![](media/image1.png)

> **Importation of Red Dragon Fruit (Red Pitaya)\
> (*Hylocereus* spp.\*) from Vietnam**

**A Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment**

**May 2008**

**Rev. 3**

Agency Contact:

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606

**\* Executive Summary**

This document assesses the risks associated with the movement of fresh
red dragon fruit (red pitaya) (*Hylocereus* spp.) into the continental
United States. Because of red dragon fruit's morphological similarities
to and ability to hybridize with other *Hylocereus* species and Cactus
genera (Morton, 1987; Rav*eh et a*l., 1993; Tel-S*ur et a*l., 2001), the
commodity intended for export has unsettled botanical nomenclature
(Jacobs, 1999; Rav*eh et a*l., 1993; Soloman, 2006). There are numerous
synonyms and frequent misidentifications surrounding the commodity (ARS,
2006; Jacobs, 1999; Morton, 1987; USDA, 2003); therefore, for the
purposes of this assessment the commodity referred to as "red pitaya" or
"red dragon fruit" may also include fruit of the following species of
cacti: *Acanthocereus occidentalis*, *A. tetragonus* (=*A. colombianus*,
*A. floridanus*, *A. pentagonus*, *A. pitajaya*, *Cactus pentagonus*,
*C. pitajaya*, *C. tetrgonus*, *Cereus pentagonus, C. pitajaya*),
*Cereus hildmannianus* (=*Cactus peruvianus*, *Cereus uruguayanus*),
*Echinocereus conglomeratus* (=*C. conglomeratus*), *E. stramineus*
(=*C. stramineus*, *E. enneacanthus* var. *stramineus*), *Escontria
chiotilla* (=*C. chiotilla*), *Hylocereus costaricensis* (=*C. trigonus*
var. *costaricensis*), *H. ocamponis* (=*C. ocamponsi*), *H. polyrhizus*
(=*C. polyrhizus*, *H. lemairei*), *H. undatus* (=*Cactus triangularis,
Cereus triangularis, C. tricostatus, C. trigonus* var. *guatemalensis*,
*C. undatus, H. guatemalensis*, *H. tricostatus*), *Myrtillocactus
geometrizans* (=*C. geometrizans*), *Stenocereus griseus* (=*C.
griseus*), *S. gummosus* (=*C. gummosus*), *S. queretaroensis* (*C.
queretaroensis*), *S. stellatus* (=*C. stellatus*), and *S. thurberi*,
(=*C. thurberi*, *Lemairocereus thurberi, Marshallocereus thurberi*, and
*Pachycereus thurberi*) (ARS, 2006; Jacobs, 1999; Morton, 1987; Soloman,
2006; USDA, 2003).

This is a qualitative risk assessment, as estimates of risk are
expressed in qualitative terms (high, medium, low) rather than in
numerical terms such as probabilities or frequencies. The details of the
methodology and rating criteria used to analyze these pests are in
*Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment, Version 5.02*
(USDA, 2000). A list of pests reported in Vietnam and reported as
attacking red dragon fruit was developed based on the scientific
literature, previous Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) commodity
risk assessments, and information provided by the Vietnamese government.
Based on this list, quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway were
further analyzed. A pathway is any means that allows the entry and
spread of a pest. Quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway and
selected for further analysis include the following arthropods:

> *Bactrocera correcta* (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Bactrocera cucurbitae* Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)

> *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
>
> *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes* (Beardsley) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
>
> *Planococcus lilacinus* (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
>
> *Planococcus minor (*Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway pose phytosanitary risks
to U.S. agriculture; therefore, these pests were further analyzed based
on international principles and internal guidelines as described in
*Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02*
(USDA, 2000).

This document examines the biology of each pest to determine the
consequences if the pest is introduced into the United States, as well
as the likelihood that the pest would be introduced via red dragon fruit
from Vietnam. A Pest Risk Potential was then determined for each pest.

The Pest Risk Potential was estimated to be High for *Bactrocera
correcta, Bactrocera cucurbitae* and *B. dorsalis* and Medium for all
the other pests. Specific phytosanitary measures beyond port-of-entry
inspection may be necessary for pests with a Pest Risk Potential of
Medium. On the other hand, specific phytosanitary measures are strongly
recommended for pests rated High, as port-of-entry inspection is not
considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary security. Risk mitigation
options for the quarantine pests of concern are provided in Appendix 2.
The choice of appropriate measures to mitigate risks is part of Risk
Management within APHIS and is not addressed within this document.

**Table of Contents**

[I. Introduction 1](#i.-introduction)

[II. Risk Assessment 1](#ii.-risk-assessment)

[2.1 Initiating Event: Proposed Action
1](#initiating-event-proposed-action)

[2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential of Red dragon fruit
1](#assessment-of-weediness-potential-of-red-dragon-fruit)

[2.3 Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, and Pest Interceptions
2](#previous-risk-assessments-decision-history-and-pest-interceptions)

[2.4 Pest Categorization 3](#pest-categorization)

[2.5 Analysis of Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway
13](#analysis-of-quarantine-pests-likely-to-follow-the-pathway)

[2.6 Conclusion 28](#conclusion)

[III. Authors and Reviewer 29](#iii.-authors-and-reviewer)

[IV. Literature Cited 29](#iv.-literature-cited)

[Appendix 1. Interceptions on Dragon Fruit/Pitaya (*Hylocereus* spp.)
36](#appendix-1.-interceptions-on-dragon-fruitpitaya-hylocereus-spp.)

[Appendix 2. Risk Mitigation Options for the Importation of Red dragon
fruit/Pitaya (*Hylocereus* spp.) from Vietnam.
44](#appendix-2.-risk-mitigation-options-for-the-importation-of-red-dragon-fruitpitaya-hylocereus-spp.-from-vietnam.)

[I. Introduction 44](#i.-introduction-1)

[II. Risk Mitigation Options 45](#ii.-risk-mitigation-options)

[III. Conclusions 49](#iii.-conclusions)

# I. Introduction

This risk assessment was prepared by the Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA). This risk assessment is qualitative, with risk
expressed in terms of high, medium or low rather than probabilities or
frequencies. The details of the methodology and rating criteria can be
found in the *Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments: Guidelines for
Qualitative Assessments, Version 5.02* (USDA, 2000).

Regional and international plant protection organizations such as the
North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and the
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provide standards for
conducting pest risk analyses (IPPC, 2004; NAPPO, 2004). The methods
used to initiate, conduct, and report this assessment, as well as the
use of biological and phytosanitary terms, are based on these standards.
The IPPC standards describe three stages of pest risk analysis: Stage 1,
Initiation; Stage 2, Risk Assessment; and Stage 3, Risk Management. This
document satisfies the requirements of IPPC Stages 1 and 2.

# II. Risk Assessment

## 2.1 Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This commodity‑based, pathway‑initiated assessment was written in
response to a request for USDA authorization to allow imports of a
particular commodity presenting a potential plant pest risk. In this
case, importing red dragon fruit, or red pitaya (*Hylocereus* spp.),
from Vietnam into the United States presents a potential pathway for the
introduction of exotic plant pests. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of the
United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.56) provides
regulatory authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from
foreign sources into the United States.

## 2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential of Red dragon fruit

Assessing the weediness potential of red dragon fruit is important to
the initiation phase of the assessment process because if the commodity
poses a risk as a weed, then a "pest‑initiated" pest risk assessment may
be initiated, while if it passes the weediness screening, the
pathway‑initiated pest risk assessment continues. The cacti that produce
red dragon fruit risk becoming weeds if abandoned[^1]; however, APHIS
believes the risk of weediness associated with the consumption of red
dragon fruit is Low. Therefore, the results of the weediness screening
for red dragon fruit (Table 1) did not prompt a pest‑initiated risk
assessment.

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Table 1.** Assessment of the weediness potential of red dragon      |
| fruit.                                                                |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Commodity:** Fruit from *Hylocereus* spp. (Cactaceae)               |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 1:** The following species of *Hylocereus* produce red dragon |
| fruit: *H. costaricensis* (synonym = *Cereus trigonus* var.           |
| *costaricensis*), *H. ocamponis* (= *C.* *ocamponis*), *H.            |
| polyrhizus* (= *C. polyrhizus* and *H. lemairei*), and *H. undatus*   |
| (Haw) Britton & Rose (= *C. triangularis, C. tricostatus, C.          |
| trigonus* var. *guatemalensis*, *C. undatus*, *H. guatemalensis*,     |
| *Cactus* *triangularis*, and *H. tricostatus*). The members of this   |
| genus are not native to the United States, but *H. undatus* was       |
| introduced as a cultivated ornamental (Soloman, 2006). Native         |
| populations of other genera are distributed within the United States  |
| (*Acanthocereus tetragonus*, *Stenocereus thurberi*); and *Cereus     |
| hildmannianus* (= *Cactus peruvianus, = C. uruguayanus*) is on the    |
| Hawaiian Noxious Weed and Seed list (ARS, 2006).                      |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 2:** Is the species listed in:                                |
|                                                                       |
| [No]{.underline} *Geographical Atlas of World Weeds* (Ho*lm et a*l.,  |
| 1979)                                                                 |
|                                                                       |
| [No]{.underline} *World's Worst Weeds* (Ho*lm et a*l., 1997; Ho*lm et |
| a*l., 1977)                                                           |
|                                                                       |
| [No]{.underline} Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate        |
| Noxious Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982)   |
|                                                                       |
| [No]{.underline} Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)    |
|                                                                       |
| [No]{.underline} Weed Science Society of America list (WSSA, 1989)    |
|                                                                       |
| [Yes]{.underline} Are there any references indicating weediness?      |
| *e.g.,* AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS; search on         |
| "species name" combined with "weed."                                  |
|                                                                       |
| **Phase 3:** Some members of the red dragon fruit genera are listed   |
| and known to be weeds, including *H. undatus*. Populations of this    |
| plant became weedy in Florida until it was eradicated (Burks, 2001).  |
| Discarded fruits are not known to cause problems as weeds, but        |
| abandoned plants can naturalize in suitable environments. There is    |
| evidence that seeds can pass through the human digestive system       |
| intact (Nabhan, 1985), but the viability of the seed is unknown. If   |
| the rejected fruit is properly disposed of and edible fruit is        |
| consumed, then the potential for these cacti to demonstrate weediness |
| will be low.                                                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

## 2.3 Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, and Pest Interceptions

Currently, 7 CFR §319.56 prohibits the entry of fresh red dragon fruit
from Taiwan into the United States. Table 2 summarizes decisions on
previous requests for red dragon fruit importation into the United
States.

  -------------- ------------- ----------------- -------------- ------------------------
  **Table 2.**                                                  
  Decision                                                      
  history for                                                   
  the entry of                                                  
  *Hylocereus*                                                  
  spp, or red                                                   
  dragon fruit                                                  
  (pitaya), into                                                
  the United                                                    
  States.                                                       

  **Year**       **Country**   **Pests of        **Decision**   **Rationale/Condition of
                               Concern**                        Entry**

  1988           Colombia      *Ceratitis        Denied         No approved treatment
                               capitata*                        

  1992           Belize        *Anastrepha*      Denied         No approved treatment
                               spp., *A. ludens,                
                               Ceratitis                        
                               capitata*                        

  1996           Nicaragua     *Ceratitis        Denied         No approved treatment
                               capitata*                        

  1997           Vietnam       *Bactrocera       Denied         No approved treatment
                               dorsalis, B.                     
                               cucurbitae*                      

  2002           Colombia      *Anastrepha       Approved       Pre-shipment vapor heat
                               frateculus,                      treatment, subject to
                               Ceratitis                        inspection
                               capitata*                        
  -------------- ------------- ----------------- -------------- ------------------------

Appendix 1 lists pest interceptions on red dragon fruit from all
countries since 1985 (AQAS query June 27, 2007).

## 2.4 Pest Categorization

Table 3 lists the pests associated with red dragon fruit (in any
country) that also occur in Vietnam. This list identifies: (1) the
presence or absence of these pests in the United States, (2) the
generally affected plant part or parts, (3) the quarantine status of the
pest with respect to the United States, (4) whether the pest is likely
to follow the pathway and enter the United States on commercially
exported red dragon fruit, and (5) pertinent citations for either the
distribution or the biology of the pest. In light of pest biology and
distribution, many organisms are eliminated from further consideration
as sources of phytosanitary risk on red dragon fruit from Vietnam
because they do not satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest.

Red dragon fruit has unsettled botanical nomenclature (Jacobs, 1999;
Rav*eh et a*l., 1993; Soloman, 2006; USDA AQAS, 2007). This is in part
due to its morphological similarities to and ability to hybridize with
other *Hylocereus* spp. and Cactus genera (Morton, 1987; Rav*eh et a*l.,
1993; Tel-S*ur et a*l., 2001). There are numerous synonyms and frequent
misidentifications surrounding the commodity (ARS, 2006; Jacobs, 1999;
Morton, 1987; Tel-S*ur et a*l., 2001; USDA, 2003); therefore, the fruit
of cacti that are referred to as \"red dragon fruit\" or "red pitaya"
that may be assessed in this document include: *Acanthocereus
occidentalis*, *A. tetragonus* (=*A. colombianus*, *A. floridanus*, *A.
pentagonus*, *A. pitajaya*, *Cactus pentagonus*, *C. pitajaya*, *C.
tetrgonus*, *Cereus pentagonus, C. pitajaya*), *Cereus hildmannianus*
(=*Cactus peruvianus*, *Cereus uruguayanus*), *Echinocereus
conglomeratus* (=*C. conglomeratus*), *E. stramineus* (=*C. stramineus*,
*E. enneacanthus* var. *stramineus*), *Escontria chiotilla* (=*C.
chiotilla*), *Hylocereus costaricensis* (=*C. trigonus* var.
*costaricensis*), *H. ocamponis* (=*C. ocamponsi*), *H. polyrhizus*
(=*C. polyrhizus*, *H. lemairei*), *H. undatus* (=*Cactus triangularis,
Cereus triangularis, C. tricostatus, C. trigonus* var. *guatemalensis*,
*C. undatus, H. guatemalensis*, *H. tricostatus*), *Myrtillocactus
geometrizans* (=*C. geometrizans*), *Stenocereus griseus* (=*C.
griseus*), *S. gummosus* (=*C. gummosus*), *S. queretaroensis* (*C.
queretaroensis*), *S. stellatus* (=*C. stellatus*), and *S. thurberi*
(=*C. thurberi*, *Lemairocereus thurberi, Marshallocereus thurberi*,
*Pachycereus thurberi*) (ARS, 2006; Jacobs, 1999; Morton, 1987; Soloman,
2006; USDA, 2003).

+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Table     |          |            |            |         |        |
| 3.** Pests  |          |            |            |         |        |
| associated  |          |            |            |         |        |
| with red    |          |            |            |         |        |
| dragon      |          |            |            |         |        |
| fruit       |          |            |            |         |        |
| (*          |          |            |            |         |        |
| Hylocereus* |          |            |            |         |        |
| spp.) that  |          |            |            |         |        |
| are also    |          |            |            |         |        |
| present in  |          |            |            |         |        |
| Vietnam.    |          |            |            |         |        |
+=============+==========+============+============+=========+========+
| **Pest**    | **Ge     | **Evidence | **Plant    | **Qua   | **     |
|             | ographic | of Host    | Part       | rantine | Likely |
|             | Di       | Ass        | Ass        | Pest**  | to     |
|             | stributi | ociation** | ociation** |         | Follow |
|             | on**[^2] |            |            |         | Pat    |
|             |          |            |            |         | hway** |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| RTHROPODA** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Acari**   |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Tar       |          |            |            |         |        |
| sonemidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**, | Yes     | Yes    |
| Tarsonemus* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | stems      |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **C         |          |            |            |         |        |
| oleoptera** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Sca       |          |            |            |         |        |
| rabaeidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Protaetia* | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | stems      | Yes     | No     |
| sp.         | MARD     | PPD, 2006) |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | (VN MARD   |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | stems,     | Yes     | No     |
| Oxycetonia* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | flowers    |         |        |
| sp.         | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | (VN MARD   |         |        |
|             |          |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Diptera** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Te        |          |            |            |         |        |
| phritidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Bactrocera | VN       | (GPDD,     | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| correcta*   | (CABI,   | 2006;      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| (Bezzi)     | 2006;    | Nguyen Thi | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | Dr*ew et | Thu Cuc,   |            |         |        |
|             | a*l.,    | 2000; VN   |            |         |        |
|             | 2001;    | MARD PPD,  |            |         |        |
|             | GPDD,    | 2006)      |            |         |        |
|             | 2006; VN |            |            |         |        |
|             | MARD     |            |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Bactrocera | VN       | (Iwaixunmi | flowers,   | Yes     | Yes    |
| cucurbitae* | (CABI,   | *et al,*   | **fruit,** |         |        |
| Coquillett  | 2006);   | 1995)      | roots,     |         |        |
|             | Drew *et |            | stems      |         |        |
|             | al.*,    |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
|             | 2001)    |            | 2006)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Bactrocera | VN       | (Nguyen    | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| dorsalis*   | (CABI,   | Thi Thu    | (CABI,     |         |        |
| (Hendel)    | 2006;    | Cuc, 2000; | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | Dr*ew et | VN MARD    |            |         |        |
|             | a*l.,    | PPD, 2006; |            |         |        |
|             | 2001; VN | Iwaixunm*i |            |         |        |
|             | MARD     | et al*,    |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     | 1995)      |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          |          |            |            |         |        |
| Hemiptera** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          |          |            |            |         |        |
| Aphididae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Aphis* sp. | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | Yes     | Yes    |
|             | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | stems      |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Aphis      | VN       | (USDA      | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| gossypii*   | (CABI,   | AQAS,      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| Glover      | 2006;    | 2007)      | stems      |         |        |
|             | USDA     |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | AQAS,    |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | 2007),   |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Pentalonia | VN       | (FAO-UN,   | stems      | No      | No     |
| ni          | (CABI,   | 2004)      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| gronervosa* | 2006;    |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| Coquerel    | FAO-UN,  |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2004)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           |          |            |            |         |        |
| *Coccidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Coccus*    | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| sp.         | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Coccus     | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| hesperidum* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | Ben-Dov  |            |            |         |        |
|             | *et      |            |            |         |        |
|             | al.,*    |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006),   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (Ben-Dov |            |            |         |        |
|             | *et      |            |            |         |        |
|             | al.,*    |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006     |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           |          |            |            |         |        |
| *Coreidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Mictis     | VN       | (Nguyen    | stems      | Yes     | No     |
| l           | (Nguyen  | Thi Thu    |            |         |        |
| ongicornis* | Thi Thu  | Cuc, 2000; | (VN MARD   |         |        |
|             | Cuc,     | VN MARD    | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
| (Westwood)  | 2000; VN | PPD, 2006) |            |         |        |
|             | MARD     |            |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Di        |          |            |            |         |        |
| aspididae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Diaspis    | VN (VN   | (Ben-D*ov  | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| e           | MARD     | et a*l.,   | stems      |         |        |
| chinocacti* | PPD,     | 2006; VN   | (USDA      |         |        |
| (Bouche)    | 2006) US | MARD PPD,  | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | (        | 2006)      | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Lop        | VN? (in  | (Ben-D*ov  | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| holeucaspis | Hong     | et a*l.,   | stems      |         |        |
| cockerelli* | Kong,    | 2006)      | (USDA      |         |        |
| (Grandpre & | India,   |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
| Charmoy)    | In       |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | donesia, |            |            |         |        |
|             | Phil     |            |            |         |        |
|             | ippines) |            |            |         |        |
|             | (        |            |            |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (        |            |            |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Pen       |          |            |            |         |        |
| tatomidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Nezara     | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| viridula*   | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
| (Linnaeus)  | PPD,     |            | stems      |         |        |
|             | 2006) US |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Pseud     |          |            |            |         |        |
| ococcidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Cat        | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| aenococcus* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *D          | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| ysmicoccus* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (USDA      |         |        |
| sp.         | PPD,     |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *D          | VN       | (USDA      | flowers,   | Yes     | Yes    |
| ysmicoccus* |          | AQAS,      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| *n          |          | 2007; VN   | stems      |         |        |
| eobrevipes* |          | MARD PPD,  | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          | 2006)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
| (Beardsley) |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Ferrisia   | VN       | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| virgata*    | (        | PPD, 2006) | **fruit,** |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            | stems      |         |        |
| (Cockerell) | et a*l., |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | 2006; VN |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | MARD     |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (        |            |            |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN       | (Ben-D*ov  | stems      | No      | No     |
| Phenacoccus | (        | et a*l.,   | (USDA      |         |        |
| m           | Ben-D*ov | 2006; VN   | AQAS,      |         |        |
| adeirensis* | et a*l., | MARD PPD,  | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | 2006; VN | 2006)      |            |         |        |
| (Green)     | MARD     |            |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (        |            |            |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *P          | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| lanococcus* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| Planococcus | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| citri*      | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
| (Risso)     |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| Planococcus | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| lilacinus*  | 2007)    | 2007) [^3] | AQAS,      |         |        |
| (Cockerell) |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN       | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| Planococcus | (        | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| minor       | Ben-D*ov | 2007; VN   | AQAS,      |         |        |
| (*Maskell)  | et a*l., | MARD PPD,  | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | 2006;    | 2006)      |            |         |        |
|             | USDA     |            |            |         |        |
|             | AQAS,    |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2007; VN |            |            |         |        |
|             | MARD     |            |            |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Ps         | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| eudococcus* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *P          | VN       | (FAO-UN,   | **fruit**, |         | Yes    |
| seudococcus | (CABI,   | 2004)      | roots,     |         |        |
| brevipes*   | 2006;    |            | stems      |         |        |
| (Cockerell) | FAO-UN,  |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
|             | 2004);   |            | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *P          | VN       | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| seudococcus | (        | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
| jack        | Ben-D*ov |            | stems      |         |        |
| beardsleyi* | et a*l., |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | 2006; VN |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
| (Gimpel &   | MARD     |            | 2007)      |         |        |
| Miller)     | PPD,     |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US (FL,  |            |            |         |        |
|             | TX)      |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *P          | VN? (in  | (Ben-D*ov  | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| seudococcus | In       | et a*l.,   | **fruit**, |         |        |
| viburni*    | donesia, | 2006)      | stems      |         |        |
| (Signoret)  | Phil     |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | ippines, |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | Sri      |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | Lanka)   |            |            |         |        |
|             | (        |            |            |         |        |
|             | Ben-D*ov |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Hy        |          |            |            |         |        |
| menoptera** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **F         |          |            |            |         |        |
| ormicidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Car        | VN (USDA | (USDA      | flowers,   | Yes     | No[^4] |
| diocondyla* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | stems      |         |        |
|             |          |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Ca         | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | No      | No^3^  |
| rdiocondyla | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
| wroughtoni* | PPD,     |            | stems      |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | (USDA      |         |        |
| (Forel)     |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN       | (FAO-UN,   | **fruit**, | No      | No^3^  |
| Iridomyrmex | (FAO-UN, | 2004)      | stems      |         |        |
| humilis*    | 2004);   |            | (USDA      |         |        |
| (Synonym:   | US       |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
| *           | (CABI,   |            | 2007)[^5]  |         |        |
| Linepithema | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| humile*)    |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (USDA | (USDA      | flowers,   | No      | No^3^  |
| Monomorium* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| sp.         | 2007)    | 2007)      | roots,     |         |        |
|             |          |            | stems      |         |        |
|             |          |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Monomorium | VN (USDA | (USDA      | flowers,   | No      | No^3^  |
| pharaonis*  | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| (L.)        | 2007)    | 2007)      | roots,     |         |        |
|             |          |            | stems      |         |        |
|             |          |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *P          | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | No      | No^3^  |
| aratrechina | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| l           | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
| ongicornis* |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| (Latreille) |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Pheidole   | VN       | (FAO-UN,   | flowers,   | Yes     | No^3^  |
| m           | (CABI,   | 2004)      | **fruit**, |         |        |
| egacephala* | 2006;    |            | stems      |         |        |
| (F.)        | FAO-UN,  |            | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | 2004);   |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             | US       |            | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Solenopsis | VN       | (FAO-UN,   | flowers,   | No      | No^3^  |
| geminata*   | (FAO-UN, | 2004; VN   | **fruit**, |         |        |
|             | 2004; VN | MARD PPD,  | stems      |         |        |
| (Fabricius) | MARD     | 2006)      | (CABI,     |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **Le        |          |            |            |         |        |
| pidoptera** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **To        |          |            |            |         |        |
| rtricidae** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Platynota* | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| sp.         | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
|             | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **FUNGI &   |          |            |            |         |        |
| CH          |          |            |            |         |        |
| ROMISTANS** |          |            |            |         |        |
| [^6]        |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| *Alternaria | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | stems      |         |        |
| a           | PPD,     |            | (Farr *et  |         |        |
| lternata*** | 2006);   |            | al*.,      |         |        |
| (Fr.:Fr.)   | US       |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| Keissl.     | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Ple         |          |            |            |         |        |
| osporales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***         | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| Alternaria* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| sp.**       | PPD,     |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Ple         |          |            |            |         |        |
| osporales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***         | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| Aspergillus | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | stems,     |         |        |
| niger***    | PPD,     |            | roots,     |         |        |
| Tiegh.      | 2006);   |            | flowers,   |         |        |
|             | US (Farr |            | seed       |         |        |
| \[A         | *et      |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| scomycetes: | al*.,    |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| E           | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| urotiales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          | VN (VN   | (          | flowers,   | No      | Yes    |
| *Capnodium* | MARD     | USDA-AQAS, | stems (VN  | (sooty  |        |
| sp.**       | PPD,     | 2007; VN   | MARD PPD,  | mold)   |        |
|             | 2006)    | MARD PPD,  | 2006);     |         |        |
| \[A         |          | 2006)      | **fruit**  |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            | (USDA      |         |        |
| Ca          |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
| pnodiales\] |          |            | 2007; VN   |         |        |
|             |          |            | MARD PPD,  |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2006)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***C        | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| ladosporium | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (Fa*rr et  |         |        |
| herbarum*** | PPD,     |            | a*l.,      |         |        |
| (Pe         | 2006);   |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| rs.:Fr.)Fr. | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (Fa*rr   |            |            |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
| *C          | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| ladosporium |          |            |            |         |        |
| epiphyllum* |          |            |            |         |        |
| (Pers       |          |            |            |         |        |
| .:Fr.)Fr.\] |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Mycospha    |          |            |            |         |        |
| erellales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Col      | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| letotrichum | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| capsici***  | PPD,     |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
| (Syd.)      | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
| Butler &    | US       |            |            |         |        |
| Bisby       | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Phyll       |          |            |            |         |        |
| achorales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Col      | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| letotrichum | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| coccodes*** | PPD,     |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
| (Wallr.)    | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
| Hughes      | US       |            |            |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         | 2006;    |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: | Farr *et |            |            |         |        |
| Phyll       | al*.,    |            |            |         |        |
| achorales\] | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Col        | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| letotrichum | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| musae*      | PPD,     |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
| (Burk. &    | 2006);   |            |            |         |        |
| Curtis)     | US       |            |            |         |        |
| Arx.        | (Fa*rr   |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| ***Fusarium |          |            |            |         |        |
| se          |          |            |            |         |        |
| mitectum*** |          |            |            |         |        |
| Berk. &     |          |            |            |         |        |
| Ravelnel\]  |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Hy          |          |            |            |         |        |
| pocreales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Coll     | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| etotrichum* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| sp.**       | PPD,     |            | PPD, 2006) |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Phyll       |          |            |            |         |        |
| achorales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***         | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | Yes     | Yes    |
| Curvularia* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
| sp.**       | PPD,     |            | seeds,     |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            | stems      |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            | 2006)[^7]  |         |        |
| Ple         |          |            |            |         |        |
| osporales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | **fruit,** | Yes     | Yes    |
| **Diplodia* | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | seeds,     |         |        |
| sp.**       | PPD,     |            | stems      |         |        |
|             | 2006;    |            | (Farr *et  |         |        |
| \[A         | USDA     |            | al*.,      |         |        |
| scomycetes: | AQAS,    |            | 2006)[^8]  |         |        |
| Do          | 2007)    |            |            |         |        |
| thideales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Fusarium | VN (VN   | (Alfieri   | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| o           | MARD     | *et al*.,  | (VN MARD   |         |        |
| xysporum*** | PPD,     | 1993; VN   | PPD,       |         |        |
| Schltdl.    | 2006);   | MARD PPD,  | 2006),     |         |        |
| \[A         | US       | 2006)      | stems      |         |        |
| scomycetes: | (        |            | (Alfie*ri  |         |        |
| Hy          | Alfie*ri |            | et a*l.,   |         |        |
| pocreales\] | et a*l., |            | 1993)      |         |        |
|             | 1993;    |            |            |         |        |
|             | CABI,    |            |            |         |        |
|             | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Gloe     | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | flowers,   | Yes     | Yes    |
| osporium*** | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | **fruit**, |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| **sp.**     | 2006)    |            | 2006;      |         |        |
|             |          |            | Fa*rr et   |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  |          |            | a*l.,      |         |        |
| *           |          |            | 2006),     |         |        |
| Marssonina* |          |            | seeds,     |         |        |
| sp.\]       |          |            | stems      |         |        |
|             |          |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            | 2006)[^9]  |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| H           |          |            |            |         |        |
| elotiales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Gibberella | VN (VN   | (VN MARD   | stems      | No      | No     |
| baccata*    | MARD     | PPD, 2006) | (Fa*rr et  |         |        |
| (Wallr.)    | PPD,     |            | a*l.,      |         |        |
| Sacc.       | 2006);   |            | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
| \[Anamorph: | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
| ***Fusarium | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| la          |          |            |            |         |        |
| teritium*** |          |            |            |         |        |
| Nees:Fr.\]  |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Hy          |          |            |            |         |        |
| pocreales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Gibberella | VN       | (Miller,   | flowers**, | No      | Yes    |
| mo          | (CABI,   | 1993)      | fruits**,  |         |        |
| niliformis* | 2006; VN |            | roots,     |         |        |
| Wineland    | MARD     |            | seeds      |         |        |
|             | PPD,     |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  | 2006;    |            | 2006);     |         |        |
| *Gibberella | Su       |            | stems      |         |        |
| fujikuroi*  | mmere*ll |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| (Sawada)    | et a*l., |            | 2006;      |         |        |
| Ito;        | 1998);   |            | El-Gho*ll  |         |        |
|             | US       |            | et a*l.,   |         |        |
| Anamorph:   | (CABI,   |            | 1997)      |         |        |
| *Fusarium   | 2006;    |            |            |         |        |
| verti       | E        |            |            |         |        |
| cillioides* | l-Gho*ll |            |            |         |        |
| (Sacc.      | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
| )Nirenberg, | 1997)    |            |            |         |        |
| Synonym:    |          |            |            |         |        |
| ***Fusarium |          |            |            |         |        |
| mon         |          |            |            |         |        |
| iliforme*** |          |            |            |         |        |
| Sheld.\]    |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Hy          |          |            |            |         |        |
| pocreales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
| (Seifert    |          |            |            |         |        |
| *et al*.,   |          |            |            |         |        |
| 2003)       |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Glomerella | VN (USDA | (Fa*rr et  | **fruit**  | No      | Yes    |
| cingulata*  | AQAS,    | a*l.,      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| (Sto        | 2007);   | 2006;      | 2006; USDA |         |        |
| nem.)Spaud. | US       | Martín*ez  | AQAS,      |         |        |
| & Schrenk.) | (CABI,   | et a*l.,   | 2007)      |         |        |
|             | 2006)    | 1996)      | flowers,   |         |        |
| \[Anamorph: |          |            | stems,     |         |        |
| ***Col      |          |            | seeds      |         |        |
| letotrichum |          |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| gloeosp     |          |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| orioides*** |          |            |            |         |        |
| (Penz.)     |          |            |            |         |        |
| Penz. &     |          |            |            |         |        |
| Sacc.\]     |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| *Incertae   |          |            |            |         |        |
| sedis*\]    |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *La         | VN       | (Buriticá, | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| siodiplodia | (SOFRI,  | 1999)      | roots,     |         |        |
| theobromae* | 2005);   |            | seeds,     |         |        |
| (Pat)       | US       |            | stems      |         |        |
| Griffon &   | (CABI,   |            | (Fa*rr et  |         |        |
| Maubl.      | 2006;    |            | a*l.,      |         |        |
|             | Fa*rr et |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  | a*l.,    |            |            |         |        |
| ***Bo       | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| trodiplodia |          |            |            |         |        |
| th          |          |            |            |         |        |
| eobromae*** |          |            |            |         |        |
| Pat.\]      |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Do          |          |            |            |         |        |
| thideales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***Phoma*   | VN (USDA | (VN MARD   | **fruit**, | Yes     | Yes    |
| sp.**       | AQAS,    | PPD, 2006) | seeds,     |         |        |
|             | 2007)    |            | stems      |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            | 2006; USDA |         |        |
| Dia         |          |            | AQAS,      |         |        |
| porthales\] |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          | VN (USDA | (USDA      | **fruit**  | Yes     | Yes    |
| *Phomopsis* | AQAS,    | AQAS,      | (USDA      |         |        |
| sp.**       | 2007)    | 2007)      | AQAS,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2007)      |         |        |
| \[A         |          |            |            |         |        |
| scomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Dia         |          |            |            |         |        |
| porthales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| ***P        | VN\--l   | (CABI,     | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| hytophthora | ocalized | 2006)      | roots,     |         |        |
| cactorum*** | (CABI,   |            | stems,     |         |        |
| (Leb. &     | 2006);   |            | seeds      |         |        |
| Cohn)       | US       |            | (CABI,     |         |        |
|             | (CABI,   |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| \           | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
| [Chromista: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Oomycetes:  |          |            |            |         |        |
| Pythiales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Th         | VN, US   | (Fa*rr et  | **fruit**, | No      | Yes    |
| anatephorus | (CABI,   | a*l.,      | leaves,    |         |        |
| cucumerus*  | 2006)    | 2006)      | roots      |         |        |
| (Frank)     |          |            | (Fa*rr et  |         |        |
| Donk.       |          |            | a*l.,      |         |        |
|             |          |            | 2006),     |         |        |
| \[Anamorph: |          |            | stems      |         |        |
| ***         |          |            | (Ridings,  |         |        |
| Rhizoctonia |          |            | 1978)      |         |        |
| solani***   |          |            |            |         |        |
| Kühn\]      |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[Basi      |          |            |            |         |        |
| diomycetes: |          |            |            |         |        |
| Ceratob     |          |            |            |         |        |
| asidiales\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **VIRUSES** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| Cactus      | VN       | (Boy*le et | **Whole    | No      | Ye     |
| virus X     | (Bru*nt  | a*l.,      | plant**    |         | s[^10] |
|             | et a*l., | 1997;      | except     |         |        |
| \[P         | 1996;    | F          | seeds      |         |        |
| otexvirus\] | CABI,    | udi-All*ah | (Bru*nt et |         |        |
|             | 2006);   | et a*l.,   | a*l.,      |         |        |
|             | US       | 1983)      | 1996)      |         |        |
|             | (Bru*nt  |            |            |         |        |
|             | et a*l., |            |            |         |        |
|             | 1996;    |            |            |         |        |
|             | Fu       |            |            |         |        |
|             | di-Allah |            |            |         |        |
|             | *et      |            |            |         |        |
|             | al.*,    |            |            |         |        |
|             | 1983)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| **          |          |            |            |         |        |
| NEMATODES** |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Cactodera  | VN, US   | (C*ho et   | roots      | No      | No     |
| cacti*      | (CABI,   | a*l.,      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| Filipjev &  | 2006)    | 1995)      | 2006)      |         |        |
| Stekhoven   |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[Hete      |          |            |            |         |        |
| roderidae\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Heli       | VN (Chau | (Buriticá, | roots      | No      | No     |
| cotylenchus | *et      | 1999;      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| dihystera*  | al.*,    | Casta*ña   | 2006)      |         |        |
| (Cobb) Sher | 1997);   | et a*l.,   |            |         |        |
|             | US       | 1991)      |            |         |        |
| \[Hopl      | (CABI,   |            |            |         |        |
| olaimidae\] | 2006)    |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *           | VN, US   | (Buriticá, | roots      | No      | No     |
| Meloidogyne | (CABI,   | 1999;      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| incognita*  | 2006)    | Casta*ña   | 2006)      |         |        |
| (Kofoid &   |          | et a*l.,   |            |         |        |
| White)      |          | 1991)      |            |         |        |
| Chitwood    |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[Hete      |          |            |            |         |        |
| roderidae\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Ro         | VN       | (Inserra,  | roots      | No      | No     |
| tylenchulus | (CABI,   | 1999)      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| reniformis* | 2006);   |            | 2006)      |         |        |
|             | US       |            |            |         |        |
| Linford &   | (        |            |            |         |        |
| Oliveira    | Inserra, |            |            |         |        |
|             | 1999)    |            |            |         |        |
| \[Hopl      |          |            |            |         |        |
| olaimidae\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+
| *Tylen      | VN, US   | (Buriticá, | roots      | No      | No     |
| chorhynchus | (CABI,   | 1999)      | (CABI,     |         |        |
| martini*    | 2006)    |            | 2006)      |         |        |
| Fielding    |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[Synonym:  |          |            |            |         |        |
| *T.         |          |            |            |         |        |
| annulatus*  |          |            |            |         |        |
| (Cassidy)   |          |            |            |         |        |
| Golden\]    |          |            |            |         |        |
|             |          |            |            |         |        |
| \[Belon     |          |            |            |         |        |
| olaimidae\] |          |            |            |         |        |
+-------------+----------+------------+------------+---------+--------+

Quarantine pests that are reasonably likely to follow the pathway on
commercial shipments of red dragon fruit from Vietnam were further
analyzed in this risk assessment and are summarized in Table 4.
Quarantine pests not included in this summary have the potential to be
detrimental to U.S. agriculture or ecosystems; however, they have not
been subjected to further analysis because they are mainly associated
with plant parts other than the commodity or they are unlikely to be
associated with the fruit during transport or processing because of
their inherent mobility.

Biological hazards associated with organisms not identified to the
species level were not assessed because often there are many species
within a genus, and it is not reasonable to assume that the biology of
all organisms within a genus is identical. In this risk assessment, the
above statement applies to *Tarsonemus* sp. (Acari: Tarsonemidae);
*Protaetia* sp. and *Oxcetonia* sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae); *Aphis*
sp. (Hemiptera: Aphididae); *Coccus* sp. (Hemiptera: Coccidae);
*Cataenococcus* sp., *Dysmicoccus* sp., *Planococcus* sp., and
*Pseudococcus* sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae); *Cardiocondyla* sp. and
*Monomorium* sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), *Platynota* sp.
(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), *Alternaria* sp. and *Curvularia* sp.
(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales); *Capnodium* sp. (Ascomycetes: Capnodiales);
*Colleotrichum* sp. (Ascomycetes: Phyllachorales); *Diplodia* sp.,
*Phoma* sp., and *Phomopsis* sp. (Ascomycetes: Dothideales); and
*Gloeosporium* sp. (Ascomycetes: Helotiales).

Lack of specific identification may indicate the limits of current
taxonomic knowledge, the life stage, or the quality of the specimen
submitted for identification. By necessity, pest risk assessments focus
on organisms for which biological information is available.

Lack of specific identification does not rule out the possibility that a
high-risk quarantine pest was intercepted. Conversely, the development
of detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a variety of
ecological niches, such as internal fruit feeders or foliage pests,
allows effective mitigation measures to eliminate the known organisms as
well as similar but incompletely identified organisms that inhabit the
same niche. If pests identified to higher taxa are intercepted in the
future, then a reevaluation of their risk may occur.

**Table 4. Quarantine pests likely to be associated with red dragon
fruit imported from Vietnam and selected for further analysis.**

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Bactrocera correcta* (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)                  |
|                                                                       |
| *Bactrocera cucurbitae* Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae)             |
|                                                                       |
| *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)                 |
|                                                                       |
| *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes* (Beardsley) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)   |
|                                                                       |
| *Planococcus lilacinus* (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)       |
|                                                                       |
| *Planococcus minor* (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)             |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

## 2.5 Analysis of Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

The undesirable consequences that may occur from the introduction of
quarantine pests are assessed within this section. For each quarantine
pest, the potential consequences of introduction are rated in five areas
called "Risk Elements." The Risk Elements include Climate/Host
Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact, and
Environmental Impact. These Risk Elements reflect the biology, host
range, and climatic/geographic distribution of each pest and are
supported by biological information. For each Risk Element, pests are
assigned a rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High (3
points). A cumulative risk value is then calculated by summing the
ratings. The following scale is used to interpret this total: Low is 5-8
points, Medium is 9-12 points, and High is 13-15 points. The ratings are
summarized in Table 5. The ratings were determined using the criteria in
*Risk Assessment Guidelines, Version 5.02* (USDA, 2000).

The major sources of uncertainty in this risk assessment include a
developing or evolving process (O*rr et a*l., 1993; USDA, 2000), the
approach used to combine risk elements (Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion,
1990), and the evaluation of risk by comparisons to lists of factors
within the guidelines (Kaplan, 1992; O*rr et a*l., 1993). To address
this last source of uncertainty, the lists of factors were interpreted
as illustrative and not exhaustive. This implies that additional
biological information, even if not explicitly part of the criteria, can
be used when it is relevant to a rating. Other sources of uncertainty
are the quality of the biological information and the amount of
information available on the regional flora and fauna. Inherent
biological variation within a population of organisms introduces
uncertainty as well (Morgan and Henrion, 1990).

#### 2.5.1 Consequences of Introduction---Economic/Environmental Importance

Potential consequences of introduction are rated using five Risk
Elements: 1) Climate/Host Interaction, 2) Host Range, 3) Dispersal
Potential, 4) Economic Impact, and 5) Environmental Impact. These
elements reflect the biology, host ranges, and climatic/geographic
distributions of the pests. For each Risk Element, pests are assigned a
rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points) or High (3 points) (USDA,
2000). The following is a description of how each of these ratings is
determined for each risk element (USDA, 2000):

> **Climate/Host Interaction**
>
> Estimates are based on availability of both host material and suitable
> climate conditions.
>
> The U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones (USDA, 1990) are used to rate this Risk
> Element, (Figure 1). Based on the availability of both suitable host
> plants and suitable climate, the pest is evaluated on its potential to
> establish a breeding colony:
>
> Low (1): In a single plant hardiness zone.
>
> Medium (2): In two or three plant hardiness zones.
>
> High (3): In four or more plant hardiness zones.
>
> **Figure 1.** Climatic zone map (USDA, 1990).
>
> ![](media/image2.png){width="5.561805555555556in"
> height="4.429861111111111in"}
>
> **Host Range**
>
> Pests with a greater host range pose a greater risk; thus, each pest
> is evaluated on its host range.
>
> Low (1): Pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
> single genus.
>
> Medium (2): Pest attacks multiple species within a single plant
> family.
>
> High (3): Pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families.
>
> **Dispersal Potential**
>
> A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
> items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e.g.*,
> voltinism, biotic potential), inherent powers of movement, and factors
> facilitating dispersal (wind, water, presence of vectors, human,
> *etc*.).
>
> Low (1): Pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
> dispersal capability.
>
> Medium (2): Pest has either high reproductive potential *OR* the
> species is capable of rapid dispersal.
>
> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential, *e.g.*, many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction ("r-selected" species), *AND*
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g.*,
> over 10 km/year under its own power; via natural forces, wind, water,
> vectors, *etc*., or human-assistance.
>
> **Economic Impact**
>
> Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and
> indirect economic impacts.
>
> These impacts are divided into three primary categories: 1) lower
> yield of the host crop, *e.g.*, by causing plant mortality, or by
> acting as a disease vector; 2) lower value of the commodity, *e.g*.,
> by increasing costs of production, lowering market price, or a
> combination; 3) loss of foreign or domestic markets due to presence of
> new quarantine pest.
>
> Low (1): Pest causes any one or none of the above impacts.
>
> Medium (2): Pest causes any two of the above impacts.
>
> High (3): Pest causes all three of the above impacts.
>
> **Environmental Impact**
>
> The assessment of the potential of each pest to cause environmental
> damage is evaluated in terms of following factors: 1) introduction of
> the pest is expected to cause significant, direct environmental
> impacts[^11] (*e.g.*, ecological disruptions, reduced biodiversity);
> 2) the pest is expected to have direct impacts on species listed by
> Federal Agencies as endangered or threatened (50CFR §17.11 and §17.12)
> by infesting/infecting a listed plant[^12]; 3) the pest is expected to
> have indirect impacts on species listed by Federal Agencies as
> endangered or threatened by disrupting sensitive, critical habitats;
> and 4) introduction of the pest would stimulate chemical or biological
> control programs.
>
> Low (1): None of the above would occur; it is assumed that
> introduction of a nonindigenous pest will have some environmental
> impact (by definition, introduction of a nonindigenous species affects
> biodiversity).
>
> Medium (2): One of the above would occur.
>
> High (3): Two or more of the above would occur.

A Cumulative Risk Rating is then calculated by summing all risk element
values. The values determined for the Consequences of Introduction for
each pest are summarized in Table 5.

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### *Bactrocera correcta* (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Rat   |
|                                                              | ing** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Bactrocera correcta* is found in India, Nepal, Pakistan,    |       |
| Sri Lanka, and Thailand (White and Elson-Harris, 1992).      | \(2\) |
| Based on this distribution, we estimate that *B. correcta*   |       |
| could only become established in the areas of the United     |       |
| States corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 8-10 (USDA,    |       |
| 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these    |       |
| zones (USDA NRCS, 2007).                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Bactrocera correcta* has been recorded to attack multiple   | \(3\) |
| species in multiple families including: **Anacardiacea**     |       |
| (*Anacardium occidentale, Bouea* spp., *Mangifera indica,    |       |
| Spondias* spp.), **Annonaceae** (*Polyalthia longifolia*),   |       |
| **Apocynaceae** (*Carissa carandas*), **Cactaceae**          |       |
| (*Opuntia vulgaris*), **Capparaceae** (*Capparis* spp.,      |       |
| *Maerua siamensis*), **Caricaceae** (*Carica papaya*),       |       |
| **Combretaceae** (*Terminalia catappa*), **Cucurbitaceae**   |       |
| (*Coccinia grandis, Cucumis melo*), **Dipterocarpaceae**     |       |
| (*Dipterocarpus obtusifolius*), **Elaecarpaceae**            |       |
| (*Elaeocarpus madopetalus, Muntingia calabura*),             |       |
| **Euphorbiaceae** (*Baccaurea racemosa*), **Flacourtiaceae** |       |
| (*Flacourtia* spp.), **Lecythidaceae** (*Careya* spp.),      |       |
| **Malpighiaceae** (*Malpighia emarginata*), **Melliaceae**   |       |
| (*Sandoricum koetjape, Walsura intermedia*), **Moraceae**    |       |
| (*Artocarpus integer*), **Musaceae** (*Musa x                |       |
| paradisiacal*), **Myrtaceae** (*Eugenia* spp., *Psidium      |       |
| guajava, Syzygium* spp.), **Olacaceae** (*Olax scandens,     |       |
| Schoepfia fragrans*), **Rhamnaceae** (*Ziziphus* spp.),      |       |
| **Rosaceae** (*Prunus* spp.), **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp.),  |       |
| **Sapindaceae** (*Dimocarpus longan, Lepisanthes             |       |
| fruticosa*), **Sapotaceae** (*Manilkara zapota, Mimusops     |       |
| elengi*), and **Simaroubaceae** (*Irvingia malayana*)        |       |
| (Allwo*od et a*l., 1999).                                    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Very little specific biological information is available on  | \(3\) |
| *B. correcta,* but Tephritid fruit flies generally have a    |       |
| relatively high biotic potential. For example, depending on  |       |
| climate, *B. dorsalis* may have more than five overlapping   |       |
| generations per year (S*hi et a*l., 2005). In laboratory     |       |
| studies, the potential fecundity of female *B. tryoni* and   |       |
| *B. dorsalis* fruit flies was estimated to be over 1000 eggs |       |
| (Fletcher, 1989a).                                           |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Like other *Bactrocera* species*, B. correcta* disperses     |       |
| readily by flight (He*ly et a*l., 1982); many *Bactrocera*   |       |
| spp. can fly 50-100 km (Fletcher, 1989b). Additionally,      |       |
| *Bactrocera* fruit flies can be dispersed by infested plant  |       |
| materials, such as fruits and flowers (CABI, 2006; Fletcher, |       |
| 1989b). For example, since 1985, species of *Bactrocera*     |       |
| have been intercepted in a variety of commodities over       |       |
| 12,000 times at U.S. ports-of-entry (USDA AQAS, 2007).       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Bactrocera correcta* has been reported on various           | \(3\) |
| commodities including peach, mango, and guava and has the    |       |
| potential to be a major pest on these crops (White and       |       |
| Elson-Harris, 1992). For example, it has been reported to    |       |
| cause up to 80 percent of the damage on guava in India       |       |
| (CABI, 2006).                                                |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The introduction of *B. correcta* into the continental       |       |
| United States would likely stimulate eradication or control  |       |
| programs similar to those that have been implemented for     |       |
| other Tephritid fruit flies (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978).     |       |
| Additionally, the pest's presence in the United States, even |       |
| as a temporary adventive population, could lead to severe    |       |
| export restrictions of host commodities to markets outside   |       |
| of its known distribution (Dr*ew et a*l., 1982).             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Bactrocera correcta* may have direct impacts on Federally   | \(3\) |
| listed endangered species such as *Prunus geniculata* (in    |       |
| Florida), which is closely related to other hosts known to   |       |
| be attacked by *B. correcta* (USFWS, 2007).                  |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Because it represents a potential threat to the *Citrus,*    |       |
| stone fruit, and other crop industries, the establishment of |       |
| *B. correcta* in the United States could trigger the         |       |
| initiation of eradication or chemical/biological control     |       |
| programs, similar to those that have occurred with           |       |
| introduction of other Tephritid fruit flies in Hawaii and    |       |
| California (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978).                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| #                                                            |       |
| ## *Bactrocera cucurbitae* Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae) |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Rat   |
|                                                              | ing** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Bactrocera cucuribitae* is native to Asia and distributed   |       |
| throughout much of subtropical and tropical Asia. It is also | \(2\) |
| reported as present in eastern and western Africa, and the   |       |
| Pacific Islands (CABI, 2006). Its distribution corresponds   |       |
| to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-10 (USDA, 1990). One or more |       |
| of its potential hosts occurs in these Zones (USDA NRCS,     |       |
| 2007).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. cucurbitae* has been recorded to attack multiple species | \(3\) |
| in multiple families including: **Cucurbitaceae** (*Cucumis* |       |
| spp., *Cucurbita* spp., *Trichosanthes* spp.*, Benincasa     |       |
| hispida*, *Citrullus* spp., *Lagenaria siceraria*, *Luffa*   |       |
| spp., *Momordica* spp., *Sechium edule*); **Moraceae**       |       |
| (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*, *Ficus carica*); **Malvaceae**  |       |
| (*Abelmoschus moschatus*); **Caricaceae** (*Carica papaya*); |       |
| **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp.); **Rosaceae** (*Cydonia         |       |
| oblonga*, *Prunus persica*); **Solanaceae** (*Cyphomandra    |       |
| betacea*, *Lycopersicon esculentum*); **Anacardiaceae**      |       |
| (*Mangifera indica*); **Sapotaceae** (*Manilkara zapota*);   |       |
| **Passifloraceae** (*Passiflora* spp.); **Lauraceae**        |       |
| (*Persea americana*); **Fabaceae** (*Phaseolus vulgaris*,    |       |
| *Sesbania grandiflora*, *Vigna unguiculata*); **Myrtaceae**  |       |
| (*Psidium guajava*, *Syzygium samarangense*), and            |       |
| **Rhamnaceae** (*Ziziphus jujube*) (CABI, 2006).             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| In general, Tephritid fruit flies have a relatively high     | \(3\) |
| biotic potential. Females may produce 800-1000 eggs over     |       |
| their life span (CABI, 2006; Capinera, 2001; Weems, 1964).   |       |
| Reproduction is continuous as adults occur throughout the    |       |
| year.                                                        |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Like other *Bactrocera, B. cucurbitae* disperses readily by  |       |
| flight (He*ly et a*l., 1982); many *Bactrocera* species can  |       |
| fly 50-100 km (Fletcher, 1989b). Additionally, *Bactrocera*  |       |
| fruit flies can be dispersed by infested plant materials,    |       |
| such as fruits and flowers (CABI, 2006; Fletcher, 1989b).    |       |
| For example, since 1985, species of *Bactrocera* have been   |       |
| intercepted at U.S. ports of entry in a variety of           |       |
| commodities over 12,000 times (USDA AQAS, 2007).             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. cucurbitae* is perhaps the most important fruit fly pest | \(3\) |
| of vegetable crops through out the world (Dr*ew et a*l.,     |       |
| 1982). It attacks several important crops including          |       |
| cucumber, pumpkin, watermelon, squash, tomato, green been,   |       |
| peach, apricot, bell pepper, pear, and *Citrus* to name a    |       |
| few (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Damage levels can be     |       |
| anywhere up to 100 percent of unprotected crops (CABI,       |       |
| 2006).                                                       |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The introduction of *B. cucurbitae* in the continental       |       |
| United States would likely stimulate eradication or control  |       |
| programs, similar to those that have been implemented in the |       |
| past (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978). Additionally, its presence |       |
| in the United States, even as a temporary adventive          |       |
| population, could lead to severe export restrictions of host |       |
| commodities to markets outside of this pest's known          |       |
| distribution (Dr*ew et a*l., 1982).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. cucurbitae* may have direct impacts on Federally listed  | \(3\) |
| endangered species such as *Cucurbita okeechobeensis*        |       |
| (Endangered species in FL), *Prunus geniculata* (Endangered  |       |
| species in FL), *and Ziziphus celaata* (Endangered species   |       |
| in FL) which are closely related to other hosts known to be  |       |
| attacked by *B. cucurbitae* (USFWS, 2007).                   |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Because it represents a potential threat to the *Citrus,*    |       |
| stone fruit, and other crop industries, the establishment of |       |
| *B. cucurbitae* in the United States could trigger the       |       |
| initiation of eradication or chemical/biological control     |       |
| programs, similar to those that have occurred in Hawaii and  |       |
| California (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978).                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)    |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Rat   |
|                                                              | ing** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Bactrocera dorsalis* is found in Bhutan, southern China,    |       |
| northern India, Myanmar, northern Thailand, Guam, and the    | \(2\) |
| Hawaiian Islands (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Based on    |       |
| this distribution we estimate that *B. dorsalis* could       |       |
| become established in the areas of the United States         |       |
| corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-10 (USDA, 1990).    |       |
| One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these zones     |       |
| (USDA NRCS, 2007).                                           |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Bactrocera dorsalis* has been recorded to attack multiple   | \(3\) |
| species in multiple families, including **Moraceae**         |       |
| (*Artocarpus* spp.*, Ficus racemosa*), **Rutaceae** (*Aegle  |       |
| marmelos, Citrus* spp.), **Anacardiaceae** (*Anacardium      |       |
| occidentale, Mangifera foetida, Spondias purpurea, Mangifera |       |
| indica*), **Arecaceae** (*Areca catechu*), **Rubiaceae**     |       |
| (*Coffea Arabica*), **Sapotaceae** (*Chrysophyllum cainito,  |       |
| Mimusops elengi, Manilkara zapota*), **Cucurbitaceae**       |       |
| (*Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Momordica charantia*),      |       |
| **Sapindaceae** (*Dimocarpus longan*, *Nephelium lappaceum,  |       |
| Litchi chinensis*), **Ebenaceae** (*Diospyros kaki*),        |       |
| **Flacourtiaceae** (*Flacourtia indica*), **Rosaceae**       |       |
| (*Prunus* spp., *Malus pumila, Pyrus communis*),             |       |
| **Punicaceae** (*Punica granatum*), **Myrtaceae**            |       |
| (*Syzygium* spp.*, Psidium guajava*), **Rhamnaceae**         |       |
| (*Ziziphus* spp.), **Annonaceae** (*Annona* spp.),           |       |
| **Oxalidaceae** (*Averrhoa carambola*), **Caricaceae**       |       |
| (*Carica papaya*), **Solanaceae** (*Capsicum annuum*),       |       |
| **Malpighiaceae** (*Malpighia glabra*), **Musaceae**         |       |
| (*Musa*), **Tiliaceae** (*Muntingia calabura*),              |       |
| **Lauraceae** (*Persea americana*), and **Combretaceae**     |       |
| (Terminalia catappa) (CABI, 2006; White and Elson-Harris,    |       |
| 1992).                                                       |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Tephritid fruit flies have a relatively high biotic          | \(3\) |
| potential. Depending on climate, *B. dorsalis* may have more |       |
| than five overlapping generations per year (S*hi et a*l.,    |       |
| 2005). In laboratory studies, the potential fecundity of     |       |
| female *B. tryoni* and *B. dorsalis* fruit flies was         |       |
| estimated to be over 1000 eggs (Fletcher, 1989a).            |       |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. dorsalis* disperses readily by flight (He*ly et a*l.,    |       |
| 1982); many *Bactrocera* species can fly 50-100 km           |       |
| (Fletcher, 1989b). Additionally, *Bactrocera* fruit flies    |       |
| can be dispersed by infested plant materials, such as fruits |       |
| and flowers (CABI, 2006; Fletcher, 1989b). For example,      |       |
| since 1985, species of *Bactrocera* have been intercepted in |       |
| a variety of commodities over 12,000 times at U.S.           |       |
| ports-of-entry (USDA AQAS, 2007).                            |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. dorsalis* has been reported on several economically      | \(3\) |
| important crops including apple, peach, pear, strawberry,    |       |
| and *Citrus* spp.*,* and has the potential to be a major     |       |
| pest on these crops in the United States (Dr*ew et a*l.,     |       |
| 1982; White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Up to 100 percent of    |       |
| unprotected crops may be damaged (CABI, 2006).               |       |
|                                                              |       |
| The introduction of *B. dorsalis* in the continental United  |       |
| States would likely stimulate eradication or control         |       |
| programs, similar to those that have been implemented in the |       |
| past (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978). Additionally, its presence |       |
| in the United States, even as a temporary adventive          |       |
| population, could lead to severe export restrictions of host |       |
| commodities to markets outside of this pest's known          |       |
| distribution (Dr*ew et a*l., 1982).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *B. dorsalis* may have direct impacts on Federally listed    | \(3\) |
| endangered species such as *Prunus geniculata* and *Ziziphus |       |
| celata* (in Florida), which are closely related to other     |       |
| hosts known to be attacked by *B. dorsalis* (USFWS, 2007).   |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Because it represents a potential threat to the *Citrus,*    |       |
| stone fruit, and other crop industries, the establishment of |       |
| *B. dorsalis* in the United States could trigger the         |       |
| initiation of eradication or chemical/biological control     |       |
| programs similar to those implemented in Hawaii and          |       |
| California (CABI, 2006; Clausen, 1978).                      |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### *Dysmic                                                  |       |
| occus* *neobrevipes* (Beardsley) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Va    |
|                                                              | lue** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* occurs throughout Central America, | (2)   |
| northern South America, the Caribbean, Indo-China, the       |       |
| Philippines, and in parts of Oceania (Ben-D*ov et a*l.,      |       |
| 2006; CABI, 2006). Outside of greenhouse or other artificial |       |
| situations, based on its distribution, we estimate that *D.  |       |
| neobrevipes* could become established in the areas of the    |       |
| United States corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-10    |       |
| (USDA, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in   |       |
| these zones (USDA NRCS, 2007).                               |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* has been recorded to attack        | \(3\) |
| multiple species in multiple families including:             |       |
| **Bromeliaceae** (*Ananas comosus*), **Rosaceae** (*Malus    |       |
| domestica*), **Araceae** (*Colocasia esculenta,*             |       |
| *Pritchardia* sp.), **Moraceae** (*Ficus* sp.), **Musaceae** |       |
| (*Musa* *paradisiaca*), **Cactaceae** (*Opuntia              |       |
| ficus-indica*), **Fabaceae** (*Acacia* *koa*, *Samanea       |       |
| saman* ), **Asteraceae** (*Helianthus annuus*),              |       |
| **Agavaceae** (*Agave sisalana*), **Cucurbitaceae**          |       |
| (*Cucurbita maxima*), **Poaceae** (*Zea* *mays*),            |       |
| **Heliconiaceae** (*Heliconia latispatha*), **Lauracea**     |       |
| (*Persea* americana), **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp.), and      |       |
| **Solanaceae** (*Lycopersicon esculentum*) (Ben-D*ov et      |       |
| a*l., 2006; CABI, 2006; Nakahara, 1982).                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* has a relatively high biotic       |       |
| potential. The lifespan of *D. neobrevipes* varies from      | \(2\) |
| 59-117 days, averaging 90 (Martin-Kessing and Mau, 1992).    |       |
| This mealybug is ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs hatch       |       |
| within the female; most females produce about 350 larvae for |       |
| 30 days, but some produce up to 1000 larvae (Martin-Kessing  |       |
| and Mau, 1992). There may be several generations per year    |       |
| (CABI, 2006).                                                |       |
|                                                              |       |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* has little capacity to move long   |       |
| distances on its own. The main dispersal stage of mealybugs  |       |
| is the first-instar crawler, which may be transported        |       |
| locally by wind or other animals (CABI, 2006; Gullen and     |       |
| Kosztarab, 1997). Dispersal over longer distances is         |       |
| accomplished through the movement of infested plant          |       |
| materials in commerce (CABI, 2006).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* attacks a wide range of plants,    | \(3\) |
| including agricultural, horticultural, and forest species    |       |
| (Ben-D*ov et a*l., 2006). It is a particularly serious pest  |       |
| of pineapple, *Ananas comosus;* like *D*. *brevipes*, it is  |       |
| a vector of the virus causing *Pineapple wilt disease*       |       |
| (Rohrba*ch et a*l., 1988). Feeding on young growth causes    |       |
| severe stunting and distortion of leaves, thickening of      |       |
| stems, and a bunchy-top appearance of shoots; in severe      |       |
| cases the leaves may fall prematurely. Also, honeydew        |       |
| deposited on leaves and fruit by mealybugs serves as a       |       |
| medium for the growth of black sooty molds, which interfere  |       |
| with photosynthesis and reduce the crop's market value.      |       |
| Insecticides are often applied to control these mealybugs or |       |
| the attending ants that aid in their spread and interfere    |       |
| with biological control (Jahn, 1993). *Dysmicoccus           |       |
| neobrevipes* is a quarantine pest for Korea and New Zealand. |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Further introductions of *D*. *neobrevipes* would likely     | \(3\) |
| result in the initiation of chemical or biological control   |       |
| programs, as has occurred in Hawaii and Puerto Rico          |       |
| (Bartlett, 1978). The species is polyphagous and has the     |       |
| potential to infest plants listed as threatened or           |       |
| endangered (*e.g.*, *Opuntia treleasei*, *Helianthus         |       |
| paradoxus*) (USFWS, 2007).                                   |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### *Pl                                                      |       |
| anococcus lilacinus* (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Rat   |
|                                                              | ing** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Planococcus lilacinus* is found in Asia (*i.e.,*            | (2)   |
| Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Taiwan, Vietnam, |       |
| and Yemen) through the islands of the South Pacific (*i.e.*, |       |
| Indonesia, Java, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Papua New    |       |
| Guinea) (CABI, 2006). It also occurs in East Africa, Central |       |
| America, and northern South America (CABI, 2006). Based on   |       |
| this distribution, it is estimated that *P*. *lilacinus*     |       |
| could establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-10 (USDA,    |       |
| 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these    |       |
| zones (USDA NRCS, 2007).                                     |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| The host range of *P*. *lilacinus* is extremely broad,       | \(3\) |
| comprising species in at least 35 plant families (Ben-D*ov   |       |
| et a*l., 2006). Included are several economically important  |       |
| crops, such as **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp),                  |       |
| **Anacardiaceae** (*Mangifera indica*), **Rubiaceae**        |       |
| (*Coffea* spp.), **Sterculiaceae** (*Theobroma cacao*),      |       |
| **Vitaceae** (*Vitis* spp.), **Arecaceae** (*Cocos           |       |
| nucifera*), **Poaceae** (*Bambusa vulgaris*),                |       |
| **Dioscoreaceae** (*Dioscorea* spp.), **Caesalpiniaceae**    |       |
| (*Tamarindus indica*), **Annonaceae** (*Annona* spp.), and   |       |
| **Myrtaceae** (guava) (CABI, 2006).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Planococcus lilacinus* has a fairly high biotic potential.  |       |
| Fecundity per female on *Brassica oleracea* (Brassicaceae)   | \(2\) |
| is 55-152 eggs (Loganathan and Suresh, 2001). There are two  |       |
| or three generations per year (IPM DANIDA, 2003).            |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Like other scales, *P. lilacinus* has little capacity to     |       |
| move long distances on its own. The main dispersal stage of  |       |
| mealybugs is the first-instar crawler, which may be          |       |
| transported locally by wind or other animals (CABI, 2006;    |       |
| Gullen and Kosztarab, 1997). Dispersal over longer distances |       |
| is accomplished through the movement of infested plant       |       |
| materials in commerce (CABI, 2006).                          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Throughout the Orient and the South Pacific, *P. lilacinus*  | \(3\) |
| is a pest of cacao, causing severe damage to young trees by  |       |
| killing the tips of branches (CABI, 2006). It is also        |       |
| considered a major pest of tamarind in India (Hill, 1983)    |       |
| and causes damage to a wide range of other economically      |       |
| important crops, such as coffee, custard apple (*Annona      |       |
| reticulata*), coconut, citrus, grape, guava, and mango       |       |
| (CABI, 2006). The prevalence of this scale has increased and |       |
| spread to most coffee-growing areas, where it attacks the    |       |
| roots and shoots and causes serious damage to the plant      |       |
| (CABI, 2006). In India, it has been necessary to mount       |       |
| chemical and biological control programs against this pest   |       |
| in cacao, coffee, custard apple, and mandarin orange (CABI,  |       |
| 2006). However, the species is considered only a minor pest  |       |
| of avocado in the Philippines (Wait and Martinez, 2002).     |       |
| Based on this evidence, establishment of this insect in the  |       |
| United States could possibly cause a loss of foreign and     |       |
| domestic markets and would likely stimulate chemical and/or  |       |
| biological control programs, which would lower the value of  |       |
| the commodity by increasing production costs.                |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| Because of its extremely broad host range, this species has  | \(3\) |
| the potential to attack plants that are listed as Threatened |       |
| or Endangered (*e.g.*, *Amaranthus*, *Solanum*) (USFWS,      |       |
| 2007). Introduction of *P. lilacinus* into the United States |       |
| is likely to initiate chemical or biological control         |       |
| programs, because it is a serious pest of economically       |       |
| important crops (*e.g.*, citrus and coffee).                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| #                                                            |       |
| ## *Planococcus minor (*Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ### Consequences of Introduction                             | *     |
|                                                              | *Risk |
|                                                              | Rat   |
|                                                              | ing** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Climate/Host Interaction                              | Low   |
|                                                              |       |
| *Planococcus minor* is reported in south Asia (Bangladesh,   | \(1\) |
| Burma, India, Indonesia, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Malaysia,      |       |
| Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand), Australia and |       |
| islands of the South Pacific (American Samoa, Cook Islands,  |       |
| Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua |       |
| New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Vanuatu, and    |       |
| Western Samoa), Africa (Madagascar, Rodriques Island, and    |       |
| Seychelles), the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina,  |       |
| Bermuda, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica,       |       |
| Galapagos Islands, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana,   |       |
| Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Trinidad    |       |
| and Tobago, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Uruguay), and the       |       |
| tropical areas of Mexico (Ben-D*ov et a*l., 2006). Based on  |       |
| this geographical distribution, it is estimated that this    |       |
| species could only establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zone 10 |       |
| (USDA, 1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in   |       |
| this zone (USDA NRCS, 2007).                                 |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Host Range                                            | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| This species is extremely polyphagous, having been recorded  | \(3\) |
| on hosts in at least 65 plant families (Ben-D*ov et a*l.,    |       |
| 2006). Hosts include **Araceae** (*Colocasia esculenta*),    |       |
| **Solanaceae** (*Solanum* spp.), **Sterculiaceae**           |       |
| (*Theobroma cacao*), **Rutaceae** (*Citrus* spp.),           |       |
| **Rubiaceae** (*Coffea* spp.), **Anacardiaceae** (*Mangifera |       |
| indica*), **Musaceae** (*Musa* spp), **Myrtaceae**           |       |
| (*Eugenia* spp.), **Vitaceae** (*Vitis vinifera*),           |       |
| **Rhamnaceae** (*Ziziphus* spp.), **Amaranthaceae**          |       |
| (*Amaranthus* spp.), **Annonaceae** (*Annona* spp.),         |       |
|                                                              |       |
| **Asteraceae** (*Helianthus* spp.), **Euphorbiaceae**        |       |
| (*Euphorbia* spp.), **Lauraceae** (*Persea americana*),      |       |
| **Convolvulaceae** (*Ipomoea* spp.), **Brassicaceae**        |       |
| (*Brassica* spp.), **Cucurbitaceae** (*Cucumis* spp.),       |       |
| **Poaceae** (*Zea mays*), **Fabaceae** (*Arachis hypogaea*), |       |
| **Moraceae** (*Artocarpus* spp.), **Arecaceae** (*Cocos      |       |
| nucifera*), **Pandanaceae** (*Pandanus* spp.), **Rosaceae**  |       |
| (*Pyrus pyrifolia*), and **Liliaceae** (*Asparagus           |       |
| plumosus*) (Ben-D*ov et a*l., 2006; CABI, 2006).             |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Dispersal Potential                                   | M     |
|                                                              | edium |
| *Planococcus minor* has a relatively high biotic potential.  |       |
| Reported fecundity ranges from about 200 to over 400 eggs    | \(2\) |
| per female, depending on host plant (Mai*ti et a*l., 1998;   |       |
| Martinez and Suris, 1998; Sah*oo et a*l., 1999). There may   |       |
| be as many as 10 generations per year (Sah*oo et a*l.,       |       |
| 1999).                                                       |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Like other scales, *P. minor* has little capacity to move    |       |
| long distances on its own. The main dispersal stage of       |       |
| mealybugs is the first-instar crawler, which may be          |       |
| transported locally by wind or other animals (CABI, 2006;    |       |
| Gullen and Kosztarab, 1997). Dispersal over longer distances |       |
| is accomplished through the movement of infested plant       |       |
| materials in commerce (CABI, 2006; Sugimoto, 1994).          |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Economic Impact                                       | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| *Planococcus minor* is extremely polyphagous and attacks     | \(3\) |
| several economically important crops, including grapes,      |       |
| pears, curcurbits, and solaneaceous species (Ben-D*ov et     |       |
| a*l., 2006). It is an important pest of coffee in India      |       |
| (Red*dy et a*l., 1997). Severe outbreaks (originally         |       |
| attributed to *P. citri* \[Risso\]) have been reported on    |       |
| coffee and sugarcane in New Guinea (CABI, 2006).             |       |
| Introduction of this mealybug into the United States could   |       |
| cause the loss of domestic or foreign markets for a number   |       |
| of commodities.                                              |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ###### Environmental Impact                                  | High  |
|                                                              |       |
| The extreme polyphagy of this species predisposes it to      | \(3\) |
| attack native plants listed as Threatened or Endangered      |       |
| (*e.g.*, *Amaranthus*, *Cucurbita*, *Solanum*, *Helianthus*, |       |
| *Abutilon*, *Eugenia*, *Euphorbia*) (USFWS, 2007).           |       |
|                                                              |       |
| Because it represents a potential threat to economically     |       |
| valuable crops in the United States (*e.g.*, avocado,        |       |
| citrus, cucurbits), the establishment of *P. minor* in the   |       |
| United States could trigger the initiation of eradication or |       |
| chemical/biological control programs.                        |       |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-------+

**Table 5.** Risk ratings for consequences of introduction.

+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *       | **Clim   | **   | **Dis  | **Ec   | **Env      | **Cum   |
| *Pest** | ate/Host | Host | persal | onomic | ironmental | ulative |
|         | Inter    | Ran  | Poten  | Im     | Impact**   | R       |
|         | action** | ge** | tial** | pact** |            | ating** |
+=========+==========+======+========+========+============+=========+
| *Bac    | Medium   | High | High   | High   | High (3)   | *       |
| trocera | (2)      | (3)  | (3)    | (3)    |            | *High** |
| co      |          |      |        |        |            |         |
| rrecta* |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(14)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *Bac    | Medium   | High | High   | High   | High (3)   | *       |
| trocera | (2)      | (3)  | (3)    | (3)    |            | *High** |
| cucu    |          |      |        |        |            |         |
| rbitae* |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(14)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *Bac    | Medium   | High | High   | High   | High (3)   | *       |
| trocera | (2)      | (3)  | (3)    | (3)    |            | *High** |
| do      |          |      |        |        |            |         |
| rsalis* |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(14)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *Dysm   | Medium   | High | Medium | High   | High (3)   | *       |
| icoccus | (2)      | (3)  | (2)    | (3)    |            | *High** |
| neobr   |          |      |        |        |            |         |
| evipes* |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(13)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *Plan   | Medium   | High | Medium | High   | High (3)   | *       |
| ococcus | (2)      | (3)  | (2)    | (3)    |            | *High** |
| lil     |          |      |        |        |            |         |
| acinus* |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(13)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+
| *Plan   | Low (1)  | High | Medium | High   | High (3)   | **M     |
| ococcus |          | (3)  | (2)    | (3)    |            | edium** |
| minor*  |          |      |        |        |            |         |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *       |
|         |          |      |        |        |            | *(12)** |
+---------+----------+------+--------+--------+------------+---------+

#### 2.5.2 Likelihood of Introduction---Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity

Likelihood of introduction is a function of the quantity of the
commodity imported annually and pest opportunity, which consists of five
criteria that consider the potential for pest survival along the pathway
(USDA, 2000) (Table 6). The following scale is used to interpret this
total: Low is 6-9 points, Medium is 10-14 points, and High is 15-18
points.

**Quantity Imported Annually**

The rating for the quantity imported annually is based on the amount
reported by the exporter, and is converted into standard units of
40-foot-long shipping containers. The initial volume of red dragon fruit
to be shipped to the United States is not likely to be greater than 10
containers per year; therefore, this risk element is rated Low (1) for
all pests.

**Survive Post-Harvest Treatment**

This risk element evaluates the efficacy of standard post-harvest
treatments in terms of the likely mortality of pests exposed to the
treatments. In the absence of further information, we assume only
minimal post-harvest treatments, such as washing and culling, are used
in Vietnam for red dragon fruit. Among the arthropod pests, the
Tephritid fruit flies (*Bactrocera correcta, B. cucurbitae,* and *B.
dorsalis*), which are internal feeders, would be expected to survive
minimal post-harvest treatments, especially if infestation of the fruit
was not of such great age to make damage obvious. They are rated High
(3) for this risk element.

The scale insects *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes, Planococcus lilacinus,*
and *P. minor* (Pseudococcidae) are external feeders and would be less
likely than internal feeders to survive post-harvest treatments;
however, depending on their stage (egg, larva, adult), these arthropods
might find shelter on fruit, particularly at the stem end, or in packing
materials. Scale insects have sessile stages that live firmly pressed to
plant surfaces. Their cryptic behavior, small size, repellency to water,
waxy coverings, and firm attachment to the substrate could make them
difficult to see or dislodge, especially if sheltered at the stem end of
the fruit. For example, many scales prefer tight, protected areas, such
as cracks and crevices (Kosztarab, 1996). Consequently, mealybugs are
rated Medium (2) for this risk element.

**Survive Shipment**

Red dragon fruit is typically stored at 10°C (Wall, 2005). Under such
benign conditions, all of the pests are expected to have a High (3)
probability of surviving shipment.

**Not Detected at Port-of-Entry**

The larvae of the tephritid fruit flies (*Bactrocera correcta, B.
cucurbitae* ,and *B. dorsalis*) are internal pests and deposit their
eggs under the surface of the fruit. The early stages of larval
development inside the fruit are adequately detected only by destructive
sampling. Depending on the age of infestation these pests could have a
high probability of escaping detection. In fact, fruits infested with
fruit flies often go unrecognized (White and Elson-Harris, 1992);
therefore, these pests are rated High (3) for this risk element. The
scales (*Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes, Planococcus lilacinus,* and *P.
minor*) are external feeders and large, conspicuous infestations could
lead to their easy detection; however, sparser populations of these
small insects---particularly if concealed on fruits or in packing
materials, or if present in the egg stage---would be more difficult to
discover. They are rated Medium (2) for this risk element.

**Imported or Moved Subsequently to an Area with an Environment Suitable
for Survival**

Red dragon fruit from Vietnam is likely to be sold in every state. We
assume that demand for fruit is proportional to the size of the consumer
population in potential markets and that any infestations of fruit would
be distributed equally among consignments.

Based on the latest census data (USCB, 2005), we estimate that
approximately 5 percent of the U.S. population resides within Plant
Hardiness Zone 10 (See Figure 1). Therefore, because the region
encompassing Zone 10 comprises only a small percentage of the likely
markets for Vietnamese red dragon fruit, *Planococcus minor* is assumed
to present a Low (1) risk of being moved to habitat suitable for
survival.

Three of the most populous states (California, Florida, and Texas)
contain areas within Plant Hardiness Zones 8-10, and are likely to
constitute large markets for the imports. We estimate that approximately
46 percent of the U.S. population resides in one of these zones.
Therefore, *Bactrocera correcta,* *B. cucurbitae, B. dorsalis,
Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes,* and *Planococcus lilacinus* are estimated to
present a Medium (2) risk of being moved to a habitat suitable for
survival because they are considered capable of surviving in a range of
states (those containing areas within Zones 8 or 9 and above) that may
comprise a moderately high percentage of likely markets for Vietnamese
red dragon fruit.

**Come into Contact with Host Material Suitable for Reproduction**

Because species of *Prunus, Citrus, Malus, Solanum, Cucurbitae,* and
other host plants have broad distributions in the southern and western
United States (USDA NRCS, 2007), suitable host material should be widely
available for all of the pests analyzed. *Bactrocera* spp. are generally
considered strong fliers (He*ly et a*l., 1982) and some are capable of
migratory flights up to 65 km. Risk of the fruit flies coming into
contact with host material suitable for reproduction therefore is
estimated to be High (3).

The scales *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes, Planococcus lilacinus,* and *P.
minor* have a limited capacity for natural dispersal and tend to remain
with their host plants except in the crawler stages (CABI, 2006).
Therefore, they are considered to have a Low (1) risk of coming into
contact with host material via this pathway.

**Table 6.** Summary of the likelihood of introduction.

+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *       | **Qua | **      | **Su  | **Not | **M  | **Co  | **Cum   |
| *Pest** | ntity | Survive | rvive | Det   | oved | ntact | ulative |
|         | Impor | Post-   | Shipm | ected | to   | with  | R       |
|         | ted** | Harvest | ent** | at    | Suit | Host  | ating** |
|         |       | Trea    |       | Port- | able | Mater |         |
|         |       | tment** |       | of-En | H    | ial** |         |
|         |       |         |       | try** | abit |       |         |
|         |       |         |       |       | at** |       |         |
+=========+=======+=========+=======+=======+======+=======+=========+
| *Bac    | Low   | High    | High  | High  | Me   | High  | *       |
| trocera |       |         |       |       | dium |       | *High** |
| co      | \(1\) | \(3\)   | \(3\) | \(3\) | (2)  | \(3\) |         |
| rrecta* |       |         |       |       |      |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(15)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *Bac    | Low   | High    | High  | High  | Me   | High  | *       |
| trocera |       |         |       |       | dium |       | *High** |
| cucu    | \(1\) | \(3\)   | \(3\) | \(3\) | (2)  | \(3\) |         |
| rbitae* |       |         |       |       |      |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(15)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *Bac    | Low   | High    | High  | High  | Me   | High  | *       |
| trocera |       |         |       |       | dium |       | *High** |
| do      | \(1\) | \(3\)   | \(3\) | \(3\) | (2)  | \(3\) |         |
| rsalis* |       |         |       |       |      |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(15)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *Dysm   | Low   | Medium  | High  | M     | Me   | Low   | **M     |
| icoccus |       | (2)     |       | edium | dium |       | edium** |
| neobr   | \(1\) |         | \(3\) | (2)   | (2)  | \(1\) |         |
| evipes* |       |         |       |       |      |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(11)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *Plan   | Low   | Medium  | High  | M     | Me   | Low   | **M     |
| ococcus |       | (2)     |       | edium | dium |       | edium** |
| lil     | \(1\) |         | \(3\) | (2)   | (2)  | \(1\) |         |
| acinus* |       |         |       |       |      |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(11)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+
| *Plan   | Low   | Medium  | High  | M     | Low  | Low   | **M     |
| ococcus |       | (2)     |       | edium |      |       | edium** |
| minor*  | \(1\) |         | \(3\) | (2)   | \    | \(1\) |         |
|         |       |         |       |       | (1\) |       | *       |
|         |       |         |       |       |      |       | *(10)** |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------+

## 2.6 Conclusion

The summation of the values for the Consequences of Introduction and the
Likelihood of introduction yields Pest Risk Potential values (USDA,
2000) (Table 7). This is an estimate of the risks associated with the
importation of red dragon fruit (red pitaya) from Vietnam.

**Table 7.** Pest Risk Potential.

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Pest Species**      **Consequences of **Likelihood of  **Pest Risk
                        Introduction**    Introduction**   Potential**
  --------------------- ----------------- ---------------- -----------------
  *Bactrocera correcta* High (14)         High (15)        **High (29)**

  *Bactrocera           High (14)         High (15)        **High (29)**
  cucurbitae*                                              

  *Bactrocera dorsalis* High (14)         High (15)        **High (29)**

  *Dysmicoccus          High (13)         Medium (11)      **Medium (24)**
  neobrevipes*                                             

  *Planococcus          High (13)         Medium (11)      **Medium (24)**
  lilacinus*                                               

  *Planococcus minor*   Medium (12)       Medium(10)       **Medium (22)**
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------

Pests with a Pest Risk Potential value of *Low* do not require specific
mitigation measures, whereas a value within the *Medium* range indicates
that specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary. The PPQ
Guidelines state that a *High* Pest Risk Potential means that specific
phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended, and that port-of-entry
inspection is not considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary
security. The choice of appropriate measures to mitigate risk is
undertaken as part of Risk Management and is not addressed in this
document.

# III. Authors and Reviewer

**Authors**:

Alison Neeley, Entomologist

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST)

Heather Hartzog, Plant Pathologist

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST)

**Reviewer:**

Christie Bertone, Entomologist

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST)

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# Appendix 1. Interceptions on Dragon Fruit/Pitaya (*Hylocereus* spp.)

Because of its morphological similarities to and ability to hybridize
with other *Hylocereus* species and Cactus genera, red dragon fruit (red
pitaya) has unsettled botanical nomenclature. Therefore, interceptions
on the following are also included: *Acanthocereus* spp., *Cactus* spp.,
*Cereus* spp., *Echinocereus* spp., *Escontria* spp., *Myrtillocactus*
spp., *Stenocereus* spp., *Lemairocereus* spp., *Marshallocereus* spp.,
and *Pachycereus* spp..

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Pest**                   **Origin**    **Inspected      **Where         **Host   **No.**
                                           Host**           Intercepted**   Part**   
  -------------------------- ------------- ---------------- --------------- -------- ---------
  ACUTASPIS ALBOPICTA        Mexico        Hylocereus       MAIL                     1
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                undatus                                   

  AECIDIUM SP. (ANAMORPHIC   Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   PERMIT CARGO    FRUIT    1
  RUST)                                                                              

  AGROTHRIPS SP.             Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE)                        sp.                                       

  ALEYRODIDAE, SPECIES OF    Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  ALTICA SP. (CHRYSOMELIDAE) Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     1

  ALTICA SP. (CHRYSOMELIDAE) Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         STEM     1

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Argentina     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Colombia      Acanthocereus    STORES          FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Colombia      Acanthocereus    HOLDS           FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Colombia      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Guatemala     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  2
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Trinidad and  Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)              Tobago        sp.                                       

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Colombia      Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                                                                      

  ANASTREPHA SP.             Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                                                                      

  ANTHRIBIDAE, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Hylocereus       MAIL            FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  APHIDIDAE, SPECIES OF      Mexico        Acanthocereus    PERMIT CARGO    FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  APHIDIDAE, SPECIES OF      Nicaragua     Cereus undatus   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  ASPHONDYLIA SP.            Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (CECIDOMYIIDAE)                                                                    

  BACTROCERA SP.             China         Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  BACTROCERA SP.             Taiwan        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  BACTROCERA SP.             Unknown       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  BACTROCERA SP.             Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  BACTROCERA SP.             Hawaii        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (TEPHRITIDAE)                            undatus                                   

  BLAPSTINUS SP.             Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TENEBRIONIDAE)                                                                    

  CACTOPHAGUS SP.            Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (DRYOPHTHORIDAE)                                                                   

  CALCISUCCINEA DOMINICENSIS Dominican     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    STEM     2
  (PFEIFFER) (SUCCINEIDAE)   Republic                                                

  CAMAROSPORIUM SP.          Argentina     Cereus sp.       MAIL            STEM     1
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  CATAENOCOCCUS SP.          Vietnam       Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  CERATITIS CAPITATA         Argentina     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (WIEDEMANN) (TEPHRITIDAE)                sp.                                       

  CERCOSPORA SP.             Singapore     Echinocereus sp. PERMIT CARGO             1
  (HYPHOMYCETES)                                                                     

  CHRYSOMELIDAE, SPECIES OF  Mexico        Cereus           BAGGAGE         STEM     1
                                           hildmannianus                             

  CICADELLIDAE, SPECIES OF   Taiwan        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  CICADELLIDAE, SPECIES OF   Dominican     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                             Republic                                                

  CICADELLIDAE, SPECIES OF   Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1

  CLADOSPORIUM SP.           Honduras      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (HYPHOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  CLADOSPORIUM SP.           Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (HYPHOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  CLADOSPORIUM SP.           Nicaragua     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (HYPHOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  COCCIDAE, SPECIES OF       Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  COCCIDAE, SPECIES OF       India         Pachycereus sp.  BAGGAGE                  1

  COCCOTRYPES SP.            Peru          Cereus           PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
  (SCOLYTIDAE)                             hildmannianus                             

  COCCUS SP. (COCCIDAE)      Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  COLASPIS SP.               Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (CHRYSOMELIDAE)                                                                    

  COLEOPTERA, SPECIES OF     Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  COLLETOTRICHUM SP.         Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    8
  (COELOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  COLLETOTRICHUM SP.         Australia     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    LEAF     1
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  COLLETOTRICHUM SP.         Taiwan        Hylocereus sp.   PERMIT CARGO             1
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  COLLETOTRICHUM SP.         Thailand      Hylocereus       PERMIT CARGO             1
  (COELOMYCETES)                           undatus                                   

  CONOGETHES SP. (CRAMBIDAE) Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  CONOPOMORPHA SP.           Unknown       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (GRACILLARIIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  CONOTRACHELUS SP.          Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (CURCULIONIDAE)                                                                    

  COREIDAE, SPECIES OF       Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  COSMOPTERIGIDAE, SPECIES   Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  OF                                       sp.                                       

  CRAMBIDAE, SPECIES OF      Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  CRAMBIDAE, SPECIES OF      El Salvador   Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           tetragonus                                

  CRYPTOPHLEBIA SP.          Hawaii        Cereus sp.       MAIL                     1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                                                                      

  CURCULIONIDAE, SPECIES OF  Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  CURCULIONIDAE, SPECIES OF  Nicaragua     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
                                           sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Cambodia      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Hong Kong     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Singapore     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Thailand      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Asia Country  Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) Unknown       tetragonus                                

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Hong Kong     Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               polyrhizus                                

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               polyrhizus                                

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Hong Kong     Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Unknown       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  DYSMICOCCUS NEOBREVIPES    Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  3
  BEARDSLEY (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  DYSMICOCCUS SP.            Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  DYSMICOCCUS SP.            Asia Country  Hylocereus sp.   QUARTERS                 1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)           Unknown                                                 

  DYSMICOCCUS SP.            Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  3
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  ECDYTOLOPHA SP.            Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                            undatus                                   

  EREMBERGA SP. (PYRALIDAE)  Mexico        Stenocereus sp.  BAGGAGE                  1

  FERRISIA SP.               China         Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  FERRISIA SP.               Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  FERRISIA SP.               Laos          Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  FUSARIUM SP.               Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (HYPHOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  GELECHIIDAE, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  GERSTAECKERIA SP.          Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         STEM     1
  (CURCULIONIDAE)                                                                    

  GRACILLARIIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  19
                                           sp.                                       

  GRACILLARIIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         STEM     2

  GRACILLARIIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2

  GRACILLARIIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  GRACILLARIIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  GRYLLIDAE, SPECIES OF      Dominican     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO             1
                             Republic                                                

  HOPLOSPHYRUM SP.           Dominican     Cereus           PERMIT CARGO             1
  (GRYLLIDAE)                Republic      hildmannianus                             

  HYMENOPTERA, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  INSECTA, SPECIES OF        Mexico        Cereus undatus   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  INSECTA, SPECIES OF        Unknown       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
                                           undatus                                   

  LAGRIINAE, SPECIES OF      Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TENEBRIONIDAE)                                                                    

  LAMELLAXIS GRACILIS        Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (HUTTON) (SUBULINIDAE)                   tetragonus                                

  LEPIDOPTERA, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  LEPIDOPTERA, SPECIES OF    Haiti         Cereus           PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                                           hildmannianus                             

  LEPIDOPTERA, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE                  1

  LEPTOSPHAERIA SP.          Taiwan        Hylocereus sp.   PERMIT CARGO             1
  (LEPTOSPHAERIACEAE)                                                                

  LOPHODERMIUM SP.           Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  5
  (RHYTISMATACEAE)                                                                   

  MACONELLICOCCUS HIRSUTUS   Cambodia      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (GREEN) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                 sp.                                       

  MARGARODIDAE, SPECIES OF   Nicaragua     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  MARMARA SP.                Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  20
  (GRACILLARIIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  MARMARA SP.                Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         STEM     1
  (GRACILLARIIDAE)                         tetragonus                                

  MARMARA SP.                Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         STEM     1
  (GRACILLARIIDAE)                         tetragonus                                

  NOCTUIDAE, SPECIES OF      Dominican     Cereus           PERMIT CARGO    STEM     2
                             Republic      hildmannianus                             

  NOCTUIDAE, SPECIES OF      Dominican     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO             1
                             Republic                                                

  OECOPHORIDAE, SPECIES OF   Hong Kong     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  OECOPHORIDAE, SPECIES OF   Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  OGDOECOSTA BIANNULARIS     Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (BOHEMAN) (CHRYSOMELIDAE)                undatus                                   

  OLETHREUTINAE, SPECIES OF  Panama        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                            tetragonus                                

  OLETHREUTINAE, SPECIES OF  Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                                                                      

  OPUNTIASPIS CARINATA       Mexico        Myrtillocactus   BAGGAGE                  1
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                sp.                                       

  OPUNTIASPIS PHILOCOCCUS    Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     30
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                                                          

  OPUNTIASPIS PHILOCOCCUS    Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         STEM     11
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                                                          

  OPUNTIASPIS PHILOCOCCUS    Mexico        Myrtillocactus   PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                geometrizans                              

  OPUNTIASPIS PHILOCOCCUS    Mexico        Myrtillocactus   BAGGAGE         STEM     11
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                geometrizans                              

  OPUNTIASPIS PHILOCOCCUS    Mexico        Myrtillocactus   PERMIT CARGO    STEM     2
  (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE)                geometrizans                              

  OPUNTIASPIS SP.            Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  1
  (DIASPIDIDAE)                                                                      

  ORGYIA SP. (LYMANTRIIDAE)  Mexico        Myrtillocactus   BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  OZAMIA SP. (PYRALIDAE)     Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  OZAMIA SP. (PYRALIDAE)     Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3

  OZAMIA SP. (PYRALIDAE)     Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  OZAMIA SP. (PYRALIDAE)     Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2

  PARACOCCUS SP.             Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PENICILLIUM SP.            Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (HYPHOMYCETES) \*NON-REP\*                                                         

  PESTALOTIOPSIS SP.         South America Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (COELOMYCETES)             Country                                                 
                             Unknown                                                 

  PHEIDOLE SP. (FORMICIDAE)  Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  PHOMA SP. (COELOMYCETES)   Ecuador       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  PHOMA SP. (COELOMYCETES)   Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         LEAF     1

  PHOMA SP. (COELOMYCETES)   Thailand      Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    FRUIT    1

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (COELOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (COELOMYCETES)                           sp.                                       

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  21
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE         FRUIT    33
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  4
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Unknown       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
  (COELOMYCETES)                                                                     

  PHOMOPSIS SP.              Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (COELOMYCETES)                           undatus                                   

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    10
  (PYRALIDAE)                              sp.                                       

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Nicaragua     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PYRALIDAE)                              sp.                                       

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     1
  (PYRALIDAE)                                                                        

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (PYRALIDAE)                                                                        

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  2
  (PYRALIDAE)                                                                        

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE                  1
  (PYRALIDAE)                                                                        

  PHYCITINAE, SPECIES OF     Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (PYRALIDAE)                                                                        

  PHYSONOTA SP.              Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         LEAF     1
  (CHRYSOMELIDAE)                                                                    

  PLACOASTERELLA SP.         Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (ASTERINACEAE)                           sp.                                       

  PLACOASTERELLA SP.         Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  20
  (ASTERINACEAE)                                                                     

  PLACOASTERELLA SP.         Mexico        Echinocereus sp. BAGGAGE                  16
  (ASTERINACEAE)                                                                     

  PLACOASTERELLA SP.         Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  6
  (ASTERINACEAE)                                                                     

  PLANOCOCCUS LILACINUS      Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (COCKERELL)                              sp.                                       
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PLANOCOCCUS LILACINUS      Vietnam       Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (COCKERELL)                                                                        
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    5
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               sp.                                       

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Hong Kong     Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               polyrhizus                                

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               polyrhizus                                

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               polyrhizus                                

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Singapore     Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)               undatus                                   

  PLANOCOCCUS MINOR          Unknown       Stenocereus sp.  PERMIT CARGO             1
  (MASKELL) (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                         

  PLANOCOCCUS SP.            Ecuador       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PLANOCOCCUS SP.            Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    6
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PLANOCOCCUS SP.            Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         polyrhizus                                

  PLANOCOCCUS SP.            Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PLATYNOTA SP.              Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                            sp.                                       

  PLATYNOTA SP.              Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (TORTRICIDAE)                                                                      

  PLEOSPORA SP.              Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PLEOSPORACEAE)                          sp.                                       

  PLEOSPORA SP.              Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         LEAF     1
  (PLEOSPORACEAE)                                                                    

  PLEOSPORA SP.              Italy         Stenocereus sp.  PERMIT CARGO             1
  (PLEOSPORACEAE)                                                                    

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF China         Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Colombia      Acanthocereus    STORES          FRUIT    2
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Colombia      Acanthocereus    HOLDS           FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Colombia      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Hong Kong     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Nicaragua     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Panama        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Taiwan        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Thailand      Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Unknown       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    11
                                           sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Dominican     Acanthocereus    PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                             Republic      tetragonus                                

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Hong Kong     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           tetragonus                                

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           tetragonus                                

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Dominican     Cereus           PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                             Republic      hildmannianus                             

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Netherlands   Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO             1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Thailand      Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    4

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Unknown       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           polyrhizus                                

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Cambodia      Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Thailand      Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE         FRUIT    3

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
                                           undatus                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCIDAE, SPECIES OF Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  2
                                           undatus                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCUS CRYPTUS       Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  HEMPEL (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                  sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           El Salvador   Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Thailand      Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Mexico        Echinocereus sp. PERMIT CARGO             1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         polyrhizus                                

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Vietnam       Hylocereus sp.   BAGGAGE                  1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                                                                   

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Mexico        Myrtillocactus   PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         geometrizans                              

  PSEUDOCOCCUS SP.           Mexico        Myrtillocactus   PERMIT CARGO    STEM     2
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         sp.                                       

  PULVINARIA SP. (COCCIDAE)  Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
                                           sp.                                       

  PUTO MEXICANUS (COCKERELL) Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    2
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)                         undatus                                   

  PUTO SP. (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)  Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     5

  PUTO SP. (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)  Mexico        Myrtillocactus   PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                                           geometrizans                              

  PYRALIDAE, SPECIES OF      Costa Rica    Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         STEM     1

  PYRALIDAE, SPECIES OF      Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  PYRAUSTINAE, SPECIES OF    Vietnam       Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (CRAMBIDAE)                              sp.                                       

  PYRAUSTINAE, SPECIES OF    Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
  (CRAMBIDAE)                                                                        

  SUCCINEIDAE, SPECIES OF    Dominican     Cereus           PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
                             Republic      hildmannianus                             

  SYSTENA SP.                Mexico        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE                  1
  (CHRYSOMELIDAE)                          sp.                                       

  TARSONEMUS SP.             Netherlands   Hylocereus sp.   PERMIT CARGO             1
  (TARSONEMIDAE)                                                                     

  TEPHRITIDAE, SPECIES OF    France        Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  TEPHRITIDAE, SPECIES OF    Vietnam       Hylocereus       BAGGAGE                  1
                                           undatus                                   

  THRIPIDAE, SPECIES OF      Hong Kong     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  THYANTA SP. (PENTATOMIDAE) Mexico        Echinocereus sp. PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1

  TINEIDAE, SPECIES OF       Guatemala     Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  TINEIDAE, SPECIES OF       Mexico        Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    ROOT     1

  TINEIDAE, SPECIES OF       Mexico        Cereus sp.       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1

  TINEIDAE, SPECIES OF       Korea, South  Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           polyrhizus                                

  TORTRICIDAE, SPECIES OF    Costa Rica    Acanthocereus    BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           sp.                                       

  TRIDAX PROCUMBENS LINNAEUS Dominican     Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO             1
  (ASTERACEAE)               Republic                                                

  VANDUZEA SP. (MEMBRACIDAE) Mexico        Hylocereus       BAGGAGE         FRUIT    1
                                           undatus                                   

  VRYBURGIA SP.              United        Cereus sp.       PERMIT CARGO    STEM     1
  (PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)           Kingdom                                                 
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Appendix 2. Risk Mitigation Options for the Importation of Red dragon fruit/Pitaya (*Hylocereus* spp.) from Vietnam.

## I. Introduction 

Vietnam requested permission to export fresh red dragon fruit (red
pitaya) (*Hylocereus undatus*) into the Continental United States.
Because the commodity has not been imported from Vietnam before, the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS) conducted a pathway-initiated risk assessment
to determine the unmitigated risks associated with importing red dragon
fruit from Vietnam. In conducting the assessment, APHIS analysts first
prepared a list of pests from Vietnam associated with *Hylocereus*
spp.[^13] based on (1) documents submitted by Vietnam, (2) USDA APHIS
records of intercepted pests, and (3) scientific literature.

From this list, the analysts then determined which quarantine pests
(identified to the species level) are likely to follow the red dragon
fruit pathway and qualitatively analyzed them to determine the
unmitigated risk each poses to the United States.

The Pest Risk Assessment identified the following pests as having high
unmitigated pest risk potential:

> *Bactrocera correcta* (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
>
> *Bactrocera cucurbitae Coquillett* (Diptera: Tephritidae)
>
> *Bactrocera dorsalis* (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The following pests were identified as having a medium unmitigated risk
potential:

> *Dysmicoccus neobrevipes* (Beardsley) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
>
> *Planococcus lilacinus* (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
>
> *Planococcus minor* (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The proposed importation of red dragon fruit from Vietnam, if approved,
would be regulated by amendment to existing fruits and vegetables
regulations, 7 CFR § 319.56, (CFR, 2003b). This document outlines
possible phytosanitary measures and provides evidence to conclude that
these measures will effectively prevent the introduction of quarantine
pests.

## II. Risk Mitigation Options

Pest risk management is the decision-making process of reducing the risk
of introduction of a quarantine pest (IPPC, 1996a, 2004). The
appropriate level of protection for an importing country can at times be
achieved by the application of a single phytosanitary measure, such as
inspection or quarantine treatment, or a combination of measures. If no
single measure is likely to reduce pest risk to an acceptable level,
then a combination of measures may be needed. The combination of
specific phytosanitary measures that provides overlapping or redundant
safeguards is called a "systems approach." The Plant Protection Act of
2000, SEC. 401. 7 U.S.C. 7701, (U.S., 2000) defines a systems approach
as "...a defined set of phytosanitary procedures, at least two of which
have an independent effect in mitigating pest risk associated with the
movement of commodities." Similarly, the FAO Standard for Integrated
Measures for Pest Risk Management (June 2002) proposed that a systems
approach be defined as "the integration of different pest risk
management measures, at least two of which act independently, and which
cumulatively achieve the desired level of phytosanitary protection"
(IPPC, 2002).

Specific mitigations may be selected from a range of pre-harvest and
post-harvest options, and may include other safeguarding measures.
Measures may be added or their strength increased to compensate for
uncertainty. At a minimum, for a measure to be considered for use in a
systems approach, it must be: 1) clearly defined; 2) efficacious; 3)
officially required (mandated); and 4) subject to monitoring and control
by the responsible national plant protection organization (IPPC, 2002).
Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) uses systems approaches for the
importation of many commodities including Unshu oranges from Japan (7
CFR § 319.28, CFR, 2003c); tomatoes from Spain, France, Morocco, and
Western Sahara (7 CFR § 319.56-2dd, CFR, 2003a); and peppers from Israel
(7 CFR § 319.56-2u, CFR, 2003a). These programs have performed
successfully for many years.

A systems approach to mitigate risks involved with red dragon fruit
imports from Vietnam might combine a variety of measures: 1)
certification of pest-free areas, pest-free places of production, or
areas of low pest prevalence for certain quarantine pests; 2) programs
to control pests within fields (*e.g*., mechanical, chemical, cultural);
3) pre-clearance oversight by USDA-APHIS officials; 4) packinghouse
procedures to eliminate external pests (*e.g*., washing, brushing,
inspection of fruit); 5) quarantine treatments to disinfest fruit of
internal and external pests; 6) consignments inspected and certified to
be free of quarantine pests; 7) fruit traceable to origin, packing
facility, grower, and field; 8) consignments subject to sampling and
inspection after arrival in the United States; and 9) limits on
distribution and transit within the United States.

**2.1 Phytosanitary Measures Prior to Harvesting**

**2.1.1 Establishment of Pest-Free Areas**

A pest-free area (PFA) is defined as "an area in which a specific pest
does not occur as demonstrated by scientific evidence and in which,
where appropriate, this condition is being officially maintained" (IPPC,
1996b, 2006). As a sole mitigation measure, the establishment of
pest-free areas or pest-free places of production may be completely
effective in satisfying an importing country's appropriate level of
phytosanitary protection (IPPC, 1996b, 1999). This option has been
successful in practice, eliminating the need for post-harvest commodity
treatments to achieve probit-9-level security (*e.g.*, (TDOA, 2003).
Establishment and maintenance of pest-free areas or production sites
should be in compliance with international standards (*e.g.*, IPPC,
1996b, 1999, 2006; NAPPO, 2004).

These standards specify the appropriate steps for establishment,
maintenance, verification, changes in status, an emergency action plan,
reinstatement of status, documentation, and bilateral work plans for
fruit fly PFA. Trapping for all fruit flies (*Bactrocera correcta, B.
cucurbitae,* and *B. dorsalis*) should be conducted with appropriate
lures and traps by the Vietnam Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (MARD) throughout the year in production areas. In addition,
routine inspection and fruit sampling should be carried out in the PFA.
The capture of a single fruit fly (of either species) within the PFA
should lead to an immediate emergency action and possible cancellation
of export. Red dragon fruit should not be exported until the source of
the infestation is delimited, trap density is increased, pesticide
sprays are applied or other measures are taken.

**2.1.2 Establishment of Areas of Low Pest Prevalence**

According to the IPPC (2005a), an area of low pest prevalence may
comprise all of a country, part of a country, or parts of several
countries in which a particular pest species occurs at low population
densities and which is or are subject to effective surveillance and
control or eradication measures (IPPC, 1999). Procedures for the
establishment and maintenance of areas of low pest prevalence should
comply with international standards (*e.g.,* IPPC, 2005b; NAPPO, 2003).
For example, elements of an operational plan for establishment and
maintenance of such areas might include a geographic description to
delimit the area, specification of an upper limit to pest densities,
means to document and verify all necessary procedures and maintain
records, specification of phytosanitary procedures (*e.g.*, survey, pest
control), and movement controls to prevent pest entry or re-entry into
the area. The international standards recommend that the exporting
country consult with the importing country in the early stages of
implementation to ensure that importing country requirements are met. In
particular, target or threshold population densities defining an area of
low pest prevalence should be established in consultation with the
importing country.

Any protocol for establishing and maintaining a pest-free area or area
of low pest prevalence also should include a pest-reporting procedure
and emergency action plan to address target pest detections in the
pest-free or low-prevalence zones (IPPC, 1999, 2005a; NAPPO, 2003,
2004).

Combined with inspection, effective integrated pest management (IPM)
programs achieving low pest prevalence of *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes,
Planococcus lilacinus,* and *P. minor* would be a possible mitigation
option. Freedom from the scales could be verified by conducting an
official survey of lot freedom based on inspection of the shipping lot.

**2.1.3 Control Program**

Cultural, chemical, biological, or mechanical controls (*e.g.*, grove
sanitation, biocontrol, pre-harvest application of pesticides, traps,
and fruit bagging) may be used to suppress or eliminate pests from
groves or prevent fruit infestation. In general, these are not
standalone measures, and must be used in combination with other
mitigations.

**2.1.4 Phytosanitary Certification Inspections**

Sampling and inspection of red dragon fruit should occur periodically
during the growing season and after harvest for quality control and as
phytosanitary precautionary measures. Production areas should also be
subject to scheduled audits and periodic unannounced inspections by
certified inspectors from PPQ and Vietnam; these inspections should
insure that production areas meet stipulated requirements for the
issuance of a phytosanitary certificate required for each consignment.
This measure is useful for detecting pests present during the growing
season that may be more difficult to detect post-harvest. Detection
methods need to be combined with other measures to ensure the absence of
pests of concern. Statistical procedures are available to verify, to a
specified confidence level, the pest-free status of an area, given
negative survey or trapping results (Barclay and Hargrove, 2005).
Results of surveys must be negative for larvae of fruit flies and
scales. Each shipment of red dragon fruit should be accompanied by a
phytosanitary certificate of inspection issued by the NPPO of Vietnam.
Additionally, production areas should be subject to periodic,
unannounced inspections by certified inspectors from PPQ and Vietnam to
ensure that they meet stipulated requirements.

**2.2 Mitigation Options Post-Harvest and Prior to Shipping**

**2.2.1 Post-Harvest Safeguards and Packinghouse Procedures**

Harvested red dragon fruit should also be covered with screens, plastic
tarpaulins, or other pest-proof covers while in transit to the
packinghouse and while awaiting packing; packed in pest-proof containers
for shipment to the United States; and should be inspected prior to
packing. Consignments should then be transported only in sealed,
refrigerated vehicles. While packing the red dragon fruit for export to
the United States, the packinghouse should only accept red dragon fruit
from registered approved production sites.

Red dragon fruit should be culled to remove damaged and deformed fruit.
The scales *Dysmicoccus* *neobrevipes, Planococcus lilacinus,* and *P.
minor* are external feeders, and they or their damage are usually
visible to the naked eye. Infested fruit should be removed (CABI, 2006).
Red dragon fruit infested with any of the quarantine fruit flies
(*Bactrocera correcta, B. cucurbitae,* and *B. dorsalis)* may show signs
of oviposition punctures. However, larvae are internal feeders;
therefore, fruit will need to be cut apart to detect internal
infestations (CABI, 2006). In the packinghouse, leaves and stems must be
removed from the fruit to eliminate pests associated with these plant
parts, and is consistent with U.S. regulations that imported fruit must
be free of leaves and soil (7 CFR § 319.56, CFR, 2003b).

In the packinghouse, fruit should undergo mechanical brushing or other
treatments to remove external pests. Immersion of the fruit in a water
bath containing surfactant and perhaps a surface sterilant, such as
chlorine bleach, could remove external arthropods from the surface. The
liquid in the bath should be able to penetrate the residual floral
material at the stem end, and contact and kill any arthropods that may
be concealed around the stem. Detergent-water solutions of about 1 ml/L
are effective in killing mealybugs and other Coccoidea on plants
(Townsend, 1993). Surfactants, such as common dishwashing detergent, may
show a high degree of insecticidal activity with minimal risk of
phytotoxicity.

All fruit should be inspected prior to packing. A random sample of fruit
per lot should be inspected for external pests and cut to reveal
internal pests; each sample should be of sufficient size to detect pest
infestations. During the grading process, any damaged, diseased, or
infested fruit should be removed and separated from the commodity
destined for export.

**2.2.2 Quarantine Treatments**

There are currently no approved quarantine treatments available for red
dragon fruit (USDA, 2006).

Recently, APHIS published a final rule establishing "a minimum generic
dose of 150 Gy for all fruit flies of the family Tephritidae" and "a
minimum generic dose of 400 Gy for all plant pests of the class Insecta
other than pupae and adults of the order Lepidoptera" for "all regulated
articles (*i.e.*, fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, and foliage)" (Shea,
2006). There are two exceptions to these generic doses: "lower minimum
doses for certain fruit flies" and "new approved minimum doses for 10
plant pests" (Shea, 2006). If irradiation is used, measures should be
implemented to ensure the phytosanitary security of the consignments
after treatment to prevent re-infestation. Irradiation may not kill all
internal insects; the endpoint of treatment may be inactivation,
sterilization, or preventing maturation of larvae. Therefore, the
presence of live larvae in a treated consignment would not necessarily
result in its rejection, provided appropriate safeguarding measures had
been used (IPPC, 2003).

The probit-9-level security afforded by a quarantine treatment may be
overwhelmed by a large volume of infested fruit (Powell, 2003). For this
reason, adoption of a particular quarantine treatment should be used in
conjunction with efforts to maintain pest populations in production
zones below specified densities, as would satisfy requirements for the
establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (IPPC, 2005a).
Additionally, it should be noted that fruit may be damaged or reduced in
quality as a result of some of these treatments (*e.g.*, irradiation).

**2.2.3 Point-of-Entry Sampling and Inspection**

If a pre-clearance program is not implemented, then inspection at
port-of-entry is necessary. Upon arrival in the United States,
consignments should be inspected, with particular attention given to
paperwork and seals on vehicles, to ascertain that the chain of custody
has remained intact. Each consignment should be inspected to detect a
pest infestation rate of 10 percent or greater. In the case of internal
feeding insects such as fruit flies, inspection should also include
fruit cutting (USDA, 2004).

**2.2.4 Limits on Distribution and Transit within the United States**

In some instances, the importation of commodities that might be
harboring exotic pests is authorized for shipment to certain locations
(*e.g.,* Alaska or North Atlantic ports) or during a specific season
(usually the one with the coldest temperatures). These additional
measures limit the risk of establishment for many exotic pests.

**2.3 Oversight**

**2.3.1 Pre-Shipment Programs**

Inspection, treatment, or other risk mitigation measures performed in
the grove and packinghouse should be under the direct supervision of
qualified APHIS and Vietnamese personnel, and in accordance with
specified phytosanitary procedures. Such programs require monitoring all
aspects of the application of any required phytosanitary measures and
also aim to identify shortcomings or opportunities for program
modifications (IPPC, 2002). Provisions should be made for the formal
recognition of approved areas, sites, or producers, as well as the
specification of conditions for revoking approvals or refusing
certification for export to the United States.

**2.3.2 Field Survey and Trapping**

Survey procedures include visual inspection, fruit cutting, and trapping
within and outside areas of production. Surveys should be conducted
periodically during the growing season to determine the presence or
absence of pests. Growers should receive or be denied certification for
export on the basis of survey or trapping results.

**2.3.3 Shipments Traceable to Place of Origin in Vietnam**

A requirement that red dragon fruit be packed in containers with
identification labels indicating the specific place of origin is
necessary to ensure traceability to each production site.

## III. Conclusions

The number and diversity of pests potentially infesting red dragon fruit
imports make it unlikely that a single risk mitigation measure will be
sufficient to adequately reduce the risk of their introduction into the
United States. For this reason, a combination of measures in a systems
approach, including grove monitoring and management programs to achieve
and maintain area pest freedom or low pest prevalence, packinghouse
inspection and treatments, quarantine treatments, and maintenance of
consignment security and traceability in transit, is most feasible.

Options for risk mitigation are summarized below in Table 1.

+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| **Table 1.** Summary  |                       |                       |
| of risk mitigation    |                       |                       |
| options for red       |                       |                       |
| dragon fruit from     |                       |                       |
| Vietnam.              |                       |                       |
+=======================+=======================+=======================+
| **Measures**          | **Pests**             | **Efficacy**          |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Pest-free areas or    | All                   | When conducted in     |
| areas of low pest     |                       | compliance with       |
| prevalence            |                       | international         |
|                       |                       | standards (*e.g.*,    |
|                       |                       | IPPC, 1996b; IPPC,    |
|                       |                       | 1999; NAPPO, 2004),   |
|                       |                       | this method satisfies |
|                       |                       | requirements for      |
|                       |                       | appropriate level of  |
|                       |                       | protection            |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Suppression/control   | Most of the pests of  | Research is required  |
| program               | concern could be      | on effectiveness of   |
|                       | managed, at least in  | methods proposed.     |
|                       | part, with a control  | Research may be       |
|                       | program, whether      | required on           |
|                       | cultural, chemical,   | effectiveness of      |
|                       | or mechanical means,  | monitoring options.   |
|                       | but the program       |                       |
|                       | should include        |                       |
|                       | monitoring and        |                       |
|                       | inspection to verify  |                       |
|                       | program               |                       |
|                       | effectiveness.        |                       |
|                       | Control must be used  |                       |
|                       | in combination with   |                       |
|                       | other measures.       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Phytosanitary         | All, but must be used | A phytosanitary       |
| Certification         | in combination with   | certificate guides    |
| Inspection and        | other measures.       | inspection efforts in |
| Monitoring            |                       | Vietnam and alerts    |
|                       |                       | U.S. inspectors to    |
|                       |                       | pests of concern with |
|                       |                       | this commodity.       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Packinghouse          | *Dysmicoccus*         | Research is required  |
| procedures, including | *neobrevipes*         | on efficacy.          |
| visual culling        |                       |                       |
|                       | *Planococcus          |                       |
|                       | lilacinus*            |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | *Planococcus minor*   |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Point-of-entry        | Most of the external  | For cut fruit, sample |
| sampling and          | pests; most of the    | size should be        |
| inspection including  | internal pests when   | adequate to detect    |
| fruit cuttings        | fruit is cut          | infestation.          |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Irradiation combined  | *Bactrocera correcta* | Approved by APHIS to  |
| T105-b with low pest  |                       | treat fruit flies.    |
| prevalence            | *Bactrocera           |                       |
|                       | cucurbitae*           |                       |
|                       |                       |                       |
|                       | *Bactrocera dorsalis* |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Irradiation, generic  | All pests             | Approved by APHIS.    |
| dose 400 Gy, combined |                       |                       |
| with low pest         |                       |                       |
| prevalence            |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Irradiation 150 Gy    | All pests             | Research is required  |
| for fruit flies       |                       | to demonstrate        |
| combined with low     |                       | efficacy.             |
| prevalence of other   |                       |                       |
| pests plus inspection |                       |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Port-of-entry         | All, but should be    |                       |
| sampling and          | used in combination   |                       |
| inspection            | with other measures.  |                       |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

This document does not purport to establish specific work plans or to
evaluate the quality of a specific program or systems approach. It
identifies risks and provides information regarding known mitigative
measures. The specification and implementation of measures, as would be
present in an operational work plan, is beyond the scope of this
document.

**Literature Cited**

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Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network. Last accessed
September 2006, http://ars-gin.gov.

Barclay, H. J., and J. W. Hargrove. 2005. Probability models to
facilitate a declaration of pest-free status, with special reference to
tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 95(1):1-11.

CABI. 2006. Crop Protection Compendium. CD-ROM. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK. CD-ROM.

CFR. 2003a. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 7, Volume 5. Sec.
319.56-2u Conditions governing the entry of lettuce and peppers from
Israel. .

CFR. 2003b. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 7, Volume 5. Sec. 319.56
Notice of Quarantine. .

CFR. 2003c. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 7, Volume 5. Sec. Sec.
319.56-2dd Administrative instructions: conditions governing the entry
of tomatoes. .

IPPC. 1996a. Guidelines for pest risk analysis. International Standards
for Phytosanitary Measures Publication No. 2. Rome: Secretariat of the
International Plant Protection Convention, United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization

IPPC. 1996b. Requirements for the establishment of pest free areas.
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Rome: Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention,
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

IPPC. 1999. Requirements for the establishment of pest free places of
production and pest free production sites. International Standards for
Phytosanitary Measures Publication No. 10. Rome: Secretariat of the
International Plant Protection Convention, United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization.

IPPC. 2002. The use of integrated measures in a systems approach for
pest risk management. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
Publication No. 14. Rome: Secretariat of the International Plant
Protection Convention, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

IPPC. 2003. Guidelines for the use of irradiation as a phytosanitary
measure. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures Publication
No. 18. Rome: Secretariat of the International Plant Protection
Convention, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

IPPC. 2004. Pest risk analysis for quarantine pests, including analysis
of environmental risks and living modified organisms. International
Standards for Phytosanitary Measures Publication No. 11. Rome:
Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention, United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

IPPC. 2005a. International standards for phytosanitary measures,
Glossary of phytosanitary terms. Secretariat of the International Plant
Protection Convention, United Nations FAO.

IPPC. 2005b. Requirements for the establishment of areas of low pest
prevalence. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
Publication No. 22. Rome: Secretariat of the International Plant
Protection Convention, United Nations Food and Agriculture.

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Jacobs, D. 1999. The Australian New Crop Newsletter. Issue No. 11.
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http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncn11163.htm.

Morton, J. 1987. Strawberry Pear: *Hylocereus undatus.* New Crop
Resource Online Program. Purdue University. Available online from
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/strawberry_pear_ars.html.

NAPPO. 2003. Guidelines for the establishment, maintenance and
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Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 20. Ottawa: Secretariat of the
North American Plant Protection Organization.

NAPPO. 2004. Guidelines for the establishment, maintenance and
verification of fruit fly pest free areas in North America. NAPPO
Regional Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 17. Ottawa:
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(Diptera: Tephritidae) to cold treatment. J. Econ. Entomol.
96(2):300-310

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*Hylocereus*): a new fruit crop for the Negev desert of Israel. Pages
491-495 *in* J. Janick and J. E. Simon, (eds.). New crops. Wiley, New
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*Hylocereus* and *Selenicereus*. HortScience 36(3):441.

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[^1]: Introductions of the *H. undatus* (Haw) became naturalized stands
    in 10 natural areas in six south Florida counties. These stands were
    treated and are no longer a factor affecting the native plant
    community; *H. undatus* was reclassified from a Category II invasive
    species to the "to be watched" list (Burks, 2001). The naturalized
    stands in Florida grew from abandoned cultivation or discarded
    landscaping material (Burks, 2001).

[^2]: VN=Vietnam, US= United States.

[^3]: *P. lilacinus* was found on *Acanthocereus* and *Cereus* sp. from
    Vietnam in passenger baggage (USDA AQAS, 2007).

[^4]: This pest is a highly mobile external feeder that would not be
    likely to remain on the commodity.

[^5]: Based on interceptions of *Iridomyrmex* sp. on stems and fruit of
    various commodities from Vietnam (USDA-AQAS, 2007).

[^6]: Taxonomy according to Farr *et al*. (2006); fungal name in bold
    lettering indicates the fungus's reported state in Vietnam.

[^7]: Based on generalization of the genus.

[^8]: Based on generalization of the genus.

[^9]: Based on generalization of the genus.

[^10]: Virus is not expected to follow the pathway, as it is not seed
    transmitted and it is not anticipated that fruit destined for
    consumption will be exposed to vectors or mechanical inoculation
    measures needed for transmission.

[^11]: When used within the context of the National Environmental Policy
    Act (NEPA) (7CFR §372), the significance is qualitative and
    encompasses both the likelihood and severity of an environmental
    impact.

[^12]: If the pest attacks other species within the genus or other
    genera within the family, and preference/no preference tests have
    not been conducted with the listed plant and the pest, then the
    plant is assumed to be a host.

[^13]: Because of its morphological similarities to and ability to
    hybridize with other *Hylocereus* species and Cactus genera,
    (Morton, 1987; Rav*eh et a*l., 1993; Tel-S*ur et a*l., 2001), the
    commodity intended for export has unsettled botanical nomenclature
    (Jacobs, 1999; Rav*eh et a*l., 1993; Soloman, 2006). There are
    numerous synonyms and frequent misidentifications surrounding the
    commodity (ARS, 2006; Jacobs, 1999; Morton, 1987; USDA, 2003);
    therefore, for the purposes of this assessment the commodity
    referred to as "red pitaya" or "red dragon fruit" may also include
    fruit of the following species of cacti: *Acanthocereus
    occidentalis*, *A. tetragonus* (=*A. colombianus*, *A. floridanus*,
    *A. pentagonus*, *A. pitajaya*, *Cactus pentagonus*, *C. pitajaya*,
    *C. tetrgonus*, *Cereus pentagonus, C. pitajaya*), *Cereus
    hildmannianus* (=*Cactus peruvianus*, *Cereus uruguayanus*),
    *Echinocereus conglomeratus* (=*C. conglomeratus*), *E. stramineus*
    (=*C. stramineus*, *E. enneacanthus* var. *stramineus*), *Escontria
    chiotilla* (=*C. chiotilla*), *Hylocereus costaricensis* (=*C.
    trigonus* var. *costaricensis*), *H. ocamponis* (=*C. ocamponsi*),
    *H. polyrhizus* (=*C. polyrhizus*, *H. lemairei*), *H. undatus*
    (=*Cactus triangularis, Cereus triangularis, C. tricostatus, C.
    trigonus* var. *guatemalensis*, *C. undatus, H. guatemalensis*, *H.
    tricostatus*), *Myrtillocactus geometrizans* (=*C. geometrizans*),
    *Stenocereus griseus* (=*C. griseus*), *S. gummosus* (=*C.
    gummosus*), *S. queretaroensis* (*C. queretaroensis*), *S.
    stellatus* (=*C. stellatus*), and *S. thurberi* (=*C. thurberi*,
    *Lemairocereus thurberi, Marshallocereus thurberi*, and *Pachycereus
    thurberi)* (ARS, 2006; Jacobs, 1999; Morton, 1987; Soloman, 2006;
    USDA, 2003).