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## Transitional Living Programs for Runaway and Homeless Youth and Youth Aging Out of Foster Care

**Compiled by**

**Emily Blumenbaum**

**Content Specialist**

**August 28, 2006**

Additional resources are available on our Web site:
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###### Transitional Living Programs for Runaway and Homeless Youth and Youth Aging Out of Foster Care

**Online Resources**

**Federal Resources**

*Foster Care: Effectiveness of Independent Living Services Unknown.*
1999. U.S. General Accounting Office.

<http://www.gao.gov/new.items/he00013.pdf>

Each year approximately 20,000 youth exit the foster care system with
the expectation that they will be able to live self-sufficiently. After
exiting the system, many of these youth face serious problems, including
homelessness, lack of employment stability, incarceration, and early
pregnancy. Recently, a congressional subcommittee raised concerns in
hearings that the federal Independent Living Program (ILP), designed to
help foster care youth make the transition to living independently, does
not give youth leaving foster care the necessary life skills to complete
basic education, find and maintain employment, or otherwise live
self-sufficiently after leaving care. This study describes the extent of
services provided under ILPs and discusses what is known about the
effects of these services on youths' ability to live on their own.

***Foster Youth: HHS Actions Could Improve Coordination of Services and
Monitoring of States' Independent Living Programs.*** 2004. Author:
Government Accounting Office.
<http://www.nrcys.ou.edu/yd/resources/publications/pdfs/gaoyouthreport.pdf>

The This Government Accounting Office report offers the first
comprehensive view of how the Foster Care Independence Act of 1999
(FCIA) has impacted services to youth in foster care. FCIA increased
funding for independent living services from \$7 million to \$140
million and adjusted the formula by which the Federal government
allocates funds to the States, providing significant increases of
funding for many States. This report describes how services have been
expanded, the extent to which coordination with other Federal and State
agencies has occurred, and how HHS has fulfilled the program
accountability provisions of FCIA.

*The Implementation of Maternity Group Home Programs: Serving Pregnant
and Parenting Teens in a Residential Setting.* 2005. Lara K. Hulsey et
al. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the
Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation.

<http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/grouphomes04/imp05/index.htm>

Maternity group homes offer an innovative and intensive approach to
addressing the needs of an extremely vulnerable population---teenage
mothers and their children who have no other suitable place to live.
Interest in these homes has increased in recent years, due in part to
recent welfare reform rules that require minor parents to live in an
adult-supervised setting as a condition of Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families (TANF) receipt. Yet surprisingly little is known about
maternity group homes; to date there have been few studies of the
implementation of maternity group home programs and no rigorous
evaluations that examine their effectiveness. Given the considerable
interest in maternity group homes and the roles they can play in
assisting pregnant and parenting teens' transition to independence, it
is important to fill some of the gaps in the existing research. This
study has two main objectives: (1) document the implementation of
maternity group home programs and (2) explore the feasibility of
conducting a rigorous evaluation of their effectiveness.

*Juvenile Runaways.* 2006. Kelly Dedel. U.S. Department of Justice,
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

<http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=1694>

Following a description of the problem of juvenile runaways and the
factors contributing to this problem, this guide identifies a series of
questions that will help law enforcement officers analyze the extent of
the local juvenile runaway problem. Questions help officers gauge the
extent of the local problem, the reasons juveniles run away, the degree
of involvement runaways have in criminal behavior as well as
victimization, and the responses to juvenile runaways currently
implemented in the local community. Considerations for an effective
juvenile runaway response strategy are offered and include agency-level
responses, such as collaborating with social service agencies to ensure
that juveniles at risk are provided with appropriate services, as well
as specific responses that can be launched before juveniles run away,
when they run away, while they are absent, and when they return. These
specific responses include using respite care to give family members a
break, diverting appropriate cases to community-based organizations, and
implementing specialized patrols in areas where juveniles congregate.
Responses with limited effectiveness are also outlined so that law
enforcement officers can avoid them.

*Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway Children in America.* 1990.
David Finkelhor, Gerald Hotaling, and Andrea Sedlak. U.S. Department of
Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention.

<http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/nismart90.pdf>

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention sponsored this
seminal study of missing children in response to a congressional mandate
of the Missing Children's Act. Data were obtained from a household
survey, juvenile facilities survey, returned runaway study, police
records study, Federal Bureau of Investigation analysis, and a community
professionals study. Findings from 1988 revealed approximately 354,000
family abductions, 3,200 to 4,600 nonfamily abductions, 451,000
runaways, 127,000 thrownaways, and 438,000 lost or injured children.
Many of the children were not literally missing; caretakers knew where
they were, and the problem was in recovering them. Family abduction
appeared to be a substantially larger problem than previously thought.
The runaway problem did not appear to be larger in 1988 than at the time
of the last national survey in 1975. It was determined that more than 20
percent of children previously termed runaways should actually be
considered thrownaways.

*National Estimates of Children Missing Involuntarily or for Benign
Reasons.* 2005. Andrea Sedlak, David Finkelhor, and Heather Hammer. U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

<http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/206180.pdf>

The data presented were obtained from two components of the Second
National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway
Children---the National Household Survey of Adult Caretakers and the
National Household Survey of Youth. These surveys were conducted during
1999 and reflect the experiences of children in the United States over a
12-month period. In 1999 an estimated 204,500 children were
involuntarily missing from their caretakers because they were lost,
injured, or stranded; 68,100 of these children were reported to
authorities for assistance in locating them. An estimated 43,700
children were missing because they were injured, and 10,200 were
reported to authorities. An estimated 340,500 children missing and
reported to authorities were missing due to benign circumstances and
miscommunications that resulted in no harm to the child. These children
constituted 43 percent of the children reported missing in all
categories. Children missing involuntarily because they were lost or
injured were disproportionately white, male, and older. They disappeared
most often in wooded areas or parks and from the company of their
caretakers. Children missing as a result of benign circumstances and
miscommunications were disproportionately teens who failed to come home
or were gone from home longer than expected.

*National Estimates of Missing Children: An Overview*. 2002. Andrea
Sedlak, David Finkelhor, Heather Hammer, and Dana J. Schultz. U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

<http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/196465.pdf>

This Bulletin presents an overview of the second National Incidence
Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway Children
(NISMART--2). It describes NISMART component surveys and estimating
methodology and defines the types of missing child episodes studied:
nonfamily abduction (including stereotypical kidnapping); family
abduction; runaway/thrownaway; missing involuntary, lost, or injured;
and missing benign explanation. The Bulletin also presents national
estimates for children classified as caretaker missing and those
reported missing to law enforcement or other agencies, by type of
episode and by child's age, gender, and race/ethnicity. The authors note
that only a small proportion of all missing children are victims of
stereotypical kidnappings.

*Runaway or Abduction? Assessment Tools for the First Responder.* 2000.
André B. Simons and Jeannine Willie. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal
Bureau of Investigation.

<http://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2000/nov00leb.pdf>

When a child is reported missing, law enforcement officers should assess
the situation accurately in an effort to classify the missing child
appropriately. Responding officers must explore the missing child's
lifestyle and behaviors to determine whether a voluntary departure is
consistent with the child's behavior patterns. It is crucial to
interview parents separately from other family members and reporting
persons. Investigators must also understand the missing child's last
known activities, habits, interests, normal activity patterns, recent
changes in behavior or activity patterns, family dynamics, comfort
zones, and school and peer group associations. In addition, scene
assessment should include an analysis of the child's residence for
evidence or lack of evidence for preparation for a departure. Moreover,
they should consider the child's access to resources (such as money and
transportation) to sustain a voluntary absence. Furthermore, they should
consider time factors, including how long a runaway child typically
stays away from home and how the passage of time influences the
classification of a missing child case.

*Runaway/Thrownaway Children: National Estimates and Characteristics.*
2002. Heather Hammer, David Finkelhor, and Andrea J. Sedlak. U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

<http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/196469.pdf>

The estimates presented were derived from three components of the second
National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway
Children (NISMART--2): the National Household Survey of Adult
Caretakers, the National Household Survey of Youth, and the Juvenile
Facilities Study. The NISMART--2 studies covered the years 1997 to 1999.
In 1999 an estimated 1,682,900 youth had a runaway/thrownaway episode.
Of these youth, 37 percent were missing from their caretakers, and 21
percent were reported to authorities for purposes of locating them. Of
the total runaway/thrownaway youth, an estimated 1,190,900 (71 percent)
could have been endangered during their runaway/thrownaway episode by
virtue of factors such as substance dependency, use of hard drugs,
sexual or physical abuse, presence in a place where criminal activity
was occurring, or extremely young age (13 years or younger). Two-thirds
of the youth with runaway/thrownaway episodes during 1999 were between
the ages of 15 and 17. There is suggestive evidence that the runaway
problem may have been smaller in 1999 than in 1988.

*Second Chance Homes: Providing Services for Teenage Parents and Their
Children.* 2000. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of
the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation.

<http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/2ndchancehomes00/index.htm#promising>

The difficult life circumstances of most teenage mothers and their
children have intensified interest in finding ways to support young
mothers in their efforts to become self-sufficient, delay subsequent
childbearing, and promote awareness of child development early in their
children's lives in order to break the cycle of poverty and reliance on
welfare. One innovative service delivery option available is the
establishment of "Second Chance Homes" for teenage mothers and their
children. Second Chance Homes offer stable housing and other supportive
services to teenage mothers, with the intent of providing teens with the
skills and knowledge necessary to become more effective parents and lead
productive, independent lives.

*Substance Use Among Youths Who Had Run Away From Home.* 2004. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration.

<http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k4/runAways/runAways.pdf>

In 2002, approximately 1.6 million youth (7 percent) ages 12 to 17 had
run away from home and slept on the street in the past 12 months. These
runaway youth were more likely to be males (55 percent), and 46 percent
were age 16 or 17. The rate of past-year alcohol use was higher among
runaway youth (50 percent) than among youth who had not run away (33
percent). This difference was evident across age groups and for both
males and females. Alcohol use was higher among female (55 percent) than
among male runaway youth (46 percent). The rates of past-year marijuana
use and past-year use of an illicit drug other than marijuana were
higher among youth who had run away from home in the past 12 months than
among youth who had not. Among both male and females and across age
groups, the rate of illicit drug use was higher among those who had run
away from home in the past 12 months than among youth who had not.

*Transitional Living Programs Move Homeless Youth Closer to
Independence.* 2006. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Administration for Children and Families, Family and Youth Services
Bureau. <http://www.ncfy.com/publications/exchange/0603.htm>

The Family and Youth Services Bureau (FYSB) recognizes that many
homeless and runaway youth are the victims of neglect, abandonment, or
severe family conflict. These youth cannot return to their families, but
they are not yet equipped to live on their own. They have to work to
support themselves, often without having a high school degree. If they
want to go to college, they have no one to help them pay for it or to
fill out financial aid forms for them. They have to seek their own role
models, rather than leaning on their parents. Protecting young people
from such fates and helping them thrive are the goals of FYSB's
Transitional Living Program for Older Homeless Youth. Every year, more
than 5,000 runaway and homeless youth receive housing, life skills
training, counseling, and education and employment support.

**State and Local Studies**

***Agency-Based Tracking of Difficult-To-Follow Populations: Runaway and
Homeless Youth Programs in St. Louis, Missouri.** 2000.* Pollio, D. E.,
Thompson, S. J., North, C. S. Bell & Howell Information and Learning*,
300 North Zeeb Road, Department PR, Ann Arbor, MI 48106;
\<http://www.umi.com\>, \<http://www.elibrary.com\>*

Runaway and homeless youth are a difficult-to-follow population that has
received limited research attention. This population, whose numbers have
been estimated between 310,000 and 1.6 million, is known for its high
risk for substance use and abuse, emotional disturbance, health-risk
behaviors associated with AIDS and teen pregnancy, and suicide. Further,
studies suggest that this population is not substantially
demographically different from the adult homeless population. Thus, the
authors of this article explain, lessons learned tracking this
population may be applicable to tracking other difficult populations.
The authors explored agency-based methods of tracking runaway and
homeless youth by following a total of 118 program discharges from three
federally funded agencies serving runaway and homeless youth in St.
Louis, Missouri. Agency staff attempted to locate and interview program
participants 3 months after discharge using a protocol that
systematically varied times and location of contact attempts. They
successfully located 69 percent of the sample and interviewed 59
percent. The authors conducted separate analyses to compare the group of
subjects whose locations were ascertained with those who were not, and
those who were successfully interviewed with those who were not.
Significant findings included the following: (1) staff made fewer
contact attempts over fewer days for individuals successfully
interviewed; (2) individuals tracked through the Division of Family
Services were less likely to be both located and interviewed; and (3)
individuals successfully located were significantly younger than those
who were not located. The authors conclude that the study provides
encouraging evidence that even relatively unsophisticated protocols for
tracking agency clients developed in collaboration with community
agencies can, with consistent implementation, yield followup samples
that are acceptably representative of program participants.

*Barriers to Shelter Study Pilot Project Needs Assessment: Final
Recommendations Report.* 2002. Seattle Street Youth Task Force. City of
Seattle.

<http://www.seattle.gov/humanservices/doc/YouthShelterStudy.pdf>

The Seattle Street Youth Task Force, made up of homeless youth service
providers, policymakers, and funders initiated an effort to overcome
disadvantages in serving homeless youth, and address systemic issues in
the continuum of care. Due to the many variables involved with
homelessness, it is critical that this service system be subject to
ongoing monitoring and revision in order to meet the changing needs of
homeless youth. In recent years, several intransigent issues have
emerged within the system that impede optimal shelter utilization and
pose other difficulties in serving homeless youth. This situation has
contributed to public perceptions that youth shelter is an inefficient
use of resources. The task force initiated this needs assessment project
to develop strategies for an effective response to these issues.

***Bridges to Independence: Improving Transitions to Adulthood for Youth
Served by the New Jersey Division of Youth and Family Services.*** 2001.
Authors: Eisenbud, L., Moore, Y. L., Ryan, K. M.

Research consistently shows that former foster youth continue to be at
higher risk for homelessness than the general population. The 14-month
Bridges to Independence Project examined the correlation between foster
care and youth homelessness in New Jersey. The Garden State Coalition
embarked upon the project during the summer of 2000 in response to major
improvements made to the Federal Title IV-E Independent Living Program,
specifically, measures that assist youth exiting the foster care system.
The authors had four major research objectives: (1) develop a richer
profile of adolescents in the care and custody of the Division of Youth
and Family Services; (2) develop a better understanding of the services
provided to New Jersey youth transitioning from the foster care system;
(3) identify specific barriers to independence that may contribute to
youth homelessness among former foster youth; and (4) discover gaps in
the services provided to foster youth transitioning to independence. To
gather information in these areas, the project utilized five primary
research methods: literature review, a task force, a key informant
survey, a provider survey, and focus groups. The resulting report is
organized into four parts: (a) a comprehensive and concise description
of the Title IV-E Program and the Federal guidelines for the Chafee
Program; (b) a summary of relevant research regarding outcomes for
foster youth, the efficacy of Title IV-E Independent Living Programs,
and a review of best practice literature that identifies characteristics
of quality programs; (c) findings from primary research; and (d)
recommendations regarding improvements to independent living program
policy and implementation based on primary and secondary research
findings. The authors identified the three most critical challenges
facing adolescent youth within New Jersey: a lack of housing, failed
relational support, and limited medical and mental health services. New
Jersey's major service gaps, according to the authors, are mental
health, physical health, financial assistance for education, aftercare,
support targeted to adolescents, transportation, mentor programs, and
housing.

*Evaluating a Transitional Living Program for Homeless, Former Foster
Care Youth.* 2004. *Research on Social Work Practice* 14(4): 240--248.

Available to be ordered from:
<http://rsw.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/14/4/240>

The goals of this study were to assess the outcomes of former foster
care youth using transitional living programs and to compare outcomes
achieved by former foster care youth who participated in an employment
training program with similar youth who did not. The study sampled 23
former foster care youth using transitional living services in Northern
California. Hourly wage, money saved, and employment status outcomes
were examined at discharge, and housing outcomes were examined 6 months
post discharge. Variables that demonstrated improvement post
intervention include hourly wage, housing situation, employment, and
money saved. At a 6-month followup, 90 percent of youth with known
housing situations were in permanent, stable housing. Youth who
participated in training had significantly higher hourly wages than
those who did not. Transitional living and employment training programs
may be effective interventions for former foster care youth with few
resources.

*Legal Rights and Options for Runaway Teens.* 2003. Legal Services for
Children, Inc.

<http://www.lsc-sf.org/publications/runaway_2003_revised.pdf>

Founded in 1975 as the first nonprofit law firm for youth in the
country, Legal Services for Children, Inc., provides free legal and
related social services to children and youth in the San Francisco Bay
Area. This guide provides an overview of relevant California laws and
includes San Francisco referrals for runaway youth.

***Promising Practices: Supporting Transition of Youth Served by the
Foster Care System.*** 1999. Authors: Sheehy, A. M., Oldham, E., Zanghi,
M. <http://www.ytfg.org/documents/promisingpracticesfostercare.pdf>

This report examines agencies that provide foster care youth with
education and career services. The researchers identified three or four
effective agencies in each of the 50 States, as recommended by each
State's Independent Living Coordinator. Through surveys and site visits
to the agencies, they identified six key issues: early discharge,
housing, health and medical care, education, employment, and the
integrated nature of the key issues. The authors found a number of best
practices based on the following core principles: youth development
philosophy, collaboration, and cultural competency. In the report, they
profile successful programs and examine promising practices in the areas
of life skills, education, employment, community linkages, supervising
independent living, health, preparation for adulthood counseling
activities, youth development, aftercare, training, and evaluation. As a
result of their research, the authors make recommendations related to
programming and services and to evaluation and data collection and
reporting.

*A Report on Transitional Housing for Emancipated Foster Youth in Los
Angeles County.* 1997. Shelter Partnership, Inc.

<http://www.shelterpartnership.org/emancipatedfosteryouth.pdf.pdf>

The Community Development Commission of the County of Los Angeles
requested Shelter Partnership, Inc., to facilitate a coordination effort
among developer/providers, which led to quarterly meetings of those
providers as well as other specific efforts. This report resulted from
the need for detailed and reliable data regarding the services and
housing available to emancipated foster youth. It examines the context
in which current services and housing are being provided and offers some
guidance for further action in addressing the needs of this population.

*Runaway and Homeless Youth: Annual Report* *2004.* 2004. New York State
Office of Children and Family Services.

<http://www.ocfs.state.ny.us/main/reports/2004_RHY_AnnRpt.pdf>

To gather data for the annual report, the New York State Office of
Children and Family Services (OCFS) conducted a survey of services of
all programs that serve runaway and homeless youth that are funded or
certified by OCFS, and any other programs in the state that primarily
serve runaway and homeless youth. This report includes information from
166 individual program respondents in 36 counties and New York City.

***State Independent Living Coordinator's Forum: 2003 Report***

In April 2003, 53 people from 33 States, Puerto Rico and the District of
Columbia met to discuss ongoing efforts to implement the John H. Chafee
Foster Care Independence Program. The Chafee Program, which guides the
delivery of independent living services, was created in December 1999
with the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act (FCIA), amending
Section 477 of the Social Security Act. This document summarizes the
findings of the conference, including "victories" and challenges in
providing independent living services. The authors provide a list of
resources used most often, as well as topics of greatest concern. They
also describe State responses to a number of questions: (1) What are
your current policies/practices regarding education and training
assistance with Chafee? (2) What are the anticipated
challenges/strategies for implementing the Education and Training
Voucher component of Chafee? (3) How will you reach out to all eligible
youth? and (4) How can your State document the impact of this new
resource?

*State of the City's Homeless Youth Report.* 2005. New York City
Association of Homeless and Street-Involved Youth Organizations.

[http://www.empirestatecoalition.org/STATE%20OF%20THE%20CITY%20REPORT%202005.pdf](http://www.empirestatecoalition.org/STATE OF THE CITY REPORT 2005.pdf)

The New York City Association of Homeless and Street-Involved Youth
Organizations developed this biannual report to highlight the state of
clinical, social, and population-specific issues affecting the homeless
and street-involved youth living in New York City. After generating a
core list of current topics of concern, association members were asked
to write a review of each issue. Writers defined the issue of concern,
described its current state, noted the current availability of services,
explained gaps in those services, and offered specific recommendations.

***Who Else is Making a Difference for Foster Youth in Transition? Four
Models Worth Watching***. 2001. Author: Mendel D.
<http://www.aecf.org/publications/advocasey/fall2001/pdf/who_else.pdf>

In this four-page article, The author profiles four programs that are
making a difference for foster youth transitioning into independent
lives in the adult world: (1) The Community Transition Services Center
in San Antonio, Texas, serves as a home base for youth who don't have a
home or adults to guide them through the transition period. The center
offers a variety of services, including employment assistance, career
development, community college enrollment, transition housing, and peer
support and advocacy. (2) Lighthouse Youth Services in Cincinnati, Ohio,
has provided transitional housing to young people for more than 10
years. (3) The UPS School-to-Career Partnership, based in Baltimore,
Maryland, represents a partnership between United Parcel Service (UPS),
the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Maryland Department of Human
Resources, and the Living Classrooms Foundation, a local youth agency.
Participants work at UPS part-time and receive wages and health
benefits. Living Classrooms provides transportation to and from work,
and counselors visit participants up to three times each week at the job
site to check on them. UPS also provides tuition reimbursement. (4) The
Connecticut Department of Children and Families provides medical
coverage for current and former foster youth up to age 21, 100 percent
tuition reimbursement for college and vocational training, and continued
financial support up to age 23 for those who remain full-time students.
The State also assigns case workers to each adolescent in foster care to
help in setting goals, as well as helping youth in residential treatment
move into transitional living homes for the 18- to 24-month Preparation
for Adult Living program.

*Youth Who Chronically AWOL from Foster Care: Why They Run, Where They
Go, and What Can Be Done.* 2004. Marni Finkelstein et al. Vera Institute
of Justice.

<http://www.vera.org/publication_pdf/244_460.pdf>

Adolescents who leave foster care without permission face a host of
dangerous situations and place burdens on the institutions that serve
them. The current study drew data from New York City's Administration
for Children's Services Child Care Resource System on a sample of 30
youth who had histories of running away (termed AWOL) repeatedly from
group living situations. Interviews were conducted with these youth, as
well as 17 adult staff members, regarding the reasons for running away,
their experiences while they were away from care without permission, and
how the facilities responded. The results revealed certain trends, such
as the fact that AWOL youth rarely live on the streets during their
absence from care, but rather stay with friends while hiding their AWOL
status. Almost two-thirds of AWOL youth returned to care voluntarily.
One-third encountered no risk while AWOL, one-third experienced moderate
risk, and one-third experienced high levels of risk involving heavy drug
use or violence. Facility staff engaged in different strategies to
respond to AWOLs, including counseling sessions, extended curfews, and
removal of privileges. Recommendations are offered for facility staff,
such as allowing more planned leave time for youth and providing more
activities to reduce down time.

**Other Resources**

*Dependent Youth Aging Out of Foster Care: A Guide for Judges.* 2003.
Jennifer Pokempner and Lourdes M. Rosado. Juvenile Law Center.

<http://www.jlc.org/Resources/pdfs/agingoutjudgesguide.pdf>

This report guides judges in facilitating planning for foster care youth
who are approaching the age when the law of their state requires that
they leave the foster care system. Such planning should ensure that the
youth have the support required to be independent, healthy, and
productive adults. Many youth who leave foster care are not prepared to
live independently because they have not attained the educational level
and/or training to become employed for a living wage; some become
homeless and dependent on public assistance. In outlining questions
judges should ask at permanency review hearings, this report suggests
that judges determine the features of a youth's permanency plan and the
contents of his/her independent living plan. Other questions outlined
for judges regarding foster care youth are the nature of support
services for independent living, features of the discharge plan, reasons
for discharge from foster care, how health care needs will be addressed,
current educational services and achievement, support services for
educational goals, and any disabilities that require special support
services.

*Effective Approaches to Supporting Youth Aging Out of Foster Care: A
Review of Research That Is Currently Underway.* 2004. Voices for
America's Children.

<http://www.voicesforamericaschildren.org/Content/ContentGroups/Policy/Child_Safety/Member_Mailing1/Supporting_Youth_Aging_Out_of_Foster_Care_What_Does_the_Research_Tell_Us_/issue_brief_8-04_c.pdf>

Today, there are more than 500,000 children in the foster care system in
the United States. Each year approximately 20,000 of those children
leave the foster care system and attempt to live independently. This
transition is faced with many challenges requiring intense supports and
services to overcome difficult circumstances. This paper examines
studies conducted on how foster care alumni fare after aging out of the
foster care system and effective approaches used to support youth aging
out of the system. The paper reviews three studies: (1) the Casey
National Alumni Study, which is currently examining the effects of
foster care between 1966 and 1998; (2) the Multi-Site Evaluation of
Foster Youth Programs study, designed to determine the effects of
Independent Living Programs funded under the Chafee Foster Care
Independence Program; and (3) the Midwest Evaluation of the Adult
Functioning of Former Foster Youth: Conditions of Youth Preparing to
Leave State Care, which examined the transition to adulthood of 732
youth aging out of the foster care system in Iowa, Illinois, and
Wisconsin, the types of independent living services they received, and
outcomes related to adult self-sufficiency.

***Examining Differences and Predictors of Family Reunification Among
Subgroups of Runaway Youth Using Shelter Services.*** 2001. Authors:
Thompson, S.J., Safyer, A.W., Pollio, D.E. *Social Work Research*,
25(3), 163-172.

The authors of this article investigated the likelihood of family
reunification among 14,419 youth using runaway shelter services
nationwide. They found that among Whites, African Americans, Hispanics,
Native Americans, and Asians, youth who reported abuse or neglect by
their parental figures or had an unemployed parent or parents were less
likely to reunify following a runaway episode. However, completing youth
shelter services markedly increased the likelihood of reunification. The
authors found that ethnicity had a significant impact. Specifically, a
greater percentage of male African American and Hispanic adolescents run
away and are identified as throwaways or homeless, as opposed to
runaways, compared with other ethnic groups. The authors discuss the
implications of their study for cultural sensitivity in service
delivery, particularly regarding family issues.

*Fundamental Issues to Prevent and End Youth Homelessness.* 2006.
National Alliance to End Homelessness.

<http://www.endhomelessness.org/youth/youth_brief_one.pdf>

This issue brief reviews the key issues surrounding youth homelessness,
including causes and characteristics of homeless youth. It also contains
an introductory explanation of the youth housing continuum, describes a
development model for stable and supportive housing for young adults,
and describes policy implications regarding youth homelessness. The
brief also features the Ten Essentials Your Community Needs to Prevent
and End Youth Homelessness, designed by the National Partnership to End
Youth Homelessness.

*Guides for the Journey: Supporting High-Risk Youth with Paid Mentors
and Counselors.* 2004. Thomas J. Smith. Public/PrivateVentures.

<http://www.ppv.org/ppv/publications/assets/173_publication.pdf>

The author describes the characteristics of the high-risk juvenile
population, which includes foster care children and youth, homeless
children and youth, school dropouts, and youth already in the juvenile
justice system. The paper then assesses the current system of serving
juveniles and its limits. It concludes that even when high-risk
juveniles are identified, few services are available to assist them and
still fewer can assist them for an extended period. The author argues
that the presence of caring and committed adults who are available over
the long term to guide youth through their life experiences can make a
significant difference in the direction of a youth's life. Paid mentors
are trained to befriend and support high-risk youth over an extended
time period (up to 12 years), using proven techniques, social skills,
and services to help high-risk youth resolve their problems
constructively. Volunteer mentors have a role to play in guiding
high-risk youth; however, the most effective mentoring requires a high
degree of patience, acceptance, openness, and perceptiveness that even
the best intentioned volunteer may find difficult to sustain. The
Children's Village Work Appreciation for Youth (WAY) program is profiled
as one of the best documented examples of using paid mentors. WAY
counselors help juveniles who have been in residential treatment centers
make the transition back into the community. The WAY program has proven
its effectiveness, as have other paid mentor-counselor programs such as
Quantum Opportunities and Friends of the Children. The author concludes
that the use of such paid mentor-counselors has proven its worth in
practice and deserves to be replicated.

***Guide to Federal Funding Sources for the Jim Casey Youth
Opportunities Initiative and Other Youth Initiatives.*** 2004. Authors:
Gray, A., Cohen, C.
<http://www.financeproject.org/publications/JCYOIFundingGuide.pdf>

Across the country, a wide range of independent living programs and
youth development initiatives have been established to provide
disadvantaged youth with education and employment assistance, money
management training, and life skills development. The authors of this
report explain that, despite these efforts, many people at the national
and local levels recognize that disadvantaged youth need access to a
broad and extensive array of supports and services in order to achieve
self-sufficiency. Providing these services and activities, the authors
say, will require substantial resource investments. This funding guide
provides policymakers and program developers and implementers with
critical information about the range of Federal funding sources that can
support initiatives that develop and provide services, supports, and
activities for vulnerable and disadvantaged youth.

*Improving Outcomes for Older Youth: What Judges and Attorneys Need to
Know.* 2004. National Resource Center for Youth Development.

<http://www.nrcys.ou.edu/nrcyd/publications/pdfs/improveoutcomes.pdf>

The main goal in producing this guide is to ensure that youth aging out
of foster care are provided with the best resources available to have a
real chance for a successful transition to independence. This guide has
been developed with the understanding that judges and lawyers are
crucial in securing these resources for youth throughout their time in
the child welfare system. This guide provides judges and attorneys with
a basic knowledge of the federal programs that are available to youth
aging out of care and tools to advocate for the best interest of all
youth in foster care. All too often, the legal community's involvement
in the specific services and transition needs of youth aging out of
foster care is limited. Generic advocacy and orders for "independent
living services or classes" can not replace substantive knowledge of
what youth in care need, what they are legally entitled to, and what
services are available to them. Additionally, judges and attorneys may
often ask child welfare caseworkers to provide services that they
themselves do not know about or understand. When the legal community
comprehends the services and programs available to adolescents in foster
care as well as to those youth exiting care, the needs of these youth
will be met with effective intervention.

***Independent Living Program Strategies for the 21st Century:
Developing a Comprehensive Adolescent Independent Living Program Plan**
2003*. Authors: Griffin, W. V., Carter, N.A.

The authors of this 226-page Resource Book include programming ideas,
John Chafee legislation information, and guidelines to move transitional
living programs forward. The authors offer coverage of numerous
independent living (IL) issues. They cover planning, funding, resource
development, involving youth and primary caregivers, evaluation, and
follow up in detail. The authors offer advice for private and public
agency staffs to enhance programming, expand IL program components, and
re-evaluate the effectiveness of existing services. They also factually
present the realities of limited funding, unmotivated staff and youths,
legal and policy implications, as well as methods for overcoming
barriers to programming. The book is written in concise, non-technical
language.

***Independent Living Program Strategies for the 21st Century:
Developing a Comprehensive Adolescent Independent Living Program Plan.**
2005.* Authors: Griffin, W. V., Carter, N. A. Independent Living
Resources, Inc., 411 Andrews Road, Suite 230, Durham, NC 27705;
Telephone: (800) 820-0001, Fax: (919) 384-0338,
\<http://www.ilrinc.com\>

The authors of this publication address the basic issues requiring
resolution in the design of an effective, comprehensive independent
living program. They recommend ways to improve service delivery and
encourage \[WHO?\] to adopt certain policies and practices to improve
conditions immediately in the delivery of independent living services.
The authors also provide strategies for managing adolescent independent
living programs. They cover many aspects of independent living issues,
including planning, funding, resource development, involvement of youth
and primary caregivers, evaluation, and followup. The authors also
suggest ways private and public agency staffs can enhance and expand
programming and reevaluate the effectiveness of existing services. The
publication includes reproducible charts, checklists, surveys, and other
materials.

*Information Packet: Runaway and Homeless Youth.* 2002. A. Jia Son.
Hunter College School of Social Work, National Resource Center for
Foster Care and Permanency Planning.

<http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/downloads/information_packets/homeless_and_runaway_youth-pkt.pdf>

This packet contains information about the homeless and runaway youth
population, including statistics, a review of policies and legislation,
identification of model programs, and a list of resource materials,
including Web sites.

*Legal Rights of Teens in Out-of-Home Care.* 2004. Youth Law Center.

<http://www.ylc.org/TEENS2004.pdf>

The booklet defines out-of-home care and explains how children and youth
get into out-of-home care, who decides whether and when a child returns
to his/her parents, the contents of a case plan, the features of a
transitional independent living plan, and the legal right of a youth to
see his/her case plan. A section on the role of the courts explains the
nature of a juvenile court petition, the kinds of hearings associated
with out-of-home care, and the right of a youth to attend hearings in
which a judge makes decisions about the youth's future. Other issues
discussed in relation to court hearings are legal representation, who
can attend the hearing, and the nature of a "social study." Another
section of the booklet focuses on legal issues related to types of
placements and legal custody of the youth in the course of out-of-home
placement. Also discussed are legal rights of youth in out-of-home
placement with respect to money, religion, driving, immigrant status,
emancipation, complaints, and the youth's rights and responsibilities.

*Moving Youth from Risk to Opportunity: Essay From the 2004 Kids Count
Data Book.* 2004. Annie E. Casey Foundation.

<http://www.aecf.org/publications/data/essay_e.pdf>

Each year approximately 20,000 youth leave foster care at age 18 without
having been adopted or returned to their parents. African American
youth, who are disproportionately represented in foster care, are more
likely to be in residential or group care instead of family foster care,
and they also stay in foster care longer and are least likely to be
reunified with their families. The foster care system must be designed
and maintained to help youth connect to strong families. Youth in the
juvenile justice system, particularly those in custodial facilities, are
at significant risk of failure when they exit the system and move into
young adulthood. They tend to have mental health disorders, drug-use
problems, and poor academic achievement and employment prospects.
Juvenile corrections systems must treat youth fairly and help them
develop the personal resources and skills needed for positive
adjustments in the community. Teen childbearing correlates with a host
of long-term negative life outcomes. Preventive measures must be used to
reduce adolescent pregnancy, and services and resources for teen parents
should involve specialized case management and educational services.
High school dropouts rarely achieve a healthy and satisfying adjustment
in employment, family life, or personal development. Programs to prevent
dropping out of school and provide alternative educational resources for
school dropouts must be developed. This essay provides guidance and
examples of achievement in meeting the needs of youth in these high-risk
subgroups.

***National and Regional Differences Among Runaway Youth Using Federally
Funded Crisis Shelters.*** 2003. Authors: Thompson, S.J., Maguin, E.,
Pollio, D.E. *Journal of Social Service Research*, 30(1), 1-17.
Available for a cost through The Haworth Press Online at,
[www.haworthpress.com](http://www.haworthpress.com/)

This study examines national and regional differences between runaway
shelter users and national census norms on demographic and high-risk
characteristics. Data collected from federally-funded youth shelters
nationwide (n=16,652) were compared with the U.S. adolescent population
(n=26,735,028). Runaway youth were more likely to be female, minority,
and older than respective national figures; ethnicity varied greatly
from one region of the U.S. to another. Proportions of youth with
high-risk characteristics, such as illicit drug use and selling,
suicidal behaviors, and physical and sexual abuse were strikingly
different across regions. The authors conclude that the United States
needs to develop policies and services that target particular issues of
youth in specific regions.

*National Runaway Switchboard Statistics.* 2005. National Runaway
Switchboard.

<http://www.nrscrisisline.org/news_events/call_stats.html>

The National Runaway Switchboard handles more than 100,000 calls
annually, offering assistance to both youth and families. These
statistics are based on more than 102,000 calls handled in 2005. This
resource presents statistics on runaway youth by state.

*Position Statement on Residential Services.* 2005. Child Welfare League
of America.

<http://www.cwla.org/programs/groupcare/rgcpositionstatement.pdf>

To promote better services and outcomes for children, youth, and their
families, the Child Welfare League of America strongly endorses a system
of care that includes residential services as an integral component of
the continuum of services. The original use of "continuum of care" used
least restrictive and most appropriate as the accepted standard. The
continuum included services such as prevention/diversion, family
preservation, counseling, in-home services, day care, day treatment,
foster care, adoption, residential treatment, family reunification,
transitional care, and aftercare. In the last 20 years, however, child
welfare practice has created a linear notion of "continuum of care" as a
case management blueprint governing most decisions. Currently, the child
welfare field widely accepts that the most humane and efficient approach
to allocating services to children and families is to provide those
services from least to most restrictive, as this stepwise intervention
is presumed to cost less and keep families together. This practice has
resulted in residential services being used as the intervention of last
resort, often after multiple failures in other services, rather than as
the most appropriate intervention based on a thorough assessment of the
individual child and family's current needs.

***Promising Practices II: How Foster Parents Can Support the Successful
Transition of Youth*** ***From Foster Care to Self-Sufficiency.***
<http://www.nrcys.ou.edu/yd/resources/publications/pdfs/ppii.pdf>

A followup to the initial project that focuses on an integral player in
helping youth transition. Edmund S. Muskie School of Public Service at
the University of Southern Maine, Casey Family Services, and the
National Resource Center for Youth Services at the University of
Oklahoma have collaborated again to continue their research -- with the
goal of identifying promising practices and tools and creating a source
of information and assistance for foster parents as they work with youth
preparing to live independently.

*Serving Youth Aging Out of Foster Care.* Rachel H. Sherman. 2004.
Welfare Information Network.

<http://www.financeproject.org/Publications/servingyouthagingoutIN.pdf>

More than 500,000 American children live in foster care. The most
current federal data indicate that more than 19,000 youth between the
ages of 18 and 21 "aged out" of the foster care system in 2001 (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). These young people often
leave the foster care system with few resources and little support.
Factors potentially derailing their successful transition to adulthood
include unemployment, incarceration, homelessness, substance abuse,
unwanted pregnancy, limited education, and inadequate health care. These
youth can benefit from opportunities to develop the skills necessary for
independent living and from access to support services that can help
them navigate the transition to adulthood. The population of youth aging
out of foster care is relatively small, but investing in their
transition to independent living can enable them to achieve
self-sufficiency and avoid many of the pitfalls for which they are at
risk. This publication identifies issues and strategies that
policymakers should consider when deciding how to best serve the needs
of youth in their community who are aging out of foster care.

***Short-Term Outcomes for Youths Receiving Runaway Homeless Shelter
Services.** 2002.* Authors: Thompson, S.J., Pollio, D.E., Constantine,
J., Reid, D., Nebbitt, V. *Research on Social Work Practice, 12(5),
589-603.* Available for a cost through Sage Publications,
<http://www.sagepub.com/>

The authors of this article report that few studies have assessed the
outcomes of runaway and homeless youth that seek assistance from shelter
or crisis services. This information, they say, would provide much
needed documentation of intervention effectiveness and point to new
directions for service provision. As a result, the authors sought to:
(1) assess short-term outcomes among runaway and homeless youth using
emergency shelters and crisis services; and (2) compare short-term
outcomes achieved by runaway and homeless youth in crisis shelters with
similar youth using other, longer-term treatment modalities. The authors
sampled 261 youth using runaway and homeless shelters in four Midwestern
States at intake and 6 weeks after discharge and 47 high- risk youth
using longer-term services at intake and 6 weeks after intake. They
assessed 10 key outcome variables and found that every outcome variable
improved after intervention: days on the run, school suspension and/or
detention, and sexual activity decreased; perceived family support and
self-esteem increased; and youth were more likely to be currently
employed and less likely to have been fired. In comparing runaway and
homeless crisis shelter users with day treatment users on the 10 outcome
variables, there were no significant differences across any of the
outcome variables. The authors conclude that, despite limitations, the
research provides evidence for the short-term effectiveness of crisis
shelter services for runaway and homeless youth.

***Standards of Excellence: CWLA Standards of Excellence for Transition,
Independent Living, and Self-Sufficiency Services.*** 2005. Child
Welfare League of America, 440 First Street, N.W., Third Floor,
Washington, D.C. 20001-2085; Telephone: (202) 638-2952, Fax: (202) 638-
4004, E-mail: \<books@cwla.org\>,
[http://www.cwla.org](http://www.cwla.org/)

The authors present the Child Welfare League of America's Standards for
Independent-Living Services, which emphasize the idea that an agency's
approach to working with young people must integrate a comprehensive
long-term plan that includes the activities necessary to prepare an
adolescent for eventual self-sufficiency. The standards provide the
framework for the successful planning, delivery, coordination, and
development of family, community, and agency resources toward the goal
of helping young people become independent.

*Success Despite Barriers: Innovative Housing Options for Homeless Young
Adults.* 2005. Kelly Agnese, Kate Golden, and Jen Tyson. Tufts
University Department of Urban and Environmental Policy and Planning*.*

<http://ase.tufts.edu/uep/academics/field_project_reports/7-sucess_despite_barriers.pdf>

This report highlights some of the most contemporary innovations being
used to secure stable housing for homeless young adults ages 18--24
after they complete transitional living programs (TLPs). The information
about stable housing services comes from a literature review and a
series of interviews with the directors of five agencies and one expert
in the field. The six interviewees were chosen by the New England
Network for Child, Youth and Family Services, which conducted
preliminary background research to determine the agencies' leadership in
the field of post-TLP housing development.

*Unlocking the Potential of Homeless Older Adolescents: Factors
Influencing Client Success in Four New England Transitional Living
Programs.* Megan Bartlett et al. 2004. New England Network for Child,
Youth, and Family Services.
<http://www.nenetwork.org/publications/TLPReport_Unlocking_final.pdf>

This report investigates factors contributing to the effectiveness of
four federally funded transitional living programs (TLPs) in New
England. The project was led by New England Network for Child, Youth and
Family Services, a regional provider of training and technical
assistance to TLPs, and conducted in early 2004 by a team of graduate
students from Tufts University. The report is meant to complement the
federal government's ongoing effort to understand TLP outcomes by
offering the views and perspectives of the service providers themselves.
In most cases, these providers are uniquely positioned to identify the
many local and programmatic issues that work for and against positive
client outcomes, and thus their views are indispensable to any
discussion of the effectiveness of TLPs in general and their own in
particular.

*Youth Villages: Transitional Living.* 2005. Youth Villages.
<http://www.youthvillages.org/PDF/TLoutcome12-2005.pdf>

In 1999, Youth Villages, through a grant from The Day Foundation, began
a Transitional Living Program to help youth aging out of state custody
get a good start on adulthood in the crucial years between age 18 and
21. This final report for the year 2005 provides information about the
number of young adults in the program, their demographic backgrounds,
and outcome data.

***Youth Transitioning From Foster Care: A Partnership for Success.***
<http://www.nrcys.ou.edu/yd/programs/ilcurriculums/downloads/kansaspyd.pdf>

Based on a set of competencies developed by current and former foster
youth, this curriculum helps improve services to youth aging out of
foster care using a Positive Youth Development approach to training
child welfare professionals, foster parents, and school personnel in a
State that is privatized. The curriculum contains information related to
Federal and State policies and procedures, barriers to youth
transitioning from care, relationship permanency, and effective
transitional planning and practices. It includes a series of videos in
which current and former foster youth share their experiences.

### Resources Available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) Library 

The following documents are available from the NCJRS Library at
<http://www.ncjrs.gov/abstractdb/search.asp>. See the "Obtaining
Documents" section at <http://www.ncjrs.gov/tutorial/obtain.html> for
instructions on how to acquire publications.

Arrests Among Homeless and Runaway Youths: The Effects of Race and
Gender. 2005. Kevin A. Yoder, Ed A. Munoz, Les B. Whitbeck, Dan R. Hoyt,
and Barbara J. McMorris. *Journal of Crime and Justice* 28(1): 35--58.
NCJ 210265.

It was hypothesized that race and gender would interact, such that the
likelihood of a first arrest for a more serious offense would be highest
for non-white males and non-white females. The Midwest Homeless and
Runaway Adolescent Project, from which data were obtained for this
study, was a cross-sectional study of 602 homeless and runaway youth in
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. The youth were interviewed on the
streets, in shelters, and in drop-in centers by outreach workers. Of the
youth, 60 percent were female; 60.1 percent identified themselves as
white, 24.1 percent as African American, 3.3 percent as Hispanic, 1.5
percent as Native American, and 10 percent as other. Their average age
was 16.27 years. They were asked about the dates and types of offenses
committed for their first arrest and for their four most recent arrests.
Independent variables fell under the categories of deviant subsistence
strategies, substance use, gang participation, prior arrests, age, prior
physical abuse, age when leaving home, time on the street, and race. The
findings show that non-whites were more likely than whites and males
were more likely than females to be arrested for a more serious offense.
White females were more likely than non-white females to be arrested for
a less serious offense.

Assessment of Alcohol and Other Drug Use by Runaway Youths: A
Test-Retest Study of the Form 90. 2004. Natasha Slesnick and J. Scott
Tonigan. *Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly* 22(2): 21--34. NCJ 206670.

The Form 90 combines the strengths of the daily calendar approach to
reconstruct substance use with a weekly-grid procedure in order to
expedite the interview process. Form 90 has already demonstrated
excellent test-retest reliability with adult alcohol abusers seeking
treatment. For the current study, runaway youth (*n* = 37) were
recruited through two runaway/homeless shelters in a southwestern U.S.
city as part of two larger studies examining family therapy outcome with
substance-abusing runaway adolescents. All of the youth in the sample
agreed to the possibility of family treatment with a parent or surrogate
parent. Eligibility for participation required that each adolescent
satisfy DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for substance abuse or dependence, be
between the ages of 12 and 17, and live within a 60-mile radius of the
research site. Forty-six percent of the youth met criteria for alcohol
and drug abuse/dependence combined. Equally important, homeless youth in
the sample had substantially less social structure and stability than
typical substance-using adolescents. Thus, the reconstruction of daily
substance use and health care activities was especially challenging for
this group compared to most adolescents. Still, most measures collected
using the Form 90 were reliable in this test-retest exercise.
Adolescents were reasonably consistent in reporting the use of global
and specific substances through the daily calendar approach. Compared
with global drug use, however, less consistency was obtained among
measures of specific drug use. On one hand, adolescents in the sample
were reasonably consistent in reporting the frequency of alcohol and
cocaine use for the prior 90 days. Less agreement was obtained for the
frequency of marijuana use. Thus, Form 90 may not be a reliable measure
for marijuana use, at least for homeless adolescents.

Compendium of Critical Issues and Innovative Approaches in Youth
Services. 1998. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Administration for Children and Families, Family and Youth Services
Bureau. NCJ 176152.

The first section of the report offers background information on the
evolution of federal policy regarding runaway and homeless youth, the
circumstances of youth on the street, and the Family and Youth Services
Bureau's (FYSB's) youth development approach. The second part describes
the designs and outcomes of two FYSB-funded research and demonstration
projects and FYSB's Transitional Living Program, Community Schools Youth
Services and Supervision Grant Program and Street Outreach Program. The
third part includes articles addressing key issues and opportunities
affecting services to young people in the 1990s: responding to the new
managed care environment, marketing youth service programs in an age of
greater accountability and fewer resources, and working with the media
to promote improvements in youth policy.

Deviant Behavior and Victimization Among Homeless and Runaway
Adolescents. 2001. Les B. Whitbeck, Dan R. Hoyt, Kevin A. Yoder, Ana
Mari Cauce, and Matt Paradise. *Journal of Interpersonal
Violence*16(11): 1175--1204. NCJ 209238.

Runaway and homeless adolescents are prone to having both a history of
abuse and engagement in deviant behaviors, theoretically raising their
risk of victimization above what would be expected among adolescents
without these challenges. The current study examined the effects of
caregiver abuse and reliance on deviant subsistence strategies among a
sample of 974 homeless and runaway adolescents drawn from multiple sites
in Seattle and across the Midwest. Interview and questionnaire data
probed the use of sexual and nonsexual deviant subsistence strategies,
history of family abuse, sexual orientation, background variables such
as age at first runaway, history of drug and alcohol use, social support
networks, affiliation with deviant peers, and physical and sexual
victimization experiences. Results of statistical analyses indicated
that engagement in nonsexual deviant subsistence strategies increased
the likelihood of victimization by more than two times and engagement in
sexual deviant subsistence strategies increased the likelihood of sexual
victimization by almost four times. These results remained significant
after controlling for history of abuse, street behaviors, sexual
orientation, and informal support systems. Life course developmental
theories and lifestyle exposure theories are used to interpret the
findings. Implications for intervention include the need for safe places
for homeless adolescents and the need for the criminal justice system to
recognize this population as victims, not just perpetrators.

Early Sexual Abuse, Street Adversity, and Drug Use Among Female Homeless
and Runaway Adolescents in the Midwest. 2004. Xiaojin Chen, Kimberly A.
Tyler, Les B. Whitbeck, and Dan R. Hoyt. *Journal of Drug Issues* 34(1):
1--22. NCJ 205181.

The study proposes a risk-amplification model to examine the negative
effects of early sexual abuse on illicit drug use on the street among
female homeless and runaway adolescents. This model suggests that
homeless adolescents have their "basic training" in coercive/abusive
families and will carry this interaction pattern into the street,
thereby setting in motion a negative chain of events. Sexual abuse that
the subjects had experienced while living at home was measured with
Whitbeck and Simon's early sexual abuse scale. Most early sexual abuse
was found to have occurred when the child was age 8--12 years. The
average age for running away from home was 13.55. Consistent with
previous research, this study found high rates of drug use, especially
marijuana use, among the sample. The negative effects of early sexual
abuse on later drug use were supported. Although the prevalence of drug
use was similar between female adolescents with and without sexual abuse
histories, those with sexual abuse histories were more likely to be
multiple drug users. Cocaine was more likely to be used by sexually
abused women. Early sexual abuse directly increased the probability of
running away at an earlier age and spending more time on the streets. A
direct effect was also found between early sexual abuse and risky sexual
activities. Adverse environments and a lack of resources forced the
youth to connect with others similar to themselves, and they cooperated
in reinforcing deviant subsistence strategies, including drug use.

Effects of a High-Risk Environment on the Sexual Victimization of
Homeless and Runaway Youth. 2001. Kimberly A. Tyler, Dan R. Hoyt, Les B.
Whitbeck, and Ana Mari Cauce. *Violence and Victims* 16(4): 441--455.
NCJ 189970.

Based on the structural-choice theory of victimization, the study
examined the effects of a high-risk environment on the sexual
victimization of 311 homeless and runaway youth. Data were from the
Seattle Homeless Adolescent Research and Education Project, and involved
interviews with 372 youth. Logistic regression disclosed that survival
sex, gender, and physical appearance were significantly associated with
sexual victimization. The study also found that the effects of deviant
behaviors on sexual victimization varied by gender and age. Although
males and females engaged in similar activities, young women were more
likely to be victims of sexual assault. These findings suggested that
engaging in high-risk behaviors predisposed some people to greater
risks, but it was the combination of these behaviors with gender and/or
age that determined who would be victimized. The study suggested the
need for further research on the link between physical appearance and
sexual victimization. It also suggested research into whether the
findings of this study were unique to homeless populations or could
apply to other populations such as college students.

Evaluation of Threshold: An Independent Living Program for Homeless
Adolescents. 1991. D.D. Schram and M.A. Giovengo. *Journal of Adolescent
Health* 12(7): 567--572. NCJ 136719.

The project had three phases: (1) initial stabilization period in which
clients were evaluated for commitment and motivation, (2)
semi-independent living status, and (3) move to independent foster
homes. During the first 2 years of the project, 24 female clients were
served. Many of these young women shared similar developmental histories
marked by parental abuse and neglect, alienation, multiple out-of-home
placements, school suspension, runaway behavior, prostitution
involvement, and substance abuse. The typical client was a white female
with a median age of 17.8 years who had been placed out of home for a
period of 2 or more years prior to project entry. Most clients responded
well to project requirements, including the expectation that they
maintain employment and participate in educational programs during the
semi-independent living phase. A followup assessment undertaken after
clients left the project indicated that 42 percent of the young women
met all success criteria (i.e., they lived independently or in stable
situations, attended school and/or were employed, had not engaged in
prostitution or other offense behavior, and did not abuse alcohol or
other substances). Two variables appeared to be associated with positive
outcomes, absence of involvement with juvenile court and less than 12
months of involvement in street life.

Examining Risk Factors Associated with Family Reunification for Runaway
Youth: Does Ethnicity Matter? 2003. Sanna J. Thompson, Kathleen A. Kost,
and David E. Pollio. *Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of
Applied Family Studies* 52(3): 296--304. NCJ 203593.

Although recent research has examined family reunification for runaway
youth, little empirical research has focused specifically on ethnic
differences associated with reunification. In order to probe whether
ethnicity impacts family reunification, data on 14,419 youth from the
1997 Runaway/Homeless Youth Management Information System were analyzed.
The dataset designated ethnicity as white, African American, Native
American, Asian, and Hispanic. Independent variables included youth
demographics, youth characteristics, and family characteristics. Results
of chi-square, ANOVA, and multiple regression analyses revealed
significant differences across the ethnic groups. African American and
Hispanic youth were significantly different from white youth in terms of
reunification, with white youth being the least likely to return home.
Native American and Asian youth were not significantly different from
white youth on reunification. Across all ethnic groups, youth who were
abused or who had unemployed parents were less likely to return home
than their nonabused counterparts. Despite these challenges to
reunification, youth who completed shelter services were more likely to
return home than those who did not. The results indicate that shelters
must consider the ethnic backgrounds of youth and offer culturally
sensitive programming to improve family reunification outcomes among
high-risk adolescents.

Family Functioning, Substance Use and Related Problem Behaviors:
Hispanic versus Anglo Runaway Youths. 2002. Natasha Slesnick, Christina
Vasquez, and Joyce Bittinger. *Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse*
1(4): 83--101. NCJ 200627.

The investigators expected that Hispanic runaway youth in both single
and two-parent families would report less drug and alcohol use, greater
family connection, and fewer related problem behaviors than would Anglo
youth. Researchers recruited 145 runaway youth through 2
runaway/homeless shelters in a southwestern city. Family functioning and
substance use were assessed using interview and self-report methods. The
hypotheses were partially supported. Several ethnicity differences were
found, but few differences were found between single and two-parent
families. Overall, Hispanic youth reported more depression on the Beck
Depression Inventory and less externalizing problems on the Youth
Self-Report than did Anglo youth, supporting previous research that
Hispanic youth engage in fewer delinquent activities than do Anglo
youth. This may be due to Hispanic parents' being more restrictive and
using more authoritarian means to control their children.

Gang Involvement and Membership Among Homeless and Runaway Youth. 2003.
Kevin A. Yoder, Les B. Whitbeck, and Dan R. Hoyt. *Youth and Society*
34(4): 441--467. NCJ 200346.

The study compared current gang members, gang-involved youth that were
not currently members, and nongang youth on several dimensions,
including sociodemographic characteristics, family background, school
experiences, street experiences and exposure, emotional problems, and
delinquency. Empirical models of gang delinquency were tested. It was
hypothesized that the selection model would operate for the
sociodemographic characteristics, family background, school experiences,
street experience and exposure, and emotional problems; and the
facilitation model would operate for delinquency. The first hypothesis
suggests that gang members and gang-involved youth would differ from
nongang youth and that gang members and gang-involved youth would not
differ from one another. The second hypothesis suggests that gang
members would engage in more delinquent behaviors than would
gang-involved youth that would, in turn, engage in more delinquent
behaviors than would nongang youth. More than 600 homeless and runaway
adolescents in 4 midwestern states were interviewed on the streets, in
shelters, and in drop-in centers. Some evidence was found for the
selection model in the following variables: family legal problems,
having been suspended from school, age first on their own, deviant
peers, and having made a suicide attempt. Evidence was found for the
facilitation model for the externalizing behaviors scale and arrest
record. There was no evidence found for the facilitation model for
substance use, although the results supported the selection effects
model. Youth gang members engaged in more deviant subsistence strategies
than did noninvolved or involved youth.

Gender and Arrest Among Homeless and Runaway Youth: An Analysis of
Background, Family, and Situational Factors. 2004. Constance L. Chapple,
Kurt D. Johnson, and Les B. Whitbeck. *Youth Violence and Juvenile
Justice* 2(2): 129--147. NCJ 205721.

Research is limited regarding the predictors of arrest among homeless
and runaway youth. It is also unclear whether the same factors leading
to running away from home and criminal activity while on the street are
associated with arrests for homeless and runaway youth. In addition, it
is unclear whether the factors associated with arrest for homeless and
runaway youth differ by gender. This study asked two questions: (1) Are
the predictors of arrest among homeless and runaway youth similar to the
predictors of self-reported offending? (2) Do these predictors differ by
gender? A bivariate analysis of variance on key variables by gender was
conducted to investigate whether the number of arrests, familial
factors, and street exposure factors differed by gender. Research
findings found general support for the idea that the factors associated
with self-reported offending are similar to the factors associated with
arrest for homeless and runaway youth, with one exception: length of
time on the street. It was found that youth who were arrested prior to
running away reported more arrests. The research reinforces past
research on the importance of deviant peers in the crime and arrest
nexus. Association with deviant peers strongly influenced boys' arrests.
Boys were more likely than girls to be arrested, especially if they had
been arrested prior to running away and if they associated with deviant
peers.

Guidelines and Curriculum for Handling Missing Person and Runaway Cases
2000. 2000. California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and
Training. NCJ 207011.

The material presented reflects the provisions of California laws
pertinent to missing and runaway persons that became effective in 2000.
There are four significant changes that reflect new legislative
mandates: (1) Local police and sheriff's departments must broadcast a
missing person bulletin without delay if the missing person is under 16
years old (formerly 12 years old). (2) State requirements regarding the
handling of missing persons are operative unless the governing body of
the local agency adopts a resolution that expressly makes state
requirements inoperative. (3) Agencies responsible for the investigation
of a missing child must inform the school district, other local
educational agency, or private school in which the child is enrolled
that the child is missing. (4) Local law enforcement agencies are
authorized to establish a process for informing schools about abducted
children. Eight of the guidelines for handling missing person and
runaway cases pertain to the initial response, and three guidelines
govern the conduct of the followup investigation. The outline for the
training course encompasses the following topics: benefits of law
enforcement involvement and sensitivity, initial response procedures,
locating missing persons, and legal requirements for initial response
and followup. Appendixes contain missing person classifications, a list
of resource agencies and organizations, sample forms, and relevant
legislation.

HIV Risk Behavior of Runaway Youth in San Francisco: Age of Onset and
Relation to Sexual Orientation. 2000. Martha W. Moon et al. *Youth and
Society* 32(2): 184--201. NCJ 186392.

The study was part of a national HIV surveillance project coordinated by
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The target population
for the San Francisco portion of the study included homeless and runaway
adolescents and young adults who sought health care at the Cole Street
Clinic and the Larkin Street Youth Center. During the study period,
1,033 clients were approached to participate and were screened for
eligibility; 847 young people met eligibility criteria, and 334 of
eligible clients consented to participate, provided blood specimens, and
completed interviews. Findings revealed gay, lesbian, and bisexual young
people reported higher levels and earlier onset of sexual and drug-using
behavior compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Further, gay,
lesbian, and bisexual young people were at exceptionally high risk for
HIV infection. Although gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants were
older than heterosexual participants, an examination of the age at onset
indicated risk behaviors began earlier and achieved higher levels for
all ages. Of the participants, 27 percent of males and 17 percent of
females described themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, a higher
proportion than expected in the general population. The authors conclude
that HIV and drug use health education messages should explicitly
address sexual orientation by or before age 10 to achieve the greatest
chance of influencing risk behaviors before they become well
established.

Life Skill Service Needs: Perspectives of Homeless Youth. 2004. Ann
Aviles and Christine Helfrich. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence* 33(4):
331--338. NCJ 206883.

The following questions were answered in the study: What needs are
identified by homeless youth? What services do youth use and find
helpful? What are barriers to accessing services? The setting for the
study was the New Opportunities Shelter (NOS), an emergency-housing
program for homeless youth ages 14 through 21 who are not wards of the
state, including pregnant and parenting youth and their children. NOS
provides beds for 10 females, 6 males, and 5 children, serving 200 youth
per year. Residents can stay for up to 120 days, with an average length
of stay of 90 days. NOS provides a case worker to develop an individual
plan to assist residents in next-step housing and self-sufficiency by
addressing issues of schooling, job training, job searching, medical
care, prenatal care, mental health services, substance abuse services,
and family reunification. The data indicate that the types of services
adolescents desired varied according to their past experience and
current circumstances. Many youth required basic needs such as food and
shelter as a starting point for creating a stable environment. Although
many services for youth exist, lack of trust combined with limited
access to case managers discouraged youth from actively seeking needed
services such as transportation, education, and employment. Service
delivery and staff approach to working with homeless youth were
identified as key factors in homeless adolescents' recognition and use
of services. Implications of these findings are drawn for service
providers as they plan and implement services for homeless youth.

Office Versus Home-Based Family Therapy for Runaway, Alcohol Abusing
Adolescents: Examination of Factors Associated With Treatment
Attendance. 2004. Natasha Slesnick and Jillian L. Prestopnik.
*Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly* 22(2): 3--19. NCJ 206669.

The study compared attendance at a traditional office-based family
systems approach, Functional Family Therapy (FFT), and attendance at a
nontraditional, home-based, multisystemic family therapy approach,
Ecologically Based Family Therapy (EBFT). FFT is based in a family
systems concept. Similar to other systems models, FFT views problems
with alcohol and drugs as behaviors that occur in the context of and
have meaning for family relationships. EBFT is based in the perspective
that substance use and other related problem behaviors usually derive
from many sources of influence and occur in the context of multiple
systems. It views behavioral problems as rooted in and maintained by
problematic transactions within any given system or between some
combinations of pertinent systems. The current study hypothesized that
treatment engagement and overall attendance would be significantly
higher for families assigned to the home-based intervention. The youth
were recruited from two runaway shelters in a large southwestern U.S.
city. The sample consisted of 76 adolescents (31 males and 46 females).
The number of male and female adolescents included in each type of
treatment were the same. The average age of the adolescents was 15
years. Treatment was provided by four therapists trained in the family
therapy interventions. The assessment included interviews and
self-report questionnaires. As expected, treatment engagement and
attendance was significantly higher for those assigned to the home-based
EBFT (*n* = 37) compared to office-based FFT (*n* = 40). Predictors of
treatment attendance (income, family chaos, externalization problems,
and level of youth substance use) were examined within each treatment
modality. The findings indicate that home-based treatment modalities may
significantly increase treatment attendance and engagement of runaway
youth and their families compared to office-based treatment. Overall,
the findings suggest that nontraditional forms of treatment that
accommodate their structure and techniques to the needs of highly
chaotic and disorganized family systems will be more effective than
traditional treatment structures with logistics that impede attendance
and engagement.

Psychosocial and Behavioral Problems in Relation to Recent Experience as
a Runaway Among Adolescent Detainees. 2001. J.B. Kingree, Ronald
Braithwaite, and Tammy Woodring. *Criminal Justice and Behavior* 28(2):
190--205. NCJ 187419.

The study sample included 176 males and 132 females who were recruited
from two youth detention centers and were interviewed approximately 30
days after being initially detained. Recent experience as a runaway was
common, especially among females and Caucasians. Detainees who had
recently run away reported more psychosocial and behavioral problems
than did those who had not recently run away. The study suggests the
need for future research on the nature of links between running away and
the various problems common among detainees and other youth with this
experience. Because traumatic experiences, psychological distress,
substance abuse, and risky sexual behavior could be either precipitants
or consequences of running away, vulnerable youth should be followed
over an extended period of time to illuminate temporal relations among
these variables. Data from prospective studies can assist policymakers
in allocating resources to serve this population.

Relationship Between Service Utilization and Runaway Youths' Alcohol and
Other Drug Use. 2005. Natasha Slesnick, Melissa Meade, and J. Scott
Tonigan. *Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly* 19(3): 19--29. NCJ 193618.

Runaway youth were recruited through two runaway/homeless shelters in a
southwestern city. The youth assessment included interviews and
self-report questionnaires. Overall, alcohol use was differentially
associated with use of services, although illicit drug use was not.
Attendance at 12-step meetings predicted more alcohol use, while
attendance at psychological counseling sessions as well as medical
visits predicted less alcohol use. Many youth in this study engaged in
help-seeking behaviors, which included behavior change interventions and
medical services.

Risk Factors for Cigarette, Alcohol, and Marijuana Use Among Runaway
Youth Utilizing Two Services Sectors. 2005. Sanna J. Thompson, Kimberley
M. Zittel-Palamara, and Gregory Forehand. *Journal of Child and
Adolescent Substance Abuse* 15(1): 17--36. NCJ 213141.

In examining youth admitted to juvenile detention centers and emergency
crisis shelters, this study found that youth admitted to juvenile
detention had proportionally higher levels of problem behaviors, such as
substance use, than youth admitted to shelter services. However, both
groups of youth had significantly higher levels of substance use than
national estimates. The most important risk factor for alcohol and
marijuana use in both groups was the use of other substances. The study
examined the risk factors in cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use for
runaway youth using runaway shelter services and youth admitted to
juvenile detention. Specifically, it sought to determine to what extent
demographic and individual characteristics were different between
runaway youth using shelter services and those admitted to juvenile
detention; what demographic, individual characteristics, and family
factors predicted cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use or nonuse; and
what factors predicted the level of cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana
use among these groups of runaway youth. The study sample consisted of
121 youth from juvenile detention and 156 youth from emergency shelter
facilities.

Runaways: Life on the Run, Life on the Streets. 2001. Peter Slavin.
*Children's Voice* 10(4): 8--10, 12--14. NCJ 189983.

Homeless youth are generally defined to include runaway, "throwaway,"
and "street" youth. Runaways are youth under age 18 away from home at
least one night without permission of parents, guardians, or custodial
authorities. Throwaways have been told or forced to leave home or
deserted by parents or guardians. Street youth manage to live for an
extended time on the streets; many are long-term runaway or throwaway
children. A large number of runaways and homeless youth appear to be
present or former children in foster care. The article briefly describes
special efforts to assist them. The article discusses reasons why young
people leave home, including family conflict and physical, sexual, and
psychological abuse. It examines efforts to help homeless youth in
Tucson, Arizona, where as many as 200 youngsters live on the streets in
mid-winter. The article also describes other cities' efforts to prevent
runaways and to provide services to homeless young people. Those
services include street outreach workers and walk-in centers that
provide short-term shelter, food, clothing, medical assistance, and
counseling.

Substance Abuse Disorders Among Homeless and Runaway Adolescents. 2005.
Kurt D. Johnson, Les B. Whitbeck, and Dan R. Hoyt. *Journal of Drug
Issues* 35(4): 799--816. NCJ 212711.

Data were obtained from baseline interviews in a longitudinal diagnostic
study of 428 (187 males and 241 females) homeless and runaway
adolescents ages 16 to 19. Interviews were conducted on the streets and
in shelters in eight midwestern cities of various population sizes.
Lifetime criteria for at least one of three substance disorders (alcohol
abuse, alcohol dependence, and drug abuse) were met by 60.5 percent of
the runaways, and 48.1 percent met 12-month criteria for at least one of
the disorders. Ninety-three percent of the juveniles who met criteria
for a substance disorder met criteria for at least one other mental
disorder. The factors most predictive of meeting lifetime criteria for
substance abuse included parenting practices, experience of abuse, and
association with deviant peers. These findings suggest that a clinician
working with a runaway or homeless adolescent is very likely to
encounter substance abuse problems, and these will tend to co-occur with
other mental disorders. Also, nearly 50 percent of the youth in the
sample reported having a caretaker who had received treatment for a
substance abuse disorder. This finding supports previous research that
has linked family factors to substance abuse disorders. This suggests
the importance of early intervention with youth who are or have been in
the care of substance abusers. The influence of deviant peer
affiliations was also significant in substance abuse disorders and
should be targeted for early intervention.

Transitional Living Programs for Homeless Adolescents. 1993. S.V. Jarvis
and R.M. Robertson. Georgetown University, Child Development Center. NCJ
144004.

The authors note that, although there is no ideal model for providing
transitional living services to homeless adolescents, such programs have
several basic elements: program structure, physical setting, geographic
context, cultural aspects, theoretical/clinical base, service linkages,
and training. These elements are discussed in detail. The main body of
this monograph focuses on transitional programming for subgroups of
homeless youth whose emotional, medical, or life situations present
unique obstacles to their successful transition to independent living.
These subgroups include the developmentally delayed, those infected with
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and pregnant and parenting
adolescents. Separate chapters discuss the special needs of each of
these groups, identify the particular transitional services each should
receive, and discuss issues of program planning and staffing.