**[NASA Office of Earth Science]{.smallcaps}**

**[Earth Science Applications Program]{.smallcaps}**

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## Invasive Species Management

### Program Plan: 2003-2007

![](media/image1.wmf){width="1.1902777777777778in"
height="0.9840277777777777in"}*Science for Society*

> *Accelerating the realization of economic*
>
> *and societal benefits from Earth science,*
>
> *information, and technology ...*

*June 6, 2003*

**[NASA Office of Earth Science -- Applications Program]{.smallcaps}**

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## Invasive Species Management 

### Program Plan: 2003-2007

**[Contents]{.underline}**

**I. Summary**

**II. The Earth Science Applications Program**

**III. Invasive Species Program Plan**

A.  **Program Management**

B.  **Program Partnerships and Participants**

C.  **Program Overview**

D.  **Goals and Objectives**

> **1. Near term**
>
> **2. FY04-07**

#### Invasive Species Roadmaps

E.  **Budgets FY03-05**

**Invasive Species Management Program Plan**

##### I. Summary

Management and control of invasive species, especially floristic
species, is a major national concern. Estimates on the annual cost to
management agencies in the United States, at all levels of government,
to control invasive species are as much as \$150B per year, and likely
to grow. Eradication is no longer an alternative for species that have
become endemic in certain areas. The current focus is on predicting
sites where invasive species are likely to venture and directing control
efforts to eradication of emergent, small stands of invasives before the
cost of eradication becomes to great.

The goal of the invasive species management application element is to
assist operational agencies meet their mandates to manage invasive
species. The goal will be met through partnerships between NASA and the
operational agencies. Such partnerships were formed in FY03 and will
continue in the coming years. These partnerships are taking advantage of
NASA's Earth observations, modeling and computational capabilities to
develop tools for predicting the spread of invasive species; tools that
will help the operational agencies maximize the use of available
resources for response to the invasive species threat.

NASA has joined with USGS and other agencies to develop an Invasive
Species Forecasting System. USGS has the operational mandate for the
ISFS. Full development of the system will take several years, but a
prototype will be available on-line early in FY04.

**II. ESE and the Applications Program**

The purpose of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) is to increase our
knowledge of the Earth system, including its response to natural and
human-induced changes, to enable improved predictions of climate,
weather, and natural hazards. ESE and the Earth Science Applications
Program (ESAP) serve NASA and society by expanding and accelerating
societal and economic benefits from Earth science, information, and
technology research and development. The goal of the ESAP is to bridge
the gap between Earth science research results and the adoption of data
and prediction capabilities for reliable and sustained use in decision
support.

The Enterprise works through partnerships with public, academic, and
private organizations to develop innovative approaches for using Earth
science information and technology. The ESAP enhances the availability,
interoperability, and utility of Enterprise and private sector data
sets, communications, computing, and modeling capabilities to serve
specific national applications.

Overall, the approach is to enable the assimilation of Earth science
data and model outputs to serve as inputs to decision support tools and
assessments. Developments may be specific to a national application or
may be served through a crosscutting solution. The outcomes and impacts
are manifest in enhanced decision support and the social and economic
benefits gained through improved decision-making, public information
programs, and efficient and effective management.

[National Applications]{.underline}

The ESAP defined 12 national applications areas that can benefit from
NASA's Earth science capabilities. Within each national application
area, partnerships are sought with Federal, academic, and private sector
organizations, with appropriate information infrastructure to apply NASA
observations and models, and/or the mandate to build capacity to
integrate advanced technologies and complex data for enhanced decision
support. These partners own and operate decision support tools for their
policy, analysis and management responsibilities.

ESAP supports the national application by providing the partners with
NASA observations and technologies to enhance their decision support
capabilities. Decision Support Systems provide systematic mechanisms to
handle the volumes of data, incorporate model outputs and predictions,
and benchmark the value of the information products.

The Enterprise applications program employs functional steps of
applications research, verification & validation, and benchmarking in
its systematic approach that enable solutions that bridge the gaps
between the research and operational domains.

> ***Applications Research*:** Evaluate the requirements and technical
> feasibility of Earth science data and models, information products,
> and predictions in partners' operational decision support needs.
>
> ***Verification & Validation*:** Measure the performance
> characteristics of data, information, models, and predictions to meet
> requirements for the applications.
>
> ***Benchmarking*:** Enable the adaptation and adoption of geospatial
> information and methods derived from Earth science results to serve
> decision support

The desired outcome within a national application is for the partner
organization to use the project results, such as guidelines, prototypes,
and procedures as benchmarks for operational use to enhance their
management and decision-making capabilities with appropriate Earth
science products and tools.

The following Program Plan describes the activities for a systematic
approach to evaluate, verify, benchmark, and extend the use of Earth
Science knowledge, data, and technology to support our partners'
decision support tools and responsibilities for invasive species
management.

**III. Invasive Species Management Program Plan**

**A. Program Management**

Mr. Ed Sheffner

Program Manager for Invasive Species Management Applications

Earth Science Applications Division (Code YO)

Office of Earth Science

NASA Headquarters

Washington DC

Responsibilities:

> • Development of and implementation of interagency agreements and
> partnerships with other organizations
>
> • Program development including program plans and budgets
>
> • Development and implementation of solicitations for carbon
> management tasks
>
> • Primary responsibility for metrics, performance goals and other
> performance evaluation criteria

Mr. Rodney McKellip

Deputy Program Manager for Invasive Species Management Applications

Project Research Scientist

Earth Science Applications Directorate

Stennis Space Center, MS

Responsibilities

> • Management of carbon management tasks at Stennis Space Center

• COTR or studies manager (as appropriate) for grants and cooperative
agreements that address invasive species management and are funded
through procurement at Stennis Space Center.

> • Primary point of contact for invasive species management tasks at
> NASA centers other than Stennis.

**B. Program Partnerships and Participants**

The invasive species management program addresses the needs of
operational agencies and other organizations that make policy and
management decisions related to invasive species management. NASA ESE is
pursuing partnerships with federal agencies that oversee land management
policies. The program also includes NASA field centers, universities and
non-government organizations that participate in research and
development related to invasive species management applications.
Partners and participants in FY04 include:

1.  Federal Agencies

> • USGS: Through its National Institute for Invasive Species Science
> (NIISS,) the USGS will provide expertise and guidance in
> identification and geolocation of key invasive species, and will
> assist in the application of biological principles in the management
> of specific organisms.

-   US Forest Service, National Park Service, USDA Natural Resources
    Conservation Service, USDA Farm Services Agency: Through their
    interest in protection of American forests, recreational facilities,
    and agricultural production systems, these groups are potential
    users of the final products developed by this Plan in an operational
    setting. As such, their input to the design and development of the
    products is critical to its success, and access to their expertise
    will be solicited at each step in the development and implementation
    process.

-   USDA-ARS: This research organization brings a strong suite of
    capabilities in biology and ecology of invasive species,
    particularly in the modeling domain. USDA-ARS also conducts focused
    research on mitigation strategies, field monitoring, and biological
    control techniques.

> 2\. NASA Centers:

-   Ames Research Center:

    -   Provide Earth Science and engineering support for the
        coordination of invasive species tasks in the western US.

    -   Development and testing of models related to impact of wildfire
        on spread of invasive species.

-   Goddard Space Flight Center:

    -   Fill the "program scientist" function for invasive species tasks
        from the Earth Science Applications Division.

    -   Provide Earth science and engineering support for development
        and testing of models, based on data from instruments on NASA
        Earth-observing platforms that improve the accuracy of our
        understanding of the spread of invasive species.

    -   Provide support for standards, interoperability and data access
        from crosscutting solution research.

-   Stennis Space Center:

    -   Earth science and systems engineering for the verification and
        validation of Earth observation datasets and models employed in
        decision support tools for invasive species, and other technical
        support as required by this Plan.

    -   Benchmarking invasive species-related solutions.

    -   Technical/managerial oversight of invasive species projects
        awarded through competitive solicitation.

    -   Provide administrative oversight of projects selected in the
        REASoN CAN in crosscutting solution research.

> 3\. Universities:

-   Mississippi State University: This research and academic institution
    will provide expertise and experience in the application of remote
    sensing, GIS, invasive species management, data integration,
    computational simulations and visualization, and outreach and
    education efforts to the stakeholder communities. Operational agency
    relationships will be developed and further refined. Through its
    relationship with the USDA Cooperative States Research, Education,
    and Extension Service, and its member academic institutions, MSU
    will also develop appropriate organizational activities for these
    institutions.

-   University of Arizona: This institution will provide expertise in
    the development of remote sensing tools for the management of arid
    riparian zones to allow site-specific attention to be placed on
    these sensitive areas commonly under attack by water-wasting forms
    of invasive vegetation.

-   University of Montana: This institution will provide support of
    near-real-time measurements of plant communities on a regional and
    global scale. The experience of UM in development of software and
    processing capabilities found on the TERRA satellite will be applied
    to demonstrations of current and forecast population dynamics of
    selected invasive species.

-   University of Missouri: This institution will provide guidance in
    land use/land cover and watershed analyses and urban management as
    related to invasive species, and ecological/biological modeling
    expertise.

> 4\. Other Organizations:
>
> • Bonneville County, ID: Bonneville County is developing an invasive
> species identification and management system under a grant from NASA
> through the Broad Agency Announcement for State, Local, Regional and
> Tribal Government Organizations (BAA_01-OES-01.) This system may serve
> as a model for other counties and local government agencies.
>
> **C. Program Overview**

For this program plan, "invasive species" are defined as non-native
plants, animals, insects and other organisms that in some way endanger
the health of native species or have significant negative economic
impact on society. The introduction and spread of invasive species in
the United States and globally are major issues, causing direct cost to
the American economy of \$100 to \$200 billion per year, greater than
all other natural disasters combined. The number of invasive species
entering the US per year is estimated to be in the thousands.

The spread of invasive species is increasing as global travel and
shipping expands the opportunity for movement of undesirable organisms.
The issue has developed diverse stakeholder support, ranging from State
and Federal land management agencies, the agricultural and recreational
industries, conservation organizations, and private landowner groups.
The National Research Council's Committee on Grand Challenges in
Environmental Sciences has identified increased understanding of
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning as one of eight "Grand Challenges
in Environmental Science" facing our nation and the world today and has
emphasized the need for developing an ecological forecasting capability
and improved management techniques for non-indigenous species.

The purpose of this program plan is to chart near-term directions for
the Invasive Species Applications Program. In this plan, Fiscal Year
2004 is best characterized as a Program-strengthening year. Emphasis
will be placed on ensuring existing investments align to the *ESE
Applications Strategy for 2002-2012*. The plan will target high priority
Invasive Species decision support issues, identifying and defining
requirements for additional partner decision support systems, and
building program capacity in certain critical areas to support current
and future partnerships. Specifically, the critical areas include: 1)
outreach toward the Federal, state and local responsible agencies, 2)
inter-disciplinary training for key individuals in those partner
agencies, and 3) the development of protocols for handling acquisition,
processing, warehousing, display, and distribution issues in the use of
Earth system science and remote sensing data.

The overall Program direction for FY04 is charted to enhance NASA\'s
ability to identify partnership opportunities with the invasive species
community and to sustain those partnerships throughout the applications
process. A near term goal is to increase NASA participation in the
National Invasive Species Council (NISC), and to make the members of the
NISC more aware of NASA capabilities and interests in collaborations
that improve the operational capabilities of those agencies with
mandates to respond to incursions of noxious species of flora and fauna.

As the goals for FY04 are met, the Program will be better able to
perform the scientific and technical advisory functions needed to
co-invest with its partners in invasive species decision support tool
enhancement and operational improvements. Cross-disciplinary
communication and competency will enable NASA and its partners to make
better use of available academic, commercial, and non-profit resources
to support these efforts. This will facilitate an investment strategy
that is appropriate for NASA and the needs of the partnership that
includes competitive announcements of opportunity, cooperative
agreements, and other approaches to Program implementation.

The background and basis for this effort was established during the
reviews and evolution of the invasive species national application
area\'s alignment with ESE Applications Strategy for 2002-2012. The
results of these evaluations indicated that the following projects
address established national invasive species priorities and have the
potential to contribute to decision support tool requirements of the
invasive species practice community. These projects include:

1.  Establishing of potential data sources for DSS ingestion.

2.  Modifying of potential data streams to fit the needs of the partner
    agencies.

3.  Developing laboratory-level "alpha" tests of prototype algorithms
    and systems.

4.  Developing "Beta" tests with partners under actual use conditions.

5.  Providing validation, verification, and analysis of test results,
    conduct modifications as required, and integration of final system
    into user's DSS.

6.  Providing follow-on monitoring.

**D. Goals and Objectives**

1\. Near term

The purpose of the near-term plan is to equip NASA and its potential
partners with the tools needed to manage their joint efforts more
effectively. Given a successful initiation year during FY03, the
operating plan for FY04 describes: 1) an inventory of current and
targeted invasive species decision support tool investments and the
partnerships supporting them; 2) technology road-maps for the intended
improvements to those systems; and, 3) recommendations for the
appropriate procurement mechanisms needed to implement these road-mapped
strategies. As a result, the Program will become fully aligned with the
*Applications Strategy*, and it will be better positioned to utilize all
of its internal and external assets in the most cost-efficient and
appropriate manner.

The overall goal for Fiscal Year 04 is to ensure commitment of
management expertise and resources from identified key players, in the
following manner:

1.  Partner and stakeholder meetings to communicate the applications
    strategy and approach; identify decision makers and initiate a
    systems engineering approach to identify, characterize and evaluate
    their priority needs for enhanced decision support tools.

2.  Work with partner organizations to improve their understanding of
    NASA contributions to their scientific information needs and
    decision support requirements. This effort involves introducing NASA
    capabilities and results into the potential agency end-user
    communities and solicit commercial entities as long-term data
    processing vendors.

3.  One NASA: Ensure that partners understand the full inventory of
    Agency capabilities that may be relevant to meeting their decision
    support requirements.

The plan includes investigations of current and planned NASA missions
which may contribute to the enhancement of partner's DSSs and
development or modification of models that facilitate input of NASA
datasets for interpretation of information relative to invasive species'
presence and their potential for invasion. The DSSs of the partners
shall be baselined, used as the bases of design, development, and test
of advanced analysis systems, and benchmarked following introduction of
the prototypes to ensure beneficial operation.

This Program Plan builds upon the following key capabilities:

-   NASA's comprehensive remote sensing capabilities:

-   The current joint United States Geological Survey /NASA work on
    identification, geolocation, and management of invasive species;

-   Collaborative research with the USDA Agricultural Research Service
    (USDA-ARS), cooperating universities; and,

-   Tthe operational implementation capabilities of the Department of
    Interior Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, and US
    Forest Service.

A structured approach that is based on ecological understanding with
individual species will be incorporated into a collective modeling
approach for an overall decision support system. NASA expertise and
capabilities in sensing and modeling climate change at regional and
global scales, natural and human-induced hazards, and weather events
will be integral to this DSS development effort. The end product will be
a robust and dynamic system to identify and manage information on
potential and existing threatened areas for species invasions. This
management system will be used for decision support by private and
public national, state, and local agencies for planning and execution of
remediation, management, and control programs.

a\. National Invasive Species Forecasting System

As a demonstration of the capabilities of the planned system, the NASA
Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) and the USGS will develop a National
Invasive Species Forecasting System (NISFS) for the management and
control of invasive species on all Department of Interior and adjacent
lands. The project will use early detection and monitoring protocols and
predictive models developed at the USGS National Institute for Invasive
Species Science (NIISS) at Fort Collins, Colorado to process NASA and
commercial data and to create on-demand, local-, regional-, and
national-scale assessments of invasive species patterns and vulnerable
habitats. The end-user community will be involved in all stages of its
development and demonstration, and the system will be made broadly
available through the Internet-based USGS "National Biological
Information Infrastructure Program."

> i\. Overview

The NISFS will provide revolutionary capabilities of importance to
understanding and managing the effects of invasive species on human
health, economic issues, native biodiversity, and ecosystem processes.
The techniques developed under this Plan will have an immediate need for
information derived from current and planned NASA ESE research programs,
including climate change, temporal and spatial ocean and land cover
change, vegetation characterization, precipitation, soil moisture,
topography, hydrologic cycles, and national and global carbon
relationships. This process will be interlinked with geographic
information system (GIS) capabilities in tracking, assessment, and
prediction of probable introduction points, disease outbreaks, potential
rate of organism spread, potential success in alternative management
activities, and actual successful implementation of mitigation efforts.
This will also create important new opportunities for commercial
delivery of technologies for use by private industry and the consumer,
meeting the NASA Strategic Plan requirements to expand and accelerate
the realization of societal and economic benefits from Earth science,
information, and technology.

> ii\. Approach and Methodology

This National Application will be developed through a combination of
actions designed to improve the accuracy and timeliness of predictive
models and the integration of such predictions in the operations of
federal, state, local and tribal organizations responsible for invasive
species management. Projects funded by NASA/ESE that address elements of
invasive species management will be coordinated through this Program so
that model development, testing, and application are accomplished by an
integrated scheme. This activity will be designed to integrate
techniques, models, and capabilities into an overall system for managing
invasive species threat.

> iii\. Status

The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is working with NIISS and
Mississippi State University (MSU) to develop a detailed strategy for
invasive species management and to define NASA contributions to an
invasive species decision support system. A core group of scientists has
been chartered to design, develop, and test a prototype system that
meets the requirements of this Program Plan. In October 2002, a meeting
was held with representatives from NASA, USGS, MSU, the National Park
Service, and USDA-ARS to begin the assessment process for needs
definition in the creation of the NISFS. A national workshop was then
conducted in March 2003, with participants from selected research and
stakeholder organizations, which further refined needs and capabilities.
Subsequent to the workshop, a second meeting was held at the NIISS to
organize an implementation strategy.

The primary outcome of this work will be a dynamic and flexible NISFS
that will allow scientists and resource managers to integrate
high-resolution satellite data with other types of ground-based data in
order to model and analyze regional-scale biological resources. The
information products produced by the system will be electronic and
printed maps of potential "hot spots" of native plant diversity,
including: (1) probable locations of rare habitats; (2) probable
locations of relict/unique species assemblages; (3) potential areas of
future invasion; (4) spatial auto-correlations with cross-correlation
statistics for single exotic species; (5) accuracy assessments of native
and exotic plant diversity; (6) evaluation levels of uncertainty in maps
of natural resources; and, (7) classification and regression trees for
map accuracy. These products are critical elements of an invasive
species DSS.

b\. USDA

Invasive species was identified by the USDA as one of five NASA national
application areas in which USDA wished to pursue collaborative projects.
Progress toward identifying specific projects in invasive species was
made at a joint USDA/NASA workshop in Denver in early March, 2003 and a
subsequent meeting at Agricultural Research Service later that month. It
is anticipated that an initial project will be defined by early FY04.

> 2\. FY04 through FY07

During the period of FY04 through FY07, the following tasks will be
accomplished:

a.  Identify end-users; select appropriate end-user research and
    development participants.

b.  Determine the management contexts of the end-users and their related
    organizations.

c.  Baseline end-user decision support systems (DSSs).

d.  Establish a system for large-area image and ancillary data storage,
    quick retrieval of data, rapid processing of data into pertinent
    information, and delivery of custom analyses via Web access.

e.  Baseline information about major terrestrial types of invasive
    species obtained, analyzed, cataloged, stored, and made available
    for delivery.

f.  Summarize ecological dynamics of key species investigated and the
    results posted to the Web access sites.

g.  Determine acceptable minimum population levels by species.

h.  Regional and global land cover analyses completed; analysis for
    presence and extent of key invasive species populations.

i.  Determine the habitat and biology of species that have
    characteristics that would make them potential invasive species in
    non-indigenous areas and estimate their potential for spreading.

j.  Determine potential routes and probable methods of invasion of
    identified potential threats and define methods of interdiction.

k.  Baseline socioeconomic impact of key species in selected areas.

l.  Determination of effective management scheme by species.

m.  Development and test of prototype data acquisition, analysis, and
    information product delivery system.

n.  Deployment of beta-test DSS with integrated information products.

o.  Exercise prototype, benchmark its capabilities, and modify as
    appropriate to meet user's needs.

p.  Deploy the system to receptive end users.

q.  Engage the private enterprise system to adapt the system and its
    components for commercial applications.

r.  Provide technical support.

The following are projects, commitments and capabilities in invasive
species in FY03:

-   Development and implementation of remote sensing techniques to
    monitor invasive plant species in the State of Idaho -- Jeffrey
    Pettingill, Bonneville County\*.

-   Developing a biospheric nowcast and forecast capability for the
    conterminous US -- Ramakrishna Nemani, University of Montana.

-   Predicting regional-scale exotic plant invasions in grand
    Staircase-Escalante National Monument -- John Schnase, Goddard Space
    Flight Center.

-   Biotic Prediction: Building the Computational Technology
    Infrastructure for Public Health and Environmental Forecasting --
    John Schnase, Goddard Space Flight Center\*.

-   Remote sensing tools for monitoring and managing a sensitive, arid
    zone riparian corridor -- Edward P. Glenn, University of Arizona.

-   Remote Surveying of Federal Noxious Weeds for Management Strategy
    Development -- John Byrd, Andrew Ezell, and Charles Bryson,
    Mississippi State University

> \*Will continue in FY04

NASA's ESE currently provides data from Terra, QuickScat, Landsat 7,
Jason-1 and other missions that map key ecosystem attributes needed to
predict invasive species distributions. A number of planned missions
will expand these measurements to include critical three-dimensional
structure derived from synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and light
detection and ranging (LIDAR) technologies. Measurements are also
enabled through purchase of commercial imagery, including ocean color
imagery from SeaWiFS, high resolution optical imagery from IKONOS,
QuickBird, and other private sector satellites. These data sets will be
augmented by aerial data acquisitions where appropriate. When available,
data will be utilized from the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM).
In addition, NASA provides for the computational capabilities and
expertise in large-scale, coupled Earth system modeling needed to assure
the successful transfer of the system into operational use.

E. Invasive Species Roadmaps

![](media/image3.wmf){width="5.990972222222222in"
height="4.503472222222222in"}

####### F. Budgets FY03-05

  ---------------------------- ------------ ----------------------------- ------------ ------------ ------------
  [Competitive                                                            \$K          \$K          \$K
  Solicitations]{.underline}                                                                        

  Institution                  PI           Title/Subject                 FY03         FY04         FY05

  Bonneville County, ID        Pettingill   Development and               283.9        144.6        0.0
                                            implementation of remote                                
                                            sensing techniques to monitor                           
                                            invasive plant species in the                           
                                            State of Idaho^1^                                       

  University of Montana        Nemani       Developing a biospheric       100.0        0.0          0.0
                                            nowcast and forecast                                    
                                            capability for the                                      
                                            conterminous US^2^                                      

  NASA/GSFC                    Schnase      Predicting regional-scale     251.3        0.0          0.0
                                            exotic plant invasions in                               
                                            grand Staircase-Escalante                               
                                            National Monument^2^                                    

  NASA/GSFC                    Schnase      Biotic Prediction: Building   425.0        627.3        641.7
                                            the Computational Technology                            
                                            Infrastructure for Public                               
                                            Health and Environmental                                
                                            Forecasting^3^                                          

  University of Arizona        Glenn        Remote sensing tools for      204.0        0.0          0.0
                                            monitoring and managing a                               
                                            sensitive, arid zone riparian                           
                                            corridor^2^                                             

  California State             Watson       Systems Integration and       500.0        300.0        300.0
  Univ.Monterey Bay                         Visualization of Yellowstone:                           
                                            an Earth Systems Research,                              
                                            Application, and Education                              
                                            Solution^3^                                             

  NatureServe                  Grossman     Delineating Ecological Sytems 200.0        200.0        200.0
                                            and Advancing Decision                                  
                                            Support Tools for Land Use                              
                                            Planning^3^                                             

                                            Subtotal                      1964.2       1271.9       1141.7

  [Challenge                                                                                        
  Grants]{.underline}                                                                               

  Mississippi State University Byrd         Remote Surveying of Federal   193.0        300.0        0.0
                                            Noxious Weeds for Management                            
                                            Strategy Development                                    

                                            Subtotal                      193.0        300.0        0.0

  [Projects Initiated by                                                                            
  Invasive Species                                                                                  
  Application]{.underline}                                                                          

                                            Initiation of collaborative                300.0        300.0
                                            work with USDA on invasive                              
                                            species                                                 

                                            Competitive solicitation                   1000.0       1000.0
                                            responding to needs of the                              
                                            invasive species application                            

                                            Subtotal                                   1300.0       1300.0

                                            **TOTAL**                     **2157.2**   **2871.9**   **2441.7**

  ^1^ State and Local BAA                                                                           

  ^2^ Carbon et al., NRA                                                                            

  ^3^ REASoN CAN                                                                                    
  ---------------------------- ------------ ----------------------------- ------------ ------------ ------------