######## Session No. 14

**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

**Course Title: Coastal Hazards Management**

**Session Title: Technological Hazards Facing Coastal Communities**

**Author: Stephen Meinhold, University of North Carolina at Wilmington**

> **Time: 50 Minutes**

**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

**Objectives:**

**Objective 14.1** Discuss the similarities and differences between
natural and manmade hazards, and define key terms to be used during the
discussion of technological hazards facing coastal managers.

**Objective 14.2** Describe four of the primary hazards associated with
ports and shipping in the United States, including Terrorist Activity;
Accidents; Hazardous Materials Transportation; and Environmental
Impacts.

**Objective 14.3** Describe the hazards associated with the location of
United States military installations in and near coastal communities.

Objective 14. 4 Discuss some of the hazards associated with conventional
energy development in ocean and coastal areas, as well as opportunities
for alternative sources of power.

**Objective 14.5** Discuss some of the challenges and opportunities that
brownfields present to coastal managers.

**Objective 14.6** Discuss the sources and impacts of pollution in ocean
and coastal waters, including sources and pathways of common pollutants,
marine debris and beach litter, and ocean dumping

Objective 14.7 Discuss the issues presented to coastal managers by the
tourism and cruise ship industries

**Scope:**

Sessions 14 and 15 will introduce the students to the concepts of
manmade hazards, and the impacts that humans can have on the coastal
zone. Session 14 begins the discussion by defining key terms, including
technological hazard, terrorism, and the differences and similarities
between natural and manmade hazards. The session then goes on to discuss
some of the technological hazards that face coastal communities,
including the hazards posed by ports, shipping and navigation; energy
development in the coastal zone, including nuclear energy and oil and
gas exploration; issues presented by military installations in coastal
areas; coastal brownfields; the hazards posed by pollution in the
coastal zone, including stormwater runoff, toxic substances, beach and
marine debris, and ocean dumping; and finally, issues presented to
coastal managers by the tourism and cruise ship industries.

Session 15 continues the discussion of manmade hazards in the coastal
zone, focusing on the impacts these hazards may cause. The session
begins with a definition of the term "anthropogenic," and the two most
prevalent anthropogenic hazards -- pollution and coastal development.
Session 15 then goes on to describe some common anthropogenic impacts on
the coastal environment, including human impacts on estuaries,
human-caused destruction of wetlands, damage to coral reefs, the
introduction of invasive species, and human interference with coastal
processes. Session 15 also includes a discussion of harmful algal blooms
as the most dominant biological hazard facing coastal managers.

**Readings (for sessions 14 and 15):**

*Instructor and Student Readings:*

Beatley, Timothy, David J. Brower, and Anna K. Schwab. 2002. *An
Introduction to Coastal Zone Management, 2^nd^ Edition.* Washington, DC:
Island Press, Chapter 1 "Introduction," and Chapter 3 "Coastal Pressures
and Critical Management Issues."

Bush, David M., Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal. 1996. *Living
by the Rules of the Sea*. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, chapter 5
"Evolving Approaches to Property Damage Mitigation: Focusing on the
Island Front through Engineering and Regulation," and pp. 115-117.

Coch, Nicholas K. 1995. *Geohazards: Natural and Human*. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Chapter 12 "Waste Disposal," Chapter 13
"Estuarine and Wetland Problems," Chapter 14 "Problems of Mangrove
Wetlands and Coral Reefs," Chapter 15 "Coastal Problems."

Freudenburg, William R. 1997. "Contamination, Corrosion and the Social
Order: An Overview." *Current Sociology* 45(3):19-40.

 

Gramling, Robert and Naomi Krogman. 1997. "Communities, Policy and
Chronic Technological Disasters." *Current Sociology* 45(3):41-58.

> [Note]{.underline}: The publication *Current Sociology* may be
> difficult to access for students at smaller schools. However, the
> publication is typically available through inter-library loan programs
> of most higher education institutions.

*Additional Readings:*

Baum, Andrew, Raymond Fleming, and Laura M. Davidson.1983. "Natural
disaster and technological catastrophe." *Environment and Behavior*
15:333-354.

Crouch, Stephen Robert and J. Stephen Kroll-Smith. 1991. *Communities at
Risk: Collective Responses to Technological Hazards*. New York: Peter
Lang.

Cutter, Susan. 1993. *Living With Risk*. London: Edward Arnold.

LaPlante, Josephine M. and J. Steohen Kroll-Smith. 1989. "Coordinated
emergency management: The challenge of the chronic technological
disaster." *International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters*
7:116-132.

Levinson, Jay and Hayim Granot. 2002. *Transportation Disaster Response
Handbook*. New York: Academic Press.

National Academy of Engineering. 1986. *Hazards: Technology and
Fairness*. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Quarantelli, E.L. 1994. "Technological and Natural Disasters and
Ecological Problems: Similarities and Differences in Planning for and
Managing Them." Conference paper:
<http://www.udel.edu/DRC/preliminary/192.pdf>

Shaluf, Ibrahim M.; Fakharul-razi Ahmadun, and Sa\'ari Mustapha. 2003.
"Technological disaster\'s criteria and models." *Disaster Prevention
and Management* 12:305-311.

Waugh, William L. 2000. *Living With Hazards, Dealing With Disasters: An
Introduction to Emergency Management.* New York: ME Sharpe.

###### General Requirements

This session is to be presented as lecture supported by PowerPoint
slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged. The slides may provide
ample opportunity to spark class discussion.

To generate discussion, the instructor may wish to ask each student to
identify a technological hazard faced by a coastal community. Identify
relevant public and private organizations in that community responsible
for dealing with the hazard and determine whether the community has
taken any hazard mitigation steps.

Other topics for class discussion include:

-   Discuss the vulnerability of the local coastal area to technological
    hazards.

-   Make a list of three challenges faced by coastal hazard managers in
    mitigating technological hazards.

-   Identify natural hazard mitigation strategies that also mitigate
    technological hazards.

**PowerPoint Slides:**

**PowerPoint 14.1** Ports and Shipping in the United States

**PowerPoint 14.2** Cargo Ship at Dock

**PowerPoint 14.3** Ports and Harbors Get Busier as the Volume of Cargo
Increases

> with the Rise in International Trade

**PowerPoint 14.4** Accident at the Port of New Orleans

**PowerPoint 14.5** Diesel Fuel from Ships Pollutes the Air

**PowerPoint 14.6** Ports Require Large Areas of Land and Coastal Waters

PowerPoint 14.7 Port Lights at Night May Disturb Wildlife and Nearby
Neighbors

**PowerPoint 14.8** Norfolk Dredging Co.

**PowerPoint 14.9** Dredging Area

**PowerPoint 14.10** Pumping Dredged Material

**PowerPoint 14.11** Dredged Material

**PowerPoint 14.12** U.S. Military Facilities Within the United States

**PowerPoint 14.13** US Navy Aircraft Carrier

**PowerPoint 14.14** Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge

**PowerPoint 14.15** Navy Fighter Jet

**PowerPoint 14.16** Military Helicopter

**PowerPoint 14.17** US Navy Submarine

**PowerPoint 14.18** Beached Whale

**PowerPoint 14.19** Offshore Oil Wells May Leak Petroleum

**PowerPoint 14.20** Accident During Tanker Transport

**PowerPoint 14.21** Exxon Valdez

**PowerPoint 14.22** Oil Spill Reaches Shore

**PowerPoint 14.23** Growing Oil Slick

**PowerPoint 14.24** Heavy Oil in the Form of a Tar Mat on Beach

**PowerPoint 14.25** Boom Contains Oil Spill

**PowerPoint 14.26** Oil Spill Cleanup on Shore

**PowerPoint 14.27** Response Vessel Towing Boom to Damaged Tanker

**PowerPoint 14.28** Damage Assessment Following Oil Spill

**PowerPoint 14.29** Location of US Nuclear Power Reactors

**PowerPoint 14.30** Nuclear Facility in Coastal Florida

**PowerPoint 14.31** Ocean Floor Disposal of Nuclear Waste

**PowerPoint 14.32** Offshore Wind Farms in Danish Coastal Waters

**PowerPoint 14.33** Wave Energy

**PowerPoint 14.34** Tidal Energy

**PowerPoint 14.35** Coastal Brownfield

**PowerPoint 14.36** Brownfields are often the site of former industrial
facilities

**PowerPoint 14.37** Surrounding waterways are often impaired in
brownfield locations

**PowerPoint 14.38** Multiple Brownfield Sites in New Bedford, MA

**PowerPoint 14.39** Improved Waterfront Access in Revitalized Coastal
Brownfield

**PowerPoint 14.40** Dredging in New Bedford Harbor Improves Navigation

**PowerPoint 14.41** Trash in Coastal Waters

**PowerPoint 14.42** Debris Hazards to Marine Animals

**PowerPoint 14.43** Trash Under the Ocean

**PowerPoint 14.44** Ocean Dumping From Split Hull Barge

**PowerPoint 14.45** Dumping of Sewage Sludge

**PowerPoint 14.46** Garbage Barge

**PowerPoint 14.47** Coastal Tourism: Sand, Sea, and Sun

**PowerPoint 14.48** Miami Beach, Florida

**PowerPoint 14.49** Riis Park in New York City With Parking in
Background

**PowerPoint 14.50** Ecotourism: Biking

**PowerPoint 14.51** Ecotourism: Birdwatching

**PowerPoint 14.52** Cruise Ship

Objective 14.1 Discuss the similarities and differences between natural
and manmade hazards, and define key terms to be used during the
discussion of technological hazards facing coastal managers.

**Requirements:**

This Objective is to be presented as lecture.

**Remarks:**

###### [Natural vs. Manmade Hazards]{.underline}

-   Disasters are events that can cause loss of life and property,
    environmental damage, and disruption of governmental, social, and
    economic activities. They occur when hazards impact human
    settlements and the built environment. (FEMA)

-   Among the hazards that face coastal communities are the natural
    hazards that we have discussed in previous sessions, such as
    hurricanes, flooding, tsunami, erosions, and other events that are
    produced by the natural world.

    -   Coastal communities are also susceptible to manmade hazards,
        including **technological hazards**, **terrorism**, and the
        **anthropogenic effects** of development, pollution, and other
        human activities.

-   These manmade hazards are distinct from natural hazards primarily in
    that they **originate from human activity**. In contrast, while the
    risks presented by natural hazards may be increased or decreased as
    a result of human activity, they are not inherently human-induced
    (FEMA)

####### Definitions

-   While there is no hard and fast definition for any one of these
    terms (and indeed, the terms are often used synonymously and their
    definitions overlap tremendously), for purposes of this session and
    the next we will assume the following parameters:

##### [Terrorism]{.underline}

-   The term "terrorism" refers to **intentional, criminal, malicious
    acts**. There is no single, universally accepted definition of
    terrorism, and it can be interpreted in many ways. (FEMA)

    -   Officially, terrorism is defined in the **Code of Federal
        Regulations** as

*"...the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property
to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any
segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives"* (28
CFR, Section 0.85).

-   The **Federal Bureau of Investigation** (FBI) further characterizes
    terrorism as either **domestic or international**, depending upon
    the origin, base and objectives of the terrorist organization.
    (FEMA)

-   However, the origin of the terrorist or person causing the hazard is
    far less relevant to mitigation planning than the hazard itself and
    its consequences. (FEMA)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The following **hazards** are often associated with **terrorism**
    (FEMA):

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Conventional bomb/improvised explosive device

-   Biological agent

-   Chemical agent

-   Nuclear bomb

-   Radiological agent

-   Arson/incendiary attack

-   Armed attack

-   Cyberterrorism

-   Agriterrorism

-   Hazardous material release (intentional)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Because **coastal areas** are the loci of many important **critical
    facilities** (ports, harbors, military installations, industrial
    sites, power generation facilities, valuable residential and
    commercial property, etc), they are as **vulnerable**, if not more
    so, than some inland areas to terrorist attack.

##### [Technological Hazards]{.underline}

-   The term "technological hazard" refers to the **origins of
    incidents** that can arise from **human activities**. (FEMA)

-   Some **definitions** of technological hazard include:

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Technological hazards involve "... the interaction between
    technology, society and the environment**.**" They "...arise from
    our individual and collective use of technology" (Cutter).

-   A range of hazards emanating from the manufacture, transportation,
    and use of such substances as radioactive materials, chemicals,
    explosives, flammables, agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and
    disease agents; oil spills on land, coastal waters, or inland water
    systems; and debris from space. (FEMA 1992, Federal Response Plan,
    Appendix B)

-   Human-made hazards such as nuclear power accidents, industrial plant
    explosions, aircraft crashes, dam breaks, mine cave-ins, pipeline
    explosions, and hazardous materials accidents (unknown).

**[Difference Between Natural and Manmade Hazards]{.underline}**

-   The fundamental difference between natural and manmade hazards is
    that the former are caused by humans, which in turn contributes to
    the **unpredictable** essence of technological hazards, presenting
    **management challenges** that are not presented when dealing with
    natural hazards.

    -   The types, frequencies, and locations of many **natural hazards
        are identifiable** and even, in some cases, predictable. They
        are governed by the laws of physics and nature.

    -   Malevolence, incompetence, carelessness, and other behaviors, on
        the other hand, are **functions of the human mind** and, while
        they can be assumed to exist, they **cannot be forecast** with
        any accuracy. There is, therefore, the potential for most, if
        not all, types of manmade hazards to occur anywhere. (FEMA)

-   There are other, **notable differences** between natural and manmade
    hazards, particularly those related to terrorism.

    -   Foremost among these is that **terrorists have the ability to
        choose among targets and tactics**, designing their attack to
        maximize the chances of achieving their objective.

    -   Similarly, accidents, system failures, and other **mishaps are
        also largely unforeseeable**. This makes it very difficult to
        identify how and where these hazards may occur.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   As compared to natural disasters such as flooding and hurricanes
    that face coastal managers on a regular basis, **technological
    hazards occur less frequently**.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   "*Of course, the reality is that natural hazards may indeed present
    a much greater risk than terrorism and technological disasters due
    to their higher frequency of occurrence*." (FEMA)

###### Impacts

-   Whether intentional or accidental, manmade disasters -- as with
    natural disasters -- involve the one or more **typical types of
    impact**, including

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   injury and death

-   contamination (as in the case of chemical, biological, radiological,
    or nuclear hazards)

-   property damage (explosives, arson, electromagnetic waves)

-   disruption in service (sabotage, infrastructure breakdown,
    transportation service disruption. ) (FEMA)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Depending on the nature of the incident, the **impacts** of a
    manmade hazard can be **localized** -- even limited to a single
    building -- **or** they can be **widespread,** encompassing a
    metropolitan area, a watershed, or a transportation corridor. (FEMA)

-   Additionally, the extent of the physical damage generated by an
    incident can be **surpassed by its associated economic impacts**, as
    demonstrated by the national-level economic effects of the September
    11, 2001 attacks. (FEMA)

###### [Mitigating the Impacts of Manmade Hazards]{.underline}

-   **Despite the many obstacles and relatively rare occurrence**,
    coastal managers should survey closely the technological hazards to
    which their communities are vulnerable, and consider **appropriate
    mitigation strategies** to reduce their impact. Coastal emergency
    managers must consider the unpredictable nature of these events and
    their potential consequences.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   While we may not be able to prevent every accident or deliberate
    attack, it well **within our ability to reduce the likelihood and/or
    the potential effects** of an incident through mitigation.

-   The **process of mitigating hazards** before they become disasters
    is similar for both natural and manmade hazards. Whether we are
    dealing with natural disasters, threats of terrorism, or hazardous
    materials incidents, we use a process of

1.  identifying and organizing resources

2.  conducting a risk or threat assessment and estimating potential
    losses

3.  identifying mitigation actions that will reduce the effects of the
    hazards and creating a strategy to place them in priority order

4.  implementing the actions, evaluating the results, and keeping the
    plan up-to-date. (FEMA).

    -   This step-by-step process is known as **mitigation planning**,
        and will be discussed at length in later sessions of this
        course.

-   One of the **fundamental differences** in planning for manmade
    disasters versus natural disasters is that **most people have had
    little or no firsthand exposure** to them. (FEMA)

    -   Even in light of the alarming increase in terrorist activity
        directed against the United States, the aging infrastructure,
        the persistence of security shortfalls in some sectors, and the
        proximity of industrial hazards to population centers, the
        **public's perception of risk varies widely**. (FEMA)

    -   This perception is influenced by many factors, such as **media
        portrayal** of events, the level of **public education**
        available, and an **individual's experience** with various
        hazards. (FEMA)

    -   Because the United States has a relatively short history of
        dealing with manmade hazards, discussions on this subject may be
        characterized by elements of **uncertainty and even fear**.
        (FEMA)

**Objective 14.2** **Describe four of the primary hazards associated
with ports and shipping in the United States, including Terrorist
Activity; Accidents; Hazardous Materials Transportation; and
Environmental Impacts**.

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
Slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following PowerPoint slides will be used during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.1** Ports and Shipping in the United States

**PowerPoint 14.2** Cargo Ship at Dock

**PowerPoint 14.3** Ports and Harbors Get Busier as the Volume of Cargo
Increases

> with the Rise in International Trade

**PowerPoint 14.4** Accident at the Port of New Orleans

**PowerPoint 14.5** Diesel Fuel from Ships Pollutes the Air

**PowerPoint 14.6** Ports Require Large Areas of Land and Coastal Waters

PowerPoint 14.7 Port Lights at Night May Disturb Wildlife and Nearby
Neighbors

**PowerPoint 14.8** Norfolk Dredging Co.

**PowerPoint 14.9** Dredging Area

**PowerPoint 14.10** Pumping Dredged Material

**PowerPoint 14.11** Dredged Material

Remarks:

###### [Economic Impact of Ports and Harbors in the United States]{.underline}

**\[PowerPoint Slide 14.1** Ports and Shipping in the United States\]

-   Ports and harbors are major hubs of **economic activity** in many
    coastal regions of the United States. They generate
    **opportunities** that allow businesses to flourish. Shipping
    related businesses support millions of direct and indirect **jobs**
    and create millions of dollars in **economic impact**. Additionally,
    millions of dollars in state and local **tax revenues** are
    generated by business activities related to ports and harbors
    throughout the country.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.2 Cargo Ship at Dock\]**

-   Direct and indirect **economic impacts** of the nation's ports
    include:

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   13 million jobs

-   \$494 billion in personal income

-   \$1.5 trillion in business sales

-   \$743 billion to the Nation\'s GDP

-   \$200 billion in Federal, State and local taxes

> *(Source: American Association of Port Authorities)*

-   Many coastal communities are located near or have their own port.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **five busiest ports** by cargo volume are:

    -   Los Angeles

    -   Long Beach

    -   New York

    -   Charleston

    -   Savannah.

> \[PowerPoint 14.3 Ports and Harbors Get Busier as the Volume of Cargo
> Increases with the Rise in International Trade\]

-   As the growth of **international trade** continues to rise, there
    will be corresponding rapid growth in the amount of goods being
    shipped by sea, and maritime transports will most likely increase in
    number and frequency. As a consequence, there will be a growing
    **demand for development of more ports**, and expansion of existing
    ones. Most major ports in the United States are undergoing
    expansions to accommodate even **greater cargo volumes**.

**[Note:]{.underline}** The instructor may wish to make an assignment
for the students to find the rankings of a hometown port or one nearby
at Port Rankings by cargo volume:
<http://www.marad.dot.gov/Marad_Statistics/Con-Pts-02.htm>

###### [Location of Ports and Harbors]{.underline}

-   In most cases, ports and harbors are **situated on the border zones
    between land and sea**.

    -   Some of them are located **directly on the shore** and often
        **extended into sea** areas through reclamation of the
        surrounding seabed.

    -   Alternatively, many ports and harbors are **built on the banks
        of estuaries**, and may significantly alter the area\'s natural
        hydrology.

    -   Ports and harbors, and activities pursuant to them, are
        therefore often close to or in direct contact with **rich and
        valuable ecosystems**, such as shallow seabeds, estuarine
        waters, mud flats and wetlands.

        -   These habitats also constitute essential and important
            **breeding, nursery, feeding and migration areas** for many
            fish species (including commercially important species),
            birds and other wildlife.

    -   Ports and harbors are also places where various **industrial
        activities** are performed, either by port authorities,
        stevedores, or industries located within or in areas close to
        port areas such as oil terminals and refineries.

    -   Thus, the effects of ports and harbors on the coastal
        environment may be not only in terms of the environment but on
        economic and social well-being of communities dependent on
        coastal resources or located in close proximity. (Unite Nations)

**[Concerns Presented by Ports and Harbors to Coastal
Communities]{.underline}**

-   Ports are a critical part of coastal communities and present a
    number of concerns to those addressing hazards in coastal areas.

    -   In this section we consider **four general areas of concern**:

        -   *Terrorist Activity*

        -   *Accidents*

        -   *Hazardous Materials Transportation*.

        -   *Environmental Impacts*

###### *[Terrorist Activity]{.underline}*

-   Ports have always been a potential target of terrorist activity but
    since **September 11, 2001** there has been a considerable increase
    in the attention given to the vulnerability of ports.

-   Coastal hazard managers should be involved in hazard planning and
    mitigation by nearby ports.

-   Key players in **port security** include: the local or state port
    authority and the United States Coast Guard.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Since 9/11 the **U.S. Coast Guard** has become a prominent player in
    protecting the nation's 361 ports.
    (<http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?theme=21&content=3380>)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **local or state port authority** will have emergency planners
    who are addressing the requirements for terrorist threats.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The most current legislation addressing port security is the
    **Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002.**

Summary: (<http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/MTSA_Presskit.doc>)

Complete legislation: (<http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/mp/pdf/MTSA.pdf>)

###### *[Accidents]{.underline}*

-   **Groundings** and **collisions** represent serious hazards to
    coastal communities with nearby ports.

-   Local, state and federal organizations are responsible for efforts
    to limit the likelihood of such accidents as well as any impact from
    them should they occur.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   An *example* of efforts in this area include the **National Ocean
    Service** (NOS) **Center for Operational and Oceanographic Products
    and Services** (CO-OPS) which "collects and distributes observations
    and predictions of water levels and currents to ensure safe,
    efficient and environmentally sound maritime commerce."
    (<http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/index.html>)

-   **Local** communities may have a **Harbor Safety Committee** that
    includes public and private stakeholders working to ensure the
    safety of a port or waterway. Information about many local harbor
    safety committees can be accessed from the United States Coast Guard
    website: <http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/harborsafety/local_hscs.htm>.

> **\[PowerPoint Slide 14.4 Accident at the Port of New Orleans**\]

-   Accidents may be the result of **human error**, **mechanical
    failure, or natural causes**

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   In December of 1996 a large freighter ran into the Riverwalk on the
    New Orleans, LA riverfront. The accident was the result of
    mechanical failure. Thankfully, no one was seriously injured,
    although property at the accident site was damaged severely.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **National Transportation Safety Board** (NTSB) is involved in
    researching and reporting on accidents that occur at U.S. ports.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Here is an example of a press release for a report by the NTSB for
    an accident at the Port of New Orleans:
    <http://www.ntsb.gov/pressrel/1998/980113c.htm>

## 

###### *[Hazardous Materials Transportation]{.underline}*

-   **Many hazardous materials**, including oil and gas, spent nuclear
    fuel, chemicals, and other hazardous materials **begin their
    journey** **from a port** of the United States.

-   The **Office of Hazardous Materials Safety** in the Department of
    Transportation **(DOT)** is responsible issues surrounding the
    transportation of hazardous materials. (<http://hazmat.dot.gov/>)

-   **Hazard mitigation plans** will describe **major transportation
    routes** and address the vulnerability of a community to hazardous
    materials traveling on these routes.

    -   Coastal hazard managers should be very involved in the
        assessment of the **risk** posed by the **loading, unloading and
        transportation** of hazardous materials from a nearby port.

###### *[Environmental Impact of Ports]{.underline}*

-   Environmental impacts of ports and harbors can occur during the
    **construction, expansion or conversion,** as well as during
    subsequent **daily operation**.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Possible environmental impacts** include:

    -   **air and water pollution**

    -   **dredging**

    -   **aquatic nuisance species**

    -   **loss of wildlife habitats**

    -   **loss of public access** to coastal resources

    -   **land use issues** (Coastal Services, 2004 Volume 7, Issue 4).

    -   **Community impacts**

    -   **Waste and waste management**

        -   The **Natural Resources Defense Counsel (NRDC)** has
            published a **report card** on the environmental impact of
            10 U.S. ports that includes recommendations for port
            managers and others concerned about the coast
            (<http://www.nrdc.org/air/pollution/ports/ports.pdf>)

###### [Water pollution]{.underline}

-   Port **construction and development**, port **functions,** and
    **shipping, loading and docking** operations are all sources of
    water pollution in and around ports and harbors.

    -   Impacts of water pollution include **bacterial, viral, and toxin
        contamination** of fish, shellfish, birds and other marine life,
        **depletion of oxygen** in the water, increased **turbidity**,
        **sedimentation**, and other impairments of water quality. (UN)

##### Sources of water pollution

-   **Bilge** is water collected at the bottom of the hull of a
    ship--water that is often **contaminated with oil** leaking from
    machinery. Bilge water must be emptied periodically to maintain a
    ship's stability and to prevent the accumulation of hazardous
    vapors. This oily wastewater, combined with other ship wastes such
    as sewage and wastewater from other onboard uses, is a serious
    threat to marine life. (NRDC)

-   **Antifouling additives** are often added to the paint used on ships
    to prevent the growth of barnacles and other marine organisms on
    ship surfaces. Some of these additives contain tributyltin (TBT), a
    toxic chemical that can leach into water. While toxic antifouling
    additives are slowly being phased out of use, these toxic pollutants
    persist in the marine environment. (NRDC)

-   **Stormwater runoff** is precipitation that travels across paved
    surfaces. Port areas comprise large impervious surfaces, which in
    conjunction with rains generates large volumes of stormwater. This
    water is often polluted by substances washed away from the surfaces,
    including automotive fluids, sediments, nutrients, pesticides,
    metals, and other pollutants. (NRDC)

####### Oil and hazardous materials spills A large share of oil contamination is the result of cumulative pollution from port runoff, unloading and loading of oil tankers, and the removal of bilge water---resulting in up to three times as much oil contamination as tanker accidents. However, large, "catastrophic" spills also have a significant impact. (NRDC)

######## 

######## [Air pollution]{.underline}

-   Air pollution is caused by the construction and development of new
    port facilities as well as during port operations.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Emissions from **vehicles and construction machinery** may affect
    the air quality in and around the development site while a port or
    harbor is under construction. Such emissions could include carbon
    monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, PAHs and
    diesel particles. Also dust generated during construction may have
    negative effects on air quality. (UN)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.5 Diesel Fuel from Ships Pollutes the Air\]**

-   The **diesel engines** at ports, which power ships, trucks, trains,
    and cargo-handling equipment, create vast amounts of air pollution
    affecting the health of workers and people living in nearby
    communities, as well as contributing significantly to regional air
    pollution. (NRDC)

-   Many ships still use **bunker oils with high sulphur content**.
    Emissions from the burning of such fuels may result in deterioration
    of air quality (increased concentrations of sulphur and nitrogen
    oxides) within the port area as well as in adjacent areas. (UN)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Health effects** of air pollution

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The health effects of pollution from ports may include **asthma,**
    other **respiratory diseases**, **cardiovascular disease**, **lung
    cancer**, and premature **death**. (NRDC)

-   **Damages to vegetation** including crops, in areas may occur as a
    result of poor air quality.

###### [Changes in land use and landscape]{.underline}

\[PowerPoint 14.6 Ports Require Large Areas of Land and Coastal Waters\]

-   Ports generally **require large areas of land and coastal waters**,
    particularly for storage areas (such as container and oil
    terminals), warehouses and also if there are industrial facilities
    located within the port area. (UN)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Furthermore, **structures built in the marine/coastal waters**, such
    as breakwaters, quays etc., occupy large land and water areas. Thus,
    a port will always affect the natural landscape in a major way. (UN)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   This happens because beaches, estuaries, mangrove areas and other
    **coastal areas are being altered** (including flattened and
    hardened). (UN)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   In addition, the development of a port or harbor will most likely
    also require the building of **access roads and support
    facilities**, which will further increase the area directly or
    indirectly affected. (UN)

###### [Waste and waste management]{.underline}

-   **Construction of port facilities** will inevitably result in the
    **production of waste building materials**, household waste
    (generated by the construction workers) and potentially **hazardous
    wastes** from products used in the construction work, for example,
    oils, solvents and paints, as well as drums of various sizes that
    have contained such substances. Lack of appropriate management of
    these wastes could have a significant impact on water quality and
    can also result in contamination of soils.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Ports are expected to handle various types of **ship-generated
    waste** --- oils from cargos and engines, hazardous chemicals, solid
    waste and sewage --- as well as **waste products** generated from
    the operation of different **port facilities**. If not handled and
    treated in an appropriate manner, this waste will cause pollution of
    land and water and, ultimately be a hazard to the natural
    environment, e.g., through discharges or leaking.

###### [Community impacts]{.underline}

-   Ports can be very bad neighbors. In addition to the air and water
    pollution problems they create, they can be **loud, ugly, brightly
    lit at night**, and a cause of **traffic jams.** These problems can
    go beyond simple annoyance to cause serious negative health effects.
    (NRDC)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   In addition to the negative effects experienced by people, noise
    from ship engines may **disturb marine mammal** hearing and behavior
    patterns, as well as **bird** feeding and nesting sites.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.7 Port Lights at Night May Disturb Wildlife and
> Nearby Neighbors\]**

-   Similarly, **artificial lights at ports**, sometimes burning 24
    hours a day, can have negative **effects on wildlife**, including
    disorientation, confusion of biological rhythms that are adapted to
    a day/night alternation, and a general degradation of habitat
    quality. (NRDC)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Ports can also be bad neighbors by **ignoring residents** of the
    communities living next door, or making little or no effort to
    solicit community input into port operational decisions that will
    directly affect the life of the community and its residents. (NRDC)

###### [Dredging]{.underline}

> **\[PowerPoint 14.8 Norfolk Dredging Co.\]**

-   Dredging is a **routine activity** of ports to **remove sediment**
    that builds up in ship channels from erosion and silt deposition.
    Dredging also **creates new chann**els and **deepens existing**
    ones. Commercial and military vessel traffic plying the channels and
    ports of our coastal areas are dependent upon continuous dredging in
    order to maintain appropriate depths. 

> **\[PowerPoint 14.9 Dredging Area\]**

-   Each year, more than 300 million cubic yards of sediment in
    waterways and harbors are dredged to allow ships to pass through.
    (NRDC)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Opponents** of dredging claim that coastal dredging may have
    **detrimental environmental impacts** and may interfere with
    sediment transport and flow dynamics in coastal and marine systems.
    Dredged sediments may include harmful contaminants and pollutants.
    **Proponents** of dredging cite that this method of removal is
    **necessary for commerce, recreation, and national defense**. (US
    Army Corps of Engineers)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   About five to 10 percent **of dredged sediment is contaminated with
    toxic chemicals,** including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
    mercury and other heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
    (PAHs), and pesticides---all of which can cause water contamination
    and complicate sediment disposal.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.10 Pumping Dredged Material\]**

-   Dredging may also **increase water turbidity** (cloudiness), **harm
    habitat**, and disturb or kill threatened and **endangered
    species**. It may also risk stirring up and **releasing buried
    contaminants**.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.11 Dredged Material\]**

-   The greatest **problem** with dredging is **what to do with the
    dredged mat**erial. It varies from clean sand to contaminated
    fine-grain sediment. Most is stored separately in a contained
    disposal facility, which is separated from the marine environment by
    dikes, or is disposed of on land in containment basins or along the
    banks of estuaries and wetlands. The remaining is dumped into the
    ocean. (Coch)

###### [Mitigating the Impacts of Ports and Harbors]{.underline}

-   **Opportunities to minimize environmental impacts** of port and
    harbor development projects exist mainly **during the planning and
    design phases** of the project. These possibilities should be
    identified through comprehensive environmental screening processes,
    such as strategic environmental assessments, and subsequent detailed
    environmental impact assessment of each project. (UN)

-   Like in many other environment and resources management and
    exploitation issues, one should **strive for prevention by planning
    in advance** instead of having to take action once a port is
    operational. In the case of ports and harbors, mitigation or
    restoration during or after construction will in most cases be very
    expensive. (UN)

-   However, some concrete actions that might be considered as
    **restoration/compensation measures**, as well as for mitigating
    negative effects, exist also after a port has started to operate
    (UN)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Ports inevitably require large areas of land and shallow water
    areas, as well as other natural resources. As a result, ports are
    often required to **restore habitats** that have been negatively
    affected, or to **create new habitats** as a compensation for those
    lost through exploitation. The costs for these measures can be
    significant and should be included from the outset in the port
    development and environmental management plans. (UN)

-   **Wetland restoration, dune restoration and construction of new
    aquatic habitats** (artificial reefs, new rocks, etc.) are examples
    of restoration and compensation measures that are normally
    undertaken in conjunction with port development projects. (UN)

-   However, such restoration and compensation projects may not always
    be uncontroversial as there are **different opinions on how
    effective habitat restoration really can be**. There is, for
    instance, disagreement over whether restored habitats can function
    as productively as natural habitats, or if they can provide the same
    ecosystem services as before. (UN)

**Objective 14.3 Describe the hazards associated with the location of
United States military installations in and near coastal communities.**

**Requirements:**

The content should be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
Slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following PowerPoint slide will be used during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.12** U.S. Military Facilities Within the United States

**PowerPoint 14.13** US Navy Aircraft Carrier

**PowerPoint 14.14** Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge

**PowerPoint 14.15** Navy Fighter Jet

**PowerPoint 14.16** Military Helicopter

**PowerPoint 14.17** US Navy Submarine

**PowerPoint 14.18** Beached Whale

**Remarks:**

###### [Military Installations in Coastal Communities]{.underline}

-   **Numerous military facilities** are located **in or near coastal
    communities**.

> **\[PowerPoint Slide 14.12 U.S. Military Facilities Within the United
> States\]**

-   **Navy** and **Marine Corps** installations are the most prevalent
    defense installments located in coastal areas, followed by a range
    military transportation facilities.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.13 US Navy Aircraft Carrier\]**

-   **Commercial deep water ports** may also be used for **transporting
    military** equipment and machinery when necessary.

> **[Note:]{.underline}** The instructor may wish to make an assignment
> for the students to find out where the military establishments in
> their state are located by going to:
> <http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/outreachpublic/map.html>

###### 

###### [Economic Impact of Military Facilities on Coastal Communities]{.underline}

-   The impact military installations have on coastal communities can be
    far-ranging. Thousands of **civilian jobs** are dependent upon
    defense operations in many coastal areas, both in terms of
    employment directly related to the military base itself, or
    **supporting businesses** that cater to military families. Direct
    economic benefit arises from **salaries** and related income
    generation.

**[Land Use Issues]{.underline}**

-   Military installations typically cover many acres of land. In
    coastal areas, this land is sometimes environmentally sensitive or
    the site of important natural resources.

-   A case in point involves the controversy over a proposed **Navy
    practice landing facility** in Eastern North Carolina. In 2005 a
    federal judge forbade the Navy from further work on the outlying
    landing field facility near the **Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife
    Refuge**, ruling that the military violated environmental law in
    picking the site.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.14 Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge\]**

-   Each winter, the refuge \-- 110,000 acres of piney woods, fields and
    lakes \-- is host to about **100,000 migratory waterfowl** that rest
    and forage in surrounding farm fields. (Raleigh News & Observer)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.15 Navy Fighter Jet\]**

-   Amid large flocks of birds, Navy pilots flying the new generation of
    **louder Super Hornet fighter jets** would practice the pinpoint
    landings and takeoffs needed on aircraft carriers. (Raleigh News &
    Observer)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The judge stated that the Navy badly **underestimated the harm**
    aircraft takeoffs and landings would pose to giant flocks of
    migratory **tundra swans** and **snow geese.** (Raleigh News &
    Observer)

    -   The judge further ruled that the service failed to appreciate
        the **threat of bird strikes** to pilots and their
        multimillion-dollar fighter jets.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The court found that to protect landowners, the environment,
    wildlife, the balance of nature and the public, an **injunction was
    necessary** until the Navy completes a full and fair environmental
    review. The Navy could still build the site if it conducts such a
    review. (Raleigh News & Observer)

###### [Potential Impacts From Military Activities in Coastal Regions]{.underline}

-   Some **exercises and activities** carried out by the military may
    pose various threats to coastal communities.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Torpedo testing** may pose a danger to area shipping because of
    the use of explosives. Torpedo testing also has the potential to
    cause marine mammal injuries and fatalities.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Firing ranges** can produce noise at such decibels that may cause
    an impact on marine and coastal wildlife and birds. there is also
    the danger of physical trauma from military artillery

> **\[PowerPoint 14.16 Military Helicopter\]**

-   **Military training exercises** in coastal waters involve
    helicopters, jets, submarines, warships landing craft, powerboats
    etc. that may cause disturbances to marine and coastal wildlife.

####### Submarine exercises

> **\[PowerPoint 14.17 US Navy Submarine\]**

-   There are some studies that pose the theory that **sonar use** by
    the military may have potential impacts on marine life, particularly
    whales and dolphins. Mass **beachings of beaked whales** have been
    documented following sonar use in the ocean. (National Geographic
    Magazine)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.18 Beached Whale\]**

-   Sperm whales and long-finned pilot **whales** have both demonstrated
    **changes in vocal behaviors** in response to the use of military
    sonar

-   The incidences of whale beachings highlight a need for naval and
    marine mammal scientists to **collaborate** in order to advance the
    **understanding and mitigation** of the impact of active-sonar
    equipment on marine mammals. (National Geographic Magazine).

Objective 14. 4 Discuss some of the hazards associated with conventional
energy development in ocean and coastal areas, as well as opportunities
for alternative sources of power.

Requirements:

This Objective is to be presented as lecture supported by PowerPoint
slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following PowerPoint slides will be shown during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.19** Offshore Oil Wells May Leak Petroleum

**PowerPoint 14.20** Accident During Tanker Transport

**PowerPoint 14.21** Exxon Valdez

**PowerPoint 14.22** Oil Spill Reaches Shore

**PowerPoint 14.23** Growing Oil Slick

**PowerPoint 14.24** Heavy Oil in the Form of a Tar Mat on Beach

**PowerPoint 14.25** Boom Contains Oil Spill

**PowerPoint 14.26** Oil Spill Cleanup on Shore

**PowerPoint 14.27** Response Vessel Towing Boom to Damaged Tanker

**PowerPoint 14.28** Damage Assessment Following Oil Spill

**PowerPoint 14.29** Location of US Nuclear Power Reactors

**PowerPoint 14.30** Nuclear Facility in Coastal Florida

**PowerPoint 14.31** Ocean Floor Disposal of Nuclear Waste

**PowerPoint 14.32** Offshore Wind Farms in Danish Coastal Waters

**PowerPoint 14.33** Wave Energy

**PowerPoint 14.34** Tidal Energy

**Remarks:**

###### [Energy Development in Coastal Regions]{.underline}

-   The nation's ocean and coastal regions are prime sources of energy.
    To date, **oil and gas** have been the **predominant sources of
    energy** for American consumers, and the drive for increased
    domestic production of these non-renewable resources has received
    unwavering political support.

-   **Off shore exploration and drilling** continue to take place in the
    waters of many coastal states, despite concerns over oil spills and
    potential environmental damage to valuable coastal natural
    resources. This form of energy development will likely continue well
    into future decades, as concerns over national security and an
    over-dependence on foreign oil supplies remains high.

-   Our ocean and coastal areas are also the sites of **alternative
    energy development**, including nuclear power, wind, wave and tidal
    energy, and solar power.

####### Oil and Gas Accidents

-   Much of the nation's **oil and gas** is **obtained, refined or
    transported through coastal communities.** Accidents and
    consequential environmental pollution are possible at all stages of
    oil and gas production.

-   The most typical causes of accidents include equipment failure,
    personnel mistakes, and extreme natural impacts (seismic activity,
    ice fields, hurricanes, and so on). (Patin)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **main hazard** is connected with the **spills and blowouts** of
    oil, gas, and numerous other chemical substances and compounds.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The environmental consequences of accidental episodes are especially
    severe, sometimes dramatic, when they happen near the shore, in
    shallow waters, or in areas with slow water circulation. (Patin)

###### *Drilling accidents*

-   No other situations but tanker oil spills can compete with drilling
    accidents in **frequency and severity**.

-   Broadly speaking, there are **two major categories** of drilling
    accidents (Patin):

1.  The first involves **catastrophic** situations involving intense and
    prolonged hydrocarbon **gushing from an offshore well** due to
    abnormally high pressure. This situation is most often encountered
    **during exploratory drilling** in new fields.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.19 Offshore Oil Wells May Leak Petroleum\]**

2.  The second type of accidental situations includes **regular, routine
    episodes** of hydrocarbon spills and blowouts during drilling
    operations. These accidents can be controlled rather effectively (in
    several hours or days). Accidents of this kind are not so impressive
    as rare catastrophic blowouts. However, their ecological hazard and
    associated environmental risk can be rather considerable, primarily
    due to their regularity leading, ultimately, to **chronic impacts on
    the marine environment**.

    -   ***Transportation accidents***

        -   Oil extracted on the continental shelf must be **transported
            by tankers** to the onshore terminals.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.20 Accident During Tanker Transport\]**

-   The main **causes of tanker accidents** that lead to large oil
    spills include **running aground** and into **shore reefs**,
    **collisions** with other vessels, and **fires** and **explosions**
    of the cargo. (Patin)

-   Tanker accidents can occur in the area of oil field development,
    during transport, or during mooring at destination.

.

-   The history of tanker accidents has been thoroughly described by
    both the scientific literature and the media. Analyzing the
    statistics and circumstances of such events indicates that they can
    hardly be avoided. Although the rate of tanker accidents has been
    declining over the past two decades, we should be prepared to deal
    with them in the future. (Patin)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ***Storage accidents***

    -   Underwater reservoirs for storing liquid hydrocarbons (oil,
        oil-water mixtures, and gas condensate) are a necessary element
        of many oil and gas developments. They are often used when
        tankers instead of pipelines are the main means of
        transportation. (Patin)

    ```{=html}
    <!-- -->
    ```
    -   The underwater storage tanks may be damaged, and their contents
        released, especially during tanker loading operations and under
        severe weather conditions. (Patin)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ***Pipeline accidents***

    -   Complex and extensive **systems of underwater pipelines** carry
        oil, gas, condensate, and their mixtures.

    -   These pipelines are among the main factors of **environmental
        risk** during offshore oil developments, along with tanker
        transportation and drilling operations. . (Patin)

    -   The **causes** of pipeline damage can range from **material
        defects** and pipe **corrosion** to **ground erosion**,
        **tectonic movements** on the bottom, and encountering **ship
        anchors** and **bottom trawls**. . (Patin)

    -   Depending on the cause and nature of the damage (cracks,
        ruptures, and others), a pipeline can become either a **source
        of small and long-term leakage or an abrupt (even explosive)
        blowout** of hydrocarbons near the bottom. . (Patin)

####### Oil Spill Impacts

-   When oil and gas industry accidents occur, the consequence that
    represents a serious threat to coastal communities is **oil
    spills**.

> (Basic information on oil spills:
> <http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/kids/spills.html>)

-   The **largest oil spill** in the United States continues to be the
    **1989 Exxon Valdez** oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska,
    near the Alaskan southern shore.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.21 Exxon Valdez\]**

-   The oil tanker *Exxon Valdez* ran aground and spilled over **40,000
    tons of crude oil**. As the oil spread along the coastline, it
    covered sea animals, birds, and plants. It turned hundreds of miles
    of this area (unique for its cleanness and biological resources)
    into an area of ecological disaster. . (Patin)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Oil spills **disrupt** the **environmental, social and economic
    processes** of coastal communities.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Depending on the circumstances, oil spills can be very **harmful to
    marine birds and mammals**, and also can harm **fish and
    shellfish**.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.22 Oil Spill Reaches Shore\]**

-   Oil contaminates the ocean and coastal waters, as well as the land
    along the coast as well.

-   Oil **destroys the insulating ability** of fur-bearing mammals, such
    as sea otters, and the **water-repelling abilities** of a bird\'s
    feathers, thus exposing these creatures to the harsh elements.

-   Many birds and animals also **ingest oil** when they try to clean
    themselves, which can poison them. Depending on just where and when
    a spill happens, from just a few up to hundreds or thousands of
    birds and mammals can be killed or injured.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The range and intensity of the consequences of an oil spill is
    demonstrated in the biological, sociological, psychological and
    economic literature on the Exxon Valdez spill---but spills of much
    smaller magnitude may have devastating effects.

-   Part of mitigating the effects of potential spills is **to increase
    awareness** **and preparedness** for possible spills before they
    occur.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Coastal states with substantial risk from oil spills---such as
    Louisiana---are taking such steps. Louisiana State University in
    Baton Rouge provides support for the **Louisiana Oil Spill Research
    and Development Program** which provides tools for contingency
    planners and emergency managers dealing with oil spills. Website:
    <http://www.osradp.lsu.edu/>

    -   The **NOAA Office of Response and Restoration** provides
        information for coastal managers working to prepare for, respond
        to and mitigate the damage from oil spills and other chemical
        accidents along the coast.
        (<http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.html>)

    ```{=html}
    <!-- -->
    ```
    -   ***Characteristics of oil spills***

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **Oil floats on salt water** (the ocean) and usually floats on fresh
    water (rivers and lakes).

> **\[PowerPoint 14.23 Growing Oil Slick\]**

-   Oil usually **spreads out rapidly** across the water surface to form
    a thin layer called an **oil slick**.

-   As the spreading process continues, the layer becomes thinner and
    thinner, finally becoming a **very thin layer called a sheen**,
    which often looks like a rainbow. (NOAA)

> \[**\[PowerPoint 14.24 Heavy Oil in the Form of a Tar Mat on Beach\]**

-   On shore, the oil may become thick, creating tar mats along the
    coastline

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ***Oil spill response***

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   In the United States, depending on where the spill occurs, either
    the **U.S. Coast Guard** or the **U.S. Environmental Protection
    Agency** takes charge of the spill response. They, in turn, often
    call on other agencies, including **NOAA** and the **Fish and
    Wildlife Service** for help and information.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ***Tools*** used during oil spill cleanup include:

> **\[PowerPoint 14.25 Boom Contains Oil Spill\]**

-   **skimmers,** which are boats that skim spilled oil from the water
    surface.

-   **booms,** which are floating barriers that may be placed around a
    leaking tanker to collect the oil

-   **sorbents,** which are big sponges used to absorb oil.

-   **chemical dispersants** and **biological agents**, which break down
    the oil into its chemical constituents.

-   **in-situ burning**, which is a method of burning freshly-spilled
    oil, usually while it\'s floating on the water.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.26 Oil Spill Cleanup on Shore\]**

-   **washing oil** off beaches with either high-pressure or
    low-pressure hoses.

-   **vacuum trucks**, which can vacuum spilled oil off of beaches or
    the water surface.

-   **shovels and road equipment**, which are sometimes used to pick up
    oil or move oiled beach sand and gravel down to where it can be
    cleaned by being tumbled around in the waves. (NOAA)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.27 Response Vessel Towing Boom to Damaged Tanker\]**

-   The **methods and tools chosen** depend on assessment of the
    circumstances of each event:

> **\[PowerPoint 14.28 Damage Assessment Following Oil Spill\]**

-   the weather,

-   the type and amount of oil spilled,

-   how far away from shore the oil has spilled,

-   whether or not people live in the area,

-   what kinds of bird and animal habitats are in the area, etc. (NOAA)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Different cleanup methods work on **different types of beaches** and
    with different **kinds of oil**.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   For example, road equipment works very well on sand beaches, but
    can\'t be used in marshes or on beaches with big boulders or cobble
    (NOAA)

####### Nuclear Energy

> **\[PowerPoint 14.29 Location of US Nuclear Power Reactors\]**

-   Many of the nation's **nuclear power facilities** are **near coastal
    communities**.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   About **20 % of the nation's electricity** is generated by nuclear
    power. (US DOE)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Currently, there are reactors at **commercial power plants**, at
    government **research facilities**, and on about 40 percent of the
    **U.S. Navy's** submarines and ships.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.30 Nuclear Facility in Coastal Florida\]**

-   The proximity of water for cooling purposes makes coastal areas
    prime for nuclear reactor sites.

> **[Note:]{.underline}** The instructor may wish to make an assignment
> for the students to determine whether their community has a nuclear
> reactor nearby, using the **U.S. Nuclear Regulator Commission's
> locator** (<http://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactor/>)

-   Nuclear power facilities present largely the same concerns for
    coastal managers as they do for inland emergency mangers. Two
    specific **concerns** include:

    -   Nuclear security from **accidents and terrorism**

    -   Transportation and storage of **spent nuclear fuel**

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **To make electricity**, nuclear reactors use fuel made of solid
    ceramic pellets of **enriched uranium** that are sealed in strong
    metal tubes. The tubes are bundled together to form a nuclear fuel
    assembly. (US DOE)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **uranium pellets** are about the size of the tip of your little
    finger. Although small, the pellets release a tremendous amount of
    energy when used in a nuclear reactor. For example, one pellet has
    an amount of energy equivalent to almost one ton of coal. (US DOE)

-   The energy released by the nuclear fuel **produces great heat**,
    which boils water into **steam.** The steam turns **giant
    turbines**, which generate the electricity.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   **After three or four years** in a reactor, however, the uranium
    pellets are **no longer efficien**t for producing electricity and
    the assembly is removed from the reactor. After removal, the entire
    assembly (now called *spent nuclear fuel*) is **highly
    radioactive**.

-   **Spent nuclear fuel** and **high-level radioactive waste** are
    materials from nuclear power plants and government defense programs.
    These materials contain highly radioactive elements, such as cesium,
    strontium, technetium, and neptunium.

    -   Some of these elements will remain radioactive for a few years,
        while others will be radioactive for millions of years.

###### *Long term environmental concerns*

-   Nuclear waste must be properly managed to minimize risk to the
    environment and to the health and safety of future generations.

    -   Since the mid-1940s, spent nuclear fuel and high-level
        radioactive waste have accumulated throughout the country.
        Currently, they are stored in temporary facilities at some 125
        sites in 39 states. These storage sites are located in a mixture
        of urban, suburban, and rural environments --- most are located
        near large bodies of water. (US DOE)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.31 Ocean Floor Disposal of Nuclear Waste\]**

###### *Ocean floor disposal of nuclear waste*

-   Of the many options considered by the United States government for
    disposal for nuclear waste includes **burying it under the ocean
    floor**. (US DOE)

    -   This option could be viable because deep within the ocean floor,
        the radiation from the waste would not harm people or the
        environment.

    -   One of the **problems** associated with this option includes the
        difficulty of **recovering the waste**, if necessary, once it is
        emplaced deep in the ocean.

    -   Also, establishing an **effective international structure** to
        develop, regulate, and monitor a sub-seabed repository would be
        extremely difficult.

    -   Beyond technical and political considerations, the United States
        signed the **London Convention** in October 1993. This
        international agreement, which remains in force until 2018,
        places **prohibitions on disposing of radioactive materials at
        sea.** After that time, the sub-seabed disposal option can be
        revisited at 25-year intervals.

###### [Wind, Wave and Tidal Energy]{.underline}

-   **Alternative sources** of energy from the **ocean** include

    -   tidal power

    -   wind power

    -   wave power

    -   ocean thermal energy conversion

    -   ocean currents

    -   ocean winds

    -   salinity gradients.

    ```{=html}
    <!-- -->
    ```
    -   Of these, the three **most well-developed** technologies are
        **tidal** power, **wave** power and **wind power**.

        -   Tidal power requires large tidal differences which, in the
            U.S., occur only in Maine and Alaska.

        -   Ocean thermal energy conversion is limited to tropical
            regions, such as Hawaii, and to a portion of the Atlantic
            coast.

        -   Wave energy has a more general application; the western
            coastline has the highest wave potential in the U.S.
            (California Energy Commission)

        -   Wind power may be generated in almost all coastal areas.

###### *[Wind Power]{.underline}*

> **\[PowerPoint 14.32 Offshore Wind Farms in Danish Coastal Waters\]**

-   Generating electricity using coastal and ocean wind power has been
    used to a **limited extent in the United States**, and more widely
    in Europe. Denmark, in particular, has made tremendous commitment to
    developing viable wind energy technologies.

    -   The **sea is ideally suited for extracting renewable wind
        energy**. The wind blows almost constantly, and the area is
        level and uninhabited -- apart from birds, fish and other marine
        life, that is. (Danish Trade Council)

-   **Wind power works** by wind passing over blades of a wind turbine
    and rotating a hub. This is connected to a gearbox and generator,
    which transforms the energy into electricity.

    -   However, logistical issues involve constructing offshore wind
        turbines measuring almost 100 meters, many kilometers from the
        nearest shore. Often, the cost is prohibitive.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Wind energy is widely considered an **environmentally clean
    option**.

    -   Most **objections** are more concerned with local issues - such
        as **noise**, the **visual effect** on the landscape, or the
        **impact of roads** leading to the sites. Disturbance of
        **habitat or nesting sites** of birds may also be of concern.

###### *[Wave Energy]{.underline}*

> **\[PowerPoint 14.33 Wave Energy\]**

-   **Wave energy conversion** takes advantage of the ocean waves caused
    primarily by interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave
    energy is an i**rregular and oscillating low-frequency energy
    source** that must be converted to a 60-Hertz frequency before it
    can be added to the electric utility grid. (California Energy
    Commission)

    -   Although many wave energy devices have been invented, only a
        small proportion have been **tested and evaluated**.
        Furthermore, only a few have been tested at sea, in ocean waves,
        rather than in artificial wave tanks. (California Energy
        Commission)

        -   Some wave energy systems extract energy from **surface
            waves**.

        -   Others extract energy from pressure fluctuations **below the
            water** surface or from the full wave.

        -   Some systems are **fixed in position** and let waves pass by
            them, while others **follow the waves** and move with them.

        -   Some systems **concentrate and focus waves**, which
            increases their height and their potential for conversion to
            electrical energy.

    ```{=html}
    <!-- -->
    ```
    -   The incidence of wave power at deep ocean sites is three to
        eight times the wave power at adjacent coastal sites. The cost,
        however, of electricity transmission from deep ocean sites is
        prohibitively high. (California Energy Commission)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Some of the **issues** that may be associated with an ocean wave
    energy conversion facility include:

    -   Disturbance or destruction of **marine life**

    -   Possible **threat to navigation** from collisions due to the low
        profile of the wave energy devices above the water, making them
        undetectable either by direct sighting or by radar.

    -   Also possible is the **interference of mooring and anchorage**
        lines with commercial and sport-fishing.

    -   **Degradation of scenic ocean front views** from wave energy
        devices located near or on the shore, and from onshore overhead
        electric transmission lines (California Energy Commission)

###### *[Tidal Energy]{.underline}*

-   Tidal electricity generation involves the **construction of a
    barrage**, or dam, across a delta, estuaries, beaches, or other
    places that are affected by the tides. (UN Atlas of the Oceans)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.34 Tidal Energy\]**

-   Specifically, the barrage (dam) **blocks the incoming and out-going
    tides** of a coastal basin. (UN Atlas of the Oceans)

    -   The barrage is equipped with **sluices and turbines** that will
        permit the retention of water entering at high tide and release
        it at low tide; (UN Atlas of the Oceans)

    -   Normal turbines will produce electricity as the water flows out;
        reversible blade turbines, however, can produce electricity both
        as the water enters the basin and when it leaves. (UN Atlas of
        the Oceans)

-   The basic difference between a hydraulic power plant on a river and
    a tidal power plant is this **two-directional flow**.

    -   If **navigation** to the upper part of the basin is necessary, a
        **ship lock** may be installed. (UN Atlas of the Oceans)

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­

Objective 14.5 Discuss some of the challenges and opportunities that
brownfields present to coastal managers.

**Requirements:**

This Objective is to be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following PowerPoint slides will be shown during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.35** Coastal Brownfield

**PowerPoint 14.36** Brownfields are often the site of former industrial
facilities

**PowerPoint 14.37** Surrounding waterways are often impaired in
brownfield locations

**PowerPoint 14.38** Multiple Brownfield Sites in New Bedford, MA

**PowerPoint 14.39** Improved Waterfront Access in Revitalized Coastal
Brownfield

**PowerPoint 14.40** Dredging in New Bedford Harbor Improves Navigation

**Remarks:**

**[What Are Coastal Brownfields?]{.underline}**

> **\[PowerPoint 14.35 Coastal Brownfield\]**

-   Brownfields are properties where the expansion, redevelopment, or
    reuse may be complicated by the presence or potential **presence of
    contamination**. (NOAA Portfields)

\[PowerPoint 14.36 Brownfields are often the site of former industrial
facilities\]

-   Many of our nation's **coastal communities** bear the scars of past
    economic booms as **former industrial sites** along ports, harbors
    and other coastal areas now lay abandoned. (NOAA)

###### [Problems Associated with Brownfields Facing Coastal Communities]{.underline} 

-   Local communities surrounding brownfields sites often see higher
    **unemployment** rates, **lower property values** and an increase in
    **health problems**.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Furthermore, these abandoned properties can force new development to
    the fringe of existing urban areas, often resulting in **urban
    sprawl** and **degradation of natural resources**. (NOAA)

    -   Although redeveloping these brownfields could economically and
        visually revitalize numerous urban waterfronts, many coastal
        **communities lack the tools and resources**, and **developers
        have few incentives** to invest in these blighted areas. (NOAA)

-   The potential **costs and liabilities** associated with cleaning up
    brownfield sites makes them less appealing to companies looking to
    locate or expand, and as a result, **new industrial operations are
    often sited on pristine, undeveloped "greenfield" land**.

    -   This often leads to a **loss of habitat and wildlife**,
        increases in air and water **pollution**, and **urbanization of
        open space** valuable for its recreational and aesthetic
        qualities. (NRDC)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.37 Surrounding waterways are often impaired in
> brownfield locations\]**

-   Waterways surrounding brownfield sites are often impaired well
    beyond the limits of the abandoned industry.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.38 Multiple Brownfield Sites in New Bedford, MA\]**

-   **New Bedford, Massachusetts** experiences many of the redevelopment
    issues facing many coastal communities:

    -   High unemployment, poverty, and high school dropout rates cause
        economic distress.

    -   Superfund sites contaminate the harbor area.

    -   Brownfields sites occupy 150 acres of once-viable city grounds.

    -   Pressure to develop vacant land surrounding the city threatens
        open space.

    -   Harbor and wetland contamination impedes lobster, fish, and clam
        fisheries, which have been closed since the 1970s.

###### [Benefits of Brownfield Revitalization]{.underline}

-   Redevelopment of brownfields can be a unique opportunity to
    **revitalize coastal areas**, while preserving valuable **green
    space** and **restoring natural resources**.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.39 Improved Waterfront Access in Revitalized Coastal
> Brownfield\]**

-   Brownfields cleanup and redevelopment can improve **public access to
    the waterfront**, and protect and restore **coastal habitat**, and
    revitalize (NOAA)

-   Businesses that participate in revitalizing brownfields in coastal
    areas benefit from locating on sites near existing **transportation
    infrastructure**, and with a **utility infrastructure** already in
    place, while cleaning up contamination that poses a danger to both
    the community and the environment.(NRDC)

####### Federal Initiatives for Coastal Brownfield Revitalization

-   Portfields is a NOAA led federal interagency effort that focuses on
    the redevelopment of brownfields in port and harbor areas, with
    emphasis on development of environmentally sound port facilities.

-   NOAA and its federal partners are assisting the designated
    Portfields pilot ports revitalize waterfront areas, improve marine
    transportation, and protect and restore coastal habitat through
    brownfields cleanup and reuse.

    -   **Federal partners** include:

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

-   US Department of Commerce

-   Economic Development Administration

-   US Department of Commerce

-   US Environmental Protection Agency

-   US Department of Labor

-   US Army Corps of Engineers

-   Maritime Administration, US Department of Transportation

-   US Department of the Interior

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The Portfields federal agencies selected **three pilot ports** and
    will provide targeted resources to assist and expedite the planning
    and implementation of brownfields cleanup and reuse.

-   The pilots were chosen for their willingness to participate, unique
    set of needs, commitment to port redevelopment, innovative
    approaches to waterfront planning and revitalization, and overall
    value federal assistance would add to the redevelopment effort.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.40 Dredging in New Bedford Harbor Improves
> Navigation\]**

-   **[New Bedford,
    MA](http://www.brownfields.noaa.gov/htmls/portfields/pilot_newbed.html)
    -** Plans to utilize Portfields designation to implement the New
    Bedford/Fairhaven Harbor Plan, which includes brownfields reuse,
    habitat restoration, navigational dredging, and increase public
    access to the waterfront.

-   **[Port of Tampa,
    FL](http://www.brownfields.noaa.gov/htmls/portfields/pilot_tampa.html)
    -** Through Portfields, Tampa seeks to cleanup and redevelop
    contaminated properties, protect the environmental health of Tampa
    Bay, and expand local economy.

-   **[Port of Bellingham,
    WA](http://www.brownfields.noaa.gov/htmls/portfields/pilot_bellingham.html)
    -** Plans to utilize Portfields designation to redevelop
    contaminated sites, restore critical habitat in Bellingham Bay, and
    revitalize their waterfront.

**Objective 14.6 Discuss the sources and impacts of pollution in ocean
and coastal waters, including sources and pathways of common pollutants,
marine debris and beach litter, and ocean dumping**

**Requirements:**

This Objective is to be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following slides will be shown during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.41** Trash in Coastal Waters

**PowerPoint 14.42** Debris Hazards to Marine Animals

**PowerPoint 14.43** Trash Under the Ocean

**PowerPoint 14.44** Ocean Dumping From Split Hull Barge

**PowerPoint 14.45** Dumping of Sewage Sludge

**PowerPoint 14.46** Garbage Barge

**Remarks:**

###### [Pollutants and their Impacts in Coastal Waters]{.underline}

-   **Population growth** and **development** have had serious
    consequences for many coastal areas. As the number of humans living
    and working in coastal watersheds has grown, the amount **of waste
    products** and **pollutants** has multiplied.

-   The negative impacts that these pollutants have on water quality are
    apparent.

    -   Pollutants accumulate in sediments and cause contamination of
        some seafood species.

    -   Popular swimming beaches are posted with warnings due to high
        pathogen levels found near storm drain outlets.

    -   Tons of trash are washed from city streets into coastal waters
        during each storm, littering beaches and harming marine life.

[**Sources and Pathways**\
]{.underline}

-   **Contaminants** that enter coastal waters may **originate on land,
    in the air, or at sea.** Although the sources of pollutants are
    numerous and disparate, they are ultimately the product of all the
    people who live, work, and play in the region.

    -   Countless **human activities** - the way we manage our
        households, care for our cars, manufacture and consume
        products - directly influence the amount and types of pollutants
        that enter coastal waters. (Santa Monica Bay Restoration
        Commission)

-   The effects of these activities are transmitted to coastal waters
    via **numerous pathways** (Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission):

    -   runoff into creeks and storm drains

    -   municipal wastewater treatment

    -   industrial discharges

    -   boating and shipping activities

    -   aerial fallout

    -   dredging

    -   ocean dumping

####### Runoff

-   Urban and stormwater runoff is **carried through storm drain**
    systems and streams, and is a serious, year-round concern.

    -   Runoff flows over rooftops, parking lots, freeways, construction
        sites, industrial facilities, and other **impervious surfaces**,
        picking up pollutants and transporting them through open
        channels and underground pipes directly to coastal waters.

    -   Because the networks of stormdrains in many coastal communities
        were built to convey flood waters to the ocean as quickly as
        possible, all wet-weather flow and most dry-weather flow
        bypasses wastewater treatment facilities and discharges directly
        to the sea. (Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission)

**[Point Sources\
]{.underline}**

-   **Outfalls** for municipal **wastewater discharges**, **power
    plant** cooling water discharges, and **industrial waste effluent**
    are generally referred to as point sources

    -   **Municipal wastewater facilities** receive waste from domestic,
        commercial, and industrial sources. The wastewater is collected
        by an extensive network of main and feeder sewers and carried to
        central treatment plants where it undergoes various levels of
        treatment. (Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission)

    -   Since the 1970s there has been a steady decrease in the mass
        loading of most contaminants from wastewater facilities due to
        better source control, improved chemical treatment, and an
        increasing use of secondary treatment under the Federal Clean
        Water Act (Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission)

**[Nutrient Pollution\
]{.underline}**

-   Nutrient pollution is the **single largest pollution problem**
    affecting coastal waters of the United States. Over 60 % of the
    coastal rivers and bays in the United States are moderately to
    severely affected by nutrient pollution (NOAA.NOS.)

    -   Most excess nutrients come from discharges of sewage treatment
        plants and septic tanks, stormwater runoff from overfertilized
        lawns, golf courses and agricultural fields.

######## *[Eutrophocation]{.underline}* 

-   Nitrates and phosphates are nutrients that plants need to grow. In
    small amounts they are beneficial to many ecosystems. In excessive
    amounts, however, nutrients cause a type of pollution called
    eutrophication. Eutrophication stimulates an explosive growth of
    algae (algal blooms) that depletes the water of oxygen when the
    algae die and are eaten by bacteria. (NOAA.NOS)\
    \
    Eutrophication may also trigger **toxic algal blooms** like red
    tides, brown tides, and the growth of *Pfiesteria.*

-   ***Pfiesteria*** is a single-celled organism that can release very
    powerful toxins into the water, causing bleeding sores on fish, and
    even killing them. Although consuming fish affected by this toxin is
    not harmful to humans, exposure to waters where *Pfisteria* blooms
    occur can cause serious health problems (NOAA.NOS)

###### [Toxic Substances]{.underline}

-   Toxic substances are **chemicals and metals** that can cause serious
    **illness or death**. They may be poisonous, carcinogenic
    (cancer-causing) or harmful in other ways to living things.

    -   Pesticides, automobile fluids like antifreeze, oil or grease,
        and metals such as mercury or lead have all been found to
        pollute estuaries and other coastal waters. These substances can
        enter an estuary through industrial discharges, yard runoff,
        streets, agricultural lands, and storm drains.

    ```{=html}
    <!-- -->
    ```
    -   Once consumed by plants and animals, some toxic substances can
        accumulate in these organisms\' tissues. This process is called
        **biomagnification**.

        -   The **insecticide DDT**, and the **metal mercury**, are
            known to progressively accumulate or build up in the tissues
            of organisms as they make their way from the bottom of the
            food web (algae, shrimp, oysters, fish) to the top (osprey,
            eagles, bears, people).

        -   Sometimes, toxic substances become **attached to sediments**
            (sand or mud) that flow down rivers and get deposited in
            estuaries. Toxic substances that enter the estuary this way
            often contaminate bottom-dwelling animals like oysters or
            clams, making them a serious health risk to people who eat
            them. (NOAA.NOS)

**[Marine Debris and Beach Litter]{.underline}**

-   Marine debris and beach litter **kills marine wildlife**, damages
    the coast's **aesthetic** qualities, and is **expensive** for
    coastal communities to clean up.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.41 Trash in Coastal Waters\]**

-   Marine debris is defined as any **man-made, solid material** that
    enters our waterways directly (e.g., by dumping) or indirectly
    (e.g., washed out to sea via rivers, streams, storm drains, etc.).
    Objects ranging from detergent bottles, hazardous medical wastes,
    and discarded fishing line all qualify as marine debris.

-   Items like fishing line and six-pack rings can **entangle marine
    animals**.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.42 Debris Hazards to Marine Animals\]**

-   Once entangled, animals have trouble eating, breathing or swimming,
    all of which can have fatal results. **Birds, fish and mammals**
    often **mistake plastic for food.** With plastic filling their
    stomachs, animals have a false feeling of being full, and may die of
    starvation. **Sea turtles** mistake plastic bags for jellyfish, one
    of their favorite foods. Even **gray whales** have been found dead
    with plastic bags and sheeting in their stomachs, having mistaken it
    for squid, and birds may mistake plastic pellets for fish eggs.

-   **Beachgoers** can cut themselves on glass and metal left on the
    beach.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.43 Trash Under the Ocean\]**

-   Marine debris also endangers the safety and livelihood of
    **fishermen** and recreational boaters. Nets and monofilament
    fishing line can obstruct propellers and plastic sheeting and bags
    can block cooling intakes.

###### *Marine debris programs*

-   **The BEACH Act** was enacted on October 10, 2000, and it is
    designed to reduce the risk of disease to users of the Nation\'s
    coastal recreation waters. The act authorizes the EPA to award
    program development and implementation grants to eligible states,
    territories, tribes, and local governments to support
    microbiological testing and monitoring of coastal recreational
    waters, including the Great Lakes, that are adjacent to beaches or
    similar points of access used by the public.

-   **The International Coastal Cleanup**

> The Ocean Conservancy, formerly known as the Center for Marine
> Conservation, established and maintains the annual International
> Coastal Cleanup (ICC) with support from EPA and other stakeholders.
> The ICC is the largest volunteer environmental data-gathering effort
> and associated cleanup of coastal and underwater areas in the world.
> It takes place every year on the third Saturday in September.

-   **National Marine Debris Monitoring Program**

> NMDMP is designed to gather scientifically valid marine debris data
> following a rigorous statistical protocol. The NMDMP is designed to
> identify trends in the amounts of marine debris affecting the U.S.
> coastline and to determine the main sources of the debris. This
> scientific study is conducted every 28 days by teams of volunteers at
> randomly selected study sites along the U.S. coastline.

-   **The Shore Protection Act of 1989** places controls on operations
    relating to the vessel transport of certain solid wastes (municipal
    or commercial waste) so that those wastes are not deposited in
    coastal waters. This act has provisions that reduce wastes being
    deposited in coastal waters during the transfer of waste from the
    waste source to the transport vessel to the waste receiving station.

####### Ocean Dumping Laws

-   In 1972, Congress enacted the **Marine Protection, Research, and
    Sanctuaries Act** (MPRSA, also known as the **Ocean Dumping Act**)
    to prohibit the dumping of material into the ocean that would
    unreasonably degrade or endanger human health or the marine
    environment.

    -   The MPRSA implements the requirements of the **London
        Convention**, which is the international treaty governing ocean
        dumping.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.44 Ocean Dumping From Split Hull Barge\]**

-   Virtually **all material ocean-dumped** in the United States today
    is **dredged** material (sediments) removed from the bottom of
    waterbodies in order to maintain navigation channels and berthing
    areas. (US EPA)

    -   Other materials that are currently ocean disposed include **fish
        wastes**, **human remains**, and **vessels**. (US EPA)

-   While no complete records exist as to the volumes and types of
    material that were ocean-dumped prior to passage of the MPRSA in
    1972, various reports give some indication of the magnitude of ocean
    dumping. Materials regularly disposed of at sea included **prior to
    MPRSA**: (US EPA)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.45 Dumping of Sewage Sludge\]**

-   Dredged material (some polluted)

-   Industrial waste

-   Sewage sludge

-   Construction and demolition debris

-   Petroleum products

-   Acid chemical waste from pulp mills

-   Heavy metals waste

-   Organic chemical waste

-   Radioactive waste

> **\[PowerPoint 14.46 Garbage Barge\]**

-   The dumping of **sewage sludge**, **industrial wastes**, and
    **high-level radioactive** wastes is **now prohibited** by the
    MPRSA.

    -   Other ocean dumping, such as wood burning and the dumping of
        **low-level radioactive** wastes and **construction and
        demolition debris**, has stopped as a matter of environmentally
        **sound practice**. (EPA)

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Objective 14.7 Discuss the issues presented to coastal managers by the
tourism and cruise ship industries

**Requirements:**

This Objective is to be presented as lecture, supported by PowerPoint
slides. Class discussion is to be encouraged.

The following PowerPoint slides will be shown during this Objective:

**PowerPoint 14.47** Coastal Tourism: Sand, Sea, and Sun

**PowerPoint 14.48** Miami Beach, Florida

**PowerPoint 14.49** Riis Park in New York City With Parking in
Background

**PowerPoint 14.50** Ecotourism: Biking

**PowerPoint 14.51** Ecotourism: Birdwatching

**PowerPoint 14.52** Cruise Ship

**Remarks:**

###### [Coastal Tourism: Sand, Sea and Sun]{.underline}

> **\[PowerPoint 14.47 Coastal Tourism: Sand, Sea, and Sun\]**

-   Tourism is already one of the **world\'s largest industries**, and
    is continuously growing. Coastal tourism is by far the predominant
    form of tourism in many regions. Coastal tourism, for the most part,
    originates from land, cruise tourism being an exception.

-   Coastal tourism is heavily **dependent on the natural resource
    base**. The marketing approach is based on selling of \"sand, sea
    and sun\".

> **\[PowerPoint 14.48 Miami Beach, Florida\]**

-   For coastal tourism, there are very **strong economic incentives**
    to locate hotels and associated tourist facilities close to
    attractive sites, regardless of resulting negative effects on
    aesthetic and environmental values.

-   Attractive coastal landscapes, such as sandy beaches, dune areas,
    estuaries and coastal lakes, are universally the preferred sites for
    tourism development. (United Nations Global Programme of Action for
    the Protection of the Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities)

###### [Economic Impacts of Coastal Tourism]{.underline}

-   Tourism is a significant, and in many cases the dominant
    **contributor to coastal communities' economy,** providing
    **employment** and significant **tax earnings** for state and local
    governments. (United Nations Global Programme of Action for the
    Protection of the Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities)

-   In some coastal counties, tourism represents one of **only a few
    development options,** and is very important for their future
    growth. It could also stimulate the development of other sectors.
    (United Nations Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
    Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities)

-   However, if not properly planned and managed, **tourism can
    significantly degrade the environment** on which it is so dependent.
    The challenge is to keep the process moving and harness benefits in
    such a manner that the industry does not create severe stress in the
    system on which it depends. (United Nations Global Programme of
    Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment From Land-Based
    Activities)

####### Potential Environmental Impacts from Coastal Tourism

\[PowerPoint 14.49 Riis Park in New York City With Parking in
Background\]

-   Tourists visiting the shore must be housed, fed, and have a place to
    park when they arrive. The coastal tourism industry requires a vast
    amount of infrastructure and development to support it..

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The coastal environment is degraded by the **impacts of
    infrastructure and construction activity** when tourism is allowed
    to develop without proper planning.

-   The more severe impacts of tourism stem from the infrastructure and
    construction activity it entails rather than the recreational
    activities themselves.

    -   **Wetlands** are being drained and reclaimed and the coastline
        severely altered to make way for marinas and other mooring
        facilities.

    -   When **hotels are built too close to beaches**, in order to
        offer tourists vicinity to the beach and sea view, there is also
        a need to construct costly erosion management structures that
        often lead to habitat destruction.

    -   **Increased sediment** mobilization, turbidity and water quality
        deterioration during construction and operation can be
        significant side effects.

    -   Important habitats like **coral reefs** and **sea grass beds**
        and **fish spawning grounds** can be destroyed if diving and
        recreational boating are not managed and controlled.

-   Biological and physical resources are in fact the assets that
    attract tourists. However, the stress imposed by tourism activities
    on fragile ecosystems accelerates and aggravates their depletion.
    Paradoxically, the very success of tourism may lead to the
    degradation of the natural environment: by depleting natural
    resources tourism reduces the site attractiveness to tourists, the
    very commodity that tourism has to offer. (United Nations Global
    Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
    From Land-Based Activities)

####### EcoTourism

-   In recent years, a variety of guidelines, codes of conduct, and best
    practices regarding **sustainable tourism** and ecotourism have been
    elaborated.

-   Broadly defined, **ecotourism is responsible travel** that
    encompasses natural and cultural resources, while conserving and
    sustaining environments and local economies. (Kosco)

    -   Ecotours recognize the priceless **value of natural, cultural
        and heritage resources** that serve to relieve the stress borne
        of the frantic pace of modern life, places where rest and
        rehabilitation are important commodities. (Kosco)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.50 Ecotourism: Biking\]**

-   Ecotourism often **encompasses the cultural fabric of a location**,
    so that such widely divergent themes as maritime history, historic
    sailing vessels, light houses, nature centers, aquaria, fish ports,
    sea ports, historic coastal communities, and decoy carving are all
    components. (Kosco)

> **\[PowerPoint 14.51 Ecotourism: Birdwatching\]**

-   Ecotourism can involve **birding, hiking, biking, canoeing,
    hunting**, and **fishing.**

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   The **challenge** for the tourism industry, as well as for
    conservationists and development organizations, is to jointly
    develop and implement a mix of **management strategies** to promote
    **environmentally, socio-culturally and economically sustainable
    tourism** development in coastal areas. (United Nations Global
    Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
    From Land-Based Activities)

    -   The dynamic nature of the industry, the severity of the
        consequences of incompatible development and the potential for
        environmental and social benefits from planned development
        demand that governments, tourism industry and all stakeholders
        assume proactive roles and implement a mix of management
        strategies to shape and guide the industry in an
        **environmentally suitable manner**. (United Nations Global
        Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
        From Land-Based Activities)

####### Cruise Ship Pollution

-   Cruise ships have been described as \"**floating cities**\";
    individual vessels of 3,000 passengers and crew are not uncommon.

-   Like cities, they have a **lot of pollution problems**.

    -   Their per capita pollution is actually worse than a city of the
        same population, due to weak pollution control laws, lax
        enforcement, and the difficulty of detecting illegal discharges
        at sea.

    -   Cruise ships impact coastal waters in several US states,
        including **Alaska, California, Florida, and Hawaii**.

> **\[PowerPoint 14.52 Cruise Ship\]**

-   All cruise ships generate the following **types of waste**: (US EPA)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   \"**Gray water**\" from sinks, showers, laundries and galleys

-   **Sewage** or \"black water\" from toilets

-   **Oily bilge** water

-   **Hazardous wastes** (including perchloroethylene from drycleaning,
    photo-processing wastes, paint waste, solvents, print shop wastes,
    fluorescent light bulbs, and batteries)

-   **Solid wastes** (plastic, paper, wood, cardboard, food waste, cans,
    and glass)

-   **Air pollution** from the ship\'s diesel engines

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   A 3,000-passenger cruise ship (considered an average size, some
    carry 5,000 or more passengers) generates the following **amounts of
    waste** on a typical one-week voyage: (US EPA)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   1 million gallons of \"gray water\"

-   210,000 gallons of sewage

-   25,000 gallons of oily bilge water

-   Over 100 gallons of hazardous or toxic waste

-   50 tons of garbage and solid waste

-   Diesel exhaust emissions equivalent to thousands of automobiles

-   In addition, these ships take in large quantities of **ballast
    water**, which is seawater pumped into the hulls of ships to ensure
    stability.

-   This water is typically taken in at one port and then discharged at
    the ship\'s destination, which can introduce **invasive species**
    and serious diseases into U.S. waters. A typical release of ballast
    water amounts to 1,000 metric tons.

###### [Cruise Ship Regulations]{.underline}

-   Cruise ships (and other ships) are required to have \"**marine
    sanitation devices**\" which are designed to prevent the discharge
    of untreated sewage.

-   Sewage must be **treated to specified standards** before discharge
    if the ship is stationary of if it is within a specified distance
    (generally three miles) of shore.

    -   When the ship is **beyond three miles** from shore, there are
        **no restrictions** on the release of untreated sewage.

    -   There are no restrictions on the release of gray water, except
        in the Great Lakes.

-   Discharge of **oil or oily water** into US navigable waters,
    adjoining shorelines or waters which may affect natural resources
    within 200 miles of shore is **prohibited,** unless the oily water
    is passed through an oil-water separator.

    -   Ships are required to keep **Oil Record Books** to record their
        disposal of oily residues and bilge water.

-   **Hazardous wastes** should be properly packaged and labeled and
    disposed in permitted on-shore facilities, but the applicability of
    the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to ships and
    Cruise Lines is not clear.

-   The **dumping of garbage** at sea is prohibited within certain
    distances from shore, generally ranging from 3 to 25 miles.

    -   **Dumping of plastic** is prohibited everywhere at sea, and all
        discharge or incineration of garbage must be recorded in a
        **Garbage Record Book**.

###### Course Developer References

See also *Readings* above

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Service

[http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/](http://www.NOAA.nos.gov/)

FEMA. September 2003. *State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide:
Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning*. FEMA 386-7.

Alexander, David. 2000. *Confronting Catastrophe*. NY, NY: Oxford
University Press.

The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the
Environment. 2000. *The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards*. Washington,
DC: Island Press.

Beatley, Timothy, David J. Brower and Anna K. Schwab. 2002. *An
Introduction to Coastal Zone Management.* Washington, DC: Island Press.

Bush, David M., Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal. 1996. *Living
by the Rules of the Sea.* Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Patin, Stanislav, trans. Elena Cascio. 1999. *Environmental Impact of
the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry*. East Northport, NY: EcoMonitor
Publishing.

The Nature Conservancy; <http://nature.org/initiatives/invasivespecies/>

US Environmental Protection Agency
[**http://www.epa.gov/**](http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/image/viz_iss4.html)

US Geological Survey
[http://www.usgs.gov/](http://www.fort.usgs.gov/resources/spotlight/EcoForecasting/default.htm)

National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/

United Nations Atlas of the Oceans <http://www.oceansatlas.org/>

Natural Resources Defense Council. March 2004. *Harboring Pollution: The
Dirty Truth about U.S. Ports*
http://www.nrdc.org/air/pollution/ports/ports.pdf

United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission <http://www.nrc.gov/>

American Association of Ports <http://www.aapa-ports.org/>

Maritime Administration -- U.S. Department of Transportation
<http://www.marad.dot.gov/>

US Department of Energy (DOE)
<http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/ymp/about/waste_explained.shtml>

California Energy Commission:
[www.energy.ca.gov/development/oceanenergy/](http://www.energy.ca.gov/development/oceanenergy/)

Danish Trade Council, Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs
[www.um.dk/\.../0202/0202/html/chapter03.htm](http://www.um.dk/Publikationer/Eksportraadgivning/FocusDenmark/0202/0202/html/chapter03.htm)

*Raleigh News & Observer*. Feb. 19, 2005. "Judge halts landing field:
Ruling cites \'A clear error of judgment\' on the U.S. Navy\'s part" by
Wade Rawlins and Matthew Eisley

*National Geographic Magazine*. October, 2003. Whalebends.

<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/10/1008_031008_whalebends_2.html>

Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission
[www.santamonicabay.org](http://www.santamonicabay.org/)

United Nations Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities

<http://padh.gpa.unep.org/page.cfm?region=1&theme=1&topic=0#resources>

Kosko, Kim. *Ecotourism: A Natural Alternative for Exploring New Jersey*

[www.oar.noaa.gov/\.../spot_ecotourism.html](http://www.oar.noaa.gov/spotlite/archive/spot_ecotourism.html)