**American Society for Nondestructive Testing.**

**ASNT TRAINING MANUAL**

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

***UPDATE***

Ultrasonic Personnel and Qualifications Committee, ASNT

December 1996

**[Contributors]{.underline}**

Yoseph Bar-Cohen, JPL, Pasadena, CA

John Brunk, Overland, KS

David Harvey, Teledyne Wah Chang, Albany, OR

Steve Harvey, Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical, WA

Bill Klene, Moraine Valley Community College, Palo Hills, IL

Scott Miller, Aptech Engineering Services, Houston, TX

Richard Tiefenauer, St. Louis Testing Laboratories, St. Louis, MO

**[EDITORIAL NOTE]{.underline}**: Corrections are made where
~~strikeout~~ indicates delete and *[Italicized underline]{.underline}*
indicates paste. Changes were identified with \*\*\*\*.

**Recommended Training For**

**Level I Ultrasonic Testing**

**Basic Ultrasonic Course**

Notes: It is recommended that the trainee receive Instruction in this
course prior to performing work in ultrasonics.

1\. Introduction

a.  Definition of ultrasonics

b.  History of ultrasonic testing

c.  Applications of ultrasonic energy

d.  Basic math review

e.  Responsibilities and levels of certification

2\. Basic Principles of Acoustics

a.  Nature of sound waves

b.  Modes of sound-wave generation

c.  Velocity, frequency, and wavelength of sound waves

d.  Attenuation of sound waves

e.  Acoustic impedance

f.  Reflection

g.  Refraction and mode-conversion

h.  Snell\'s law and critical angles

i.  Fresnel and Fraunhofer effects

3 Equipment

> a\. Basic pulse-echo instrumentation (A-, B- and C-scan)

(1) Electronics - time base, pulser, [receiver]{.underline} and
    **~~cathode-ray tube (CRT)~~** *[displays (monitors, cathode ray
    tubes, etc.)\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(2) Control functions

(3) Calibration

(4) Basic instrument calibration

(5) Calibration blocks (types and use)

b\. Digital thickness instrumentation

c\. Transducer operation and theory

(1) Piezoelectric effect

(2) Types of ~~crystals~~ *[transducer elements \*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(3) Frequency (~~crystal~~ *[transducer element \*\*\*\*]{.underline}*
    thickness relationships)

(4) Near field and far field

(5) Beam spread

(6) Construction, materials, and shapes

(7) Types (straight, angle, dual etc.)

(8) Beam-intensity characteristics

(9) Sensitivity, resolution, and damping

(10) Mechanical vibration into part

(11) *[Other type of transducers (Laser UT, EMAT,
     etc.)\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

d\. Couplants

(1) Purpose and principles

(2) Materials and their efficiency

4\. Basic Testing Method.

a.  Contact

b.  Immersion

c.  *[Air coupling\*\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

**Total recommended hours of instruction for this course:**

Classification A - 20 hours

Classification B - 15 hours

**Ultrasonic Technique Course**

1\. Testing Methods

> a\. Contact

(1) Straight-beam

(2) Angle beam

(3) Surface-wave *[and plate waves\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(4) Pulse-echo transmission

(5) Multiple transducer

(6) Curved surfaces

(7) *[Flat Entry surfaces\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(8) *[Cylindrical and tubular shapes\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

> b\. Immersion

(1) Transducer in water

(2) Water column, wheels, etc.

(3) Submerged test part

(4) Sound-beam path - transducer to part

(5) Focused transducers

(6) Curved surfaces

(7) *[Plate waves\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(8) *[Pulse-echo and through-transmission\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(9) Comparison of contact and immersion methods

2\. Calibration (Electronic and Functional)

> a\. Equipment

(1) *[Display\*\*\*\*]{.underline}* ~~Cathode-ray tube~~ (amplitude,
    sweep, etc.)

(2) Recorders

(3) Alarms

(4) Automatic and semi-automatic systems

(5) Electronic distance/amplitude correction

(6) Transducers

> b\. Calibration of equipment electronics

(1) Variable effects

(2) Transmission accuracy

(3) Calibration requirements

(4) Calibration reflectors

> c\. Inspection calibration

(1) Comparison with reference blocks

(2) Pulse-echo variables

(3) Reference for planned tests (straight-beam. angle-beam, etc.)

(4) Transmission factors

(5) Transducer

(6) Couplants

(7) Materials

3\. Straight-Beam Examination to Specific Procedure

a.  Selection of parameters

b.  Test standards

c.  Evaluation of results

d.  Test reports

4\. Angle-Beam Examination to specific Procedure

a.  Selection of parameters

b.  Test standards

c.  Evaluation of results

d.  Test reports

**Total recommended hours of instruction for this course:**

Classification A - 20 hours

Classification B - 15 hours

**Recommended Training For**

**Level II Ultrasonic Testing**

**Ultrasonic Evaluation Course**

1 Review of Ultrasonic Technique Course

a.  Principles of ultrasonics

b.  Equipment

c.  Testing techniques

d.  Calibration

e.  Straight-beam

f.  Angle-beam

g.  Resonance

h.  Special applications

2\. Evaluation of Base-Material Product Forms

> a\. Ingots

(1) Process review

(2) Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(4) *[Applicable]{.underline}* codes/standards

> b\. Plate and sheet

(1) Rolling process

(2) Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(4) Applicable codes/standards

> c\. Bar and rod

(1) Forming process

(2) Types, origin and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(4) Applicable codes/standards

> d\. Pipe and tubular products

(1) Manufacturing process

(2) Types. origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(4) Applicable codes/standards

> e\. Forgings

(1) Process review

(2) Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(4) Applicable code/standards

> f\. Castings

(1) Process review

(2) Types. origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

(3) Response of ultrasound to discontinuities

(4) Applicable codes/standards

> g\. Other product forms as applicable - rubber, glass, etc.

3.  Evaluation of Weldments

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a.  Welding processes

b.  Weld geometries

c.  Welding discontinuities

d.  Origin and typical orientation of discontinuities

e.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

f.  Applicable codes/standards

4\. Evaluation of Bonded Structures

> a\. Metallic

(1) Manufacturing processes

(2) Types of discontinuities

(3) Origin and typical orientation of discontinuities

(4) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(5) Applicable codes/standards

> b\. Nonmetallic/Composites

(1) Manufacturing processes

(2) Types of discontinuities

(3) Origin and typical orientation of discontinuities

(4) Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

(5) Applicable codes/standards

5\. Discontinuity Detection

a\. Sensitivity to reflections

(1) Size, type, and location of discontinuities

(2) Techniques used in detection

(3) Wave characteristics

(4) Material and velocity

(5) ~~Discontinuity~~

b\. Resolution

(1) Standard reference comparisons

(2) History of pen

(3) Probability of type of discontinuity

(4) Degrees of operator discrimination

(5) Effects of ultrasonic frequency

(6) Damping effects

c\. Determination of discontinuity size

(1) ~~Cathode-ray tube (CRT), \*\*\*~~ Display and meter indications

(2) Transducer movement vs. display

(3) Two-dimensional testing techniques

(4) Signal patterns

d\. Location of discontinuity

(1) **~~CRT~~** Display\*\*\*\*\*

(2) Amplitude and linear time

(3) Search technique

6\. Evaluation

a\. Comparison procedures

(1) standards and references

(2) Amplitude, area, and distance relationship

(3) Application of results of other NDT methods

> b\. Object appraisal

(1) History of part

(2) Intended use of part

(3) Existing and applicable code interpretation

(4) Type of discontinuity and location

**Total recommended hours of Instruction for this course:**

Classification A - 40 hours

Classification B - 40 hours

**Recommended Training For**

**Level III Topical Outline**

1.0 Principles/Theory

1.1 General

1.2 Principles of Acoustics

1.  Nature of sound waves

2.  Modes of sound-wave generation

3.  Velocity, frequency, and wavelength of sound waves

4.  Attenuation of sound waves

5.  Acoustic impedance

6.  Reflection

7.  Refraction and mode conversion

8.  Snell\'s law and critical angles

9.  Fresnel end Fraunhofer effects

2.0 Equipment/ Materials

2.1 Equipment

2.1.1 Pulse-echo instrumentation

a.  Controls and Circuits

b.  Pulse generation *[(spike, square-wave, and toneburst
    pulsers)\*\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

c.  Signal detection

d.  Display and recording method, A-, B-, C-scan and digital

e.  Sensitivity and resolution

f.  Gates, alarms and attenuators

> \(1\) Basic instrument calibration
>
> \(2\) Calibration blocks

2.1.2 Digital thickness instrumentation

2.1.3 Transducer operation and theory

a.  Piezoelectric effect

b.  Types of ~~crystals~~ *[transducer elements\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

c.  Frequency (**\*\*\*\***~~crystal~~-*[transducer
    element]{.underline}* thickness relationships)

d.  Near field and far field

e.  Beam spread

f.  Construction, materials, and shapes

g.  Types (straight, angle, dual, etc.)

h.  Beam intensity characteristics

i.  Sensitivity, resolution, and damping

j.  Mechanical vibration into parts

k.  *[Other type of transducers (Laser UT, EMAT,
    etc.)\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

2.1.4 Transducer operation/manipulations

a.  Tanks, bridges, manipulators, and squirters

b.  Wheels and special hand devices

c.  Transfer devices for materials

d.  Manual manipulation

2.1.5 Resonance Testing equipment

a.  Bond testing

b.  Thickness testing

2.2 Materials

> 2.2.1Couplants

a\. Contact

(1) Purpose and principles

(2) Materials and their efficiency

b\. Immersion

(1) Purpose and principles

(2) Materials and their efficiency

    c\. *[Air Coupling\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

(3) Calibration blocks

(4) Cables/connectors

(5) Test specimen

(6) Miscellaneous materials

3.0 Techniques/Calibrations

3.1 Contact

1.  Straight-beam

2.  Angle-beam

3.  Surface wave *[and plate waves\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

4.  Pulse-echo transmission

5.  Multiple transducer

6.  curved surfaces

3.2 Immersion

1.  Transducer in water

2.  Water column, wheels, etc.

3.  Submerged test part

4.  Sound-beam path-transducer to part

5.  Focused transducers

6.  Curved surfaces

7.  *[Plate waves\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

8.  *[Pulse-echo and through-transmission\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*

3.3 Comparison of contact and immersion methods

3.4 Remote monitoring

3.5 Calibration (Electronic and Functional)

3.5.1 General

2.  Reference reflectors for calibration

3.  Balls and flat bottom holes

4.  Distance amplitude blocks

5.  Notches

6.  Side-drilled holes

7.  Special blocks - IIW and others

3.5.3 Equipment

a.  *[Display \*\*\*\*]{.underline}* ~~Cathode ray tube~~ (amplitude,
    sweep, etc.)

b.  Recorders

c.  Alarms

d.  Automatic and semi-automatic systems

e.  Electronic distance amplitude correction

f.  Transducers

3.5.4 Calibration of equipment electronics

a.  Variable effects

b.  Transmission accuracy

c.  Calibration requirements

d.  Calibration reflectors

3.5.5 Inspection calibration

a.  Comparison with reference blocks

b.  Pulse-echo variables

c.  Reference for planned tests (straight-beam, angle-beam etc.)

d.  Transmission factors

e.  Transducers

f.  Couplants

g.  Materials

4.0 Interpretation/Evaluation

4.1 Evaluation of base materials product forms

4.1.1 Ingots

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

4.1.2 Plate and sheet

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

4.1.3 Bar and rod

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards and specs.

4.1.4 Pipe and tubular products

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

4.1.5 Forgings

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

4.1.6 Castings

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

> 4.1.7 Miscellaneous product forms as applicable (rubber, glass, etc.)

a.  Process review

b.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

c.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

d.  Applicable codes standards, specs

4.2 Evaluation of weldments

1.  Process review

2.  Weld geometries

3.  Types, origin. and typical orientation of discontinuities

4.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

5.  Applicable codes, standards, specs

4.3 Evaluation of bonded structures

1.  Manufacturing process

2.  Types, origin, and typical orientation of discontinuities

3.  Response of discontinuities to ultrasound

4.  Applicable codes/Standards/Specs

4.4 Variables effecting test results

1.  Instrument performance variations

2.  Transducer performance variations

3.  Test specimen variations

4.  Surface condition

5.  Part geometry

6.  Material structure

4.4.4 Discontinuities variations

a.  Size and geometry

b.  Relation to entry surface

c.  Type of discontinuity

4.4.5 Procedure variation.

a.  Recording criteria

b.  Acceptance criteria

4.4.6 Personnel variations

a.  Skill level in interpretation of results

b.  Knowledge level in interpretation of results

4.5 Evaluation (General)

4.5.1 Comparison procedures

a.  Standards and references

b.  Amplitude, area, and distance relationship

c.  Application of results of other NDT methods

4.5.2 Object appraisal

a.  History of part

b.  Intended use of part

c.  Existing and applicable code interpretation

d.  Type of discontinuity end location

5.0 Procedure

5.1 Specific applications

> 5.1.1 General
>
> 5.1.2 Flaw detection
>
> 5.1.3 Thickness measurement
>
> 5.1.4 Bond evaluation
>
> 5.1.5 Fluid flow measurement
>
> 5.1.6 Material properties measurements
>
> 5.1.7 Computer control and detect analysis
>
> 5.1.8 Liquid level sensing
>
> 5.1.9 Process control
>
> 5.1.10 Field inspection

5.2 Codes/Standards/Specifications

6.0 Safety and Health

1.  Electrical shock

2.  Mechanical hazards

3.  Pneumatic hazards

4.  Chemical contamination

**Recommended Training References**

**Ultrasonic Testing Method, Level I, II, and III**

> ~~American Society for Metals, Nondestructive Inspection and Quality
> Control: Metals Handbook. Vol.11, 8th ed. Metals Park, OH. 1976.\*~~
>
> *[American Society for Metals, Nondestructive Inspection and Quality
> Control: Metals Handbook. Vol.17, 9th ed. Metals Park, OH.
> 1989.\*\*\*\*]{.underline}*
>
> *American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Question and Answer Book
> C:* Ultrasonic Test Method Level I, II and III, Columbus, OH, 1984.
>
> ASNT Level III Study Guide - Ultrasonic Testing Method, Columbus, OH,
> The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1992. \*
>
> American society for Tasting and Materials, Metallography;
> Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 03.03. Philadelphia, PA, Latest Edition.
> \*
>
> [Bar‑Cohen, Y. and A. K. Mal, *Ultrasonic Inspection,\"* Revised
> Chapter, Vol. 17, 9th Edition, Metals Handbook, NDE and Quality
> Control, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1989, pp.
> 231‑277.\*\*\*\*]{.underline}
>
> Ensminger. D. *Ultrasonics: Fundamentals Technology Applications*.
> 2^nd^ ed. New York and Basel: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1988.\*
>
> Ensminger, D. *Ultrasonics: The Low and High intensity Applications*.
> New York: Marcel Dekker. Inc., 1973.
>
> Halmehaw, R. *Nondestructive Testing: Metallurgy and Materials Science
> Series*. London: Edward Arnold, 1987.
>
> *Handbook for Standardization of Nondestructive Testing Methods,*
> MIL-HDBK-333 (USAF), Vol.2. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
> Office, 1974.
>
> Krautkramer, Josef, and Herbert Krautkramer, *Ultrasonic Testing of
> Materials*, 4th ed. New York: Springer-Velag, 1983.\*
>
> McGonnagle, Warren J. *Nondestructive Testing*, 2nd ed. New York:
> Gordon and Breach, 1975.
>
> ~~McMaster, Robert C., ed. *Nondestructive Testing Handbook,* 1st ed.
> Columbus. OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1959. \*~~
>
> Mix, Paul E. *Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training
> Guide*, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987.\*
>
> [*Nondestructive Testing Handbook,* Vol. 7: Ultrasonic Testing,
> Section 8, A. S. Birk and B. Green Jr. (Ed.), American Society for
> NDT, Columbus, OH (1991).\* \*\*\*\*]{.underline}
>
> [*Nondestructive Testing Handbook,* Second Edition, Volume 10,
> Nondestructive Testing Overview, American Society for Nondestructive
> Testing, Columbus, OH (1996).\* \*\*\*\*]{.underline}
>
> ~~*Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control: Metals Handbook,*
> 8^th^ edition. Metals Park, OH: American Society of Metals, 1976.\*~~
>
> *Procedures and Recommendations for the Ultrasonic Testing of Butt
> Welds,* 2nd ed. London: The Welding Institute. 1972.\*
>
> Rose, J. L., and B. B. Goldberg, *Basic physics in Diagnostic
> Ultrasound,* New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979.\*\*
>
> Silvus, H. S., Jr. *Advanced Ultrasonic Testing Systems: A State of
> the Art Survey.* San Antonio, TX: Nondestructive Testing Information
> Analysis Center (NTIAC), 1977.\*\*
>
> *Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book):
> Ultrasonic Testing Methods.* Columbus, OH: The American Society for
> Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1994. \*
>
> *Ultrasonic Method Training Program: Student\'s Package,* Columbus,
> OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1981.\*
>
> *Ultrasonic Method Training Program: Student\'s Package.* Columbus,
> OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1981.\*
>
> *Ultrasonic Testing, Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4),* San Diego,
> CA: General Dynamics/Convair Division, 1967. [=]{.underline}
>
> *Ultrasonic Testing Programmed Instruction Handbook (PI-4-4),* Vols.
> 1, 2, and 3. San Diego, CA: General Dynamics/Convair Division, 1967.
> [=]{.underline}
>
> *Welding Handbook,* Volume 1. Miami, FL: American Welding Society.
> Latest edition. \*

\* Available from the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.,
Columbus, OH.

\*\* This is a Recommended Reference because of the valuable data it
contains. This title is currently out of print, however, and is not
available from ASNT.

[=]{.underline} Currently published by the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc., Columbus, OH.

***Editorial notes - \_\_\_\_\*\*\*\* add, \-\-\-- (strike-out)
delete***

**Ultrasonic Testing**

**Level I**

1\. The amount or beam divergence from a \*\*\*\*~~crystal~~
*[transducer element \*\*\*\*]{.underline}* is primarily dependent on
the:

a.  type of test

b.  tightness of the ~~crystal~~ *[transducer element
    \*\*\*\*]{.underline}* backing in the search unit

c.  frequency and ~~crystal~~ *[transducer element
    \*\*\*\*]{.underline}* size

d.  refraction

2\. On the area-amplitude ultrasonic-standard test blocks, the
flat-bottomed holes in the blocks are:

a.  all of the same diameter

b.  different in diameter, Increasing by 1/64 in. increments from the
    No. 1 block to the No. 8 block

c.  largest in the No 1 block end smallest in the No. 8 block

d.  drilled to different depths from the front surface of the test block

3\. On many ultrasonic testing instruments, an operator conducting an
immersion test can remove that portion of the screen presentation that
represents water distance by adjusting a:

a.  pulse-length control

b.  reject control

c.  sweep-delay control

d.  sweep-length control

**Level II**

1\. If a contact angle-beam transducer produces a 45 degree shear wave
in steel (V~s~ = 0.323 cm/s) the angle produced by the same transducer
in an aluminum specimen (V~S~ = 0.310 cm/s) would be:

a.  less than 45 degrees

b.  greater than 45 degrees

c.  45 degrees

d.  more information is required

2\. A discontinuity is located having an orientation such that its long
axis is parallel to the sound beam. The indication from such a
discontinuity will be:

a.  large in proportion to the length of the discontinuity

b.  small in proportion to the length of the discontinuity

c.  representative of the length of the discontinuity

d.  such that complete loss of back-reflection will result

3\. An ultrasonic longitudinal wave travels in aluminum with a velocity
or 635,000 cm/s and has a frequency of 1 MHz. The wavelength of this
ultrasonic wave is:

a.  6.35 ft

b.  3.10 in.

c.  6.35 mm

d.  30,000 D