**Qualitative Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment of the Importation of
Fresh Table Grapes *Vitis vinifera* L. from Namibia into the United
States**

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

CPHST-PERAL

1730 Varsity Drive

Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27607

November 2005

**Executive Summary**

This risk assessment examines the risks associated with the importation
of fresh table grapes (*Vitis vinifera* L.) into the United States. It
is noted that there was little country-specific information found for
grapes from Namibia at the time of this analysis. The authors were
informed that grape production at a commercial export level was new to
Namibia. The relative novelty of the crop in the region partly explains
the limited information. To address uncertainties, the approach taken in
this analysis was to review pests reported to be associated with the
commodity in the same region (same ecosystems, same growing conditions
and high likelihood of pathways to share organisms). The regions
considered (grape growing regions in southern Africa) included several
countries, not just Namibia. It is noted that the subsequent
availability of official information regarding the presence, absence or
distribution of pests may provide the basis for updating this analyses.
Additional information for updating the pest list is expected in
2005/2006.

Thirty quarantine pests were identified as potentially associated with
fresh table grapes from Namibia based on information regarding pests
affecting table grapes in Namibia or nearby countries in sub-Saharan
Africa. These pests include twenty-eight insects and two mollusks as
follows:

**Insects**:

*Aleurocanthus spiniferus* Quaintance (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

*Apate monachus* F. (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

*Bustomus setulosus* Author Unknown (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

*Ceratitis capitata* Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Ceratitis rosa* Karsch (Diptera: Tephritidae)

*Ceroplastes rusci* L. (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

*Cryptophlebia leucotreta* Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

*Cryptoblabes gnidiella* Millière (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

*Dischista cincta* de Geer (Coleoptera: Scarabeidae)

*Empoasca lybica* de Bergevin (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

*Epichoristodes acerbella* Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

*Eremnus atratus* Sparness (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

*Eremnus cerealis*  Marshall (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

*Eremnus setulosus* Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

*Eutetranychus orientalis* Klein (Acari: Tetranchyidae)

*Helicoverpa armigera* Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

*Icerya seychellarum* Westwood (Hemiptera: Margarodidae)

*Macchiademus diplopterus* (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)

*Maconellicoccus hirsutus* Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Nipaecoccus vastator* Maskell Ferris (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Oxycarenus hyalinipennis* Costa (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)

*Pachnoda sinuata* flaviventris (Coleoptera: Scarabeidae)

*Phlyctinus callosus* Schoenherr (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

*Rastrococcus iceryoides* Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

*Scirtothrips aurantii* Faure (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

*Scirtothrips dorsalis* Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

*Spodoptera littoralis* Boisduval (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

*Tanyrhynchus carinatus* Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

**Mollusca**:

*Cochlicella ventricosa* Draparnaud (Pulmonata: Helicidae)

*Theba pisana* Müller (Pulmonata: Helicidae)

These quarantine pests have been determined to be likely to follow the
pathway. They are qualitatively analyzed using the methodology described
in the USDA-APHIS Guidelines 5.02 which examines pest biology in the
context of the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of
Introduction and estimates the Baseline Pest Risk Potential (USDA,
2000).

The Baseline Pest Risk Potential for the majority of the pests was high
with a few rated medium. The number and nature of pests argues against
port of entry inspection as the sole requirement to authorize import,
but these conclusions are subject to change where additional information
may be provided regarding pest status.

**Table of Contents**

**Executive
Summary.....................................................................................2**

A.  **Introduction..........................................................................................5**

B.  **Risk Assessment**

    1.  **Initiating
        Event...........................................................................\...5**

    2.  **Assessment of Weediness
        Potential...................................................\...6**

    3.  **Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status and Pest
        Interceptions.............6**

    4.  **Pest
        Categorization.........................................................................7**

    5.  **Consequences of
        Introduction...........................................................29**

    6.  **Likelihood of
        Introduction...............................................................56**

    7.  **Conclusion, Pest Risk
        Potential.........................................................61**

C.  **Authors and
    Reviewers............................................................................62**

D.  **Literature
    Cited.....................................................................................63**

**A**. **Introduction**

This risk assessment was prepared by the Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
to examine the plant pest risks associated with the importation of fresh
table grapes, *Vitis vinifera* L., from Namibia into the United States.
This risk assessment is qualitative; risk is expressed in terms such as
high, medium, or low. The details of the methodology and rating criteria
are found in: Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments: *Guidelines for
Qualitative Assessments*, Version 5.02 (USDA, 2000).

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), administered by
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and
regional plant protection organizations such as the North American Plant
Protection Organization (NAPPO), provide guidance for conducting pest
risk assessments. The methods used to initiate, conduct and report this
assessment are consistent with the guidelines provided by the IPPC and
NAPPO. The use of biological and phytosanitary terms conforms with
International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) No. 5,
*Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms* (IPPC, 2004). The risk assessment
methodology used here is consistent with ISPM No. 2, *Guidelines for
pest risk analysis* and ISPM No. 11, *Risk analysis for quarantine
pests*.

**B. Risk Assessment**

**1.** **Initiating Event: Proposed Action**

This is a commodity-based, pathway-initiated pest risk assessment that
has been initiated by a request for USDA authorization to allow the
importation of fresh grapes (fruit for consumption) from Namibia into
the United States. The importation of fresh grapes provides a potential
pathway for the introduction of plant pests. Title 7 of the Code of
Federal Regulations 319, Part 56 (7 CFR §319.56) provides regulatory
authority for imposing phytosanitary requirements on the importation of
fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the United States. The
entry of grapes from Namibia is not currently authorized (USDA, 2003b).
The Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development for Namibia seeks to
have the federal regulation allow this importation.

Namibia was a part of South Africa until 1990. For this reason,
information from South Africa is of particular value. A risk assessment
for grapes (*Vitis* spp.) from South Africa was prepared by the USDA in
1992 (BATS, 1992). Grapes currently enter the United States from South
Africa with cold treatment (USDA, 2003b). The risk assessment done for
grapes from South Africa is not considered by USDA to be applicable to
Namibia as Namibia intends to export grapes from recently planted grape
production areas where pests and their prevalence are not yet known.

**2**. **Assessment of the Weediness Potential of table grapes**,
***Vitis vinifera* L.**

Grapes are in the Vitaceae plant family which has about 14 genera and
1000 species, mostly vines and climbers (Robertson, 2003). In Namibia,
table grapes are currently produced in the Hardap, Stampriet, Naute,
Noordoever, and Aussenkehr areas, which are located in southern and
central Namibia. The largest and oldest production area, Aussenkehr, is
located adjacent to the South African land border and has been
designated as the major production site for grapes being shipped to the
United States.

If the species considered for import poses a risk as a weed pest, then a
"pest-initiated" risk assessment is conducted. The results of the
weediness screening for *Vitis vinifera* do not prompt a pest-initiated
risk assessment because plants already present in the United States are
not reported as weeds (Table 1).

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| > **Table 1: Assessment of Weediness Potential of *Vitis vinifera***  |
+=======================================================================+
| > **Commodity:** *Vitis vinifera* L. (Vitaceae) Cultivated grape.     |
| >                                                                     |
| > **Phase 1:** *Vitis vinifera* L. is widely cultivated in the United |
| > States.                                                             |
| >                                                                     |
| > **Phase 2:** Is the genus, species, subspecies, or variety listed   |
| > as a weed in:                                                       |
|                                                                       |
| [NO]{.underline} Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm *et al.*,    |
| 1979) or World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. (Holm *et   |
| al.*, 1997)                                                           |
|                                                                       |
| > [NO]{.underline} World\'s Worst Weeds (Holm *et al*., 1977)         |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate      |
| > Noxious Weeds;                                                      |
| >                                                                     |
| > Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982)      |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)  |
| >                                                                     |
| > [Yes\*]{.underline} Weed Science Society of America list (WSSA,     |
| > 1989)                                                               |
| >                                                                     |
| > [NO]{.underline} Is there any literature reference indicating       |
| > weediness (*e.g.*,                                                  |
| >                                                                     |
| > AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS; search on \"species     |
| >                                                                     |
| > name\" combined with \"weed\").                                     |
| >                                                                     |
| > **Phase 3:** **Conclusion:** Certain species of *Vitis* have been   |
| > reported as weeds (WSSA, 1989).                                     |
| >                                                                     |
| > However, as *Vitis* is widely cultivated in the United States,      |
| > additional imports would                                            |
| >                                                                     |
| > unlikely pose a weed risk.                                          |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

\* already widespread

**3. Current Status and Pest Interceptions**

Currently there is no importation of grapes from Namibia into the United
States. Up until 1990 Namibia was a part of South Africa, therefore
there is little historical information available specific to Namibia.
Historical information about pest interceptions from South African and
nearby countries is of particular to value to help portray the potential
pest situation for grape in Namibia (Table 2).

  --------------------- -------------- ---------------- ---------------- -----------------
  **Table 2.                                                             
  Interceptions on                                                       
  table grapes from                                                      
  Africa (south of the                                                   
  Sahara) as reported                                                    
  in the PIN 309                                                         
  database from                                                          
  1985-2005.**                                                           

  **Organism (Family)** **Country**    **Location of    **Type of        **Number of
                                       Interception**   Interception**   Interceptions**

  *Aecidium* sp.        South Africa   Leaf             Baggage          1
  (Pucciniaceae)                                                         

  *Altica* sp.          South Africa   Fruit            Mail             1
  (Chrysomelidae)                                                        

  Cicadellidae, species South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  of                                                                     

  Coreidae, species of  South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1

  Curculionidae,        South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  species of                                                             

  *Listroderes* sp.     South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  (Curculionidae)                                                        

  Olethreutinae         South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  (Tortricidae)                                                          

  Pentatomidae, species South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  of                                                                     

  *Phlyctinus callosus* South Africa   Fruit            Miscellaneous    5
  (Curculionidae)                                                        

  *Phlyctinus* sp.      South Africa   Fruit            General Cargo    3
  (Curculionidae)                                                        

  *Physorhinus* sp.     South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  (Elateridae)                                                           

  *Planococcus* sp.     South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  (Pseudococcidae)                                                       

  Pseudococcidae,       South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1
  species of                                                             

  Thripidae, species of Nigeria        Leaf             Mail             1

  Tineidae, species of  South Africa   Fruit            Baggage          1

  *Tychius* sp.         South Africa   Unknown          Baggage          1
  (Curculionidae)                                                        
  --------------------- -------------- ---------------- ---------------- -----------------

**4. Pest Categorization**

Table 3 lists the pests associated with table grapes in Namibia or
nearby countries in sub-Saharan Africa. This list identifies: (1) the
presence or absence of these pests in the United States, (2) the
affected plant part or parts, (3) the quarantine status of the pest with
respect to the United States, (4) whether the pest is likely to follow
the pathway to enter the United States on commercially exported table
grapes, and (5) pertinent citations for either the distribution or the
biology of the pest. A pest is considered to follow the pathway if it is
associated with the fruit and/or the stem of the plant. If the pest is
associated with the portion of the stem that will not be shipped with
the fruit (i.e. anything above the peduncle or rachis) it is considered
not likely to follow the pathway. In light of pest biology and
distribution, many organisms in Table 3 are eliminated from further
consideration as sources of phytosanitary risk on table grape from
Namibia because they do not satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest.

+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Table 3. Pests   |        |        |    |      |                |
| Associated with    |        |        |    |      |                |
| *Vitis vinifera*   |        |        |    |      |                |
| in Namibia or      |        |        |    |      |                |
| nearby countries   |        |        |    |      |                |
| (south of the      |        |        |    |      |                |
| Sahara) and        |        |        |    |      |                |
| presence in the    |        |        |    |      |                |
| United States on   |        |        |    |      |                |
| any host.**        |        |        |    |      |                |
+====================+========+========+====+======+================+
| **Scientific       | **Dist | **P    | ** | **   | **References** |
| Name**             | .^1^** | lant** | Q- | Foll |                |
|                    |        |        | Pe | ow** |                |
|                    |        | **Part | st |      |                |
|                    |        | ^2^**  | ^2 | **P  |                |
|                    |        |        | 6^ | athw |                |
|                    |        |        | ** | ay** |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **ARTHROPODA**     |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **[Ac              |        |        |    |      |                |
| ari]{.smallcaps}** |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Eriophyidae**    |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Calepitrimerus    | US, ZA | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| vitis* Nalepa      |        | S      |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Colomerus vitis*  | US, ZA | L, S   | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| Pagenstecher       |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Eriophyes vitis*  | US, ZA | L, S   | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Pagenstecher       |        |        |    |      | 309, 2003;     |
|                    |        |        |    |      | Rhodes, 2000   |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Tarsonemidae**   |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *P                 | US, ZA | F, I,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| olyphagotarsonemus |        | L, S   |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| latus* Banks       |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Tenuipalpidae**  |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Brevipalpus       | AO,    | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| californicus*      | ZA,    | S      |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| (Banks)            | ZW, US |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Tetranychyidae** |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Bryobia           | US,    | L      | No | No   | Bolland *et    |
| rubrioculus*       | ZA, ZW |        |    |      | al.,* 1998;    |
| Schueten           |        |        |    |      | PIN 309, 2003; |
|                    |        |        |    |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    |        |        |    |      | Tunc, 1990     |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Eutetranychus     | ZA     | F, L   | Y  | Yes  | BATS, 1992;    |
| orientalis* Klein  |        |        | es |      | Bolland *et    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | al.,* 1998;    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 309, 2003;     |
|                    |        |        |    |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    |        |        |    |      | Van den Berg   |
|                    |        |        |    |      | *et al.*, 2001 |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Oligonychus       | US     | L      | No | No   | Bolland *et    |
| coffeae* (Nietner) | (FL),  |        | ^2 |      | al.,* 1998;    |
|                    | ZA     |        | 4^ |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 309, 2003      |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Panonychus ulmi*  | US, ZA | L      | No | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| Koch               |        |        |    |      | Bolland *et    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | al.,* 1998;    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | PIN 309, 2003  |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+

  ------------------------------ --------- --------- ------------- ----- ------- -----------------
  *Tetranychus cinnabarinus* (=  AO, US,   L         No            No            Bolland *et al.,*
  *T. urticae*) Boisduval        ZA, ZM,                                         1998; CPC, 2002;
                                 ZW,                                             PIN 309, 2003;
                                                                                 Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                                 Schwartz, 1990

  *Tetranychus kanzawai* Kishida ZA        L, S      No^24^        Yes           Bolland *et al.,*
  (*= T. hydrangeae* Pritchard                                                   1998; CPC, 2002
  and Baker)                                                                     

  **[Insecta]{.smallcaps}**                                                      

  **[Coleoptera]{.smallcaps}**                                                   

  **Bostrichidae**                                                               

  *Apate monachus* F.            US (FL),  S         \[Yes\]       Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZM                                              309, 2003

  **Chrysomelidae**                                                              

  *Altica* sp.                   ZA        F         Yes^22^       Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                                 309, 2003

  *Chaetocnema confinis* Crotch  US, ZA    F, I, L,  No            Yes           CPC, 2002
                                           R, S                                  

  *Lema erythrodera* Lacordaire  ZA        L ^14^    Yes           No            SADA-DPHQ, 2002

  **Curculionidae**                                                              

  *Bustomus setulosus* (Author   ZA        F, L      Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992;
  Unknown)                                                                       Coetsee, 2002

  *Cryptolarynx vitis* Marshall  ZA        L         Yes           No            Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                                 SADA-DPHQ, 2002;
                                                                                 Sullivan, 2002;
                                                                                 SZM, 2002; Van
                                                                                 den Berg, 1968

  *Eremnus atratus* Sparness     ZA        F, L      Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992;
                                                                                 Myburgh *et al.*
                                                                                 1973a; Rhodes,
                                                                                 2000; Sheard and
                                                                                 Kaiser, 2001

  *Eremnus cerealis* Marshall    ZA        F, L      Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992;
                                                                                 Rhodes, 2000; Van
                                                                                 den Berg and
                                                                                 Giliomee, 1972

  *Eremnus setulosus* Boheman    ZA        F, L      Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992;
                                                                                 Rhodes, 2000; Van
                                                                                 den Berg, 1971

  *Listroderes* sp.              ZA, US^3^ F, L, R,  Yes^22^       Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                           S                                     309, 2003

  *Pantomorus cervinus* Boheman  US, ZA    L, R      No            No            CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                                 309, 2003;
                                                                                 SADA-DPHQ, 2002

  *Phlyctinus callosus*          ZA        F, L, S   Yes           Yes           Barnes and Swart,
  Schoenherr                                                                     1977; BATS, 1992;
                                                                                 CPC, 2002;
                                                                                 Elliot, 2002; PIN
                                                                                 309, 2003;
                                                                                 Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                                 Schwartz, 1988;
                                                                                 Van den Berg 1971

  *Tanyrhynchus carinatus*       ZA        F, L      Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992;
  Boheman                                                                        Rhodes, 2000

  *Tychius* sp*.*                ZA        F, I, L,  Yes^22^       Yes           Clark and Burke,
                                           S, SD                                 1977; PIN 309,
                                                                                 2003

  **Elateridae**                                                                 

  *Physorhinus* sp.              ZA        F, R, SD  Yes^22^       Yes           PIN 309, 2003

  **Nitidulidae**                                                                

  *Carpophilus humeralis*        KE, TZ    F, S      No^24^        Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                                 309, 2003

  **Scarabeidae**                                                                

  *Dischista cincta* (de Geer)   NA, ZA,   F, I      Yes                 Yes     BATS, 1992; EMLU,
                                 ZW                                              2000a; PAN, 1996;
                                                                                 Rhodes, 2000

  *Heteronychus arator* F.       AO, BW,   S         Yes                 No^4^   CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 NA, ZA,                                         309, 2003
                                 ZM, ZW                                          

  *Pachnoda sinuata*             NA, ZA,   F, I      Yes                 Yes     BATS, 1992;
  flaviventris (Gory and         ZM                                              Donaldson, 1981;
  Percheron)                                                                     EMLU, 2000b; Hill
                                                                                 1983; PIN 309,
                                                                                 2003; Rhodes,
                                                                                 2000; Prins, 1984

  *Phyllophaga* sp.              US (TX),  F, I, L,  \[Yes^22^\]         Yes     CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZA        R                                     309, 2003

  **Tenebrionidae**                                                              

  *Eutochia pulla* (Erichson)    ZA        S (dry),  Yes                 No      SADA-DPHQ, 2002
                                           R                                     

  **[Diptera]{.smallcaps}**                                                      

  **Drosophilidae**                                                              

  *Drosophila melanogaster*      US, ZW    F         No                  Yes     CPC, 2002
  Meigen                                                                         

  *Drosophila simulans*          US, ZA,   F         No                  Yes     CPC, 2002; Irvin
  Sturtevant                     ZW                                              *et al.*, 1998;
                                                                                 Walpole *et al.*,
                                                                                 1988

  **Tephritidae**                                                                

  *Ceratitis capitata* Wiedemann AO, NA,   F         Yes                 Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
                                 ZA, ZW                                          2002; PIN 309,
                                                                                 2003; Rhodes,
                                                                                 2000

  *Ceratitis rosa* Karsch        AO, SZ,   F         Yes                 Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
                                 ZA, ZM,                                         2002; Rhodes,
                                 ZW                                              2000; PIN 309,
                                                                                 2003

  *Dacus* *bistrigulatus* Bezzi  LS, NA,   F ^10^    Yes                 No      Kirk-Spriggs,
                                 ZA                                              2003

  *Dacus* *ciliatus* Loew        NA, ZA    F ^10^    Yes                 No      Kirk-Spriggs,
                                                                                 2003

  **[Hemiptera]{.smallcaps}**                                                    

  **Aleyrodidae**                                                                

  *Aleurocanthus spiniferus*     SZ, US    L, F, S   \[Yes\]       Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Quaintance)                   (HI), ZA                                        309, 2003; Van
                                                                                 den Berg *et
                                                                                 al.*, 2001

  *Aleurocanthus woglumi* Ashby  US (FL,   L         \[Yes\]       No            Bedford , 1998;
                                 HI, TX),                                        CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZA                                              309, 2003

  *Bemisia afer* (Priesner and   MW        L         Yes           No            CPC, 2002;
  Hosny)                                                                         Munthali, 1992;
                                                                                 PIN 309, 2003

  **Aphididae**                                                                  

  *Aphis fabae* Scopoli          US, ZA,   I, L, S   No            Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZW                                              309, 2003

  *Aphis gossypii* Glover        AO, SZ,   I, L, S   No            Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 US, ZA,                                         309, 2003
                                 ZM, ZW                                          

  *Aphis spiraecola* Patch       US, ZA,   F, I, L,  No            Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZW        S                                     309, 2003

  *Macrosiphum euphorbiae*       AO, US,   L         No            Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Thomas)                       ZA, ZM,                                         309, 2003
                                 ZW,                                             

  **Cicadellidae**                                                               

  *Acia lineatifrons* (Naudé)    ZA        L         Yes           No            BATS, 1992;
                                                                                 Ferreira and
                                                                                 Venter, 1996;
                                                                                 Marais,
                                                                                 1989,1997; Marais
                                                                                 and Carstens,
                                                                                 2001; Rhodes,
                                                                                 2000

  *Empoasca lybica* de Bergevin  ZA        I, F, L,  Yes           Yes           BATS, 1992; CPC,
                                           S                                     2002; PIN 309,
                                                                                 2003
  ------------------------------ --------- --------- ------------- ----- ------- -----------------

+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Coccidae**       |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Ceroplastes       | AO,    | F, L,  | Y  | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| rusci* L.          | AM,    | S      | es |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | ZA, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Coccus            | AO,    | L, S   | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| hesperidum* L.     | US,    |        |    |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZM,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZW,    |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Parasaissetia     | AO,    | L, S   | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| nigra* (Nietner)   | NA,    |        |    |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | US,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Saissetia         | AM,    | L, S   | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| coffeae* Walker    | AO,    |        |    |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | US,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Coreidae**       |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Cletus caffer*    | ZA     | L      | Y  | No   | SADA-DPHQ,     |
| (Stal)             |        |        | es |      | 2002           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Diaspididae**    |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Aonidiella        | AO, US | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| orientalis*        | (FL),  | S      | ^2 |      | 309, 2003      |
| (Newstead)         | ZA, ZM |        | 4^ |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Aspidiotus        | AO,    | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| destructor*        | US,    | S      |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| Signoret           | ZA, ZM |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Aspidiotus nerii* | US,    | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Bouché             | ZA, ZW | S      |    |      | 309, 2003      |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Hemiberlesia      | AO,    | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| lataniae*          | SA,    | S,     |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| (Signoret)         | US,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Pinnaspis         | AO, US | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| strachani*         |        | S      |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| (Cooley)           |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Pseudaonidia      | TZ, US | F, L   | \  | N    | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| trilobitiformis*   | (FL)   |        | [Y | o^9^ | 309, 2003;     |
| (Green)            |        |        | es |      | USDA, 1979;    |
|                    |        |        | \] |      | Van den Berg   |
|                    |        |        |    |      | *et al.*, 2001 |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Selenaspidus      | US, ZM | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| articulatus*       |        | S      |    |      | 309, 2003      |
| (Morgan)           |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Lygaeidae**      |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Macchiademus      | ZA     | L, F,  | Y  | Yes  | Herring, 1973; |
| diplopterus*       |        | S      | es |      | SADA-DPHQ,     |
| (Distant)          |        |        |    |      | 2002           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Oxycarenus        | AO,    | F, I,  | Y  | Yes  | BATS, 1992;    |
| hyalinipennis*     | BW,    | L, S,  | es |      | CPC, 2002;     |
| Costa              | NA,    | SD     |    |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    | SZ,    |        |    |      | PIN 309, 2003  |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Margarodidae**   |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Icerya            | MW,    | L, S   | Y  | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| seychellarum*      | TZ, ZA |        | es |      | 309, 2003      |
| Westwood           |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Margarodes        | ZA     | R      | Y  | No   | De Klerk *et   |
| capensis* Giard    |        |        | es |      | al.*, 1980,    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 1982           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Margarodes        | ZA     | R      | Y  | No   | De Klerk *et   |
| greeni* Brain      |        |        | es |      | al.*, 1980,    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 1982           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Margarodes        | ZA     | R      | Y  | No   | De Klerk *et   |
| prieskaensis*      |        |        | es |      | al.*, 1980,    |
| (Jakubski)         |        |        |    |      | 1982           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Margarodes        | ZA     | R      | Y  | No   | De Klerk *et   |
| trimeni* Giard     |        |        | es |      | al.*, 1980,    |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 1982           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Margarodes        | ZA     | R      | Y  | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| vredendalensis* De |        |        | es |      |                |
| Klerk              |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Membracidae**    |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Xiphistes         | ZA     | L, S   | Y  | No   | SADA-DPHQ,     |
| furcicornis*       |        |        | es | ^16^ | 2002           |
| (Germar)           |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Pentatomidae**   |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Agnocellis        | ZA, US | F, L,  | \  | No   | SADA-DPHQ,     |
| puberula* Stål     | (AZ,   | S      | [Y | ^17^ | 2002, Thomas   |
|                    | NM,    |        | es |      | *et al.*, 2003 |
| (more commonly     | TX)    |        | \] |      |                |
| spelled            |        |        |    |      |                |
| *Agonoscelis*)     |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Bagrada hilaris*  | NA, ZA | L      | Y  | No   | Keizer and     |
| Burmeister         |        |        | es |      | Zuurbier,      |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 2003; Rhodes,  |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 2000;          |
|                    |        |        |    |      | SADA-DPHQ,     |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 2002           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Carbula           | ZA     | L^15^  | Y  | No   | Krivolutskaya, |
| marginella*        |        |        | es |      | 1973^15^; PIN  |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 309, 2003;     |
| (Thunberg)         |        |        |    |      | SADA-DPHQ,     |
|                    |        |        |    |      | 2002           |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Nezara viridula*  | AO,    | F, I,  | No | Yes  | NSWDA, 1973;   |
| L.                 | BW,    | L, S,  |    |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    | NA,    | SD     |    |      | PIN 309, 2003  |
|                    | SZ,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | US,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Phylloxeridae**  |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Viteus            | US,    | L, R   | No | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| vitifoliae*        | ZA, ZW |        |    |      | Rhodes, 2000   |
| (Fitch)            |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| **Pseudococcidae** |        |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Ferrisia virgata* | AO,    | F, L,  | No | Yes  | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Cock               | US,    | S,     |    |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Maconellicoccus   | TZ, US | F, I,  | \  | Yes  | BATS, 1992;    |
| hirsutus* (Green)  | (CA,   | L, S   | [Y |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
|                    | HI,    |        | es |      | 309, 2003      |
|                    | VI),   |        | \] |      |                |
|                    | ZA     |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Nipaecoccus       | AO, US | F, I,  | \  | Yes  | Ben-Dov, 1994; |
| vastator* Maskell  | (CA,   | L, S   | [Y |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Ferris             | HI),   |        | es |      | 309, 2003;     |
|                    | ZA,    |        | \] |      | Rhodes, 2000   |
|                    | ZM, ZW |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+
| *Planococcus       | AO,    | F, I,  | No | Yes  | Ben-Dov, 1994; |
| citri* (Risso)     | SZ,    | L, R,  |    |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
|                    | US,    | S      |    |      | 309, 2003,     |
|                    | ZA,    |        |    |      | Rhodes, 2000   |
|                    | ZM,    |        |    |      |                |
|                    | ZW,    |        |    |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+--------+----+------+----------------+

  ------------------------------- --------- ----------- --------- ----- ------- -----------------
  *Planococcus ficus* Signoret    ZA        F, L        No^24^    Yes           BATS, 1992;
                                                                                Ben-Dov, 1994;
                                                                                CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                                309, 2003;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000

  *Planococcus (=Pseudococcus)    US, ZA,   F, I, L, S  No        Yes           Ben-Dov, 1994;
  longispinus* Targioni-Torzzetti ZM, ZW                                        CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                                309, 2003;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000

  *Pseudococcus affinis* Maskell  US, ZA    W           No        Yes           Ben-Dov, 1994;
                                                                                PIN 309, 2003;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000

  *Pseudococcus calceolariae*     NA, US,   F, I, L, R, No        Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Maskell)                       ZA        S                                   309, 2003

  *Rastrococcus iceryoides*       MW, TZ    F, I, L, S  Yes       Yes           CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Green)                                                                       309, 2003

  **[Hymenoptera]{.smallcaps}**                                                 

  **Formicidae**                                                                

  *Crematogaster peringueyi*      ZA        S (mealybug Yes (sp.)       No^5^   Addison, 2000;
  Emery                                     honeydew)                           PIN 309, 2003;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000

  *Iridomyrmex humilis* Mayr      ZA        S (mealybug No              Yes     Jackson, 1980;
  (Preferred name *Linepithema              honeydew)                           Myburgh *et al.*,
  humile* (Mayr)                                                                1973b; PIN 309,
                                                                                2003; Rhodes,
                                                                                2000; Schwartz,
                                                                                1988

  **Tenthredinidae**                                                            

  *Athalia colibri* Christ.       ZA        L           Yes             No      BATS, 1992

  **[Lepidoptera]{.smallcaps}**                                                 

  **Noctuidae**                                                                 

  *Calpe emarginata* F.           ZA, ZW    F           Yes             No^6^   BATS, 1992;
                                                                                Bosch, 1971a;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                                SADA-DPHQ, 2002

  *Calpe provocans* Walker        ZA, ZW    F           Yes             No^6^   BATS, 1992;
                                                                                Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                                SADA-DPHQ, 2002;
                                                                                Zhang, 1994

  *Cyligramma latona* (Cram.)     NA, ZW    F           Yes             No^6^   Bosch, 1971b;
                                                                                Larsen, 2003

  *Dugaria* (*Pericyma*)          ZA        F           Yes             No^6^   BATS, 1992;
  *scandulata* (Felder and                                                      Larsen, 2003;
  Rogenhofer)                                                                   Rhodes, 2000

  *Eudocima fullonia* (Clerck)    AO, NA,   F           \[Yes\]         No^6^   CPC, 2002;
                                  US (HI),                                      
                                  ZW                                            
  ------------------------------- --------- ----------- --------- ----- ------- -----------------

  ------------------------------ --------- --------- --------- ----- ------- -----------------
  *Helicoverpa armigera* Hubner  AO, NA,   F, I, L,  Yes             Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
                                 SZ, ZA,   S                                 2002; EPPO,
                                 ZM, ZW                                      1997b; PIN 309,
                                                                             2003; Rhodes,
                                                                             2000; Swart *et
                                                                             al.*, 1976

  *Ophiusa tirhaca* (Cram.)      NA        F         Yes             No^6^   Larsen, 2003

  *Serrodes partitus* F.         NA, ZA,   F         Yes             No^6^   Bosch, 1971b;
                                 ZW                                          Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                             Larsen, 2003;
                                                                             SADA-DPHQ, 2002;
                                                                             Whitehead and
                                                                             Rust, 1972;
                                                                             Zhang, 1994

  *Sphingomorpha chlorea*        NA, ZW    F         Yes             No^6^   Bosch, 1971b;
  (Cram.)                                                                    Larsen, 2003;

  *Spodoptera littoralis*        AO, BW,   F, L, S   Yes             Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
  Boisduval                      NA, SZ,                                     2002; Hemmati,
                                 ZA, ZM,                                     1990; PIN 309,
                                 ZW                                          2003; Rhodes,
                                                                             2000

  **Psychidae**                                                              

  *Gymnelema plebigena* Meyrick  ZA        L         Yes             No      SADA-DPHQ, 2002

  **Pyralidae**                                                              

  *Cryptoblabes gnidiella*       US (HI),  F, L, S   \[Yes\]         Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
  Millière                       ZR                                          2002; PIN 309,
                                                                             2003; Zhang, 1994

  **Sphingidae**                                                             

  *Hippotion celerio* L.         AO, SZ,   L, S      Yes             No^8^   CPC, 2002;
                                 ZA, ZM,                                     Rhodes, 2000;
                                 ZW,                                         Zhang, 1994

  *Hyles livornica* (Esper)      ZA        L         Yes             No      CPC, 2002;
                                                                             Pittaway, 2003

  *Theretra capensis* L.         ZA        L         Yes             No      Johnson and
                                                                             Liltved, 1997;
                                                                             Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                             Zhang, 1994

  **Tortricidae**                                                            

  *Cacoecimorpha pronubana*      ZA, US    F^7^, I,  \[Yes\]         No^7^   CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Hubner)                       (OR)      L                                 309, 2003

  *Cryptophlebia leucotreta*     SZ, ZA,   F, I      Yes             Yes     BATS, 1992; CPC,
  Meyrick                        ZM, ZW                                      2002; Ferreira
                                                                             and Venter, 1996;
                                                                             PIN 309, 2003;
                                                                             Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                             Zhang, 1994

  *Epichoristodes acerbella*     ZA, ZW    I, L, S   Yes             Yes     Anonymous, 1997;
  Walker                                                                     Blomefield and
                                                                             Plessis, 2000;
                                                                             CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                             309, 2003;
                                                                             Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                             Zhang, 1994

  **[Orthoptera]{.smallcaps}**                                               

  **Gryllotalpidae**                                                         

  *Gryllotalpa africana* Palisot US (HI),  R, S      \[Yes\]         No ^4^  CPC, 2002; PIN
  de Beauvois                    ZW                                          309, 2003;
                                                                             Rhodes, 2000

  **Tettigonidae**                                                           

  *Plangia graminea*             ZA        L, F      Yes             No ^13^ Ferreira and
                                                                             Venter, 1996

  **Thysanoptera**                                                           

  **Thripidae**                                                              

  *Frankliniella occidentalis*   SZ, US,   F, I, L,  No              No      CPC, 2002;
  (Pergande)                     ZA, ZW    S                                 Ferreira and
                                                                             Venter, 1996; PIN
                                                                             309, 2003

  *Heliothrips sylvanus* Faure   ZA        L         Yes             No      Ferreira and
                                                                             Venter, 1996;
                                                                             Rhodes, 2000;
                                                                             Schwartz, 1989

  *Limothrips cerealium*         US (HI),  SD        No^24^          No      CPC, 2002; PIN
  (Haliday)                      ZA                                          309, 2003

  *Scirtothrips aurantii* Faure  AO, SZ,   F, L, S   Yes             Yes     CPC, 2002; PIN
                                 ZA, ZW                                      309, 2003

  *Scirtothrips dorsalis* Hood   US (HI),  F         \[Yes\]         Yes     CPC, 2002; EPPO,
                                 ZA                                          2003; PIN 309,
                                                                             2003; Shibao,
                                                                             1996

  *Thrips hawaiiensis* (Morgan)  AO, US    F, I, L   No              Yes     CPC, 2002; PIN
                                                                             309, 2003

  *Thrips tabaci* Lindeman       US, ZA,   I, L, S,  No              Yes     CPC, 2002;
                                 ZW        F                                 Rhodes, 2000; PIN
                                                                             309, 2003

  **MOLLUSCA**                                                               

  **[Pulmonata]{.smallcaps}**                                                

  **Helicidae**                                                              

  *Cochlicella ventricosa*       ZA        L, F      Yes       Yes           Ferreira and
  Draparnaud (=*Prietocella                                                  Venter, 1996;
  ventrosa*=*Cochlicella*                                                    SADA-DPHQ, 2002
  barbara )                                                                  
  ------------------------------ --------- --------- --------- ----- ------- -----------------

+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Helix aspersa*    | US     | I |       | No | Y |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Müller             | (AL,   | , |       | ^2 | e |      | 309, 2003;     |
|                    | FL),   | F |       | 4^ | s |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    | ZA, ZW | , |       |    |   |      | Schwartz and   |
|                    |        | L |       |    |   |      | Capatos, 1990; |
|                    |        | , |       |    |   |      | Snyman *et     |
|                    |        | R |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2002;    |
|                    |        | , |       |    |   |      | Van Bruggen,   |
|                    |        | S |       |    |   |      | 1981           |
|                    |        | , |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        | S |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        | D |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        | , |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        | W |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Theba pisana*     | BW,    | F |       | Y  | Y |      | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| (Müller)           | NA,    |   |       | es | e |      | 309, 2003;     |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    | s |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Sanderson *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2002     |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| **Zonitidae**      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Oxychilus         | ZW     |   | I, L, | No |   | Yes  | PIN 309, 2003; |
| cellarius*         |        |   | R, S  | ^2 |   |      | Rhodes, 2000;  |
| (Müller)           |        |   |       | 4^ |   |      | Van Bruggen,   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1981           |
| (Pulmonata:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Zoniti             |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| dae[)]{.underline} |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| **FUNGI**          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aecidium* sp.     | ZA     |   | L     | Y  |   | No   | PIN 309, 2003  |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      |                |
| (Urediniomycetes:  |        |   |       | ^2 |   |      |                |
| Uredinales)        |        |   |       | 2^ |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aecidium vitis*   | ZA, ZW |   | L, S  | ** |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| (Smith)            |        |   |       | No |   |      | Farr *et al.*, |
|                    |        |   |       | ** |   |      | 2003; Pearson  |
| (Urediniomycetes:  |        |   |       | ^1 |   |      | and            |
| Uredinales)        |        |   |       | 8^ |   |      | Goheen,1988;   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Watson, 1971   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Alternaria*       | US, ZA |   | F, L  | No |   | Yes  | Ferrerira and  |
| *alternata*.       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996   |
| (Fr.:Fr.)Keissl.   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Armillaria        | TZ, US |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| mellea* (Vahl) P.  |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ |                |
| Kumm.              |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Basidiomycetes:   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Agaricales)        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aspergillus       | US, ZA |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | Farr *et al.*, |
| carbonarius*       |        |   |       |    |   |      | 2003; Gorter,  |
| (Bainier) Thom     |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1977           |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| f                  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| ungi:Hyphomycetes) |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aspergillus       | US, ZA |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| niger* Tiegh       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| f                  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| ungi:Hyphomycetes) |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aureobasidium     | US     |   | L, S  | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| pullulans* de Bary | (AL,   |   |       | ^2 |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| \[= *A. vitis*     | WA),   |   |       | 4^ |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Viala and          | ZA     |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
| Boyer\](Mitosporic |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| fungi:             |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Botryodiplodia    | MW,    |   | S     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| theobromae* Pat.   | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Botryosphaeria    | Wide   |   | F, S, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| dothidea* (Moug.   | spread |   | L     |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| Ex Fr.) Ces.and de |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Not. \[=           |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| *Botryosphaeria    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| ribis* Grossenb.   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| and Duggar,        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| anamorph=          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Macrophoma* sp.\] |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Dothideales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Botryosphaeria    | US, ZA |   | F, S  | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| obtusa*            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| (Schwein.          |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| )Shoem.\[anamorph= |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Sphaeropsis       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| malorum* Berk.*,   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Physalospora       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| obtusa*            |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Schein.)Cooke\]   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Dothideales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Botryotinia       | Wide   |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| fuckeliana* (de    | spread |   | S     |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| Bary) Whetzel      |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| (                  |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| Anamorph=*Botrytis |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| cinerea*           |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| Pers.:Fr.)         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Helotiales)        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Cercospora leoni* | ZA     |   | L     | Y  |   | No   | Gorter, 1977   |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       | es |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Cladosporium      | ZA     |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| baccae* Verw. and  |        |   |       | ^1 |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Dipp.              |        |   |       | 9^ |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Colletotrichum*   | TZ,    |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| *acutatum*         | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Simmonds ex        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Simmonds           |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Coniella          | US, ZA |   | F, S  | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| diplodiella*       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| (Speg.)Petr. and   |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Syd. (Mitosporic   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| fungi:             |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Corticium         | AO,    |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| rolfsii* Curz.     | MW,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Basidiomycetes:   | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Polyporales)       | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Eutypa lata*      | US, ZA |   | L, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| (Pers.)Tul. and C. |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| Tul. (Ascomycetes: |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Xylariales)        |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Exosporium        | ZA     |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| sultanae* (Du      |        |   | S     | ^2 |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Plessis)           |        |   |       | 0^ |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \[=*Asperisporium  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| vitiphyllum*       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Speschnew)        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Deighton\]         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium          | ZA     |   | F, L, | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| oxysporum* Schl.   |        |   | R, S  | es |   | ^21^ | Gorter, 1977   |
| f.sp.              |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *herbomontis*      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Fusarium* sp.     | ZA     |   | F, R, | Y  |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   | S     | es |   |      | al.*, 2000     |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       | ^2 |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       | 2^ |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Gloeosporium      | US     |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| ampelophagum*      | (TX),  |   | S     | ^2 |   |      | Ferreira and   |
|                    | ZA     |   |       | 4^ |   |      | Venter, 1996   |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Glomerella        | US, ZA |   | F, L  | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| cingulata*         |        |   |       |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| (                  |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Stonem.)Spauld.and |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Schrenk            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Incertae sedis)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Greeneria         | US, ZA |   | F, I, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| uvicola* (Berk and |        |   | L, S  |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| Curtis) Punith.    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| \[=*Melanconium    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| fuligineum*        |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Lams.-Scrib and    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| Viala\]            |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Guignardia        | ZA, US |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | Fujioka, 1952; |
| baccae*            |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Watson, 1971   |
| (Cavara)Jacz       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \[= *Physalospora  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| baccae* Cavara;    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| anamorph=          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Macrophoma        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| reniformis* (Viala |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| and Ravaz)         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Cavara\]           |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Dothideales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Guignardia        | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| bidwellii* (Ellis) |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Viala and Ravaz    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Dothideales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Isariopsis        | ZA     |   | L     | Y  |   | No   | Gorter, 1977;  |
| fuckelii* (Thuem.) |        |   |       | es |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Plessis            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Watson, 1971   |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Macrophomina      | US, ZA |   | R     | No |   | No   | Crous, *et     |
| phaseolina*        |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000     |
| (Tassi)Goid        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Nattrassia        | TZ,    |   | F, I, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| mangifera* (Syd.   | US,    |   | L, S, |    |   |      | Farr *et al.*, |
| and P. Syd.) B.    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      | 1989; Saaiman, |
| Sutton and Dyko    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1997           |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \[=*Exosporina     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| fawcetti* Wilson,  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Hendersonula      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| toruloidea*        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Nattras\]          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Nectria           | Wide   |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| haematococca*      | spread |   |       |    |   | ^11^ |                |
| (Wollenw.)         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Gerlach.           |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \[anamorph =       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Fusarium solani*  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Martius) Sacc.\]  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hypocreales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Penicillium       | US, ZA |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| aurantiogriseum*   |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
| Dierckx \[=        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *Penicillium       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| cyclopodium*\]     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Penicillium       | US, ZA |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| expansum* Link.    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phaeomoniella     | ZA     |   | R, S  | Y  |   | No   | Crous, *et     |
| chlamydospora* (W. |        |   |       | es |   | ^11^ | al.,* 2000;    |
| Gams, Crous, M.J.  |        |   |       |    |   |      | Jaspers, 2001  |
| Wingf. & L.        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Mugnai) Crous & W. |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Gams) (Mitosporic  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| fungi:             |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phaeoramularia    | US, ZA |   | L     | No |   | No   | Crous, *et     |
| dissiliensis*      |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| (authority not     |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| found)             |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phialophora       | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| parasitica*        |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Farr *et al.*  |
| Ajello, Georg and  |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1989; Ferreira |
| Wang (Mitosporic   |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Venter,    |
| fungi:             |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1996; Pearson  |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Goheen,    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1988           |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phomopsis         | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| viticola*          |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| (Sacc              |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| .)Sacc.(Mitosporic |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| fungi:             |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora      | US, ZA |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| cactorum* (Lebert  |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| and Cohn) Schröter |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Pythiales)^25^     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora      | US, ZA |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| cinnamomi* Rands   |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora      | US, ZA |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| cryptogea*         |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| Pethybr. and Laff. |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000     |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Phytophthora      | US, ZA |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| nicotianae* Breda  |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| de Haan            |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000     |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Plasmopara        | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| viticola* (Berk    |        |   | S     |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| and Curt.) Berl    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| and de Toni        |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| Peronosporales)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| ^25^               |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pseudocercospora  | US, ZA |   | L     | No |   | No   | Crous, *et     |
| vitis* (Lév.)Speg. |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Farr *et al.,* |
| \[*=Cercospora     |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1989; Gorter,  |
| vitis*             |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1977; Pearson  |
| (Lév.)Sacc.,       |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Goheen,    |
| teleomor           |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1988           |
| ph=*Mycosphaerella |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| personata*         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Higgins\]          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pythium           | US, ZA |   | R, S, | No |   | No   | CPC, 2001;     |
| aphanidermatum*    |        |   | So    |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| (Edson)Fitzp.      |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pythium           | US, ZA |   | R, S, | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| sylvaticum*        |        |   | So    |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| Campbell and       |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Hendrix            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Farr, *et      |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 1989     |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pythium ultimum*  | US, ZA |   | R, R, | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| Trow (Oomycetes:   |        |   | So    |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pythium           | US, ZA |   | R, S, | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| irregulare*        |        |   | So    |    |   | ^11^ | Crous, *et     |
| Buisman            |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| (Oomycetes:        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Pythiales) ^25^    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rhizopus          | Wide   |   | F     | No |   | Yes  | Crous, *et     |
| stolonifer* (Ehr.  | spread |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| ex Fr.) Vuill. \[= |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| *R*. *nigricans*   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
| Ehrenb.\]          |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Zygomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Mucorales)         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rosellinia*       | US, ZA |   | R, S  | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| *necatrix* Prill   |        |   |       |    |   | ^11^ |                |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Xylariales)        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Sclerotium        | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| rolfsii* Sacc.     |        |   |       |    |   |      | Farr, *et al.* |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1989; Ferreira |
| (Mitosporic Fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Venter,    |
| Hyphomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1996           |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Sphaceloma        | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| ampelinum* de Bary |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| \[t                |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| eleomorph=*Elsinoë |        |   |       |    |   |      | Farr *et al.,* |
| ampelina* Shear\]  |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1989; Gorter,  |
| (Mitosporic fungi: |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1977; Pearson  |
| Coelomycetes)      |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Goheen,    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1988           |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Uncinula necator* | US, ZA |   | F, L, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| (Schwein) Burrill  |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Crous, *et     |
| (Ascomycetes:      |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 2000;    |
| Erysiphales)       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter 1996;   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Verticillium*     | US,    |   | L, S, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| *dahliae* Kleb.    | MW,    |   | R     |    |   |      |                |
|                    | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Mitosporic fungi: | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Hyphomycetes)      | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| **BACTERIA**       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Agrobacterium     | US, ZA |   | F, R, | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| tumefaciens*       |        |   | S     |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| (Smith and         |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
| Townsend) Conn     |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996   |
| (Eubacteriales)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Aster yellows      | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| phytoplasma        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (                  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Acholeplasmatales) |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pseudomonas       | MW,    |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| syringae* van Hall | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Pseudomonadales)  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rhizobium         | MW,    |   | R,    | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| rhizogenes* (Riker | US, ZA |   | So, S |    |   | ^11^ |                |
| *et.al*) Young *et |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| al*.               |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \[=*Agrobacterium  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| radiobacter*\]     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Rhizobiales)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xanthomonas       | ZA     |   | I, L, | Y  |   | No   | B              |
| ampelina*          |        |   | S, R  | es |   | ^12^ | alasubramaniam |
| Panagopoulos       |        |   |       |    |   |      | *et al*.,      |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1993; CPC,     |
| (Pseudomonadales)  |        |   |       |    |   |      | 2002; Gorter,  |
| (=*Xylophilus      |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1977; Pearson  |
| ampelina*          |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Goheen,    |
| (Panagopoulos)     |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1988; Ferreira |
| Willems *et al.*)  |        |   |       |    |   |      | and Venter,    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1996           |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| **VIRUSES**        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Alfalfa mosaic     | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| virus              |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Bromoviridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Arabis mosaic      | ZA     |   | W     | Y  |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| virus              |        |   |       | es |   | ^23^ |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Comoviridae)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Cucumber mosaic    | TZ,    |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| virus              | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Bromoviridae)     | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine A        | ZA     |   | W     | Y  |   | Yes  | Brunt *et      |
| trichovirus        |        |   |       | es |   | ^23^ | al.,* 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Trichovirus)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine corky    | US     |   | W     | \  |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| bark               | (CA),  |   |       | [Y |   | ^23^ | Brunt *et      |
|                    | ZA     |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996;    |
| \[=Grapevine       |        |   |       | \] |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
| stempitting Ar M   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
| V\]                |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996   |
| (Closteroviridae)  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine fanleaf  | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Brunt *et      |
| \[=Grapevine       |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.,* 1996;    |
| veinbanding,       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
| Grapevine yellow   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter,        |
| mosaic\]           |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1996;Gorter,   |
| (Comoviridae)      |        |   |       |    |   |      | 1977           |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine fleck    | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Brunt *et      |
| (unassigned)       |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996;    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine leaf     | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002;     |
| roll               |        |   |       |    |   |      | Brunt *et      |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996;    |
| (Closteroviridae)  |        |   |       |    |   |      | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine          | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | Ferreira and   |
| stem-grooving      |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
| (unassigned)       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Gorter, 1977   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Grapevine vein     | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | Gorter, 1977;  |
| enation            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
| (unassigned)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Shiraz Decline     | ZA     |   | W     | Y  |   | Yes  | Ferreira and   |
| (unassigned)       |        |   |       | es |   | ^23^ | Venter, 1996   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Tomato spotted     | TZ,    |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| wilt virus         | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Bunyaviridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Tobacco ringspot   | MW, US |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | CPC, 2002      |
| virus              |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Comoviridae)      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Vein yellows Pr V  | ZA     |   | W     | Y  |   | Yes  | Gorter, 1977   |
| Y V (unassigned)   |        |   |       | es |   | ^23^ |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| Yellow Speckle     | US, ZA |   | W     | No |   | Yes  | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
| (Pospiviroidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Pearson and    |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Goheen, 1988   |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| **NEMATODES**      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aphelenchoides*   | MW, ZW |   | L     | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| sp.                |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Aphelencoididae)  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Aphelenchus* sp.  | MW, ZW |   | L     | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Aphelenchidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Criconema*        | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *hlagum*           |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Criconema*        | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *mutabile*         |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Criconema*        | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *sanctifrancisci*  |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Criconema* sp.    | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Criconemoides*    | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| sp.                |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Ditylenchus* sp.  | MW, ZW |   | R, S, | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   | So    | es |   | ^11^ | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Anguinidae)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Helicotylenchus*  | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *africanus, H.     |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| cavenessi, H.      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| digonicus, H.      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| elegans, H.        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| microcephalus,*and |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *H. vulgaris*      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Helicotylenchus*  | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *dihystera*, *H.   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
| multicinctus,* and |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| *H.                |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| pseudorobustus*    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Helicotylenchus*  | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| sp.                |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *                  | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| Hemicriconemoides* |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| *brachyurus*       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *                  | US     |   | R, So | \  |   | No   | CPC, 2002; PIN |
| Hemicriconemoides* | (CA,   |   |       | [Y |   |      | 309, 2002      |
| *mangiferae*       | FL),   |   |       | es |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA     |   |       | \] |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *                  | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| Hemicriconemoides* |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| sp.                |        |   |       |    |   |      | PIN 309, 2002  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Hemicycliophora   | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| typica*            |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Hoplolaimus       | Wide   |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| pararobustus*      | spread |   |       | es |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | in     |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    | Africa |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Longidorus*       | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *africanus, L.     |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| auratus, L.        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| belondiroides, L.  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| conicaudoides, L.  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| juvenilis, L.      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| kakamus, L.        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| pisi,*and *L.      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| rotundicaudatus*   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Longidoridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Longidorus*       | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| elongatus          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Longidoridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Longidorus* sp.   | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Longidoridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne*      | MW,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *arenaria*,        | US,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Meloidogynidae)   | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne*      | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *hapla*            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Meloidogynidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne*      | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *hispanica*        |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Meloidogynidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne*      | AO,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *incognita*        | US,    |   |       |    |   |      | Keetch and     |
|                    | MW,    |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| (Meloidogynidae)   | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne*      | AO,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *javanica*         | BW,    |   |       |    |   |      | Keetch and     |
|                    | US,    |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| (Meloidogynidae)   | MW,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Meloidogyne* sp.  | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| (Meloidogynidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Mesocriconema*    | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *curvatum,* and    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| *M. xenoplax*      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| \                  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| [=*Criconemella*\] |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Mesocriconema*    | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *maskaka, M.       |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| obtusicaudatum*,   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| and *M.            |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| sphaerocephalum*   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Criconematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Paralongidorus    | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| costatus* and *P.  |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| maximus*           |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Longidoridae)     |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Paratrichodorus*  | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *lobatus*          |        |   |       | es |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
| (Trichodoridae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Paratrichodorus   | MW, US |   | R, So | No |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| minor* (Colbran)   | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    | ZW, ZM |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Trichodoridae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Paratylenchus     | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| obtusicaudatus*    |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Paratylenchidae)  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Paratylenchus     | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| projectus*         |        |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
| (Paratylenchidae)  |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | MW,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| coffeae*           | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
| (Pratylenchidae)   | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    | ZM,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZW,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | US, ZA |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| flakkensis* and    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
| *P. neglectus*     |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | US,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| penterans*         | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| scribneri*         |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus* sp. | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Ferreira and   |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Venter, 1996;  |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus*     | MW,US  |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| *thornei*          |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| vulnus*            |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Pratylenchus      | MZ,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| zeae*              | NA,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Pratylenchidae)   | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchulus     | MW,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| parvus*            | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchulus     | AO,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| reniformis*        | MW,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    | TZ,US  |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchus       | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| capensis*          |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchus* sp.  | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Rotylenchus       | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| triannulatus*      |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Scutellonema*     | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| *bizanae*          |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Scutellonema*     | US,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *brachyurus*       | ZA,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | ZM, ZW |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Scutellonema*     | TZ, ZA |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| *clathricaudatum*  |        |   |       | es |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Scutellonema* sp. | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Hoplolaimidae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Trichodorus* sp.  | MW, ZW |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Keetch and     |
| (Trichodoridae)    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Tylenchorhynchus* | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| *avaricus*         |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Dolichodoridae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Tylenchorhynchus* | NA, ZA |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *brevilineatus*    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| (Dolichodoridae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Tylenchorhynchus* | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
| sp.                |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Dolichodoridae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Tylenchus* sp.    | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984  |
| (Anguinidae)       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Tylenchulus       | MW,    |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| semipentrans*      | MZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | TZ,    |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Tylenchulidae)    | US,    |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    | ZA, ZW |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema*        | US, ZA |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *americanum*       |        |   |       |    |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Xiphinematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema         | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Kleynhans *et  |
| barbercheckae, X.  |        |   |       | es |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| bolandium, X.      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| capense, X.        |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| diffusum, X.       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| dimorphicaudatum*, |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *X. elongatum, X.* |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *italiae, X.       |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| judex, X. krugi,   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| X. limpopoensis,   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| X. meridianum, X.  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| mluci, X.*         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| *pachtaicum, X.    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| parvistilus, X.    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| umobae, X,         |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| vanderlindei,      |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| X.vitis,* and *X.  |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| zulu*              |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Xiphinematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema*        | US     |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| *diversicaudatum*  | (lim   |   |       | ^2 |   |      |                |
|                    | ited), |   |       | 4^ |   |      |                |
| (Xiphinematidae)   | ZA     |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema*        | US     |   | R, So | No |   | No   | CPC, 2002;     |
| *index*            | (lim   |   |       | ^2 |   |      | Kleynhans *et  |
|                    | ited), |   |       | 4^ |   |      | al.*, 1996     |
| (Xiphinematidae)   | ZA     |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Xiphinema* sp.    | MW, ZW |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | Keetch and     |
|                    |        |   |       | es |   |      | Buckley, 1984; |
| (Xiphinematidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+
| *Zygotylenchus     | ZA     |   | R, So | Y  |   | No   | CPC, 2002      |
| guevarai* (Tobar   |        |   |       | es |   |      |                |
| Jiménez) Braun and |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| Loof               |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
|                    |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
| (Pratylenchidae)   |        |   |       |    |   |      |                |
+--------------------+--------+---+-------+----+---+------+----------------+

^1^ AL = Alabama, AM = Armenia, AO = Angola, AZ = Arizona, BW =
Botswana, CA = California, DC = District of Columbia, FL = Florida, HI =
Hawaii, IL = Illinois, KE = Kenya, LA = Louisiana, MI = Michigan, MS =
Mississippi, MW = Malawi, MZ = Mozambique, NA = Namibia, NG = Nigeria,
NY = New York, OR = Oregon, SZ = Swaziland, TX = Texas, TZ = Tanzania,
US = United States, WA = Washington, WV = West Virginia, ZA = South
Africa, ZM = Zambia, ZW = Zimbabwe. Individual states are listed only if
the pest is reported in less than five states within the continental
United States.

^2^ F = Fruit, I = Inflorescence, L = Leaves, R = Root, S = Stem, SD =
Seed, So = Soil, W - whole plant

^3^ Certain species within the genus are present in the United States
but are not under quarantine regulations (PIN 309, 2005).

^4^ These pests affect the lower parts of plant stems that are close to
the ground, therefore it is considered unlikely to follow the pathway
(CPC, 2002).

^5^ PIN 309 interception record indicates a single interception of this
species on the commodity therefore the pest is not considered to follow
the pathway. This insect does not feed on *Vitis* but on the sweet
honeydew excreted by mealybugs on grapes (Addison, 2000). It is unlikely
to be found with the commodity that is free of mealybugs.

^6^ Only adult moths only are associated with feeding on fruit.
Typically feeding occurs when insects first arrive in orchards and it is
unlikely the moths will stay with the commodity until harvesting (Bosch,
1971b; Rhodes, 2000).

^7^ The species is a defoliator and is not known to feed on fruit (CPC,
2002). Two PIN 309 interception records on the fruit of grapes is not
sufficient evidence that the species will follow the pathway (PIN 309,
2005).

^8^ Larvae are recorded feeding on stems, however, stems (above ground)
and shoots are not known to carry this insect and be visible to the
naked eye in trade or transportation (CPC, 2002).

^9^ *Vitis* is not listed as a host plant of *Pseudaonidia
trilobitiformis* (CPC, 2002; Van den Berg *et al.*, 2001), and the
record of distribution of this insect closest to Namibia is from
Tanzania. A single PIN 309 interception from South America of the pest
on leaves of *Vitis* does not indicate the species' association with
this host, therefore, it is not considered to follow the pathway.

^10^ This species was trapped with Nu-Lure in the areas of cultivated
grapes, nevertheless, there is no evidence of its feeding or developing
on grape (BATS, 1992) or hosts other than Cucurbitaceae (White and
Elson-Harris, 1992).

^11^ The pest is not associated with stem portions that would be shipped
with the commodity (i.e. the peduncle or rachis) and is therefore not
considered to follow the pathway.

^12^ Stems infected by *Xanthomonas ampelina* do not support berry
maturation (Balasubramaniam *et al.*, 1993).

^13^ The grasshoppers are likely to be disturbed when fruit is
harvested.

^14^ Based on biology of *Lema* *melanopolus* L. (CPC, 2002).

^15^ Based on biology of *Carbula humerigera* Uhl. (Krivolutskaya,
1973).

^16^ There is no information available for this particular species. In
general, tree hoppers (Membracidae) usually feed on new growing stems
and jump when the plant is disturbed (CPC, 2002). They also produce
honeydew which is actively tended by ants. During postharvest visual
culling process, the infested stems are likely to be eliminated. In
spite of numerous interceptions of different Membracidae species in PIN
309 database, sometimes on fruit and stem, most of these occur in the
passenger baggage and only few were recorded in permit cargo. We
consider the risk of the introduction to be low, nevertheless, this
species should be addressed during the inspection process.

^17^ *Agonoscelis puberula* has never been intercepted at U.S. ports of
entry, nor has any related species been intercepted on fruit (PIN 309,
2005). It is known in South Africa to overwinter in buildings and on
fruit trees (Thomas *et al.*, 2003) however due its large size it would
likely be detected or disturbed during the post-harvest packaging
processing.

^18^ *Aecidium vitis* is not a formally recognized species name (*nomen
nudum*) and reports out of the University of Stellenbosch in South
Africa suggest that the host was *Cyphostemma,* not *Vitis.* Therefore
there are no confirmed reports of this pathogen, recognized name or not,
in South Africa or Zimbabwe on *Vitis.* (Castens, 2005)

^19^ The lack of recent mentions in the literature (original and only
report was in 1930 by Verwoerd, L. and B. J. Dippenaar in the *South
African Journal of Science*) as well as the absence of this pathogen in
the South African National Collection of Fungi (PREM-National Collection
of Fungi-ARC-PPRI) suggest that the presence of this pathogen in
southern Africa is doubtful (Castens, 2005). Information on a related
species suggest that the pathogen is typically a secondary pathogen on a
wide variety of plants and is commonly found as a saprobe (Farr *et
al.,* 1989). Pearson and Goheen (1988) report a related species (*C.
herbarum*) to be more of a storage pest problem. Furthermore no action
is currently taken on *Cladosporum* *baccae* if found in association
with exports of grapes from South Africa to United States (SADA-DPHQ,
2002).

^20^ There are no records or voucher specimens for *Exosporium sultanae*
in the South African National Collection of Fungi (PREM-National
Collection of Fungi-ARC-PPRI) and the lack of recent reports or research
suggests it is of minor significance or the original report by Du
Plessis in 1946 is no longer valid (Castens, 2005). Most *Exosporium*
species are known as leaf spotters (Dodge *et al*., 1943 and Pirone,
1978) or pests of tree twigs and branches (Farr *et al.*, 1989). In
Gorter's Index of Plant Pathogens (1977) he refer's to Du Plessis's
statement of *Exosporium sultanae* as a sooty mould. Sooty moulds are
secondary pathogens and rarely have direct economic impacts; generally
they are signs of insect issues rather than a primary pathogen (Agrios,
1997). This pathogen is potentially a synonym of *Asperisporium
vitiphyllum* (Speschnew) (Ellis, 1976), however this species is also not
mentioned in current literature relating to South Africa (e.g. Crous *et
al*., 2000 or CABI, 2004) (Nagata, 2004), nor is it in literature
relating to other countries or general grape production. A species of
*Asperisporium* in the United States (*A. minutulum*) affects *Vitis*
but only the leaves (Farr *et al.*, 1989). It seems more information
would be available about this organism if it were a pest of significance
to *Vitis*, therefore it will not be analyzed in this risk assessment.

^21^ There are no records or voucher specimens for *Fusarium oxysporum*
Schl. f.sp. *herbomontis* in the South African National Collection of
Fungi (PREM-National Collection of Fungi-ARC-PPRI) and the lack of
recent reports or research suggests it is of minor significance or the
original report by Doidge in 1953 is no longer valid (Castens, 2005).
Gorter (1977) suggested its occurrence as "occasional on stored fruits".
There are no PIN 309 interceptions of *Fusarium* species on *Vitis* from
any country (PIN 309, 2005). It seems unlikely for this species to be
associated with the fruit and more information would be in the
literature if it were a pathogen of significance in grape production;
therefore it will not be analyzed in this risk assessment.

^22^ Organisms only identified to Genus or higher were not analyzed in
this document. Read below for more information.

^23^ Viruses may follow the pathway but the viruses in this assessment
are not expected to have successful transmission to other hosts in the
United States. More detail in the third paragraph below.

^24^ Listed as Non-Reportable in PIN 309 Database (PIN 309, 2005)

^25^ Taxa within the genera *Phytophthora* and *Pythium* are Oomycetes
which are now members of the Kingdom Chromista but continue to be
treated as fungi because of their many similarities to them,
particularly in the way they cause plant disease (Agrios, 1997).

^26^ Brackets indicate that the species, although not fitting the
definition of a quarantine pest (IPPC, 2002), is actionable (PIN 309,
2005).

Take note that the biological hazard of organisms identified only to the
order, family or generic levels is not assessed but if pests identified
only to higher taxa are intercepted in the future, then reevaluations of
their risk may occur. In this risk assessment, this applies to the
following species of: *Altica*, *Listroderes*, *Phyllophaga*,
*Physorhinus*, *Tychius*, and *Fusarium*. Generally, the biological
hazard of organisms not identified to the species level is not assessed
because often there are many species within a genus, and it is not
reasonable to assume that the biology of all organisms within a genus is
identical. Lack of species identification may indicate the limits of the
current taxonomic knowledge or the life stage or the quality of the
specimen submitted for identification. By necessity, pest risk
assessments focus on the organisms for which biological information is
available. The lack of identification at the specific level does not
rule out either the possibility that a high risk quarantine pest was
intercepted or that the intercepted pest was not a quarantine pest.
Conversely, development of detailed assessments for known pests that
inhabit a variety of ecological niches, such as the surfaces or
interiors of fruit, stems or roots, allow effective mitigation measures
to eliminate the known organisms as well as similar but incompletely
identified organisms that inhabit the same niche.

Other plant pests listed in Table 3 that were not chosen for further
scrutiny may be potentially detrimental to the agricultural systems of
the United States, however, there are a variety of reasons for not
subjecting them to further analysis. First, the pest's primary
association may be with plant parts other than the commodity. For
example *Athalia colibri*, *Cryptolarynx vitis*, and *Theretra capensis*
infest the leaves of host plants while other pests like *Heteronychus
arator* infests the roots or lower parts of the stem, not in the
proximity of the harvested commodity (CPC, 2002). Secondly, the pests
may not be associated with the commodity during transport or processing
because of their inherent mobility and/or instinct to avoid light, or
human activity. Examples include the fruit piercing moths *Calpe
emarginata, C. provocans, Dugaria scandulata, Eudocima fullonia* and
*Serrodes partitus* (CPC, 2002; Zhang, 1994). Thirdly, pests, such as
*Crematogaster peringueyi*, *Altica s*p., *Pseudaonidia*
*trilobitiformis* and *Cacoecimorpha pronubana*, may be intercepted
during inspection by Plant Protection and Quarantine Officers as
biological contaminants of the commodity, but these are not expected to
be present with every shipment (PIN 309, 2003).

Viruses are considered to follow the pathway since they can be found, in
varying levels, in most parts of the host plant, however transmission
between plants generally occurs by vectors or grafting (Agrios, 1997).
It is unlikely that grapes imported for consumption will be exposed to
the vectors necessary for transmission or be discarded in close
proximity to live plants. Therefore, it is not anticipated that
quarantine significant viruses will follow the pathway and become
established. Consequently the viruses mentioned in Table 3 shown to be
quarantine significant and likely to follow the pathway (Arabis mosaic
virus, Grapevine A trichovirus, Grapevine corky bark, Shiraz Decline,
and Yellow Vein Pr V Y V) will not be included in further analysis.

The quarantine pests that are likely to follow the pathway of
importation on table grapes (*Vitis vinifera*) from Namibia and that are
further analyzed in this risk assessment are summarized in Table 4.

+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Table 4. Quarantine Pests      |                                   |
| Likely to be Associated with     |                                   |
| Table Grapes (*Vitis vinifera*)  |                                   |
| Imported from Namibia**          |                                   |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Arthropoda**                   | *Aleurocanthus spiniferus*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Apate monachus*                  |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Bustomus setulosus*              |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Ceratitis capitata*              |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Ceratitis rosa*                  |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Ceroplastes rusci*               |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Cryptophlebia leucotreta*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Cryptoblabes gnidiella*          |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Dischista cincta*                |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Empoasca lybica*                 |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Epichoristodes acerbella*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Eremnus atratus*                 |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Eremnus cerealis*                |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Eremnus setulosus*               |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Eutetranychus orientalis*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Helicoverpa armigera*            |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Icerya seychellarum*             |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Macchiademus diplopterus*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Maconellicoccus hirsutus*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Nipaecoccus vastator*            |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Oxycarenus hyalinipennis*        |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Pachnoda sinuata* flaviventris   |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Phlyctinus callosus*             |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Rastrococcus iceryoides*         |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Scirtothrips aurantii*           |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Scirtothrips dorsalis*           |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Spodoptera littoralis*           |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Tanyrhynchus carinatus*          |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| **Mollusca**                     | *Cochlicella ventricosa*          |
|                                  |                                   |
|                                  | *Theba pisana*                    |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

**5. Consequences of Introduction**

The undesirable consequences that may occur from the introduction of
quarantine pests are assessed within this section. For each quarantine
pest, the potential consequences of introduction are rated in five areas
called "Risk Elements". They are: Climate-Host Interaction, Host Range,
Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact and Environmental Impact. A
cumulative risk rating is then calculated by summing the values. The
ratings are summarized in Table 5. The ratings were determined using the
criteria in the risk assessment Guidelines, Version 5.02 (USDA, 2000).

The major sources of uncertainty present in this risk assessment are
similar to those in other risk assessments. They include the use of a
developing process (USDA, 2000; Orr, *et al*., 1993), the approach used
to combine risk elements (Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion, 1990), and the
evaluation of risk by comparisons to lists of factors within the
guidelines (Kaplan, 1992; Orr *et al*., 1993). To address this last
source of uncertainty, the lists of factors were interpreted as
illustrative and not exhaustive. Other traditionally recognized sources
of uncertainty are the quality of the biological information (Gallegos
and Bonano, 1993) which includes uncertainty whenever biological
information is lacking on the regional flora and fauna. Inherent
biological variation within a population of organisms also introduces
uncertainty (Morgan and Henrion, 1990).

**Risk Element #1- Climate-Host Interactions**

If a species encounters suitable climate and hosts in an area of
introduction, it is reasonable to assume that the organism may survive
and achieve pest status in the new environment. This risk element is
evaluated on the minimum number of U.S. "Plant Hardiness Zones" in which
the species might achieve pest status (USDA, 1990). Risk ratings are
based on the following criteria:

> Low (1): the species is only likely to become established in one
> hardiness zone
>
> Medium (2): the species is likely to become established in two or
> three hardiness zones
>
> High (3): the species is likely to become established in four or more
> hardiness zones

**Risk Element #2- Host Range**

The risk posed by a plant pest depends on both its ability to establish
a viable, reproductive population and its potential for causing plant
damage. For arthropods, risk is assumed to be correlated positively with
host range. For pathogens, risk is more complex and is assumed to depend
on host range, aggressiveness, virulence and pathogenicity; for
simplicity, risk is rated as a function of host range:

> Low (1): pest attacks a single species or multiple species within a
> single genus
>
> Medium (2): pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family
>
> High (3): pest attacks multiple species among multiple plant families

**Risk Element #3-Dispersal Potential**

A pest may disperse after introduction to a new area. The following
items are considered: reproductive patterns of the pest (*e.g.*,
voltinism, biotic potential); inherent powers of movement; factors
facilitating dispersal, wind, water, presence of vectors, humans, *etc.*

> Low (1): pest has neither high reproductive potential nor rapid
> dispersal capability
>
> Medium (2): pest has either high reproductive potential OR the species
> is capable of rapid dispersal
>
> High (3): Pest has high biotic potential, *e.g.*, many generations per
> year, many offspring per reproduction ("r-selected" species), AND
> evidence exists that the pest is capable of rapid dispersal, *e.g*,
> over 10km/year under its own power; via natural forces, wind, water,
> vectors, *etc.*,or human-assistance.

**Risk Element #4-Economic Impact**

Introduced pests are capable of causing a variety of direct and indirect
economic impacts. These are divided into three primary categories (other
types of impacts may occur): lower yield of the host crop, *e.g.*, by
causing plant mortality, or by acting as a disease vector; lower value
of the commodity, *e.g*, by increasing costs of production, lowering
market price, or a combination; loss of foreign or domestic markets due
to presence of a new quarantine pest.

> Low (1): pest causes any one or none of the above impacts
>
> Medium (2): pest causes any two of the above impacts
>
> High (3): pest causes all three of the above impacts

**Risk Element #5- Environmental Impact**

The assessment of the potential of each pest to cause environmental
damage (IPPC, 1996) proceeds by considering the following factors:
introduction of the pest is expected to cause significant, direct
environmental impacts, *e.g.*, ecological disasters, reduced
biodiversity. When used within the context of the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) (7CFR§372), significance is qualitative and
encompasses both the likelihood and severity of an environmental impact;
pest is expected to have direct impacts on species listed by Federal
Agencies as endangered or threatened (50CFR§17.11 and §17.12), by
infesting/infecting a listed plant. If the pest attacks other species
within the genus or other genera within the family, and preference/no
preference tests have not been conducted with the listed plant and the
pest, then the plant is assumed to be a host; pest is expected to have
indirect impacts on species listed by Federal Agencies as endangered or
threatened by disrupting sensitive, critical habitat; introduction of
the pest would stimulate chemical or biological control programs.

> Low (1): none of the above would occur
>
> Medium (2): one of the above would occur
>
> High (3): two or more of the above would occur.

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Aleurocanthus           | **Risk  |
| spiniferus***                                              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species originated from South-East Asia and has spread |         |
| to tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World (CPC. |         |
| 2002). Its northern distribution includes Iran, Korea, and |         |
| Japan. Southern limits extend to Australia and South       |         |
| Africa. Potential establishment is possible in U.S. Plant  |         |
| Hardiness Zones 7-11.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Aleurocanthus spiniferus* typically feeds on citrus       |         |
| (*Citrus* spp.) and roses (*Rosa* spp.) but has been       |         |
| recorded on members of 13 different plant families (CPC,   |         |
| 2002). Other hosts are: *Annona, Camellia sinensis* (tea), |         |
| *Cinnamomum camphora* (camphor), *Diospyros khaki*         |         |
| (oriental persimmon), *Eriobotrya japonica* (loquat),      |         |
| *Ficus racemosa* (cluster tree), *Hibiscus* (rosemallow),  |         |
| *Plumeria rubra var. acutifolia* (Mexican frangipani),     |         |
| *Pyrus pyrifolia var. culta* (Japanese pear), *Sapium      |         |
| sebiferum* (Chinese tallow tree), *Salix* (willow), and    |         |
| *Vitis vinifera* (grapevine).                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Each female lays 35-100 or more eggs in her lifetime (CPC, |         |
| 2002). Depending on environmental conditions, the life     |         |
| cycle takes 2-4 months with 3-6 generations per year.      |         |
| Mortality of *A. spiniferus* during development is high.   |         |
| In Taiwan the survival rate between egg and adult stages   |         |
| was recorded as less than 20% (CPC, 2002). The             |         |
| first-instar crawlers disperse short distances before      |         |
| settling in a dense colony. Functional legs are lost in    |         |
| the subsequent molt (CPC, 2002).                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Feeding by *A. spiniferus* causes general weakening and    |         |
| death of heavily infested plants via sap loss and          |         |
| development of sooty mold (CPC, 2002). It is a common and  |         |
| at times a serious pest of citrus and other plants in the  |         |
| Indo-Malaya region, tropical Asia, and Japan; a pest of    |         |
| tea in China and in India (CPC, 2002). *Aleurocanthus      |         |
| spiniferus* can be a serious pest of roses (CPC,           |         |
| 2002)**.**                                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| As the species is polyphagous, it has the potential to     |         |
| attack plants listed by Federal agencies as Threatened or  |         |
| Endangered such as plants from genus *Hibiscus*.           |         |
| Biological or chemical control is also likely to implement |         |
| upon detection.                                            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Apate monachus***       | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Apate monachus* is distributed mainly in tropical and     |         |
| subtropical regions (from Mediterranean region to the      |         |
| Middle East and throughout much of Africa). In Western     |         |
| Hemisphere, it is present in Brazil and Caribbean, and has |         |
| been recorded in Florida, USA (CPC, 2002). Establishment   |         |
| is possible in the U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Apate monachus* has a wide host range and is considered a |         |
| polyphagous species. Its development can be completed on a |         |
| wide range of (African) trees and host crops (CPC, 2002).  |         |
| Hosts include *Coffea arabica* (arabica coffee),           |         |
| *Theobroma cacao* (cocoa), *Cajanus cajan* (pigeon pea),   |         |
| *Coffea liberica* (Liberian coffee tree), *Elaeis          |         |
| guineensis* (African oil palm), *Mangifera indica*         |         |
| (mango), *Psidium guajava* (common guava), *Punica         |         |
| granatum* (pomegranate), *Swietenia* (mahogany), and       |         |
| *Tamarindus indica* (Indian tamarind). Minor hosts         |         |
| are**:** *Calicotome spinosa*, *Citrus sinensis* (navel    |         |
| orange), *Gleditsia triacanthos* (gledichia), *Morus alba* |         |
| (mora), *Olea europaea* (olive), *Robinia pseudoacacia*    |         |
| (Chinese scholar tree), *Styphnolobium japonicum* (Chinese |         |
| scholartree), *Syringa pekinensis*, *Annona cherimola*     |         |
| (cherimoya), *Citrus*, *Malus pumila* (apple), *Melia      |         |
| azedarach* (Barbados lilac), *Phoenix dactylifera*         |         |
| (date-palm), *Prunus persica* (peach), *Pyrus communis*    |         |
| (European pear), *Tamarix gallica* (French tamarisk)       |         |
| *Vitis vinifera* (grapevine) (CPC, 2002) and *Quercus      |         |
| ilex* (Luciano, 1982).                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Fecundity ranges from 64 - 106 eggs per female (Wysoki *et |         |
| al.*, 2002). Females oviposit on dry branches and trunks   |         |
| (Wysoki *et al.*, 2002) or in fronds (Giblin-Davis, 2001)  |         |
| of host plants. Development is continuous throughout the   |         |
| year, with all stages being found at the same time         |         |
| (Rodriguez, 1981), suggesting several overlapping          |         |
| generations per year. Adults appear incapable of long      |         |
| flights, and dissemination is likely accomplished by       |         |
| movement of infested wood (Rodriguez, 1981).               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Damage is caused by both adults and larvae boring through  |         |
| the trunks and branches of host plants; tunneling may      |         |
| cause breakage of scaffold limbs (Talhouk, 1969), and      |         |
| trees may be killed (Gentry, 1965). *Apate monachus* is    |         |
| considered a pest of secondary economic impact and is not  |         |
| usually a serious pest of growing trees, however it is a   |         |
| localized pest of numerous crops (CPC, 2002).              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| This pest is polyphagous, it can attack Endangered or      |         |
| Threatened species (USFWS, 2003) from the genera *Prunus*  |         |
| and *Quercus*. It is usually controlled by cultural        |         |
| methods since chemical control is difficult with this type |         |
| of internal feeder (CPC, 2002).                            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Bustomus setulosus*,    | **Risk  |
| *Eremnus atratus*, *E. cerealis*, and *E. setulosus*,      | Value** |
| *Phlyctinus callosus,* and *Tanyrhynchus carinatus***      |         |
|                                                            |         |
| Detailed information on these Curculionidae beetles is     |         |
| very scarce. We have combined the available knowledge for  |         |
| their analysis, mostly based on biology of *Phlyctinus     |         |
| callosus*.                                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Records indicate that these beetles are native to South    |         |
| Africa and were introduced to Oceania (CPC, 2002). This    |         |
| corresponds to the climates in the U.S. Plant Hardiness    |         |
| Zones 8-11.                                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Weevils feed on hosts from several families, such as       |         |
| Vitaceae (*Vitis* spp.), Rosaceae (*Malus* spp, *Prunus*   |         |
| spp., *Fragaria* spp.), Liliaceae (*Asparagus* spp.),      |         |
| Solanaceae (*Solanum tuberosum*) (CPC, 2002). Root         |         |
| vegetables and ornamentals are also hosts (Elliot, 2002).  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Weevils are night feeders. Larvae are mobile but adults of |         |
| *Phlyctinus callosus* are flightless. There may be up to   |         |
| two generations per year in warm climates (CPC, 2002),     |         |
| however, in South Africa, there is one generation per year |         |
| (PNKTO, 1986). *Phlyctinus callosus* females deposit       |         |
| batches of up to 70 eggs at weekly intervals. It is        |         |
| anticipated that the other weevils will have comparable    |         |
| dispersal potentials.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The Curculionidae is economically one of the most          |         |
| important families of the Coleoptera (CPC, 2002). Garden   |         |
| weevils damage foliage, flowers, buds and fruit*.          |         |
| Phlyctinus callosus* is an important pest of apples and    |         |
| grapes in South Africa (PNKTO, 1986; Van den Berg, 1971).  |         |
| Adult weevils can completely destroy grape bunches. Larvae |         |
| can cause root damage. Fruit damage varies from 1 - 66%,   |         |
| with possible yield losses of 5 - 29%. (CPC, 2002)         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Weevils feed on hosts from the genera *Allium, Prunus* and |         |
| *Solanum* which puts Threatened and Endangered species     |         |
| from these genera at risk (USFWS, 2003). Biological or     |         |
| chemical control is usually implemented to manage these    |         |
| pests**.**                                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Ceratitis capitata***   | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is found in Southern Europe and West  |         |
| Asia, throughout Africa, South and Central America, and in |         |
| Northern Australia (CPC, 2002). This species could become  |         |
| established in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11.            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This pest has been recorded from a wide variety of host    |         |
| plants in several families, including Rubiaceae (*Coffea*  |         |
| spp.), Solanaceae (*Capsicum annuum*), Rutaceae (*Citrus*  |         |
| spp.), Rosaceae. (*Malus* *pumila*, *Prunus* spp),         |         |
| Moraceae (*Ficus carica*), Myrtaceae (*Psidium guajava*),  |         |
| Sterculiaceae (*Theobroma cacao*), Arecaceae (*Phoenix     |         |
| dactylifera*), and Anacardiaceae (*Mangifera* *indica*)    |         |
| (CPC, 2002).                                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Eggs are deposited in host fruit in small batches of six   |         |
| to eight (Hassan, 1977). Each female can lay approximately |         |
| 300 eggs (Weems, 1981). In warm climates breeding is       |         |
| continuous throughout the year and has several overlapping |         |
| generations. Adult flight can be 20 or more kilometers.    |         |
| Transport of infested fruits is the major means of         |         |
| movement and dispersal to previously uninfested areas      |         |
| (CPC, 2002).                                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Ceratitis capitata* is an important pest in Africa and    |         |
| has spread to almost every other continent, making it the  |         |
| single most important pest species in its family (CPC,     |         |
| 2002). In Mediterranean countries, it is particularly      |         |
| damaging to citrus and peach crops. It may also transmit   |         |
| fruit-rotting fungi (CPC, 2002). The species is of         |         |
| quarantine significance throughout the world, especially   |         |
| for Japan and the United States. Its presence, even as     |         |
| temporary adventive populations, can lead to severe        |         |
| constraints for fruit export. In this respect, *C.         |         |
| capitata* is one of the most significant quarantine pests  |         |
| for any tropical or warm temperate areas in which it is    |         |
| not yet established (CPC, 2002).                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Introduction and establishment of *C. capitata* in the     |         |
| United States would trigger the initiation of chemical or  |         |
| biological control programs. The species is highly         |         |
| polyphagous. It has the potential to attack species from   |         |
| *g*enera *Prunus, Eugenia, Juglans, Opuntia, Santalum* and |         |
| *Solanum,* some of which are listed by Federal agencies as |         |
| Threatened or Endangered (USFWS, 2003).                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction** **of** ***Ceratitis       | **Risk  |
| rosa***                                                    | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The species is native to tropical rainforests, savannahs,  |         |
| and deserts in Africa and occurs extensively through       |         |
| sub-Saharan territories (CPC, 2002). It has the potential  |         |
| to establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Ceratitis rosa* is a polyphagous species. Its primary     |         |
| hosts are *Coffea* spp. and *Citrus* spp. It also damages  |         |
| species of Rosaceae (*Malus* spp., *Pyrus* spp., *Prunus*  |         |
| spp.), Solanaceae (*Lycopersicum* *esculentum*, *Capsicum* |         |
| *annuum*) Vitaceae (*Vitis* spp.), Myrtaceae (*Psidium*    |         |
| *guajava*), and Lauraceae (*Persea* *americana*) families. |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Detailed biological data on *C. rosa* is lacking, but this |         |
| species presumably resembles *Ceratitis capitata* (CPC,    |         |
| 2002) in biology and survival capacity. In view of its     |         |
| essentially tropical distribution it is possibly less      |         |
| tolerant of winter cold. Female *C. rosa* lay 10-20 eggs   |         |
| at a time into host fruit and adults may live for several  |         |
| months (INKTO, 1963). In the laboratory, oviposition       |         |
| continues for about a month with each female capable of    |         |
| laying an average of 520 eggs (Nadel and Monty, 1973).     |         |
| Adult flight and the transport of infested fruit are the   |         |
| major means of movement and dispersal to previously        |         |
| uninfested areas (CPC, 2002).                              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Ceratitis rosa* is highly polyphagous and causes damage   |         |
| to a wide range of unrelated fruit crops. It tends to      |         |
| displace *C. capitata* when both species occur in the same |         |
| area (CPC, 2002). Like *C. capitata*, *C. rosa* is an      |         |
| international quarantine pest with the potential to        |         |
| restrict international fruit trade (Barnes et al., 2000).  |         |
| Control is routinely achieved by the application of        |         |
| insecticides (de Villiers, 1978), which increases          |         |
| production costs.                                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Introduction and establishment of *C. rosa* in the United  |         |
| States would trigger the initiation of chemical or         |         |
| biological control programs, as has occurred in parts of   |         |
| Africa (e.g. Etienne, 1973). The pest is highly            |         |
| polyphagous, and can attack species from *Prunus,          |         |
| Eugenia*, *Solanum* and *Ziziphus;* some of which are      |         |
| listed by Federal agencies as Threatened or Endangered     |         |
| (USFWS, 2003).                                             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction** **of *Eutetranychus       | **Risk  |
| orientalis***                                              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This mite is found in the warm climates of tropical        |         |
| savannahs and deserts (CPC, 2002) where the major hosts    |         |
| are cultivated and humidity is sufficient for egg survival |         |
| (CPC, 2002). In the United States establishment is         |         |
| possible in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11.               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The pest is typically found on *Citrus* spp., but is       |         |
| considered polyphagous. Other hosts are grape (*Vitis*     |         |
| spp.), cotton (*Gossypium* spp.), papaya (*Carica*         |         |
| *papaya*), quince (*Cydonia* *oblonga*), walnut (*Juglans* |         |
| spp.) and pear (*Pyrus* spp.). (CPC, 2002)                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| High temperatures and humidity favor development,          |         |
| particularly the egg, which is sensitive to dry conditions |         |
| (Van den Berg *et al.*, 2001). Six to eight eggs are laid  |         |
| per day, with a 15.2 day life span for the females (CPC,   |         |
| 2002) and maximal number of 35 eggs per female (PNKTO,     |         |
| 1983). Under optimal conditions 25-27 generations per year |         |
| are possible (CPC, 2002).                                  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Eutetranychus orientalis* is generally regarded as an     |         |
| important pest of citrus. In India, of the seven species   |         |
| reported as pests on citrus, only *E. orientalis* was      |         |
| reported as a major pest in all areas (CPC, 2002). The     |         |
| mite causes defoliation and dieback in twigs in nurseries  |         |
| and orchards, resulting in premature fruit drop. Activity  |         |
| is enhanced under dry conditions (PNKTO, 1983).            |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Endangered and Threatened species of the genera *Prunus*   |         |
| and *Solanum* are potential hosts. Biological and/or       |         |
| chemical control programs are likely to be implemented if  |         |
| the mite is introduced.                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Ceroplastes rusci***    | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The insect occurs extensively through Africa, Middle East, |         |
| Southern Europe, the Caribbean, Brazil, and Uruguay (CPC,  |         |
| 2002). It is possible for the species to establish in U.S. |         |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11.                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species is polyphagous, attacking plants belonging to  |         |
| 45 genera and 42 plant families (CPC, 2002). It is         |         |
| recorded on a wide range of crops, with fruit trees and    |         |
| ornamentals as preferred hosts. It is most common on       |         |
| citrus (*Citrus* spp.), fig (*Ficus* spp.), myrtle         |         |
| (*Myrtus* spp.), oleander (*Nerium oleander)* and          |         |
| pistachio (*Pistacia* spp.) (CPC, 2002).                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Ceroplastes rusci* is bisexual and has one or two         |         |
| generations each year. Fecundity is influenced by the size |         |
| of the female and usually varies from 800 to 1500 eggs per |         |
| female (CPC, 2002). Only first-instar nymphs are capable   |         |
| of crawling. They are responsible for locating a suitable  |         |
| feeding site. Movement is by wind or association with      |         |
| other animals. The adult male is winged and can fly, but   |         |
| has a very short life-span (CPC, 2002). All life stages    |         |
| may be carried on consignments of plant material and       |         |
| produce. (CPC, 2002).                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Ceroplastes rusci* is a pest of cultivated fig (*Ficus*   |         |
| spp.) and citrus (*Citrus* spp.) in the Mediterranean and  |         |
| is occasionally a serious pest of citrus in Israel (CPC,   |         |
| 2002). It is the main pest of fig (*Ficus* spp.) trees in  |         |
| Western Turkey (CPC, 2002). In the Mediterranean, it is    |         |
| occasional pest on grapevine (Pellizzari, 1997).           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| As a polyphagous species, *C. rusci* has the potential to  |         |
| attack plants from *Euphorbia, Ilex* and *Prunus,* some of |         |
| which are listed by Federal agencies as Threatened or      |         |
| Endangered (USFWS, 2003). *Ceroplastes rusci* is often     |         |
| injurious to crops and ornamental plants, especially when  |         |
| introduced into new geographical areas without natural     |         |
| enemies (CPC, 2002). Biological or chemical control is     |         |
| likely to be implemented upon introduction.                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Cryptophlebia           | **Risk  |
| leucotreta***                                              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The species is reported mostly from Northern Africa and    |         |
| Israel (CPC, 2002). It has the potential to establish in   |         |
| U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Cryptophlebia leucotreta* is extremely polyphagous, with  |         |
| more than 70 food plants recorded as hosts. Primary hosts  |         |
| include citrus (*Citrus* spp.), peach (*Prunus*            |         |
| *persica*), cotton (*Gossypium* spp.), coffee (*Coffea*    |         |
| spp.), corn (*Zea* *mays*), avocado (*Persea*              |         |
| *americana*), tea (*Camellia* *sinensis*), guava           |         |
| (*Psidium* *guajava*), oaks (*Quercus)* and various other  |         |
| species (CPC, 2002).                                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Each female moth can lay 100 - 400 eggs. In South Africa   |         |
| up to five generations per year are possible. There is no  |         |
| diapause. Internally bored larvae can be transported with  |         |
| fruit, pods, inflorescence and cones. Adults fly to mating |         |
| locations and to light. (CPC, 2002)                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| In South Africa this moth is a serious pest of citrus      |         |
| (crop losses of 10-20%) and late peach crops (losses up to |         |
| 28%). It has also caused significant crops losses          |         |
| throughout African and Uganda on cotton (42 - 90% losses   |         |
| in Uganda), maize in the Western region of African, and on |         |
| macadamia nut productions in Israel. (CPC, 2002)           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Being highly polyphagous, the species has potential to     |         |
| attack Endangered and Threatened species such as *Quercus  |         |
| hinckleyi* (Hinckley\'s oak) in Texas (USFWS, 2003)**.**   |         |
| Chemical or biological control is likely to be implemented |         |
| upon introduction.                                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Macchiademus            | **Risk  |
| diplopterus***                                             | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This species is recorded from South Africa (Herring,       |         |
| 1973). However this insect displayed cold hardiness when   |         |
| exposured to constant low temperatures that are typical    |         |
| with fruit transport (Herring, 1973 and references         |         |
| therein). It was estimated that complete mortality would   |         |
| require the continuation of cold storage at 31F and 34F    |         |
| for six and ten weeks, respectively (Herring, 1973 and     |         |
| references therein). These are periods well beyond the     |         |
| reasonable storage life of peaches and apricots, and,      |         |
| therefore it seems likely that this pest could become      |         |
| established in countries much colder than South Africa     |         |
| (Herring, 1973). Establishment is possible in the U. S.    |         |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 7-10.                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The insect feeds on hosts from several plant families.     |         |
| Poaceae: *Triticum aestivum* (wheat), *Avena sativa*       |         |
| (oats), *Hordeum vulgare* (barley), grass seed; Rosaceae:  |         |
| *Malus pumila* (apples), *Prunus americana* (apricots),    |         |
| *Prunus persica* (peaches), *Prunus* *domestica* (plums),  |         |
| and *Pyrus communis* (pears); Vitaceae: *Vitis vinifera*   |         |
| (grape) and possibly, *Eucalyptus* spp. (Myrtaceae)        |         |
| (Oliver et al., 1996).                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| In wheat eggs are laid protectively inside the leaf sheath |         |
| in masses of 14-25, with 50-150 eggs laid per female       |         |
| (Herring, 1973). The nymphs hatch in a month and become    |         |
| adults in six weeks; both stages occur together in large   |         |
| numbers; there is one generation per year. (Herring,       |         |
| 1973). Adults fly in tremendous numbers at temperatures    |         |
| above 70F and migrate when the wheat matures; some         |         |
| aestivate in the stems, under the bark of fruit trees,     |         |
| under plants, or in thatch (Herring, 1973). The adult bugs |         |
| leave summer shelters and congregate on wheat as soon as   |         |
| it emerges from the soil (Herring, 1973). The bug is able  |         |
| to develop not only on cultivated cereals but also on      |         |
| several wild grasses found in orchards (Herring, 1973)     |         |
| which contributes to the potential for survival. Although  |         |
| the reproductive potential of the species is rather low,   |         |
| ability of adults to fly and migrate to different          |         |
| locations increases their possibility to disperse.         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This lygaeid is one of the more important pests of small   |         |
| grains in South Africa (Herring, 1973). The adults and     |         |
| nymphs suck the sap from the young plants and later attack |         |
| the developing grains (Herring, 1973). Primarily a grain   |         |
| pest, the species is also a fruit feeder, at least in the  |         |
| adult stage. It has been recorded from \"prune trees\" and |         |
| recorded on pear (Herring, 1973).                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The pest could damage Endangered and Threatened species    |         |
| from the Rosaceae family, particularly, from the genus     |         |
| *Prunus*. If introduced, control measures are likely to be |         |
| implemented.                                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction *of Cryptoblabes            | **Risk  |
| gnidiella***                                               | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This is a cosmopolitan species in warm climates, unable to |         |
| survive winters in cooler temperate areas into which it    |         |
| may be imported with produce (CPC, 2002). It is            |         |
| distributed south of Western Europe, the Middle East,      |         |
| South Asia, Northern Africa, Uruguay, and New Zealand      |         |
| (CPC, 2002). Establishment is possible in U.S. Plant       |         |
| Hardiness Zones 7-11.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Cryptoblabes gnidiella* is polyphagous and is often       |         |
| encountered on commercially grown crops (CPC, 2002). Hosts |         |
| include citrus (*Citrus* spp.), avocado (*Persea*          |         |
| *americana*), grapes (*Vitis* spp.), pomegranate (*Punica  |         |
| granatum*), rice (*Oryza sativa*), cotton (*Gossypium*     |         |
| spp.), garlic (*Allium sativum*), beans (*Phaseolus*       |         |
| spp.), coffee (*Coffea* spp.), maize (*Zea mays*), mango   |         |
| (*Mangifera indica*), and sugarcane (*Saccharum            |         |
| officinarum*) (CPC, 2002).                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| About 100 eggs per female are laid on the fruit or foliage |         |
| and hatch in 4-7 days. There are three or four generations |         |
| per year in Southern Europe and up to five in North Africa |         |
| (CPC, 2002). Adult moths are capable of flying. Larvae are |         |
| internal feeders, therefore, their dispersal is possible   |         |
| with the commodities and plant material (CPC, 2002).       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Cryptoblabes gnidiella* is an important pest of citrus    |         |
| (*Citrus* spp.), grapes (*Vitis* spp.) and pomegranates    |         |
| (*Punica granatum*) in the Mediterranean area (CPC, 2002). |         |
| It is most noted as a pest of avocado (*Persea americana*) |         |
| in Israel, of azolla (*Azolla* sp.), sorghum (*Sorghum*    |         |
| spp.) and rice (*Oryza sativa*) in India, and sporadically |         |
| of corn (*Zea mays*) or other crops in any warm part of    |         |
| the world (CPC, 2002).                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Chemical and biological control are likely to be           |         |
| implemented upon introduction of this pest. As a           |         |
| polyphagous insect, it is potentially capable of attacking |         |
| Endangered and Threatened species from the genus *Allium*  |         |
| (USFWS, 2003).                                             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Empoasca lybica***      | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate -Host Interaction**             | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Empoasca lybica* is recorded from the following regions:  |         |
| Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa Argentina.            |         |
| Establishment is possible in the U.S. Plant Hardiness      |         |
| Zones 8-11.                                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Empoasca lybica* feeds on plants from several families,   |         |
| such as Solanaceae (*Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanum      |         |
| tuberosum, Solanum melongena*), Malvaceae                  |         |
| (*Gossypium* spp.), Vitaceae (*Vitis* spp.), and Fabaceae  |         |
| (*Cajanus cajan*) (CPC, 2002)***.***                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Females are reported to lay about 60 eggs (Hill, 1983).    |         |
| Adults and nymphs are active. The species is estimated to  |         |
| have up to 11 overlapping generations on *Ziziphus* in     |         |
| Egypt (Darwish et al., 1987). Long distance dispersal of   |         |
| adults by wind is suggested (Joyce, 1973). Typically these |         |
| insects will jump or fly when disturbed, therefore are     |         |
| considered quick to migrate and colonize different host    |         |
| plants (CPC, 2002).                                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Empoasca lybica* is a vector and major pest of cotton     |         |
| (Hill, 1983). It is a major pest of chilli pepper in       |         |
| Indonesia (Vos and Frinking, 1998) and of cotton in Sudan  |         |
| (Abdelrahman and Munir, 1989). Yield losses in eggplant in |         |
| Sudan have been reported (Kisha, 1981). Damage to the      |         |
| leaves results in the shedding of flowers and young fruits |         |
| (Kisha, 1981). Insecticides are routinely applied for the  |         |
| control of this pest in cotton in Sudan (Abdelrahman and   |         |
| Munir, 1989) which increases production costs. It is known |         |
| that different species of *Empoasca* can cause 10-85%      |         |
| yield losses to potato, and up to 56% dry weight loss in   |         |
| lucerne crops (*Medicago sativa*) (CPC, 2002).             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Chemical and biological control are likely to be           |         |
| implemented if introduction of this pest occurs. As a      |         |
| polyphagous insect, it has the potential to impact various |         |
| Endangered and Threatened species, such as certain species |         |
| in the genus *Solanum* (USFWS, 2003).                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Epichoristodes          | **Risk  |
| acerbella***                                               | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This insect was recorded from Southern and Eastern Africa, |         |
| and Western Europe (CPC, 2002). Threshold of development   |         |
| is 6C but larvae can tolerate temperatures as low as 0.5C  |         |
| (EPPO, 1997a). Establishment is possible in U.S. Plant     |         |
| Hardiness Zones 7-11.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Epichoristodes acerbella* is a polyphagous pest on a      |         |
| range of crops but its principal hosts are carnations      |         |
| (*Dianthus* spp.) and chrysanthemums (*Chrysanthemum*      |         |
| spp.). Other hosts include geranium (*Pelargonium* spp.),  |         |
| stone fruit (*Prunus* spp.), lucerne (*Medicago sativa*),  |         |
| strawberry (*Fragaria* spp.), roses (*Rosa* spp),          |         |
| sowthistle (*Sonchus* spp.), fleabane (*Erigeron* spp.)    |         |
| and wild radish (*Raphanus raphanistrum*). Wild hosts are  |         |
| dock (*Rumex* spp.), buckthorn (*Rhamnus* spp) and wood    |         |
| sorrels (*Oxalis* spp.) (CPC, 2002)                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Depending on the temperature *E. acerbella* can have four  |         |
| to six generations per year. Females lay 200-440 eggs per  |         |
| lifetime. Borne internally, larvae are difficult to detect |         |
| and can be dispersed via movement of plant material (CPC,  |         |
| 2002).                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Epichoristodes acerbella* will lower crop yields and      |         |
| because it will trigger insecticide applications increased |         |
| production costs will ensue (CPC, 2002).                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The pest is polyphagous and is likely to affect Endangered |         |
| and Threatened species, particularly *Prunus geniculata*   |         |
| (USFWS, 2003). Biological and chemical control is likely   |         |
| implemented upon introduction of this pest.                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Icerya seychellarum***  | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species is distributed in Southeast Asia, Eastern and  |         |
| Southern Africa, Australia and Oceania (CPC, 2002). In the |         |
| United States it could establish in Plant Hardiness Zones  |         |
| 8-11.                                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Icerya seychellarum* lives on a wide variety of hosts,    |         |
| especially woody plants. Host include: *Artocarpus*        |         |
| (breadfruit and jack trees), *Acacia* (wattles),           |         |
| *Albizia*, *Annona*, *Cocos nucifera* (coconut), *Citrus*, |         |
| *Casuarina equisetifolia* (coast she-oak), *Ficus*,        |         |
| *Grevillea robusta* (silky oak), *Magnolia*, *Persea       |         |
| americana* (avocado), *Psidium*, *Pyrus* (pears), *Rosa*   |         |
| (roses), *Vitis vinifera* (grape). (CPC, 2002)             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Development usually takes three months. In Japan and South |         |
| Africa there is one generation per year (CPC, 2002; PNKTO, |         |
| 1982); elsewhere (Aldabra Island) more generations per     |         |
| year are documented (PNKTO, 1982). Males are rare and are  |         |
| not required for reproduction (CPC, 2002). The only mobile |         |
| stage is the first instar crawlers which can be            |         |
| transported by wind up to one hundred kilometers per day   |         |
| (Greathead, 1997). Data on fecundity of this species is    |         |
| not available, but *I. aegyptiaca* may produce 70-140 eggs |         |
| and complete 2-3 generations per year in Northern Africa   |         |
| (Azab et al., 1969).                                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Icerya seychellarum* has the potential to impact many     |         |
| economically important tropical tree species, attacking    |         |
| leaves, twigs, smaller branches, fruits and flowers        |         |
| (PNKTO, 1982). Feeding decreases plant vigor, reducing     |         |
| leaf production as much as 36% (Newbery, 1980). Honeydew   |         |
| excreted by the scale provides a medium for a growth of    |         |
| molds thereby reducing photosynthesis (PNKTO, 1982). This  |         |
| is already demonstrated in the Pacific Islands where it    |         |
| has been recorded killing trees (CPC, 2002). *Icerya       |         |
| seychellarum* is a major pest of guava (*Psidium           |         |
| guajava*), citrus (*Citrus* spp.), breadfruit (*Artocarpus |         |
| altilis*), avocado (*Persea americana*), jackfruit         |         |
| (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*), various genera of palms, and |         |
| rose (*Rosa* spp.) (CPC, 2002). However, Hill (1983)       |         |
| considers the scale to be only a minor pest of various     |         |
| crops (e.g., coconut, jackfruit, breadfruit, citrus,       |         |
| etc.). The scale is thought to be a minor pest of citrus   |         |
| in India, Japan, and South Africa (PNKTO, 1982).           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species is polyphagous and has a potential to affect   |         |
| Endangered and Threatened species, particularly from       |         |
| genera *Caesalpinia*, *Crotalaria*, *Eugenia*,             |         |
| *Euphorbia*, *Hibiscus*, *Solanum*, *Prunus*, and          |         |
| *Scaevola* (USFWS, 2003)*.* Chemical control is usually    |         |
| ineffective against scales, but biological control is      |         |
| likely to be implemented upon introduction of this pest.   |         |
| The ladybird predator *Rodolia cardinalis* proved to be of |         |
| varying degrees of effectiveness against *I.               |         |
| seychellarum*, depending on geography (CPC, 2002).         |         |
| Effective control has also been achieved in Mauritius by   |         |
| the introduction of the dipteran parasite *Chryptochetum   |         |
| monophlebi* from Madagascar in 1952 (CPC, 2002).           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Helicoverpa armigera*** | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| This insect is widely distributed and is known to occur in |         |
| all parts of Europe, Middle East, Central and South Asia,  |         |
| the Far East, throughout Africa, Australia, and Oceania    |         |
| (CPC, 2002). Establishment is possible in U.S. Plant       |         |
| Hardiness Zones 5-11.                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Helicoverpa armigera* is polyphagous. It is a major pest  |         |
| of cotton (*Gossypium* spp.), pigeon pea (*Cajanus*        |         |
| *cajan*.), chickpea (*Cicer* *arietinum*.), tomato         |         |
| (*Lycopersicum esculentum*), sorghum (*Sorghum spp.*) and  |         |
| cowpea (*Vigna* *unguiculata*). Other hosts include        |         |
| groundnut (*Arachis hypogaea*), okra (*Abelmoschus         |         |
| esculentus*), peas (*Pisum* sativum), soybeans (*Glycine   |         |
| max)*, other legumes, tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum)*,       |         |
| potatoes (*Solanum tuberosum*), maize (*Zea mays*), flax   |         |
| (*Linum usitatissimum*), a number of fruits (*Prunus* spp. |         |
| and *Citrus* spp.), forest trees and a range of vegetable  |         |
| crops (CPC, 2002).                                         |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Noctuids are well known for their long-dispersal           |         |
| capabilities; adults are typically wind dispersed (CPC,    |         |
| 2002). Some of the Noctuids have up to six generation per  |         |
| year with an average of 3100 eggs produced by each female  |         |
| (CPC, 2002). The success of H*. armigera* is due to its    |         |
| well-developed survival strategies, including diapause and |         |
| dispersal, which enable it to exploit food sources and     |         |
| escape its natural enemies. *Helicoverpa armigera* is      |         |
| effectively a facultative migrant, responding largely to   |         |
| local environmental cues. Innately, the disposition to     |         |
| disperse is governed by reproductive maturity, so that in  |         |
| more transient habitats where dispersal has greater        |         |
| survival value, the length of the pre-reproduction period  |         |
| is greater than in less extreme habitats. In these         |         |
| habitats the tendency to fly was moderated chiefly by      |         |
| feeding which reduced the pre-maturation period (CPC,      |         |
| 2002). Movement in international trade is mainly on        |         |
| ornamental plants and on cut flowers, but also in fruit    |         |
| (CPC, 2002)**.**                                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| It is a pest of major importance in most areas where it    |         |
| occurs, damaging a wide variety of food, fiber, oilseed,   |         |
| fodder and horticultural crops (CPC, 2002). Its            |         |
| considerable pest significance is based on the             |         |
| peculiarities of its biology - its mobility, polyphagy,    |         |
| rapid and high reproductive rate and diapause make it      |         |
| particularly well adapted to exploit transient habitats    |         |
| such as man-made ecosystems (CPC, 2002).                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| A wide range of wild plant species support larval          |         |
| development. As a polyphagous insect, it is capable of     |         |
| attacking various Endangered and Threatened species        |         |
| (USFWS, 2003). Important species include Amaranthus spp.   |         |
| (CPC, 2002). Chemical and biological control are likely if |         |
| introduction of this pest occurs**.**                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Maconellicoccus         | **Risk  |
| hirsutus***                                                | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species is reported in Northern and part of            |         |
| sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, |         |
| Far East, Caribbean, Central America, Australia and        |         |
| Oceania (CPC, 2002). It can potentially become established |         |
| in United States in the Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11. This   |         |
| pest is currently present in California and Hawaii.        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Maconellicoccus hirsutus* is highly polyphagous and has   |         |
| been recorded feeding on hosts from 73 plant families and  |         |
| over 200 plant genera. It shows some preference for hosts  |         |
| in the families Malvaceae, Leguminosae and Moraceae (CPC,  |         |
| 2002). If *M. hirsutus* spreads into the Southern United   |         |
| States and Southern Europe, it could threaten crops like   |         |
| grape (*Vitis* spp.) and cotton (*Gossypium* spp.).        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Local movement of *M. hirsutus* occurs at the first instar |         |
| (crawler) stage. Crawlers are very small, light and can    |         |
| survive a day or so without feeding. They cannot walk far  |         |
| by themselves, but are ideally suited for transport by     |         |
| water, wind and animal agents including domestic animals   |         |
| and man. Accidental introductions to new countries occur   |         |
| via infested plant material (CPC, 2002). Each adult female |         |
| lays 150-600 eggs over a one week period. Hatching occurs  |         |
| in 6-9 days. In warm conditions a generation is completed  |         |
| in five weeks. In colder climates, the species survives    |         |
| cold conditions as eggs or other stages, on the host plant |         |
| or in the soil. There may be as many as 15 generations per |         |
| year. (CPC, 2002)                                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Estimated annual losses (in Grenada) due to *M. hirsutu*s  |         |
| is \$3.5 million (CPC, 2002). Direct feeding on young      |         |
| growth causes severe stunting and distortion including     |         |
| crinkling of the leaves, thickening of stems and a         |         |
| bunchy-top appearance of shoots. Honeydew and sooty mold   |         |
| contamination of fruit may reduce their value. Crops       |         |
| seriously damaged include cotton in Egypt, with growth     |         |
| sometimes virtually halted; tree cotton in India, with     |         |
| reduction in yield; the fiber crops *Hibiscus sabdariffa*  |         |
| var. *altissima* (roselle), *H. cannabinus* (mesta) and    |         |
| *Boehemeria nivea* in India and Bangladesh, with reduction |         |
| in fiber yield of roselle of 21.4% - 40%; grapes in India, |         |
| with up to 90% of bunches destroyed and made unfit for     |         |
| consumption or marketing. (CPC, 2002)                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Some of the primary hosts are *Hibiscus* spp., therefore a |         |
| direct negative impact to Endangered and Threatened        |         |
| species from this genus is expected (USFWS, 2003).         |         |
| Chemical and biological control are likely to be           |         |
| implemented if introduction of this pest occurs since *M.  |         |
| hirsutus* is a potential host of several economically      |         |
| important crops in the United States.                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Nipaecoccus vastator*** | **Risk  |
|                                                            | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The pest is recorded in regions with warmer climates:      |         |
| sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, South Asia, Caribbean,    |         |
| Australia, and Oceania (CPC, 2002). In the United States,  |         |
| this species could establish in the Plant Hardiness Zones  |         |
| 8-11.                                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| It is a rather polyphagous species, feeding on plants in   |         |
| 18 families, many of which are trees and include crops     |         |
| such as citrus (*Citrus* spp.) and coffee (*Coffea* spp.). |         |
| Other hosts include oleander (*Nerium oleander*),          |         |
| pomegranate (*Punica granatum*), asparagus (*Asparagus     |         |
| officinalis*), lime (*Citrus aurantiifolia*), grapefruit   |         |
| (*Citrus* x *paradisi*), fig (*Ficus carica*), soybean     |         |
| (*Glycine max*), Bourbon cotton (*Gossypium hirsutum*),    |         |
| Hibiscus root (*Hibiscus manihot*), black mulberry (*Morus |         |
| nigra*), guava (*Psidium guajava*), potato (*Solanum       |         |
| tuberosum*), grapevine (*Vitis* spp.), Brazilian rose wood |         |
| (*Jarcaranda mimosifolia*), etc. (CPC, 2002)               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| While scales and mealybugs are often perceived to have     |         |
| limited dispersal capabilities, crawlers may move hundred  |         |
| of kilometers per day when carried by the wind (Greathead, |         |
| 1997). Each female of *N. vastator* can lay 90-138 eggs.   |         |
| Egg and nymphal stages last 10-13 and 31-43 days           |         |
| respectively. Under suitable conditions up to three        |         |
| generations of *N. vastator* per year are possible (for    |         |
| South Africa). (CPC, 2002)                                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| In India, *N. vastator* caused around 5% damage to two     |         |
| vineyards. In Hawaii, N. vastator was long considered the  |         |
| most destructive mealybug species. In South Africa 50% or  |         |
| more of the navel crop was lost due to damage from this    |         |
| pest. (CPC, 2002)                                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Biological and chemical control is likely to be            |         |
| implemented if this pest is introduced. *N. vastator*      |         |
| feeds on species of *Hibiscus*, *Solanum* and *Ziziphus*   |         |
| and will likely affect Endangered and Threatened plant     |         |
| species from these genera (USFWS, 2003).                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Oxycarenus              | **Risk  |
| hyalinipennis***                                           | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The insect is recorded from the following regions: Europe, |         |
| South America, Africa, Siberia, Russian far East, and      |         |
| Southeast Asia (CPC, 2002). If introduced into the United  |         |
| States, it could establish in the Plant Hardiness Zones    |         |
| 4-11.                                                      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Hosts include hollyhocks (*Althea* spp.), malabar ebony    |         |
| (*Diospyros* spp.), fig (*Ficus carica*), cotton           |         |
| (*Gossypium* spp.), avocado (*Persea americana*),          |         |
| date-palm (*Phoenix dactylifera*), kenaf (*Hibiscus        |         |
| cannabinus*), cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*) and maize (*Zea |         |
| mays*) (CPC, 2002).                                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Depending on temperature *O. hyalinipennis* will undergo   |         |
| five instars, averaging 14-25 days. The pre-oviposition    |         |
| period averages 4-10 days with each female producing an    |         |
| average of 57-90 eggs. Adult males live an average of      |         |
| 19-34 days with adult females living 22- 42 days (Dimetry, |         |
| 1973). From this information, the reproductive potential   |         |
| was rated as low. Since there no information was found     |         |
| about the inherent powers of movement or factors           |         |
| facilitating dispersal, this parameter was rated high. The |         |
| total rating for this risk element averaged to a medium.   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| This pest will cause a noticeable yield loss to the host   |         |
| crop, by reducing the number of seeds per pod and          |         |
| contributing to a high number of damaged or aborted seeds  |         |
| (Parenzan et al., 1994). *Oxycarenus hyalinipennis* will   |         |
| also damage fruits such as dates (*Phoenix* spp.), figs    |         |
| (*Ficus* spp.), avocados (*Persea americana*) and          |         |
| persimmons (*Diospyros* spp.) by contaminating them with a |         |
| pungent odor (Nakache and Klein, 1992).                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Endangered and Threatened species such as *Hibiscus* sp.   |         |
| and *Vigna* sp. have the potential to be attacked since    |         |
| *O. hyalinipennis* is recorded feeding on other species    |         |
| from these genera (USFWS, 2003). If introduced chemical    |         |
| control will likely be used to eliminate the pest (CPC,    |         |
| 2002).                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Pachnoda sinuata* and   | **Risk  |
| *Dischista cincta***                                       | Value** |
|                                                            |         |
| Detailed information on these Scarabaeidae beetles is very |         |
| scarce. We have combined available knowledge for their     |         |
| analysis                                                   |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| These species are recorded in Southern Africa,             |         |
| particularly in the South African Republic, Zimbabwe and   |         |
| Zambia (Donaldson, 1981, 1985a, 1985b). It could establish |         |
| in United States Plant Hardiness zones 8-11.               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Peaches, nectarines (*Prunus persica*), ornamental plants  |         |
| (Donaldson, 1985) are hosts for *Pachnoda sinuata*. Grape  |         |
| (*Vitis* spp.) is a host for both *Pachnoda sinuata* and   |         |
| *Dischista cincta* (BATS, 1992).                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Oviposition begins when the beetles are about 30 days old. |         |
| Peak egg-laying periods last 3-4 months. Each female of    |         |
| *P. sinuata* usually lays about 50 eggs. The duration of   |         |
| the egg stage averages 9.7 days (Donaldson, 1985a). Eggs   |         |
| are sensitive to a range of temperatures (Donaldson,       |         |
| 1985b). There are three larval instars that last 57-140    |         |
| days. The pupal stage lasts 25-100 days. Adults live for   |         |
| over a year and their fecundity varies greatly (Donaldson, |         |
| 1985a). The reproduction potential is rated low. Data on   |         |
| inherent dispersal or means facilitating dispersal are     |         |
| very limited. One record indicated that from 300 marked    |         |
| adults released in the field 5% were recaptured within a   |         |
| month and one beetle was recaptured 1.9 km from the        |         |
| release point (Donaldson, 1985a).                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| As pests of gardens and orchards, both species are likely  |         |
| to cause damage to crops by lowering yield and the value   |         |
| of the commodity. Hill (1983) considers *P. sinuata* to be |         |
| a minor pest of coffee (*Coffea* spp.), cotton             |         |
| (*Gossypium* spp), and mango (*Mangifera* *indica*). More  |         |
| references to this risk element, however, are not          |         |
| available but since these insects are not known to be      |         |
| major pests, a Medium rating is given.                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Introduction of the pests may stimulate control measures.  |         |
| Direct impact on Endangered and Threatened species is      |         |
| possible by attacking species of *Prunus*, since this      |         |
| genus is known to be a host (USFWS, 2003).                 |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Spodoptera              | **Risk  |
| littoralis***                                              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The insect is recorded from Africa, southern Europe, and   |         |
| Middle East (CPC, 2002). It is a potential pest in areas   |         |
| where the average annual minimal temperature is not below  |         |
| -10°C (CPC, 2002). It could become established in U.S.     |         |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11.                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The host range of *S. littoralis* covers over 40 families, |         |
| containing at least 87 species of plants of economic       |         |
| importance (CPC, 2002). For example: cotton (*Gossypium*   |         |
| spp.), tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum*), potato (*Solanum     |         |
| tuberosum*), tomato (*Lycopersicum esculentum*), onion     |         |
| (*Allium cepa*), citrus (*Citrus* spp.), beans             |         |
| (*Phaseolus* spp.), carrots (*Daucus carota*), peppers     |         |
| (*Capsicum annuum*), grapes (*Vitis* spp.), alfalfa        |         |
| (*Medicago* *sativa*) and various grasses (CPC, 2002).     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Noctuids are well known for their long-dispersal           |         |
| capabilities with the adults typically flying at night     |         |
| (CPC, 2002). The flight range during a 4-hour-period can   |         |
| be up to 1.5 km (CPC, 2002). In the most optimal climates, |         |
| the pest can have up to 7 overlapping generations per      |         |
| year, with an average of 20-1000 eggs produced by each     |         |
| female (CPC, 2002).                                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Spodoptera littoralis* is one of the most destructive     |         |
| agricultural lepidopterous pests within its subtropical    |         |
| and tropical range (CPC, 2002). It can attack numerous     |         |
| economically important crops throughout the year. It       |         |
| lowers crop yield, increases costs of production, and will |         |
| cause loss of the markets as a new quarantine pest.        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Endangered and Threatened species of *Allium, Solanum,     |         |
| Vigna, Amaranthus, Prunus, Hibiscus, Trifolium* and        |         |
| *Quercus* are at risk since these genera are known to be   |         |
| hosts for *S. littoralis* (USFWS, 2003). Control measures  |         |
| may be implemented if the pest is introduced.              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Rastrococcus            | **Risk  |
| iceryoides***                                              | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The species is distributed throughout India, Malaysia, and |         |
| sub-Saharan East Africa (CPC, 2002). If introduced to the  |         |
| United States it has the potential for establishment in    |         |
| the Plant Hardiness Zones 10-11.                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Rastrococcus iceryoides* is one of the most polyphagous   |         |
| species of the genus *Rastrococcus*, occurring on plants   |         |
| of diverse botanical families (CPC, 2002). Hosts include:  |         |
| cotton (*Gossypium* spp), citrus (*Citrus* spp.), coffee   |         |
| (*Coffea* spp.), tea (*Camellia sinensis*), guava          |         |
| (*Psidium guajava*), grape (*Vitis* spp.), banana (*Musa   |         |
| acuminata*), and numerous others including ornamental      |         |
| plants (CPC, 2002).                                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The pre-oviposition period lasts 7-8.5 days with an        |         |
| oviposition period of 5.7-7.3 days (CPC, 2002). Each       |         |
| female produces an average of 450-585 eggs (CPC, 2002). On |         |
| some hosts, fecundity averaged 807.8 eggs/female with an   |         |
| average oviposition period of 18.2 days (CPC, 2002).       |         |
| Female and male nymphs molt three and four times,          |         |
| respectively. The average duration of post-embryonic       |         |
| development is 20.4-31 days in females and 18-26 days in   |         |
| males (CPC, 2002). There may be up to nine generations per |         |
| year (CPC, 2002). The first-instar female is the main      |         |
| means of dispersal. Active crawling and passive dispersal  |         |
| by wind and animals is common. Human transport of infested |         |
| plant material achieves dispersal over greater distances   |         |
| (CPC, 2002).                                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Although the host range of *R. iceryoides* includes a      |         |
| number of economically important plants, there are reports |         |
| of this insect causing damage only to mangos (*Mangifera   |         |
| indica*), citrus (*Citrus* spp.), cotton (*Gossypium*      |         |
| spp), and kapok (*Ceiba pentandra*). As reported with      |         |
| mangos, *R. iceryoides* can be a problem to seedlings in   |         |
| nurseries, however the outbreaks are usually localized     |         |
| (CPC, 2002).                                               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Biological and chemical controls are not very effective    |         |
| against this pest, therefore, unlikely to be implemented.  |         |
| Endangered and Threatened species of *Hibiscus,            |         |
| Cucurbita,* and *Gardenia* are potentially at risk because |         |
| these genera are hosts of *R. iceryoides* (USFWS, 2003)*.* |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Theba pisana* and       | **Risk  |
| *Cochlicella ventricosa***                                 | Value** |
|                                                            |         |
| The literature provides very scarce information about      |         |
| *Cochlicella ventricosa*, therefore we analyzed this       |         |
| mollusk together with another Helicidae species, *Theba    |         |
| pisana*                                                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| The species are recorded in a wide variety of climates,    |         |
| with distributions ranging from Southern Africa, the       |         |
| Middle East, and the Mediterranean to North of Europe,     |         |
| including, Ireland, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom    |         |
| (restricted distribution) (CPC, 2002). Both have potential |         |
| for establishment in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11.      |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Major hosts for *Theba pisana* are citrus (*Citrus*        |         |
| spp.)*,* olive (*Olea* *europaea* subsp*. europaea*),      |         |
| almond (*Prunus dulcis*), wheat (*Triticum aestivum*),     |         |
| barley (*Hordeum vulgare*) and oilseed rape (*Brassica     |         |
| napus*) (CPC, 2002).                                       |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| *Theba pisana* and *Cochlicella ventricosa* were           |         |
| introduced from the Mediterranean which suggests that      |         |
| movement via humans or their products increases the        |         |
| dispersal potential for this species (Baker, 2002). The    |         |
| snails are capable of moving up to 55 m in one month, and  |         |
| their movement is not random (Baker, 2002). They produce   |         |
| on average 19-42 egg clutches during the season, with an   |         |
| average of 70 eggs in each (Baker, 2002).                  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| Although snails cause only very small feeding marks, the   |         |
| entire shoot becomes deformed and unfit for sale. The      |         |
| snails also contaminate some crops, such as grain, giving  |         |
| it a lower grade quality (Baker, 2002). On pastures in     |         |
| Australia, *T. pisana* causes herbage yield loss.          |         |
| Re-establishment of pastures in gastropod-infested areas   |         |
| is also difficult (Baker, 2002).                           |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| Control measures are often implemented against this pest   |         |
| (Baker, 2002) and Endangered and Threatened species of     |         |
| *Prunus* are potential hosts of this pest (USFWS, 2003);   |         |
| therefore this element was ranked high.                    |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Scirtothrips            | **Risk  |
| aurantii***                                                | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The species is reported mostly from Africa and Middle East |         |
| (CPC, 2002). It has the potential to establish in U.S.     |         |
| Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.                                |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Scirtothrips aurantii* is polyphagous, The host list      |         |
| includes species from families Anacardiaceae,              |         |
| Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Musaceae,   |         |
| Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Vitaceae and moore (CABI/EPPO, 1997). |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | Low (1) |
|                                                            |         |
| **[Reproduction potential]{.underline}**: *Scirtothrips    |         |
| aurantii* has a moderate reproductive potential. *S.       |         |
| aurantii* breeds throughout the year with a life cycle     |         |
| that takes less than 30 days to complete (CABI/EPPO,       |         |
| 1997). In South Africa, "the adult female lives for about  |         |
| three weeks and lays one or two eggs per day in summer; in |         |
| winter the rate of egg laying drops to one every two or    |         |
| more days" (Annecke and Moran, 1982).                      |         |
|                                                            |         |
| **[Dispersal]{.underline}**: the potential of *S.          |         |
| aurantii* for natural spread is relatively limited. In     |         |
| international trade, *S. aurantii* could be carried on     |         |
| plants for planting, but in fact interceptions are         |         |
| relatively rare" (CABI/EPPO, 1997).                        |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Scirtothrips aurantii* is most notably a pest of citrus   |         |
| and significantly affects international trade (CABI/EPPO,  |         |
| 1997). Infestation by *S. aurantii* reduces yields by      |         |
| causing severe injury to young plant tissue (CABI/EPPO,    |         |
| 1997). Tea production in Malawi and banana production in   |         |
| Yemen has been adversely affected by the thrips            |         |
| (CABI/EPPO, 1997). *Scirtothrips aurantii* is listed as an |         |
| EPPO A1 quarantine pest and considered a quarantine pest   |         |
| by the Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission        |         |
| (APPPC), OIRSA, and the Pacific Plant Protection           |         |
| Organization (PPPO) (EPPO, 2000).                          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| There are no Endangered and Threatened species that are    |         |
| likely to be attacked. Chemical control is likely to be    |         |
| implemented upon introduction for certain *Citrus* species |         |
| which may require additional sprays against *S. aurantii*  |         |
| if it would be the only thrips on this commodity.          |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Consequences of Introduction of *Scirtothrips            | **Risk  |
| dorsalis***                                                | Value** |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction**              | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The species is reported mostly from Asia, W. and S.        |         |
| Africa, and Oceania (CPC, 2002). It has the potential to   |         |
| establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11.              |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #2: Host Range**                            | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| *Scirtothrips dorsalis* is polyphagous, The host list      |         |
| includes species from families Amaranthaceae               |         |
|                                                            |         |
| Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae,        |         |
| Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae,                                  |         |
|                                                            |         |
| Malvaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae,     |         |
| Vitaceae, and Theaceae (CPC, 2002; Ciomperlik and Seal,    |         |
| 2004).                                                     |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential**                   | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| **[Reproduction potential]{.underline}**: Fecundity        |         |
| depends on a host plant quality. In castor, the total      |         |
| number of eggs laid by female ranges from 40 to 66; in     |         |
| chilies, a female lays 2-4 eggs per day for about 32 days  |         |
| (CPC, 2002). The life cycle is completed in 13 to 20 days  |         |
| depending on host plant and season.                        |         |
|                                                            |         |
| **[Dispersal]{.underline}**: Records from USDA PIN 309     |         |
| database indicate 119 interceptions of *Scirtothrips*      |         |
| spp., of which 50 were *S. dorsalis*, including some on    |         |
| fresh fruit (PIN 309, 2005). New data, however, suggest    |         |
| that visual inspections are not sufficient in detecting    |         |
| thrips at ports of entry and additional interceptions were |         |
| recorded with a shaker box and microscopic examination     |         |
| techniques (Skarlinski, 2004).                             |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #4: Economic Impact**                       | High    |
|                                                            | (3)     |
| In its principal range of tropical Asia, *S. dorsalis* is  |         |
| mainly a serious pest of vegetables in Taiwan and          |         |
| Thailand, *Capsicum* and groundnuts in India, as well as   |         |
| cotton in India and Pakistan (EPPO/CABI, 1997). In India   |         |
| it is also a pest of flowers and onions (EPPO/CABI, 1997). |         |
| In Japan and Taiwan, *Citrus* (especially *C. unshiu*) is  |         |
| seriously affected (EPPO/CABI, 1997). In Japan, *S.        |         |
| dorsalis* is also a pest of grapevine, and tea (EPPO/CABI, |         |
| 1997). The type of damage is essentially similar to that   |         |
| caused by *S. aurantii* (EPPO/CABI, 1997), with distortion |         |
| of young leaves and scarring of fruit, leading both to     |         |
| crop yield reduction and loss of crop quality.             |         |
| *Scirtothrips dorsalis* is a known vector of Peanut bud    |         |
| necrosis virus (PBNV), Peanut chlorotic fan virus (PCFV)   |         |
| (Campbe*ll et a*l. 2005) and Peanut yellow spot virus      |         |
| (PYSV) (Satyanaraya*na et a*l. 1996; Campbe*ll et a*l.     |         |
| 2005). If established, a loss of potential markets is also |         |
| possible.                                                  |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+
| **Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact**                  | Medium  |
|                                                            | (2)     |
| The following Endangered or Threatened species could be    |         |
| attacked: *Allium munzii* (CA), *Amaranthus pumilus* (DE,  |         |
| MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA), *Cucurbita                |         |
| okeechobeensis* ssp. *okeechobeensis* (FL), [*Helianthus   |         |
| eggertii*](http://ecos.fws.gov/SpeciesProfile?spcode=Q2B4) |         |
| (AL, KY, TN), *Helianthus paradoxus* (NM, TX), *Helianthus |         |
| schweinitzii* (NC, SC), *Prunus geniculata* (FL),          |         |
| *Ziziphus celata* (FL) (USFWS, 2005). Unlikely additional  |         |
| chemical control^1^ /or specific biocontrol.               |         |
+------------------------------------------------------------+---------+

^1^ In some locations (S. Lucia and S. Vincent islands),"...although is
widely distributed.." this pest is often "...numerically less abundant
and ubiquitous than other pest Thripidae such as *Thrips palmi*"
(Ciomperlik and Seal, 2004).

+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| **Table 5. |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| Summary of |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| the Risk   |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| Ratings    |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| and the    |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| Value for  |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| the        |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| Co         |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| nsequences |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| of         |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| Intr       |      |     |       |       |           |             |
| oduction** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+============+======+=====+=======+=======+===========+=============+
| **Pest**   | *    | **H | *     | **    | **Envi    | **Value for |
|            | *Cli | ost | *Disp | Econo | ronmental | the         |
|            | mate | R   | ersal | mic** | Impact**  | C           |
|            | /    | ang | P     |       |           | onsequences |
|            | Ho   | e** | otent | **Imp |           | of          |
|            | st** |     | ial** | act** |           | Int         |
|            |      |     |       |       |           | roduction** |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Ale     | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| urocanthus | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| spi        |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
| niferus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Apate   | Me   | H   | M     | M     | Medium    | Medium (11) |
| m          | dium | igh | edium | edium | (2)       |             |
| onachus*** | (2)  | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| *          | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| **Bustomus | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| se         |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| tulosus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| **         | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| *Ceratitis | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| c          |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| apitata*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***C.      | Me   | H   | High  | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| rosa***    | dium | igh | (3)   | edium |           |             |
|            | (2)  | (3) |       | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***C       | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| eroplastes | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| rusci***   |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Cry     | Me   | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| ptophlebia | dium | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| leu        | (2)  | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| cotreta*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Cr      | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| yptoblabes | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| gn         |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| idiella*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| **         | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| *Dischista | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| cincta***  |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| *          | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| **Empoasca | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| lybica***  |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Epic    | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| horistodes | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| ac         |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
| erbella*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Eremnus | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| atratus*** | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
|            |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***E.      | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| c          | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| erealis*** |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***E.      | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| se         | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| tulosus*** |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Eut     | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| etranychus | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| ori        |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| entalis*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***H       | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| elicoverpa | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| a          |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| rmigera*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Icerya  | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| seych      | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| ellarum*** |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Ma      | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| cchiademus | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| dipl       |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| opterus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Macon   | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| ellicoccus | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| h          |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| irsutus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***N       | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| ipaecoccus | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| v          |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| astator*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***        | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| Oxycarenus | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| hyalin     |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
| ipennis*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| *          | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| **Pachnoda | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| sinuata*** |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***        | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| Phlyctinus | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| c          |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| allosus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Ra      | Me   | H   | High  | M     | Medium    | Medium (12) |
| strococcus | dium | igh | (3)   | edium | (2)       |             |
| ice        | (2)  | (3) |       | (2)   |           |             |
| ryoides*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Sc      | Me   | H   | Low   | High  | Medium    | Medium (11) |
| irtothrips | dium | igh | (1)   | (3)   | (2)       |             |
| a          | (2)  | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| urantii*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Sc      | Me   | H   | High  | High  | Medium    | High (13)   |
| irtothrips | dium | igh | (3)   | (3)   | (2)       |             |
| d          | (2)  | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| orsalis*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***        | High | H   | High  | High  | High (3)  | High (15)   |
| Spodoptera | (3)  | igh | (3)   | (3)   |           |             |
| lit        |      | (3) |       |       |           |             |
| toralis*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Ta      | High | H   | M     | High  | High (3)  | High (14)   |
| nyrhynchus | (3)  | igh | edium | (3)   |           |             |
| ca         |      | (3) | (2)   |       |           |             |
| rinatus*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***C       | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| ochlicella | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
| ven        |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
| tricosa*** |      |     |       |       |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+
| ***Theba   | High | H   | M     | M     | High (3)  | High (13)   |
| pisana***  | (3)  | igh | edium | edium |           |             |
|            |      | (3) | (2)   | (2)   |           |             |
+------------+------+-----+-------+-------+-----------+-------------+

The scale is as follows: (5-8) points - Low; (9-12) points - Medium;
(13-15) points - High.

**6. Likelihood of Introduction**

Each pest is rated with respect to likelihood of introduction based on
two separate components. First an estimate is made concerning the amount
of commodity likely to be imported (risk element #6). Second, pest
opportunity (risk element #7) is estimated using five biological
features. Additional details of the two risk elements and the rating
criteria are provided in USDA (2000). These ratings and cumulative
scores for risk elements 6 and 7, i.e. the "Likely of Introduction Risk
Rating" are shown in Table 6.

**Risk Element 6: Pest Opportunity (Survival and Access to Suitable
Habitat and Hosts)**

For each pest, consider six sub-elements:

**1. Quantity of commodity imported annually:** The likelihood that an
exotic pest will be introduced depends on the amount of the
potentially-infested commodity that is imported. The amount of commodity
imported is estimated in units of standard 40 foot long shipping
containers.

Scoring is as follows:

> Low (1): \<10 containers per year
>
> Medium (2): 10-100 containers per year
>
> High (3): \>100 containers per year

Namibia projects to export 22.5 standard containers of table grapes to
the United States in the first year. This qualifies as a medium risk
rating (2).

**2. Survive post-harvest treatment**: For this sub-element, post
harvest treatment refers to any manipulation, handling or specific
phytosanitary treatment to which the commodity is subjected. Postharvest
treatment in Namibia includes visual inspection and culling (Culliney,
2004).

Among the arthropod pests, all of the tephritid fruit flies (*Ceratitis
capitata* and *C. rosa*), the tortrix (*Epichoristodes* *acerbella*) and
the false codling moth (*Cryptophlebia leucotreta*) are internal feeders
and therefore are highly likely to survive post-harvest treatment. The
wood boring bostrichid beetle, *Apate monachus*, would likely survive
minimal post-harvest treatment, such as washing and culling. The
remaining pests being: the whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), the soft scale
insects (Coccidae), the mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), the margarodid
scales (Margarodidae), the leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), the true bugs
(*Oxycarenus hyalinipennis*) (Lygaeidae), several moths (Noctuidae,
Psychidae, Pyralidae), the scarabaeid beetles, the thrips (*Scirtothrips
aurantii* and *S. dorsalis*), and the mollusks (*Cochlicella ventricosa*
and *Theba* *pisana*) are external feeders, and therefore would be more
susceptible to post-harvest treatments. However, depending on their life
cycle stage (egg, larva, adult) or instar, most of these organisms might
find shelter on fruit, particularly inside the berry clusters, or in
packing materials. Also, the whiteflies, scale insects and mealybugs
have sessile stages that live firmly appressed to plant surfaces. This
posture and their water-repellent, waxy cuticles could make them
difficult to see or dislodge, especially if sheltered at the stem end of
the fruit.

**3. Survive shipment: Estimate survival during shipment (under standard
shipping conditions)**

Evidence of the ability of these pests to survive shipment from Southern
Africa is in the records of interceptions (PIN 309) that have occurred
to date (Table 2). Total record of interceptions of pests of *Vitis*
from other regions in the world exceeds 800 entries (PIN 309, 2003).
*Ceratitis capitata* was intercepted 5 times from different countries
and *Phlyctinus callosus* was intercepted 5 times from South Africa.
There are interceptions of the mollusk *Theba pisana* from South Africa
and other countries. The lygaeid bug *Macchiademus diplopterus* is
highly cold resistant and complete mortality would require the
continuation of cold storage at 31 and 34F for six and ten weeks,
respectively (Herring, 1973 and references therein). These periods are
beyond the reasonable storage life of peaches and apricots. Specimens
from South Africa have been intercepted at New York City, Philadelphia,
and Washington, D.C. quarantine stations on a number of occasions since
1937 on wheat, peaches, apricots, apples, pears, and grass seed
(Herring, 1973). It appears, however, that interception records should
be relied upon carefully. A recent report on implementation of new
techniques for inspection of fresh fruits and vegetable at ports of
entry (Skarlinski, 2004) indicated a higher rate of thrip and mealybug
survival with these commodities.

**4. Not detected at port-of-entry**: Among the arthropods, depending on
the age of infestation, the tephritids, bostrichid, tortrix and false
codling moth could have a high probability of escaping detection at a
port-of-entry and fruit fly-infested fruit could go unrecognized (White
and Elson-Harris, 1992). Staining of fruits by sooty molds with large,
conspicuous infestations could lead to the detection of whiteflies,
mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), and soft scales (Coccidae). Most of external
feeders could be detected by examining not only the surface of the
grapes and stems but also within the grape clusters. *Thysanoptera*,
although external feeders, are somewhat difficult to detect because of
their small size and their secretive nature of feeding (CPC, 2002).
Skarlinski (2004) indicates that using a standard protocol on peppers
from St. Lucia and St. Vincent, "no thrips were detected ... during the
2% visual inspection compared to an 80% detection rate of thrips with
the shaker box plus alternative sampling and a 60% rate for the
microscopic examination. In addition to thrips, several other reportable
pests were detected during the study, primarily mealybugs
(Pseudococcidae) and aphids (Aphididae). When the 2% visual inspection
technique was employed, reportable pests were detected in 30% of the
shipments. These results were in stark contrast to those obtained using
the other inspectional methods. With the shaker box method, reportable
pests were detected in 100% of the shipments, and the microscopic
technique detected reportable pests in 80% of the shipments"
(Skarlinski, 2004).

**5. Imported or moved subsequently to an area with an environment
suitable for survival**: Consider the geographic location of likely
markets and the proportion of the commodity that is likely to move to
locations suitable for pest survival. Even if infested commodities enter
the country, not all final destinations will have suitable climatic
conditions for pest survival.

Based on their known warm temperate to tropical distributions, it is
estimated that climates would be suitable for most of the arthropods to
establish permanent populations in a narrow swath of territory in , the
Southern United States (California, Florida, Arizona), along the coast
of Pacific Northwest, the dry and desert climates of the Western
continental United States, and in Hawaii. Most of these organisms were
rated Medium with the exception of *Rastrococcus iceryoides* which is
known to have a more tropical distribution and therefore was rated Low
(CPC, 2004). Mollusks, noctuids and *Macchiademus diplopterus,* however,
are able to establish in cooler temperate climates along the East coast
and in the Midwest, and therefore were rated High (CPC, 2004, Herring,
1973).

**6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction**:
Even if the final destination of infested commodities is suitable for
pest survival, suitable hosts must be available in order for the pest to
survive. Consider the complete host range of the pest species.

For the arthropods, availability of hosts will vary depending on their
survival range within the United States. The hosts of the extremely
polyphagous species (*i.e*. *Ceratitis capitata*, *Ceratitis rosa,
Cryptoblabes gnidiella*, *Cryptophlebia leucotetra, Helicoverpa
armigera*, *Macchiademus diplopterus*, *Spodoptera littoralis*,
*Scirtothrips aurantii*, *S. dorsalis*, *Cochlicella ventricosa*, and
*Theba pisana*) survive in temperate-zones and are widely cultivated
plants (USDA, 2003a), therefore they would coincide with the arthropod's
survival range and be available for the pests to colonize. Hosts of some
of the other species, such as *Apate monachus*, *Ceroplastes rusci*, and
*Rastrococcus iceryoides*, are of more limited distributions and would
be less likely to be available. The rest of the Coccidae and
Pseudococcidae were rated medium because of their sessile nature
(Kosztarab, 1997; Miller, 1985).

Sub-elements 2-6 were ranked as follows:

Low (1): \< 0.1% (less than one in one thousand)

Medium (2): between 0.1%-10% (between one in one thousand to one in ten)

High (3): \>10% (greater than one in ten)

The events described in sub-elements 2-6 are considered as a series of
independent events that must all take place before a pest outbreak can
occur, i.e., the estimates for one element should not affect estimates
for other elements.

The six sub-elements are summed to give the Cumulative Risk Rating for
Likelihood of Introduction, which is considered to be an indicator of
the likelihood that a particular pest would be introduced.

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  **Table 6. Summary                                                                                 
  of the ratings for                                                                                 
  the Quantity                                                                                       
  Imported Annually,                                                                                 
  the Pest                                                                                           
  Opportunity, and the                                                                               
  Cumulative Rating                                                                                  
  for the Likelihood                                                                                 
  of Introduction.**                                                                                 
  -------------------- ------------ --------------- ------------ ---------- ----------- ------------ ----------------
  **Pest**             **Quantity   **Ratings for                                                    **Likelihood of
                       Imported     Pest                                                             Introduction**
                       Annually**   Opportunity**                                                    

                                    **Survive       **Survive    **Not      **Moved to  **Contact    
                                    Post-harvest    Shipment**   detected   a Suitable  with Host    
                                    Treatment**                  at the     Habitat**   Material**   
                                                                 Port of                             
                                                                 Entry**                             

  ***Aleurocanthus     Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  spiniferus***                                                                                      

  ***Apate monachus*** Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  Medium (2)   High (15)

  ***Bustomus          Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  setulosus***                                                                                       

  ***Ceratitis         Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  High (3)     High (16)
  capitata***                                                                                        

  ***C. rosa***        Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  High (3)     High (16)

  ***Ceroplastes       Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  rusci***                                                                                           

  ***Cryptophlebia     Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  High (3)     High (16)
  leucotreta***                                                                                      

  ***Cryptoblabes      Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  gnidiella***                                                                                       

  ***Dischista         Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  cincta***                                                                                          

  ***Empoasca          Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  lybica***                                                                                          

  ***Epichoristodes    Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  Medium (2)   High (15)
  acerbella***                                                                                       

  ***Eremnus           Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  atratus***                                                                                         

  ***E. cerealis***    Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)

  ***E. setulosus***   Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)

  ***Eutetranychus     Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (14)
  orientalis***                                                                                      

  ***Helicoverpa       Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) High (3)    High (3)     High (15)
  armigera***                                                                                        

  ***Icerya            Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  seychellarum***                                                                                    

  ***Macchiademus      Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) High (3)    High (3)     High (15)
  diplopterus***                                                                                     

  ***Maconellicoccus   Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  hirsutus***                                                                                        

  ***Nipaecoccus       Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  vastator***                                                                                        

  ***Oxycarenus        Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  Medium (2)   Medium (13)
  hyalinipennis***                                                                                   

  ***Pachnoda          Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  sinuata***                                                                                         

  ***Phlyctinus        Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  callosus***                                                                                        

  ***Rastrococcus      Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Low (1)     Medium (2)   Medium (12)
  iceryoides***                                                                                      

  ***Scirtothrips      Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  High (3)     High (16)
  aurantii***                                                                                        

  ***Scirtothrips      Medium (2)   High (3)        High (3)     High (3)   Medium (2)  High (3)     High (16)
  dorsalis***                                                                                        

  ***Spodoptera        Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) High (3)    High (3)     High (15)
  littoralis***                                                                                      

  ***Tanyrhynchus      Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) Medium (2)  High (3)     Medium (14)
  carinatus***                                                                                       

  ***Cochlicella       Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) High (3)    High (3)     High (15)
  ventricosa***                                                                                      

  ***Theba pisana***   Medium (2)   Medium (2)      High (3)     Medium (2) High (3)    High (3)     High (15)
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Low: 6 - 9; Medium: 10 - 14; High: 15 - 18.

**7. Conclusion: Pest Risk Potential** -The summation of the values for
the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction
gives the values for the Pest Risk Potential (Table 7).

+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| **Table 7.   |              |                  |                    |
| Pest Risk    |              |                  |                    |
| Potential**  |              |                  |                    |
+==============+==============+==================+====================+
| **Pest**     | **           | **Likelihood of  | **Pest Risk        |
|              | Consequences | Introduction**   | Potential**        |
|              | of           |                  |                    |
|              | In           | **Cumulative     |                    |
|              | troduction** | Risk Rating**    |                    |
|              |              |                  |                    |
|              | **Cumulative |                  |                    |
|              | Risk         |                  |                    |
|              | Rating**     |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***A         | High (13)    | Medium (13)      | Medium (26)        |
| leurocanthus |              |                  |                    |
| s            |              |                  |                    |
| piniferus*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Apate     | Medium (11)  | High (15)        | Medium (26)        |
| monachus***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Bustomus  | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| setulosus*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Ceratitis | High (15)    | High (16)        | High (31)          |
| capitata***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***C.        | High (13)    | High (16)        | High (29)          |
| rosa***      |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| **           | High (13)    | Medium (13)      | Medium (26)        |
| *Ceroplastes |              |                  |                    |
| rusci***     |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***C         | High (14)    | High (16)        | High (30)          |
| ryptophlebia |              |                  |                    |
| l            |              |                  |                    |
| eucotreta*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| Cryptoblabes |              |                  |                    |
| gnidiella*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Dischista | High (13)    | Medium (14)      | Medium (27)        |
| cincta***    |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Empoasca  | High (15)    | Medium (14)      | High (29)          |
| lybica***    |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Ep        | High (13)    | High (15)        | High (28)          |
| ichoristodes |              |                  |                    |
| acerbella*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Eremnus   | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| atratus***   |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***E.        | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| cerealis***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***E.        | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| setulosus*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***E         | High (15)    | Medium (14)      | High (29)          |
| utetranychus |              |                  |                    |
| o            |              |                  |                    |
| rientalis*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| **           | High (15)    | High (15)        | High (30)          |
| *Helicoverpa |              |                  |                    |
| armigera***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Icerya    | High (14)    | Medium (13)      | Medium (27)        |
| sey          |              |                  |                    |
| chellarum*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | High (14)    | High (15)        | High (29)          |
| Macchiademus |              |                  |                    |
| di           |              |                  |                    |
| plopterus*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Mac       | High (15)    | Medium (13)      | High (28)          |
| onellicoccus |              |                  |                    |
| hirsutus***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| **           | High (14)    | Medium (13)      | Medium (27)        |
| *Nipaecoccus |              |                  |                    |
| vastator***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| *            | High (13)    | Medium (13)      | Medium (26)        |
| **Oxycarenus |              |                  |                    |
| hyal         |              |                  |                    |
| inipennis*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Pachnoda  | High (13)    | Medium (14)      | Medium (27)        |
| sinuata***   |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| *            | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| **Phlyctinus |              |                  |                    |
| callosus***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | Medium (12)  | Medium (12)      | Medium (24)        |
| Rastrococcus |              |                  |                    |
| i            |              |                  |                    |
| ceryoides*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | Medium (11)  | High (16)        | Medium (27)        |
| Scirtothrips |              |                  |                    |
| aurantii***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | High (13)    | High (16)        | High (29)          |
| Scirtothrips |              |                  |                    |
| doesalis***  |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| *            | High (15)    | High (15)        | High (30)          |
| **Spodoptera |              |                  |                    |
| l            |              |                  |                    |
| ittoralis*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***          | High (14)    | Medium (14)      | High (28)          |
| Tanyrhynchus |              |                  |                    |
| carinatus*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| **           | High (13)    | Medium (15)      | High (28)          |
| *Cochlicella |              |                  |                    |
| v            |              |                  |                    |
| entricosa*** |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+
| ***Theba     | High (13)    | Medium (15)      | High (28)          |
| pisana***    |              |                  |                    |
+--------------+--------------+------------------+--------------------+

Low: 11 - 18; Medium: 19 - 27; High: 28 - 33.

Port-of-entry inspection alone is insufficient to provide phytosanitary
security for the quarantine insect pests that are likely to follow the
pathway, and the development of specific phytosanitary measures is
recommended. Postharvest mitigation measures to reduce infestations of
external and internal feeders is necessary and should proceed according
to existing regulations. If an irradiation protocol is proved
efficacious against all these pests, then a mitigation protocol
including irradiation may be considered.

C. **Authors and Reviewers**

Authors:

Heather Hartzog -- (Lead) Plant Pathologist

Marina Zlotina - Entomologist

Reviewers:

Tom Culliney

James W. Smith

Michael K. Hennessey

Brian Spears

Alan Hogue

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