantage bare-root seedlings offer is the ability to carry and
transport many seedlings to the field for planting. Additionally,
bare-root seedlings have a developed root system that is free from soil.
Planting bare root seedlings is rather easy and quick. In addition to
easy transport and installation, bare-root seedlings are inexpensive
relative to containerized stock. Fall and winter are the best times to
plant bare-root seedlings as long as the ground is not frozen. In
addition to timing, size must also be considered. Larger bare-root
seedlings (24 inches in length above the root collar with a root collar
diameter of 3/8 to 1/2 inch) are more apt to out grow competing
vegetation but may be more expensive (Allen et al. 2001). Success of
planting may outweigh this initial expense particularly on drought prone
or weedy areas.

Root pruning usually occurs when the seedlings are lifted in the
nursery. After this initial pruning, roots should not be pruned or
broken. Roots serve as an energy source for these young trees during
establishment, so pruning roots will only weaken the seedling and lessen
its chance of survival and establishment.

[Containerized Stock]{.underline}

![](media/image26.png){width="3.375in" height="2.5652777777777778in"}

Unlike direct seeding and bare-root seedlings, containerized stock is
bulky and transporting containers should be carefully considered when
estimating the time requirements of planting. In addition to transport,
the ease of planting that bare-root seedlings offer is reduced with
larger containerized stock. However, the time and cost for each
successfully established tree may outweigh the additional transport and
planting costs.

[Cuttings]{.underline}

Many bottomland species are able to reproduce vegetatively. Advantageous
buds on the surface of the shoots of several species are able to
differentiate into roots and shoots when buried or planted into soil.
Common bottomland species that exhibit this ability include Eastern
cottonwood, American sycamore, and most willow species. Cuttings from
these species can be utilized to establish these trees in a planting
operation.

Commonly, cuttings vary in length between 16 to 20 inches with a minimum
diameter of 1/4^th^ of an inch, but smaller cuttings between 4 to 6
inches and larger cuttings, up to ten feet, have been used to
successfully establish trees (Allen et al. 2001). These cuttings can
either be planted vertically with two to three inches exposed above the
ground or horizontally about 1 to 2 inches below the surface.

Cuttings are not recommended for areas that are prone to early season
flooding, nor should they be planted during the growing season. Early
spring is the best time for planting just before bud break. They should
be stored and handled much like bare-root seedlings with care to plant
them well before they have broken dormancy.

*Planting Techniques*

Tree survival greatly depends upon a high quality planting work. The
primary objective is to get the plant properly planted so that the roots
are in contact with soil. Good soil-seedling contact is very important
for essential water and nutrient uptake. A poor planting technique will
mean reduced plant growth or even plant mortality.

*The discussion in this section assumes that either bare-root or
container seedlings grown in a nursery are being used. However, there
are other planting materials available such as seeds and cuttings. Most
of these planting considerations are applicable to these planting
materials as well.*

[Calculating Number of Seedlings]{.underline}

To determine how many seedlings to order you need to know two things:
distance between trees within the row and the distance between the rows.
For example, if planting is on a 10 x 10 feet spacing (i.e., 10 feet
between trees within a row and 10 feet between the rows) then this
simple formula can be used:

*Seedlings needed per acre = [43,560 (square feet per acre)\
]{.underline} (Spacing (feet) within row) x (Spacing (feet) between
rows)*

To continue with the example from above, the number of seedlings needed
per\
acre is calculated as follows:

Seedlings needed per acre = [43,560]{.underline} = 435.6 or **436**
seedlings per acre

(10 feet) x (10 feet)

After the number of seedlings per acre is determined, multiply that
number times the number of acres to be planted. It is always a good
practice to increase a seedling order by 10 percent to allow for
adjustments (culls and mortality) when field planting.

[Care of planting stock]{.underline}

After considering how many trees to order from the nursery, the order
should be place as soon as possible, preferably in the fall prior to
spring planting. Plant the trees as soon possible after receiving them.
If the seedlings arrive and they are unable to be planted immediately,
store the seedlings in a cool damp environment until planting. In the
field, keep the seedlings moist and protected from wind and sunlight.
Only take to the field what can be planted in about 3-4 hours. Check
periodically to make sure that the correct number of seedlings per acre
are being planted.

[Establishment methods]{.underline}

There are three general methods of establishing woody plants:

-   Hand Planting

-   Machine Planting

-   Natural Regeneration

The decision on which method to use is dependant upon many factors. One
major factor is how has the site been prepared prior to planting. If the
site is clean and relatively free of large debris then machine planting
is a good option. However, if the site has old debris from past use or
the planting spot is small in size then hand planting should be
considered.

Another major factor is the size of the project. If there are several
thousand seedlings to plant then a machine planting may be the better
choice. If planting in heavy clay soils, it is recommended that these
soils be somewhat dry before using a machine planter. The planting
trough from a machine planer creates a seam along the ground into which
the seedlings are placed right before the packing wheels close the seam.
The seam will be hard to close if the soil is highly plastic or clayey
in texture or close the top of the planting slit but not the bottom thus
creating an air pocket at the bottom of the seam.

Use the following list as a guide for choosing the appropriate planting
method (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001). Hand planting:

-   Small areas

-   Steep terrain

-   Rough, rocky land

-   Debris covered surface

-   Large planting stock

Machine planting:

-   More than 1000 seedlings

-   Gentle terrain

-   Time constraints

-   Site accessibility

Natural regeneration

-   Bare mineral soil

-   Narrow areas (2-3 times the height of nearby trees) near existing
    forests

-   Light-seeded seed source

-   Periodic flooding

![](media/image27.png){width="3.4125in" height="4.75in"}**Hand Tree
Planting.** There are numerous kinds of tools that can be used for hand
planting tree and shrub seedlings. Some typical examples include a
planting (dibble) bar, sharp-shooter (tile spade), hoe-dag (specialized
tree planting shovel) or post-hole digger.

Once the tool is chosen, carry seedlings in a bag or bucket and make
sure they are kept moist. A seedling will have a "root collar" or mark
on the stem where the seedling grew at ground-line in the nursery. Try
to plant at this depth or a little deeper than the root collar (1.0-inch
or less) making sure the seedling roots are planted in close contact
with the soil. After placing the seedling, close the bottom and top of
the hole. Firmly apply pressure with a shoe heel where the tool was used
to create the hole to make sure the seedling is tight. Be careful not to
strike the seedling. Make sure the tree is planted as straight as
possible and that the roots are pointing downward in the hole. Avoid
cramming the root system into the bottom of the hole because bending or
J-rooting the taproot may retard future growth or even cause mortality.
If this problem is occurring frequently, then switching planting tools
may be necessary. Under no circumstances should any of the long lateral
or tap roots be pruned or cut off in order to make them fit the hole.
These roots are important for early survival and growth.

![](media/image28.jpeg){width="2.1819444444444445in"
height="3.0527777777777776in"}This is generally a three person
operation: one person operating the tractor or pulling vehicle, one
person riding the planter, and one person checking behind the operation
to make sure that the seedlings are properly planted. Make sure the
planting trench is deep enough to permit the roots to point downward
without bending or J-rooting. The seedlings should be kept moist and
protected while in the holding tray of the planter. Many local state
conservation agencies or USDA Service Centers have tree planting
machines available for rent or use.

**Natural Regeneration**. This method of establishing trees from natural
sources is a cost effective means for restoration. Major disadvantages
are that species composition can not be controlled and not all sites are
well suited for this method. However, various sites may be suitable if
care is taken to screen for acceptable sites. (Natural Resources
Conservation Service, 2002):

[Additional Planting Considerations]{.underline}

In imperfectly drained areas or heavy clay, it may be beneficial to
mound or create an elevated planting bed. This bed should be a few feet
wide and six to twelve inches in height. A bed of this type can be
constructed using a rice plow or other similar bedding machinery. The
bedded area can then be machine or hand planted.

Size of the planting equipment is an important consideration in
determining the layout of the planting. The distance between rows and
trees should also take into consideration the size of the equipment that
will be used to maintain the planting over time.

Planting row orientation is also an important consideration. A uniform
planting can have several later advantages in terms of mowing, disking,
herbicide application, thinning and final harvest. Row orientation is an
important consideration for site drainage. This is especially true if
using mounds because the mounds have to be laid out to facilitate
drainage and not act as a check dike or dam.

If contracting, ask and check credentials and references and arrange a
planting time with the contractor to plant the trees as soon as possible
after the seedling delivery date.

## ***What is direct seeding?***

Direct seeding is a method to establish woody vegetation by planting
seed by hand or by mechanical methods.

## ***SPECIES SELECTION***

Species selected should be adapted to the soil-site conditions and
should be suitable for the planned purpose. Only viable, high quality
seed should be used. It is recommended that the seed source be located
within a 100 mile latitude of the planting site.

## ***SEEDBED PREPARATION*** 

Before seeding, all competing vegetation should be eliminated using
conventional tillage or systemic herbicides. Follow all local, state and
federal guidelines and labels related to the use of pesticides. Consult
the landowner or operator for potential herbicide carryover when
planting into cropland fields before direct seeding as soil applied
herbicides may prevent seed germination. Cultipacking the tilled soil to
firm the seedbed before and after the seeding is recommended. A no-till
drill suitable for the species selected may also be used.

## ***SEEDING HANDLING, SEED STORAGE AND SEEDING METHODS***

Seed should be sown in the fall between September 15^th^ and December
1^st^ or stratified seed may be sown in the spring before May 15^th^.
All seed should be planted under favorable soil site specific
conditions. Only clean seed be purchased or collected. Store seed under
refrigeration in plastic bags keeping the seed moist between seed
purchase/collection and planting. If the seeding cannot be completed in
the fall, proper seed storage is critical to keep the seed viable for a
spring seeding. For long term storage (more than 1 week) store seed
moist under refrigeration between 34°and 40° F. Before planting allow
seed coat to air dry.

Seed may be broadcast using a hand seeder, or planted using a drill.
Seed should be carefully sown to insure that the proper rate is being
used. If the seed is hand sown it should be covered using a cultipacker
with care not to cover too deep. **In general seed should be planted no
deeper than 1/4 inch.**

## ***SEEDING RATES***

In most instances it is advisable to use a mixture of species for a
direct seeding. A mixture will enhance wildlife habitat by providing a
variety of food types that will fruit at different times of the year. A
mixture also has a better chance for success due to the variability of
seed germination of the different species.

All direct seedings should have a nurse crop of wheat sown to help
prevent frost heaving and for weed suppression. Before seeding, the
proper equipment must be selected as the larger seed may not go thru
some drills. However, some newer drills with multiple seed boxes may be
satisfactory. In addition a soybean drill or corn planter may work for
the some species. When using a corn planter or soybean drill the small
seeded species would need to be planted separately with a drill able to
handle the smaller seeds.

To control weedy vegetation during shrub establishment mow high so newly
emerged seedlings are not damaged. If winter wheat has been used a nurse
crop mow wheat before seed heads appear. Spot treatment of herbicides or
a rope wick applicator may also be used to control noxious weeds. Follow
all local, state and federal guidelines and labels related to the use of
pesticides.

*Post-planting Considerations*

Following the planting operation it is important to protect the planting
investment. Controlling the composition of the stand and maintaining the
planted seedling population are two important concerns. Uncontrolled
competing vegetation, disease, insects, and animal browse can all but
wipe out a new seedling crop. One or more methods of protection may be
necessary to safeguard the planting investment and develop the land
towards the desired future condition. Without these measures most, if
not all of an investment can be lost. It is also important to consider
the costs of protecting plantations.

Before scheduling or deciding upon any protection scheme, it is
important to consult with a qualified resource professional. The timing
of the planting and the specific site characteristics will determine
which protection measure is implemented. Generally, browse protection
should be accomplished as soon as possible. While, the timing of
vegetation controls is more lenient.

[Vegetational control]{.underline}

![](media/image29.jpeg){width="3.75in" height="2.526388888888889in"}Some
of the weed control methods commonly employed for tree planting are
(Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001):

-   Chemical application

-   Prescribed burning

-   Mulches

-   Mechanical disking

At a minimum, a 2 to 3 feet diameter weed-free zone should be
established around each tree or shrub. Whatever method is used, it is
important to remember that only the undesired species and types that
will negatively impact the growth of the planting should be controlled.
Understanding this will help focus the control activity and minimize
costs.

**Chemical application.** Chemical weed control methods consists of
using herbicides to control competing vegetation. The type of herbicide
to use should be based on the vegetation that needs to be controlled,
site conditions, herbicide cost, and woody species herbicide tolerance.
Always follow label instructions.

**Prescribed burning.** Prescribed burning is a very difficult method of
vegetational control after planting. Care must be taken to protect the
new planting from the effects of fire. This method can be costly, time
consuming and hazardous and therefore should only be used as a last
resort. A burn plan should always be developed and followed.

**Mulches.** Two types of mulches are available for controlling
vegetation in woody plantings: non-living mulches and living mulches.
Examples of non-living mulches can include plastic weed mats, wood
chips, ground corn cobs, and wheat straw. Living mulches, if used,
should include plants that are non-competitive such as ladino clover,
alsike clover, orchard grass and red clover.

**Mechanical disking.** Removing competing vegetation through mechanical
means should be done with care to avoid physical damage to plantings.
Tillage depths should be kept shallow to keep away from root damage.

[Browse protection]{.underline}

Knowing the species, domestic or wildlife, and their approximate animal
numbers on site, is the first step in assessing what, if anything, will
have to be done to protect the planting investment from small and large
mammal damage. Insects can also destroy a plantation by defoliation or
the spreading of pathogens, but may be harder to control.

To help control mammal damage a number of alternatives are available. If
the mammal damage is being caused by larger animals, fencing should
provide the necessary protection especially for domestic livestock
damage. Fencing to exclude deer is possible,
![](media/image30.jpeg){width="3.0625in"
height="2.0631944444444446in"}but may be expensive. If wildlife damage
from small animals is occurring, tree shelters or tubing may be
effective in protecting woody plants until they reach a suitable height.

Insect damage control can be done through chemical or management means.
If chemicals are used label instructions should always be followed.
Management controls for insect damage are primarily preventative. These
management tools include proper seedling spacing, species selection that
has natural insect resistance, and plantings that have a variety of
different species. Monocultures should be avoided.

**References for this section**

Allen, J.A., B.D. Keeland, J.A. Stanturf, A.F. Clewell, and H.E. Kennedy
Jr. 2001. A guide to bottomland hardwood restoration: U.S. Geological
Survey. Report USGS/BRD/ITR-2000-0011. USDA Forest Service, Southern
Research Station, General Technical Report SRS-40. 132 p

A Guide for Prescribed Fire in Southern Forests; USDA Forest Service,
Southeastern Area; 1978.

Bottomland Hardwood Reforestation in the Lower Mississippi Valley; USDA
Forest Service; 1989.

Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics
of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654.\
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2,
877 p.

Fish and Wildlife Service. 1977. Impact of Water Level Changes on Woody
Riparian and Wetland Communities; Volume III;; FWS/OBS-77/60; 36 p.

Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2000a. Alley Cropping (311);
Missouri Field Office Technical Guide, Section IV; USDA-NRCS; 6 p.

Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2000b. Riparian Forest Buffer
(391); Missouri Field Office Technical Guide, Section IV; USDA-NRCS; 8
p.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2001. Forest Site Preparation
(490); Missouri Field Office Technical Guide, Section IV; USDA-NRCS; 4
p*.*

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2002. Tree/Shrub Establishment
(612); Missouri Field Office Technical Guide, Section IV; USDA-NRCS; 7
p*.*

Planting Northern Red Oak in the Missouri Ozarks. Paul Johnson. USDA
Forest Service. 1985.

Silvics of North America; Vols. 1 and 2. Handbook #654. USDA Forest
Service. 1990.

Smith, D. M. 1997. The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology
(9^th^ ed.). New York, New York. John Wiley and Sons. 537 p.

US Forest Service, 1993. Flooding and its effects on trees. USDA Forest
Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. St. Paul, MN.

Wood, F. A. 1998. First-year performance of direct seeded Nuttall and
willow oak in response to flooding in a farmed wetland of the
Mississippi delta. Mississippi State University. M.S. thesis. 124 p.

**Regeneration/rehabilitation -- Existing Stands**

This section presents basic information on bottomland silviculture and
the species that are associated with bottomland sites. For most species,
their silval characteristics determine their potential growth and
development under any given management regimes.

*Silviculture is defined as "the theory and practice of controlling
forest establishment, composition, structure, and growth" (Smith 1997).
The foundation of silviculture is silvics, which is the study of the
growth and development of trees and forested ecosystems (Smith 1997).
Important silvic characteristics of trees include shade tolerance,
growth rate, longevity, reproductive strategy, soils and hydrologic
conditions.*

For example, the continuing establishment of shade-intolerant species
will require different forest management activities than species that
are shade tolerant. Likewise, oak species and cottonwood, both
shade-intolerant trees, have different management strategies for
regeneration because cottonwoods have much higher growth rates than
oaks. Silviculture involves using this ecological knowledge or silvics
of tree species in the management of forest stands to provide for the
successful regeneration, growth, and harvesting of desired species.

The choice of a silvicultural system (or systems) will depend upon the
management goals for the forest, constraints imposed by the condition of
the stand, desired future stand condition, site conditions, financial
cost, net returns, time elements, and state and local laws or
ordinances.

*Silvicultural activities*

[Regeneration]{.underline}

Silvicultural regeneration techniques can be divided into two main
groups - even-aged and uneven-aged management. Even-aged management
creates forest stands in which all trees are the basically the same age.
These even-aged techniques consist of clearcutting, seed-tree, and
shelterwood. Uneven-aged management creates forest stands where trees
are of different ages. This technique consists of harvesting single
trees or small groups of trees.

The type of method chosen to regenerate any forest stand depends on the
management objectives for the stand and the silvics of the target tree
species. For example, the maintenance of mid to late successional
wildlife habitat may necessitate an uneven-aged management strategy and
therefore exclude the regeneration of many types of shade-intolerant
species, such as oaks.

A description for the regeneration of every type of bottomland species
is beyond the scope of this guide. There are over forty-five woody
species that are found in bottomlands (Kabrick and Dey 2001), each with
different environmental requirements for their successful regeneration.
The following paragraphs provide a brief introduction to each of the
general silvicultural techniques that can be used in bottomland
situations.

![](media/image31.jpeg){width="3.5in" height="2.357638888888889in"}*.*
Clearcutting involves the removal or killing of all trees on acreages
usually larger than 10 acres. By opening up the stand, which allows full
sunlight to reach the forest floor, regeneration of many
shade-intolerant species is possible. Economically important species
that are promoted by clearcutting include oaks and cottonwood.

![](media/image32.png){width="1.9791666666666667in"
height="2.9375in"}**Shelterwood and seed-tree***.* Seed-tree and
shelterwood methods resemble a clearcutting operation that has left some
of the better and most desirable canopy trees in place after the initial
harvest cut. The residual trees are left in place to act a seed source
for the new stand. Once regeneration has started the remaining overstory
trees are harvested. The primary difference between a seed-tree stand
and a shelterwood stand are the number of trees left after the first
harvest. The shelterwood stand will generally have 50% of the original
canopy trees remaining while the seed-tree stand will consist of
scattered, evenly distributed trees that may only make up only 10-20% of
the original canopy. Both these methods tend to promote the regeneration
of species that are light-seeded such as cottonwoods and willows *Salix
sp.*

**Single-tree***.* This method consists of harvesting single mature
trees. Single-tree selection favors the establishment of shade-tolerant
species, as the openings created allow limited sunlight to reach the
forest floor. Repeated application of single-tree harvesting will
eventually create an uneven-aged stand with the lower age classes
dominating in numbers with subsequent older age classes becoming fewer
in number. In addition the stand will shift to more shade tolerant
species such as hackberry, ashes, maples, and elms.

**Group selection**. Group selection involves the removal of small
groups of trees at periodic intervals. As a general rule, the opening is
limited to a size twice of the heights of the mature trees (Meadows and
Stanturf 1997) or less than 5 acres. This activity generally creates a
patchy environment of small even-aged mini-stands scattered throughout
the main stand. Carefully application of the method will provide an
opportunity for oaks to establish as well as favor wildlife with the
variety of vegetational habitat age classes.

[Thinning]{.underline}

Another important part of silviculture when rehabilitating an existing
stand is thinning. There are several reasons to conduct a thinning but
the primary reason is to improve the growth of desired existing tree
species. Releasing desired trees from competition with non-desired
species or poorly formed trees can improve growth rates, health, and the
timber quality of the remaining trees.

![](media/image33.jpeg){width="2.277083333333333in"
height="3.3694444444444445in"}There are four basic methods of thinning:
low, crown, selection, and geometric or mechanical (Smith 1997). In low
thinning, trees are removed from the lower crown classes. A crown
thinning involves removing trees from the middle and upper crown
classes. A selection thinning involves the removal of dominant trees to
stimulate the growth of subordinate crown classes. A geometric thinning
involves the removal of trees in a predetermined pattern on the
landscape without regard to their crown position.

The application of thinning operations along with silvicultural
regeneration techniques that have been just discussed will provide the
landowner with a source of revenue and improve or change existing stands
to desired future conditions.

*Best Management Practices*

The use of Best Management Practices (BMP) is good land stewardship,
which, when used properly can protect the value of harvestable timber,
guard the water quality of nearby rivers, lakes, streams, and ponds,
improve wildlife habitat, develop aesthetic landscape elements and
reduce site degradation. BMPs will protect the components of a forest
(vegetation, soil, wildlife habitat, aesthetics, and water resources)
while still allowing the appropriate use of the natural resource. All
BMPs should be planned and designed prior to timber harvesting. Some
general rules to follow are:

-   Limit the number of entries into your stand by heavy machinery.

-   Limit the amount (area) of skidding trails

-   Stay away from wet areas and wet weather logging.

-   Build a permanent road system that can be easily maintained.

-   Use soil maps to facilitate trail and landing layouts.

The Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC) has established state
guidelines for reducing non-point sources of water pollution from
silvicultural activities (Missouri Department of Conservation, 1997).
The implementation of best management practices (BMPs) in big river
bottomlands offers many challenges as well as opportunities. Unique site
conditions such as micro-relief, fluvial geomorphology, and the
possibility that a site may contain both the Big River and its
tributaries only add to this challenge. Soil erosion, compaction, or
movement may occur any time there is disturbance activity in a stand.
Planting, tending, maintenance, or harvesting techniques all have
differing degrees of site impacts. With any BMP practice, one of the
most important issues to remember is the minimization of soil
disturbance and soil movement.

![](media/image34.jpeg){width="2.2583333333333333in"
height="3.375in"}[Wildlife habitat]{.underline}

Numerous BMP practices can be used to enhance wildlife habitat in
bottomland forests (Missouri Department of Conservation, 1997. Listed
below are some general examples of BMPs, which will protect the site and
enhance habitats for many wildlife species.

-   Maintain stands of trees in different age and size classes

-   Leave corridors of trees connecting existing mature stands to serve
    as cover and travel lanes for wildlife

-   Leave snags and hollow den trees for cavity-dependent species

-   Re-seed open areas such as logging decks, edges of clear-cuts, and
    old firebreaks with native herbaceous vegetation.

-   Create woodland openings to increase habitat diversity

-   Develop cut-back borders along field edges to provide a transition
    zone for wildlife

-   Create wildlife food plots throughout the stand

[Water quality]{.underline}

![](media/image36.png){width="3.526388888888889in"
height="2.3756944444444446in"}*after the tree is cut*, such as tree
skidding, roads, trails, and log landings, can remove this protective
layer, resulting in soil erosion and sediment. Forest roads and skid
trails with stream crossings act as direct pathways for sediment
transport into adjacent waterways. Deposited sediment constricts
naturally flowing channels and reduces the holding capacity of streams
and lakes. The changes to these natural systems can lead to increased
channel erosion and possibly flooding. In addition it can be difficult
for many aquatic species to locate their prey in turbid water. Suspended
sediments have also been found to clog the gills of fish, literally
suffocating them. Furthermore, high sediment loads make it difficult for
light to penetrate the water preventing beneficial aquatic plants to
grow. The deposition of particles in suspension can fill the
interstitial spaces altering aquatic habitats, suffocating fish eggs and
altering spawning grounds for fish as well as the many invertebrates
important to the aquatic food web.

A critical and important BMP for water quality is the establishment of
streamside management zones (SMZs) - vegetated areas next to rivers,
lakes and streams (Missouri Department of Conservation, 1997. These
streamside zones should range in size from 25 to 50 feet in width and
are complex ecosystems that provide food, habitat and movement corridors
for both aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. In addition, these areas help
to minimize movement of non-point source pollution into surface waters.

Within the SMZ:

-   harvesting should be minimized,

-   wheeled or tracked vehicles should be restricted

-   chemicals should be labeled for use near water

-   roads or landings avoided

[Aesthetics]{.underline}

Managing the appearance of a bottomland forest is recognized as an
important resource consideration for many land users. To accomplish this
objective will necessitate active management of the site and vegetation
using appropriate silvicultural and landscape BMPs. The following list
developed (Forest Service, 1990) provides some common landscape design
actions that can be used:

-   Plan comprehensively -- achieve a comprehensive visual effect by
    planning for the entire site rather than one stand or area at a
    time.

-   Make openings -- vary the size, shape, and location of openings
    relative to the scale and appearance of the surrounding area.

-   Shape stand boundaries -- make stand boundaries as natural as
    possible following natural topographic features and vegetation
    changes.

-   Soften large openings -- add visual variety and wildlife benefits
    such as large trees, flowering trees, extension of peninsulas of
    vegetation or groups, leave unusual trees for visual variety, avoid
    linear openings, retain snags and den trees.

-   "Feather" edges -- soften sharp edges along borders to create
    transition zones.

-   Design roads and landings carefully -- keep the amount of road and
    trail construction to a minimum. Retire unused sections with
    appropriate vegetative cover.

-   Utilize the whole tree -- full utilization of the entire tree
    minimizes residue slash.

-   Treat slash -- chip, lop and scatter slash and keep it low to the
    ground to improve the appearance and encourage rapid decay.

-   Reduce activities -- reduce entry access time into the area to
    decrease the impact of machinery movement

-   Enhance beauty -- look for opportunities to create vistas, views of
    rock outcroppings, water bodies, and other visually appealing
    natural features.

[Planting/site preparation]{.underline}

Planting and site preparation BMPs should be followed whether you are
establishing a tree planting area for the first time or you are
re-planting after a logging operation. These procedures will minimize
the amount of disturbance and compaction to the forest floor and
therefore decrease the creation of areas susceptible to erosion. It is
also important to limit site preparation to the minimum amount needed to
establish a well stocked stand. Some examples of planting/site
preparation BMPs are:

-   Avoid preparation techniques that expose soil, especially on steep
    slopes

-   Seed ground cover as soon as possible.

-   Bedding (raised earth ridges) for drainage relief should follow the
    contour on even gentle slopes and follow the drainage patterns. Do
    not bed in wetland areas.

-   Provide for drainage needs with culverts, bridges and crossings.

-   Raking and windrowing should be oriented parallel to any body of
    water and on the contours to slow runoff and reduce sediment
    movement.

-   Consider the effects of pesticides near water features. Follow all
    label instructions.

-   Avoid planting into excessively wet soils

[Harvesting]{.underline}

Harvesting BMPs have been designed not only to reduce sedimentation and
erosion but also to protect the land and other values associated with
the land. Harvesting BMPs should be planned early so that problems can
be dealt with before they arise. Some essential BMPs are listed below:

-   Directional felling should be done carefully to reduce residual
    stand damage and to minimize the size and length of skid trails.

-   Stream channels and other wet areas should be avoided by harvesting
    equipment. If channels need to be crossed follow proper stream
    crossing BMPs.

-   Skidding activities should be direct away from water courses.

-   Do not change oil in machinery where it can impact water quality and
    collect any used oil for proper disposal

-   Logging slash should be left in place and cut as low as possible to
    facilitate decomposition.

-   Portable sawmills should be located away from streams or water
    bodies.

[Roads and skid trails]{.underline}

![](media/image37.jpeg){width="4.0in" height="2.6666666666666665in"}

-   Skid trails, roads, and decks should be properly placed and be
    minimized. Any road system should be laid out with the help of soil
    maps and interpretations.

-   Use culverts as needed to route water away from the road.

-   Water bars should be used when retiring temporary roads and trails.

-   Roads and trails should be planned, located, and constructed to
    provide adequate water drainage from road surfaces.

-   Remove shading trees along roads as needed to expose the road
    surface to sunlight and air movement.

-   Roads constructed with SMZs should have all exposed soil stabilized
    as soon as possible after harvesting operations have ceased.

-   Limit using roads during wet or saturated site conditions.

**References used in this section:**

Forest Service, 1990 Central Hardwood Notes -- Visual Management of
Central Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service, North Central Experiment
Station. Columbia, MO.

Kabrick, J. and Dey, D. 2001. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri Department of
Conservation.

Meadows, J.S. and Stanturf, J.A.. 1997. Silvicultural Techniques for
Southern Bottomland Hardwood Forests. *Forest Ecology and Management*
**90**, 127-140

Missouri Department of Conservation, 1997. Missouri Watershed Protection
Practice: 1997, Management Guidelines for Maintaining Forested
Watersheds to Protect Streams. Conservation Commission of the State of
Missouri. 28 p.

Smith, D. M. 1997. *The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest
Ecology* (9^th^ ed.). New York, New York. John Wiley and Sons. 537 p.

Acknowledgements

This guide was developed as a graduate class project at the University
of Missouri during the spring semester 2003. Douglas Wallace served as
the primary editor. Dr. John Dwyer, Professor, UMC School of Natural
Resources, presided as course instructor and provided outstanding
guidance throughout the development of this guide. The class was
comprised of the following students:

-   Douglas Wallace

-   William "Dusty" Walter

-   Faren McCord

-   Thomas Faust

-   John Kluthe

-   David Shostak

-   Nicholas Krekeler

Glossary

**Advance regeneration** - Advance growth seedlings or saplings present
in the understory that when released will form the future canopy.

**Basal area** - The cross-sectional area of a stand of trees measured
at breast height ( 4 ft 1/2 feet aboveground). The area is expressed in
square feet per acre and is a measure of stocking density.

**DBH (diameter at breast height)** - The diameter of a standing tree
measured 4.5 ft from the ground.

**Deciduous** - Pertaining to perennial plants that lose their leaves
part of the year, such as hardwood trees such as oak, hickory, and
maple.

**Epicormic branching** - The development of small branches along the
bole, or trunk, of a tree. This often develops in response to thinning
operations where substantially greater sunlight reaches the tree stems.

**Even-aged management** - Silvicultural system in which the individual
trees originate at about the same time and are removed in one or more
harvest cuts, after which a neweven-aged stand is continued.

**Exotic species** - Species that are not native to an area.

**Hard mast-producing** - Species such as oaks, pecans, or hickories
that produce a large nut (acorn) that in turn provide food for a variety
of wildlife such as deer, turkey, and some waterfowl.

**Herbaceous** - Soft and green vegetation which dies back to the ground
each year generally containing little woody tissue.

**High grading** - Forest harvesting where only the best commercially
valuable trees are cut. This method of harvest often results in a forest
stand dominated by undesirable or weedy tree species.

**Hydrologic regime** - The pattern of water level dynamics referring to
the timing, frequency, depth, and duration of aboveground flooding, but
also refering to belowground water level fluctuations.

**Hydrology** - The study of the processes that involve the transport or
movement of water.

**Improvement cutting** - A cutting made in a stand past the sapling
stage primarily to improve composition and quality by removing less
desirable trees of any species.

**Light-seeded species** - Species such as cottonwood, elm, willow, and
sycamore that have light weight seeds that can be easily dispersed by
wind or water. Many of these seeds, however, can also be dispersed by
animals.

**Non-point source pollution** - Pollution that is not from a single,
well-defined site such as a factory or tile outlet.

**Reforestation -** Activities to re-establish the forest where there
currently is none. This is mainly done through planting, seeding, or
natural regeneration.

**Regeneration** - The natural or artificial replacement of mature trees
with new tree growth.

**Rehabilitation --** Actions that repair an already existing forest by
manipulating the existing stand. Intermediate treatments can be used to
release good quality trees.

**Shelterwood cut** - A cut in which the mature stand is generally
removed in a series of two or more cuts**,** the last of which is when
the new even-aged stand is well developed.

**Silviculture** - The science and art of regenerating and managing a
forest to meet specific objectives.

**Soil horizon** - A distinct layer of soil parallel to the surface that
has definitive physical, chemical, and hydrologic characteristics.

**Stand** - A contiguous group of trees sufficiently uniform in age
class distribution, composition, and structure, and growing on a site of
sufficiently uniform quality to be a distinguishable unit.

**Stocking** -- A relative term used to describe the adequacy of growing
stock in a given stand that will meet a management objective.

**Thinning** - Intermediate cuttings aimed primarily at controlling
growth of timber stands by adjusting stand density and quality.

**Understory** - Any plants growing under the canopy formed by other
plants, such as herbaceous and shrub vegetation under a taller tree
canopy.

**Uneven-aged management -** Silvicultural system in which individual
trees originate at different times and result in a forest stand with
trees of various ages and sizes. Harvest cuts are often on an
individual-tree selection basis.

Appendix

**Table A. Endangered Missouri Avian Species for Associated Bottomland
Forest Habitats.**

+-----------+--------------+---------------------+--------------------+
| **Bird    | **Habitat**  | **Cause for         | **How You Can      |
| Species** |              | Concern**           | Help**             |
+-----------+--------------+---------------------+--------------------+
| S         | Inhabits     | The draining and    | Landowners who own |
| wainson's | dense stands | deforestation of    | land along the     |
| Warbler   | of giant     | Missouri's Bootheel | rivers can help by |
|           | cane that    | swamps for          | recognizing the    |
| *Lim      | grow along   | agriculture and the | importance of      |
| nothlypis | big river    | inundation of       | canebrakes, as     |
| sw        | floodplains  | bottomland habitat  | well as leave a    |
| ainsonii* | and swamps.  | by reservoirs has   | 100-foot buffer of |
|           |              | impacted this       | natural vegetation |
|           |              | neo-tropical        | on both sides of a |
|           |              | migrant.            | river or stream.   |
|           |              | Furthermore, the    |                    |
|           |              | vast canebrakes     |                    |
|           |              | within extensive    |                    |
|           |              | forests that once   |                    |
|           |              | lined the Missouri  |                    |
|           |              | river are gone.     |                    |
+-----------+--------------+---------------------+--------------------+
| Cerulean  | Frequently   | Forests that are    | Landowner scan     |
| Warbler   | nest in      | fragmented by human | help by setting    |
|           | mature       | development and     | aside contiguous   |
| *         | contiguous   | logging not only    | blocks of mature   |
| Dendroica | hardwood     | destroy important   | hardwood forest    |
| cerulea*  | forests in   | cerulean warbler    | habitat. Forests   |
|           | river        | habitat, but also   | should be managed  |
|           | valleys,     | increases the       | for timber         |
|           | where the    | potential for       | harvests in a way  |
|           | trees are    | brown-headed        | that ensures that  |
|           | tall and the | cowbird nest        | mature, relatively |
|           | understory   | parasitism.         | open stands are    |
|           | is           |                     | available for      |
|           | relatively   |                     | these canopy       |
|           | open.        |                     | dwelling           |
|           |              |                     | neo-tropical       |
|           |              |                     | migrants.          |
+-----------+--------------+---------------------+--------------------+

**Table B. Endangered Missouri Mammalian Species**

+---------+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
| *       | **Habitat**        | **Cause for         | **How You Can   |
| *Mammal |                    | Concern**           | Help**          |
| Sp      |                    |                     |                 |
| ecies** |                    |                     |                 |
+---------+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
| Indiana | In the spring,     | Indiana bats are    | Reducing the    |
| Bat     | females fly north  | listed as           | amount and      |
|         | of their           | endangered both in  | frequency of    |
| *Myotis | hibernation caves  | Missouri and        | pesticides used |
| s       | in search of large | federally. They     | for home or     |
| odalis* | diameter trees     | have declined       | agricultural    |
|         | with loose bark    | significantly over  | purposes.       |
|         | where they roost   | the last 20 years,  | Landowners      |
|         | and raise their    | particularly in     | should also     |
|         | single young. In   | Missouri, and many  | refrain from    |
|         | general, most      | biologist suspect a | cutting dead or |
|         | young bats are     | connection to       | living trees    |
|         | raised in the      | pesticide           | larger than     |
|         | northern half of   | contamination       | nine inches in  |
|         | the state. Some    | through their       | diameter that   |
|         | males will spend   | insect prey.        | could serve as  |
|         | the summer in      |                     | suitable        |
|         | caves, but most    |                     | nursery roost   |
|         | wander about the   |                     | trees.          |
|         | state in small     |                     |                 |
|         | groups and nest    |                     |                 |
|         | under the loose    |                     |                 |
|         | bark of trees.     |                     |                 |
+---------+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
| Swamp   | Live in cane       | Their decline is    | Landowners in   |
| Rabbit  | thickets along     | directly related to | southeastern    |
|         | rivers, in brush   | the dramatic loss   | Missouri can    |
| *Syl    | bordering swamps   | of forested and     | help improve    |
| vilagus | or in bottomland   | brushy bottomland   | conditions for  |
| aqu     | forests in         | habitat in the      | swamp rabbits   |
| aticus* | southeastern and   | Bootheel over the   | by protecting   |
|         | southern Ozark     | last 50 years.      | forested        |
|         | regions of         | Also, large-scale   | corridors along |
|         | Missouri.          | changes in lowland  | rivers and      |
|         |                    | habitat and         | bottomlands or  |
|         |                    | channelization and  | by replanting   |
|         |                    | dredging of the big | those areas in  |
|         |                    | rivers and their    | native tree     |
|         |                    | tributary streams   | species.        |
|         |                    | have caused floods  |                 |
|         |                    | to be more frequent |                 |
|         |                    | and sustained       |                 |
|         |                    | during prime        |                 |
|         |                    | breeding months     |                 |
|         |                    | (February -- June)  |                 |
+---------+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+

**Table C. Forestry Soils Interpretation Chart for Boone County,
Missouri.**

**Forest Management**

The information in this table indicates the dominant soil condition but
does not eliminate the need

for onsite investigation. The numbers in the value columns range from
0.00 to 1.00. The larger the value, the greater the potential
limitation.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

\| \| \| \|

Map symbol and \| Hand planting \| Mechanical planting \|Use of
harvesting equipment\|

soil name \| \| \| \|

\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|

\| Rating class and \|Value\| Rating class and \|Value\| Rating class
and \|Value\|

\| limiting features \| \| limiting features \| \| limiting features \|
\|

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\|\_\_\_\_\_\|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

50011: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Winnegan\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Slightly limited \| \|Very limited \| \|Limited
\| \|

\|\~slope \|0.19 \|\~slope \|1.00 \|\~slope \|0.76 \|

\| (slightly limited) \| \| (very limited) \| \| (limited) \| \|

\| \| \| \| \|\~low strength \|0.50 \|

\| \| \| \| \| (moderately limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

60030: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Winfield\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Not limited \| \|Slightly limited \| \|Moderately
limited \| \|

\| \| \|\~slope \|0.30 \|\~low strength \|0.50 \|

\| \| \| (slightly limited) \| \| (moderately limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \|\~seasonal wetness \|0.10 \|

\| \| \| \| \| (slightly limited) \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

60031: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Winfield\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Not limited \| \|Moderately limited \|
\|Moderately limited \| \|

\| \| \|\~slope \|0.43 \|\~low strength \|0.50 \|

\| \| \| (moderately limited)\| \| (moderately limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

66015: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Blake\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Not limited \| \|Not limited \| \|Moderately
limited \| \|

\| \| \| \| \|\~low strength \|0.50 \|

\| \| \| \| \| (moderately limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Ma: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Malden\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Moderately limited \| \|Moderately limited \|
\|Moderately limited \| \|

\|\~very sandy (surface)\|0.50 \|\~very sandy (surface)\|0.50 \|\~very
sandy (surface)\|0.50 \|

\| (moderately limited)\| \| (moderately limited)\| \| (moderately
limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

73095: \| \| \| \| \| \| \|

Gravois\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\|Slightly limited \| \|Limited \| \|Moderately
limited \| \|

\|\~slope \|0.04 \|\~slope \|0.68 \|\~low strength \|0.50 \|

\| (slightly limited) \| \| (limited) \| \| (moderately limited)\| \|

\| \| \| \| \|\~seasonal wetness \|0.26 \|

\| \| \| \| \| (slightly limited) \| \|

\| \| \| \| \|\~slope \|0.15 \|

\| \| \| \| \| (slightly limited) \| \|

\| \| \| \| \| \| \|

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