**A SURVEY OF SELECTED CORAL AND FISH ASSEMBLAGES**

**NEAR THE WAIANAE OCEAN OUTFALL, OCTOBER 1990**

Anthony R. Russo

**Special Report 12.05:90**

December 1990

PREPARED FOR

City and County of Honolulu

Department of Public Works

Project Completion Report

for

"The Assessment of the Impact of Ocean Outfalls

on the Marine Environment off Oahu, Hawaii"

Project No.: C-59390

Project Period: 21 February 1990--21 December 1990

Principal Investigator: Roger S. Fujioka

**WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER**

University of Hawaii at Manoa

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

ABSTRACT

Coral growth and fish abundance were monitored at two stations in the
marine environment vicinity of the Waianae Wastewater Treatment Plant
for any possible effects of sewage effluent inshore and down coast of
the outfall diffuser discharge. One station, the sunken ship *Mahi*, was
located 1.2 km south of the zone of initial dilution and was chosen for
the abundance of fishes and corals nearby. The second station, located
0.8 km directly offshore from the WWWTP and 8 to 10 m east of the
outfall pipe, was chosen to monitor effects of direct shoreward movement
of sewage effluent of corals and fish abundance and diversity. No
comparison of the stations was made since they are unique and have no
spatial controls. Since this was the first of a five-year study, no
comparisons could be made except for fish abundance, compared to that of
1988. Results showed no significant difference in the presence or
absence of fish species when compared, and the carbonate sand sediments
near coral were clean and white. A more detailed investigation is needed
to discover direct effects of sewage effluent on water columns,
sediment, and biological indicators.

INTRODUCTION

This report is part of the ongoing effort by the City and County of
Honolulu (CCH) to monitor the marine environment in the vicinity of
ocean outfalls off O'ahu, Hawai'i.

On 20 October 1990, the principal investigator and the CCH oceanographic
team completed a survey of selected stations near the Waianae ocean
outfall. The Waianae Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWWTP) discharges
approximately 2 mgd of primary effluent 1.8 km offshore at a depth of
approximately 34 m (Fig. 1). This survey was the first of five annual
studies designed to monitor any possible effects of sewage effluent on
corals and fishes inshore and down coast of the outfall diffuser
discharge.

SURVEY STATIONS

Station W2

Station W2 is located 1.2 km south of the zone of initial dilution (ZID)
of the Waianae outfall diffuser (Fig. 1). This station is the sunken
ship *Mahi*, whose aft deck lies at a depth of 22 m. The aft deck of the
ship was chosen as a control monitoring station because of the abundance
of corals growing on the horizontal deck platform and the aggregations
of fishes attracted to it. The ship lies in an area normally devoid of
bottom relief and hard substrata. The wreck is also important as a
tourist site because O'ahu commercial dive shops take many tourists
there for scuba sightseeing.

Station WW

Station WW is located 0.5 km directly offshore from the WWWTP, 8 to 10 m
east of the outfall pipe and surrounding armor rock, at a depth of 8 m
(Fig. 1). The station was chosen to monitor any possible effects of
direct shoreward movement of sewage effluent on coral cover and fish
assemblage abundance and diversity in the area.

The substratum at this station is hard carbonate limestone, to which
corals attach and grow. Because of the structural relief provided by the
nearby outfall pipe and armor rock, many fishes congregate here.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The sampling methodology used in this study generally followed the
recommendations of Swartz (1978), Reed (1980), and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency guidelines (U.S. EPA 1987). This report does not
compare stations since stations WW and W2 are unique and have no spatial
controls.

Corals

At Station W2, four haphazardly chosen permanent markings (I-IV) were
made on the aft deck platform with underwater markers. A 0.75-m^2^
quadrat was placed at each mark (with the number in the upper-lefthand
corner), and photographs were taken of the corals growing on the deck
platform with a camera mounted at a fixed focal length. Two other fixed
quadrat positions were chosen: the stern grating and the stern hatch
cover. These positions were chosen because the grating and cover are
permanent and easily recognizable features of the deck.

At Station WW, two 25-m permanent transect lines (telephone wire) were
laid 12 m apart. On each transect, permanent marker buoys were secured
to the lines at three locations (5--6 m apart) where corals were
present. Photographs of the bottom at the designated positions were made
of the quadrats (the permanent-marker numbers were in the upper-lefthand
corner). This is essentially the belt quadrat technique used by Dodge et
al. (1982) and Ott and Sinclair (1977).

Color photographs (3 by 5 in.) of all permanent quadrats at both
stations (six at each station) were analyzed by estimating percentage of
live coral cover and actual coral surface area, using a grid overlay
(300 squares = 0.75 m^2^; 1 square = 25 cm^2^). Results were checked
with a planimeter. At several quadrat sites, large, intact, live coral
heads were designated for monitoring to estimate rates of coral growth.
Photographs will be compared annually over a five-year period for
changes in coral cover, composition, and color.

Permanent transects with permanent, randomly selected quadrats were used
instead of randomly laid transects to estimate temporal changes in coral
cover. Because of the extremely patchy distribution and coral abundance
(per unit area) on this coast, a prohibitively large number of random
replicate transects would be necessary to validly test for statistical
differences in mean coral cover at different times. In some cases, the
use of inferential statistical analysis may not be valid at the same
location and over different periods because the assumption of
independent sampling may be violated. In the future, paired comparison
t-tests will be used to test the null hypothesis that the mean
difference in coral cover for each quadrat from time t1 to time t2 is
zero or positive (Daniel 1987). This test is not sensitive to moderate
deviations from normality; is not affected by the assumption of
independence, since only differences are tested; does not consider
equality of variances, since only one variable is involved; and
eliminates a maximum number of sources of extraneous variation by making
pairs similar with respect to as many variables as possible (Daniel
1987). If the data are seriously skewed from a normal distribution, the
nonparametric paired sign test will be used for analysis.

Fish Counts

At station WW, fishes were counted along the two 25-m transect lines,
looking 3 m to each side of the lines. On the deck of the sunken ship
(Sta. W2), permanent wire transect lines were not laid because many
tourist divers visit the wreck. A diver swimming the length of the
deck's center line (approximately 25 m) counted fishes from the center
line to the port railing (approximately 7 m). The starboard railing (25
m) was used as the second transect. Fishes were counted and identified
from the starboard railing to the center line of the deck (approximately
7 m). Diurnally active fishes are counted reasonably well by
transecting, but the most common species are usually underestimated and
cryptic fishes are poorly represented (Brock 1982).

Since at Station WW there were no previous fish counts along the
permanent transects, no comparisons can be made until the 1991 annual
survey. However, at Station W2, previous fish counts on the deck of the
*Mahi* were made recently (Russo 1988) along the same center-line
transect. Therefore, comparisons for this transect were made for the
periods 1988 and 1990. In the future, fish assemblages for all transects
at both stations will be compared, as were the center-line transects for
this study, using the techniques described below.

Similarity in relative species abundance during the two periods was
analyzed using the Bray-Curtis similarity index. Differences in species
composition between periods, based on data on fish species presence or
absence, were tested using Cochran's nonparametric Q-test (Siegel 1956;
Green 1979).

Dominance during each period was calculated as the number of species
accounting for 75% of the total abundance. To quantify variations in
species composition between the two periods, a turnover rate
(percentage) was calculated according to Ogden and Ebersole (1981).
Turnover rate = 0.5 (d/nj + g/nk) ∞ 100, where d is the number of
species lost from t1 to t2, g the number gained, nj the number of
species at time t1, and nk the number of species at time t2.

RESULTS

Coral cover (percentage and actual area) at permanent quadrats for both
Stations WW and W2 is summarized in Table 1. Estimates of coral cover by
grid overlay and planimeter differed by \< 1.2%. Grid-overlay estimates
were used in this report.

Since these were the first permanent quadrats laid for the five-year
study, no direct comparisons could be made for previous periods. The
mean total coral cover (per quadrat, n = 6) was 18.8% at station WW and
ranged from 2.7 to 33.7%; at Station W2, the mean was 22.7% and ranged
from 14.9 to 42.2%. The coral species *Pocillopora meandrina* dominated
the coral cover at Station W2, and *Porites lobata* dominated at Station
WW (Tab. 1). Water clarity was good (12--15 m), and carbonate sand
sediments at Station WW were clean and white. Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5
depict the permanent quadrats.

Fish counts at both stations are shown in Tables 2 and 3. On the
center-line transect (175 m^2^) of Station W2, comparisons were made
with counts made by Russo (1988)\
(180 m^2^). From 1988 to 1990, 7 species were lost and 4 species gained.
The turnover rate was 21%. In 1988, 11 species accounted for 75% of the
total abundance; in 1990, 3 species dominated. If the relatively large
number of the snapper *L. kasmira* (95) were left out of the dominance
calculation for 1990, the number of dominant species would increase to
6.

Based on the presence or absence of species, the similarity index
comparing fish counts from 1988 with those from 1990 was 0.66. There was
no significant difference in the presence or absence of fish species
between the two periods (Q = 0.89, df = 1, n.s.).

In 1990, the butterfly fish *Chaetodon miliaris*, the wrasse
*Thallassoma duperrey*, and the snapper *Lutjanus kasmira* were the most
dominant fish species. In 1988, the surgeonfishes *Ctenochaetus
strigosus* and *Acanthurus thompsoni*, the butterfly fish *C. miliaris*,
and the wrasse *T. duperrey* were most dominant. An aggregation (30) of
the snapper (*L. kasmira*) was seen in 1988 near the ship, but it was
not counted since it was beyond the transect.

At Station WW, a total of 86 fishes (mean = 43/transect) were counted
(both transects combined), represented by 12 species. At Station W2, a
total of 58 fishes (12 species) werecounted on the starboard railing,
while on the center-line transect, the abundance was 200\
(24 species). In January 1988, total fish abundance on the center line
was 106, representing 26 species.

DISCUSSION

Off the Waianae coast, coral cover is dominated by the two species
*Pocillopora meandrina* and *Porites lobata* (Reed et al. 1977). This
dominance of the two species existed before and after the commencement
of discharge of the modified Waianae outfall. The outfall pipe, which
discharged wastes into \< 20 m prior to 1977, was modified and extended
to discharge into the 33-m isobath approximately 1 km offshore. In the
summer of 1975, Reed et al. (1977) reported coral cover range to be 8 to
12% between the 6- and 12-m isobath offshore from the WWWTP (transect C
in their study) and within 50 m of the present Station WW. In this
study, coral cover was found to range from approximately 3 to 22% in the
same area. There were no apparent shifts in either coral species
dominance or range of cover from 1975 to 1990. The clean sand sediments
and good horizontal water visibility may indicate no large influx of
sewage effluent to the inshore survey station (Sta. WW).

In 1975, total fish abundance offshore from the WWWTP (at 6--12 m
depths) varied between 18 and 95 (numbers adjusted to a 175-m^2^ area)
(Reed et al. 1977). In 1990 at the 8-m isobath in the same area (Sta.
WW), total fish abundance varied from 36 to 50 per 175-m^2^ transect
area.

From 1988 to 1990, there were no significant differences in fish species
composition or turnover rate on the ship *Mahi*. The Bray-Curtis
similarity index was relatively high (.66) for the two periods.

The two survey stations will be monitored annually over a five-year
period for changes in the coral cover and fish diversity and abundance.
Changes in the biological indicators near an impact area may be the
result of (1) natural environment fluctuations, or (2) impact from other
than natural causes. A steady pattern of decreased fish abundance and
diversity and coral cover over five years may indicate possible impact
effects. In this case, a closer and more detailed investigation of the
possible effect of sewage effluent on water column, sediment, and
biological indicators should be implemented. Studies of water-column
turbidity, dissolved organic carbon, sediment and water column
biological oxygen demand, total volatile solids, oxidation-reduction
potential of surrounding sediments, and bioaccumulation of selected fish
species must be analyzed to detect possible outfall effects.

Sewage discharge may potentially impact coral-reef communities by
nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, and/or toxicity (Tetra Tech 1983).
Generally, sedimentation seems to be less important to coral-reef stress
than nutrient enrichment or toxicity (Smith et al. 1981; Walker and
Ormond 1982). At the Sand Island outfall, \< 1% of the effluent
particulate matter reaches the local sediments (Dollar 1980).

The sedimentation rate at Sand Island is approximately 0.036 mg/cm/day;
slight to moderate sedimentation rates range from 1 to 20 mg/cm/day
(Dodge et al. 1974; Ott 1975; Loya 1976; Randall and Birkeland 1978;
Lasker 1980). At Waianae, the sedimentation rate (worst-case scenario)
was reported to be 0.003 mg/cm/day (Tetra Tech 1983). Most hard corals
are capable of cleaning moderate amounts of sediment from their surfaces
(Hubbard and Pocock 1972; Lasker 1980). The coral genera *Pocillopora*
and *Porites* are sensitive to low to moderate sedimentation rates (Tab.
5; Tetra Tech 1983). The immediate impact of sedimentation on hard
corals is a decrease in coral cover and diversity.

Toxicity effects on corals may be caused by chemicals found in sewage
effluent. Very few studies of the effects of chemicals on corals have
been done in Hawaii (Davis 1971). Most of the information on effluent
chemical impact on coral reefs has covered short-term effects.
Concentrations of major chemicals (PCB, pesticides, hydrocarbons) are
considered low in Hawaiian outfall effluent (Tetra Tech 1987).

Nutrient enrichment of coral-reef communities can have several effects
(Tetra Tech 1983). At low levels, benthic algae may proliferate without
affecting corals (Kinsey and Domm 1974). At higher levels, filamentous
blue-green algae and the green alga *Dictyospaeria cavernosa* may become
abundant near outfall discharge (Banner 1974; Walker and Ormond 1982).
This algal growth can inhibit coral cover growth and diversity. Also,
other opportunistic species (bryozoans and tunicates) may replace coral
or overgrow coral recruits in highly enriched environments (Birkeland
1977; Kinsey and Davies 1979).

Presently, there are no indications that onshore or down-coast movement
of sewage effluent is taking place near the WWWTP, and circumstantial
evidence implies little or no effect from the outfall on fish and coral
communities. Coral species dominance has not changed since 1975,
sediments are clean, and water clarity is good. Also, fish community
structure is essentially similar to other communities in areas around
the Hawaiian Islands with similar substrata. When compared to the
results of extensive surveys done by Hobson (1984), fish species
richness, species composition, and abundance are very similar to those
of typical Hawaiian subtidal biotopes. Numbers and species of fish seen
in the WWWTP area in 1975 are similar to those recorded in 1990. Fishes
normally intolerant of moderate to heavy sewage pollution (e.g.,
*Forcipiger flavissimus*, *Dascyllus albisella*, and *Chaetodon
multicinctus*) were seen at both stations. This is an initial study, and
only after analysis of a series of annual surveys can direct and
significant evidence confirming or denying outfall effects begin to
become clear.

REFERENCES CITED

Banner, A.H. 1974. Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii: Urban pollution and a coral reef
ecosystem. *Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef Sympos.* 2:685-702.

Birkeland, C. 1977. The importance of rate of biomass accumulation in
early successional stages of benthic communities to the survival of
coral recruits. *Proc. 3rd Int. Coral Reef* *Sympos.* 1:15-21.

Brock, R.E. 1982. A critique of visual census methods for assessing
coral reef populations. *Bull. Mar. Sci.* 32:13-20.

Daniel, W.W. 1987. *Biostatistics: A foundation for analysis in health
science*. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Davis, K.K. 1971. The levels of residual chlorine in Kaneohe Bay,
Hawai'i and the effects of residual chlorine on coral planulae. Master's
thesis (Oceanography), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.

Dodge, R.E.; Aller, R.C.; and Thomson, J. 1974. Coral growth related to
resuspension of bottom sediments. *Nature* 247:574-577.

Dodge, R.E.; Logan, A.; and Antonius, A. 1982. Quantitative reef
assessment studies in Bermuda: a comparison of methods and preliminary
results. *Bull. Mar. Sci.* 32:745-760.

Dollar, S. 1980. Ecological response of benthic communities to
relaxation of sewage stress off Sand Island, Oahu. In *Environmental
Survey Techniques for Coastal Water Assessment Conference Proceedings*,
pp. 113-151. Water Resources Research Center and Sea Grant, University
of Hawaii at Manoa, and Hawaii Water Pollution Control Association,
Honolulu.

Green, R.H. 1979. *Sampling design and statistical methods for
environmental biologists.* New York: Wiley-Interscience.

Hobson, E.S. 1984. The structure of reef fish communities in the
Hawaiian Island Archipelago. In *Proc., N. W. Hawaiian Island Symposium,
MR* 84-01: 57-70, Sea Grant College Program, University of Hawaii at
Manoa, Honolulu.

Hubbard, J., and Pocock, Y. 1972. Sediment rejection by recent
scleractinian corals: A key to paleo-environmental reconstruction.
*Geol. Rundsch.* 61:598-626.

Kinsey, D.W., and Davies, P.J. 1979. Effects of elevated nitrogen and
phosphorus on coral reef growth. *Limnol. and Oceangr.* 24: 935-940.

Kinsey, D.W, and Domm, A. 1974. Effects of fertilization on coral reef
environments---primary production studies. *Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef
Sympos.* 1:49-66.

Lasker, H.R. 1980. Sediment rejection by reef corals. *J. Exp. Mar.
Biol. Ecol.* 47:77-87.

Loya, Y. 1976. Effects of water turbidity and sedimentation on the
community structure of Puerto Rican corals. *J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.*
26:450-466.

Ogden, J.C., and Ebersole, J.P. 1981. Scale and community structure of
coral reef fishes: A long term study of large artificial reefs. *Mar.
Ecol. Prog.* Ser. 4: 97-103.

Ott, B. 1975. Community patterns on a submerged barrier reef at
Barbados, West Indies. *Int. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol.* 60:719-736.

Ott, B., and Sinclair, A.N. 1977. Cluster analysis definition of species
ecological groups for a submerged barrier reef in Barbados, West Indies.
*Int. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol.* 62:41-51.

Randall, R.H., and Birkeland, C. 1978. Guam's reefs and beaches. Part
II. sedimentation studies at Fouha Bay and Ylig Bay. *Tech. Rep.* No.
47, University of Guam Laboratory. 77 pp.

Reed, S.A. 1980. Sampling and transecting techniques on typical reef
substrates. In *Environmental Survey Techniques for Coastal Water
Assessment Conference Proceedings*, pp. 71-89. Water Resources Research
Center and Sea Grant, University of Hawaii at Manoa, and Hawaii Water
Pollution Control Association, Honolulu.

Reed, S.A.; Kay, E.A; and Russo, A. 1977. Survey of benthic coral reef
ecosystems, fish populations, and micromollusks in the vicinity of the
Waianae ocean sewer outfall, Oahu, Hawai'i. *Tech. Rep.* No. 104, Water
Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.

Russo, A.R. 1988. "Fish community structure in the vicinity of the
Waianae ocean outfall, Oahu, Hawaii." Spec. Rep. 1:22:88. Water
Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.

Siegel, S. 1956. *Nonparametric Statistics for Behavorial Science*. New
York: McGraw Hill.

Smith, S.; Kimmerer, W.J; Laws, E.; Brock, R; and Walsh, T. 1981.
Kaneohe Bay sewage diversion experiment: Perspectives on ecosystem
responses to nutritional perturbation. *Pac.* *Sci.* 35:279-395.

Swartz, R.C. 1978. Techniques for sampling and analyzing the marine
benthos. Doc. No. 600/3-789-030, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.

Tetra Tech. 1983. Ecological impacts of sewage discharges on coral reef
communities. EPA 430 9-83-010. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations (Sept.).

. 1987. Technical review of the Waianae Wastewater Treatment Plant:
Updated section 301(h) application for modified secondary treatment
requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. *Quality assurance and
quality control (QA/QC) for 301(h) monitoring programs: Guidance on
field and laboratory methods*. EPA 430/9-86-004, Office of Marine and
Estuarine Protection, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 267 p.

Walker, D.I., and Ormond, R.F. 1982. Coral death from sewage and
phosphate pollution at Aquaba, Red Sea. *Mar. Poll. Bull.* 13:21-25.

<table>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 23%" />
<col style="width: 10%" />
<col style="width: 9%" />
<col style="width: 2%" />
<col style="width: 0%" />
<col style="width: 1%" />
<col style="width: 7%" />
<col style="width: 0%" />
<col style="width: 18%" />
<col style="width: 3%" />
<col style="width: 8%" />
<col style="width: 11%" />
<col style="width: 2%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="13"><blockquote>
<p>TABLE 1. CORAL COVER IN SELECTED QUADRATS NEAR WAIANAE OCEAN OUTFALL,
OCTOBER 1990</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="5"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>STATION WW</td>
<td>%</td>
<td colspan="4">AREA (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="3">STATION WW</td>
<td>%</td>
<td colspan="2">AREA (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><strong>Transect A</strong></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="3"><strong>Transect B</strong></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat A</p>
<p><em>Pocillopora meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>Porites lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>8.6</p>
<p>22.2</p></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>643.8</p>
<p>1 667.5</p></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat 2B</p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td>34.2</td>
<td colspan="2">2 562.5</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>30.8</td>
<td colspan="2">2 311.3</td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat 3B</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p></td>
<td>4.0</td>
<td colspan="2">300.0 *</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat 3A</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>1.0</p>
<p>19.8</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>71.3</p>
<p>1 485.0</p></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat B</p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td>16.7</td>
<td colspan="2">1 225.0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>20.8</td>
<td colspan="2">1 556.3</td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat 5A</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>1.3</p>
<p>1.3</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>97.5</p>
<p>97.5</p></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>2.6</td>
<td colspan="2">195.0</td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>STATION W2</td>
<td>%</td>
<td colspan="3">AREA (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td colspan="3">STATION W2</td>
<td>%</td>
<td colspan="2">AREA (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat I</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>30.3</p>
<p>0.8</p></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>2 275.0</p>
<p>56.3</p></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat IV</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p>
<p>1.6</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>1 256.2</p>
<p>118.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>31.1</td>
<td colspan="2">2 331.3</td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3">Total</td>
<td>18.4</td>
<td colspan="2">1 043.8 <sup>‡</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat II</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>12.8</p>
<p>2.9</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>956.3</p>
<p>218.8</p></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat Stern Grating</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>15.8</p>
<p>4.2</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>1 287.5</p>
<p>306.3</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>15.7</td>
<td colspan="2">1 175.1</td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3">Total</td>
<td>20.0</td>
<td colspan="2">1 493.8</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Quadrat III</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>10.1</p>
<p>3.8</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>756.3</p>
<p>287.5</p></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3"><p>Quadrat Stern Hatch</p>
<p><em>P. meandrina</em></p>
<p><em>P. lobata</em></p></td>
<td><p>11.0</p>
<p>2.1</p></td>
<td colspan="2"><p>825.0</p>
<p>156.3</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Total</td>
<td>13.9</td>
<td colspan="2">1 043.8 <sup>†</sup></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td colspan="3">Total</td>
<td>13.1</td>
<td colspan="2">981.3</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="3"></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

> \*Designated coral head area = 230 cm^2^.
>
> ^†^Designated coral head area = 290 cm^2^.
>
> ^‡^Designated coral head area = 350 cm^2^.

+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| > TABLE 2. FISH ABUNDANCE AT |                 |           |        |
| > STATION WW TRANSECTS, NEAR |                 |           |        |
| > WAIANAE OCEAN OUTFALL,     |                 |           |        |
| > O'AHU, HAWAI'I, OCTOBER    |                 |           |        |
| > 1990                       |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| TAXON                        | TRANSECT A\*    | TRANSECT  |        |
|                              |                 | B\*       |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Acanthuridae** (Surgeon    | 3               | 0         |        |
| fishes)                      |                 |           |        |
|                              | 4               | 1         |        |
| *Acanthurus nigoris*         |                 |           |        |
|                              | 3               | 0         |        |
| *A. triostegus*              |                 |           |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *A. thompsoni*               |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Balistidae** (Trigger      | 1               | 1         |        |
| fishes)                      |                 |           |        |
|                              | 2               | 3         |        |
| *Melichthys vidua*           |                 |           |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Rhinecanthus rectangulus*   |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Chaetodontidae**           | 0               | 2         |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| (Butterfly fishes)           |                 |           |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Chaetodon multicinctus*     |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Labridae** (Wrasses)       | 15              | 9         |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Thallassoma duperrey*       |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Mullidae** (Goat fishes)   | 1               | 4         |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Mulloidicthys auriflamma*   | 11              | 3         |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Parupeneus porphyreus*      |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Monacanthidae** (File      | 5               | 0         |        |
| fishes)                      |                 |           |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Pervagor spilosoma*         |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| **Pomacentridae** (Damsel    | 2               | 10        |        |
| fishes)                      |                 |           |        |
|                              | 3               | 3         |        |
| *Chromis* sp.                |                 |           |        |
|                              |                 |           |        |
| *Dasycllus albisella*        |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| Total                        | 50              | 36        |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
| Total No. Species            | 11              | 9         |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+
|                              |                 |           |        |
+------------------------------+-----------------+-----------+--------+

\*Nos./175 m^2^.

+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| > TABLE 3. FISH   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > ABUNDANCE AT    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > STATION W2      |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > TRANSECTS, NEAR |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > WAIANAE OCEAN   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > OUTFALL, O'AHU, |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > HAWAI'I, 1990   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| > AND 1988        |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| TAXON             |   | DECK STBD    |   | D |             |   | DE |        |
|                   |   |              |   | E |             |   | CK |        |
|                   |   | RAILING\*    |   | C |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | K |             |   | CE |        |
|                   |   | 1990         |   | C |             |   | NT |        |
|                   |   |              |   | E |             |   | ER |        |
|                   |   |              |   | N |             |   | LI |        |
|                   |   |              |   | T |             |   | NE |        |
|                   |   |              |   | E |             |   | \* |        |
|                   |   |              |   | R |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | L |             |   | 1  |        |
|                   |   |              |   | I |             |   | 98 |        |
|                   |   |              |   | N |             |   | 8^ |        |
|                   |   |              |   | E |             |   | †^ |        |
|                   |   |              |   | \ |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | * |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | 1 |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | 9 |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | 9 |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   | 0 |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Acanthuridae**  |   | 0            | 2 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (Surgeon fishes)  |   | 0            | 0 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Acanthurus       |   | 2            | 1 |   |             | 9 |    |        |
| nigoris*          |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 0            | 0 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| *A. olivaceua*    |   |              |   |   |             | 1 |    |        |
|                   |   | 1            | 3 |   |             |   |    |        |
| *A. thompsoni*    |   |              |   |   |             | 3 |    |        |
|                   |   | 0            | 2 |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Ctenochaetus     |   |              |   |   |             | 2 |    |        |
| strigosus*        |   | 1            | 1 |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             | 2 |    |        |
| *Naso             |   | 0            | 0 |   |             |   |    |        |
| hexacanthus*      |   |              |   |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *N. literatus*    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Zanclus          |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| cornutus*         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Zebrasoma        |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| flavescens*       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Aulostomidae**  |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 0 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (Trumpet fishes)  |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Aulostomus       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| chinesis*         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Balistidae**    |   | 0            | 0 |   |             | 3 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (Trigger fishes)  |   | 0            | 2 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Melichthys       |   | 1            | 2 |   |             | 4 |    |        |
| vidua*            |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Rhinecanthus     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| rectangulus*      |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Sufflamen brusa* |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **                |   | 2            | 3 |   |             | 6 |    |        |
| Chaetondontidae** |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 16           | 5 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
| (Butterfly        |   |              | 0 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| fishes)           |   | 0            |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              | 1 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
| *Chaetodon        |   | 1            |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| kleini*           |   |              | 4 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *C. miliaris*     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *C. ornatissimus* |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Forcipeger       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| flavissmus*       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Cirrhitidae**   |   | 1            | 3 |   |             | 0 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (Hawk fishes)     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Paracirrhites    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| forsteri*         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Diodontidae**   |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (Spiny puffer)    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Diodon           |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| holocanthus*      |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Labridae**      |   | 0            | 0 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| (Wrasses)         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| *Coris gaimardi*  |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 1            | 1 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| *Coris* sp.       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 8            | 1 |   |             | 9 |    |        |
| *Labroides        |   |              | 2 |   |             |   |    |        |
| phthirophagus*    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Thallassoma      |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| duperrey*         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Lutjanidae**    |   | 20           | 9 |   |             | 0 |    |        |
| (Snappers)        |   |              | 5 |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Lutjanus         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| kasmira*          |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Monacanthidae** |   | 0            | 3 |   |             | 6 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| (File fishes)     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Pervagor         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| spilosoma*        |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Mullidae**      |   | 0            | 0 |   |             | 5 |    |        |
| (Goat fishes)     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| *Mulloidicthus    |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| auriflamma*       |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Parupeneus       |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| multifasciatus*   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *P. porphyreus*   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Muraenidae**    |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 0 |    |        |
| (Eels)            |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Gymnothorax      |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| meleagris*        |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| **Tetradontidae** |   | 0            | 1 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
| (Puffers)         |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| *Canthigastor     |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
| cinctus*          |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| Total             |   | 58           | 2 |   |             | 1 |    |        |
|                   |   |              | 0 |   |             | 0 |    |        |
|                   |   |              | 0 |   |             | 7 |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
| Total No. Species |   | 12           | 2 |   |             | 2 |    |        |
|                   |   |              | 4 |   |             | 7 |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+
|                   |   |              |   |   |             |   |    |        |
+-------------------+---+--------------+---+---+-------------+---+----+--------+

\*Nos./175 m^2^.

^†^Provided for comparison.