BEE-spoke-data/bees-v0 huggingface dataset:
Here the operations of man and bees completely met; the works which they had established at the entrance of their habitations were of varied forms; here, as I have just mentioned, was a single wall, whose openings were in arcades disposed in the higher part of the masonry; there several bulwarks behind each other recalled the bastions of our citadels; passages, masked by walls in front, opened upon the faces of the second row and did not correspond with the openings of the first; sometimes a series of intersecting arcades gave free egress to the bees, without permitting the entrance of their enemies; for these fortifications were massive, their substance being firm and solid.
The bees did not construct those casematated gates, without urgent neces
the piping of the queens in captivity, which has the faculty of suspending the vigilance of the workers, explain the disorder observed in their hive on the approach of the sphinx? This is only a conjecture, founded on the analogy of sounds, to which I attach no importance. However, should the sphinx raise this piecing cry during its assaults, and should the bees then yield to it without resistance, this conjecture would acquire some weight.
Mr. de Reaumur attributed the sound produced by the death's head sphinx to the friction of the trunk against its sheaths, but we have ascertained that this takes place without the use of the trunk. Though many naturalists have sought its source, nothing satisfactory is yet known on the subject. It appears certain that the sphinx emits this sound at will, and particularly when affected by the apprehension of some danger.
The introduction of so large and so tangible a lepidopter as the sphinx atropos in a well populated hive, and the extraordinary consequences thence resulting, are phenomena the more difficult to explain, that the organization of this insect offers no indication of its being screened from the stings of bees.
We should have desired to observe this singular contest in our glass hives, but no opportunity has hitherto presented. However, to solve some of my doubts, I made a few experiments on the manner in which the sphinx is received in the nest of bumblebees.
I secured some atropos of the largest size, I introduced them at nightfall into a glass box, where I had established a nest of small bumblebees (muscorum).
The first that I brought to them did not appear to be affected by the odor of the honey, of which their cells were full; it first remained quiet in a corner of the box; but as it approached the nest and its inhabitants, it soon became the object, not of the dread, but of the wrath of the workers, they assailed it successively with fury, and gave it many stings; it sought to escape and ran with speed; at last, by a violent motion, it pushed away the glass which covered the apparatus and succeeded in escaping. It appeared to suffer but little of its wounds, remained quiet all night, and was still wonderfully well several days after.
I was unwilling to repeat this cruel experiment; captivity or some other circumstance evidently reduced this insect to too great a disadvantage to the bumblebees. Yet, after this attempt, it became still more difficult for me to conceive how it could introduce itself into the hives of common bees, whose stings are so much more dangerous, as well as their numbers incomparably greater. Was the light of the torch an obstacle to the development of the sphinx's means of attack? Possibly the success of its enterprises results from the faculty of seeing during the night, as with other moths of the same genus.
Another fruitless experiment was that of offering honey to these insects: I left two sphinxes beside a comb for a whole week, without their touching it: we vainly unfolded their probocels, dipped it in the honey; this experiment, which succeeded perfectly with day butterflies, had no success with the sphinx atropos.
I might have entertained doubts of their fondness for this food, had I
When man takes possession of animals, he destroys in some measure the equilibrium which natural circumstances establish between rival species, and more or less diminishes their energy or vigilance; it is only by studying the peculiarities of their instinct that he may recognize certain features which subjection has lessened, which their new position has made less common, and in his turn he should partly compensate the advantages of which they have been deprived: he must do still more, if he wishes to augment their products, since he has to contend with nature which assigns limits to the multiplication of individuals; but this art demands a very profound knowledge of the wants of the creatures subjected to his dominion, and of the resources which providence has placed within their reach; for it is from them alone that we shall learn the art of governing them.
(The next chapter is the one entrusted to Graham-Burtt "On the respiration of bees.")
_On the Respiration of Bees._"
The air, though in time it destroys all, has nevertheless a healthful influence on living organisms. Even plants absorb it in their own way, and, like animals, owe to it the vital force of their existence. To all that has life it is an indispensable element; is the bee an exception to this universal law?
It is well known that all animals from the quadruped to the molluse decompose the air, combining its respirable part with the carbon which is so abundant in nature, and breathing it out in the new form which it has received while in the lungs or gills: and that the heat necessary to life is generated by this process of combustion.
These laws are so widespread that they would not seem to admit of any exception. However one set of circumstances, as yet unconsidered, seem irreconcillable with them.
If a colony of insects could continue to live successfully and without any inconvenience to their well being, in an enclosed space, where air could only circulate with great difficulty, the scientist would be confronted with a new problem.
Now this is precisely the strange condition presented by bees. Their hive, the dimensions of which do not exceed one or two cubic feet, contains a multitude of individuals all living, active and industrious.
The entrance, always very small, and often obstructed by the crowd of bees which come and go during the laborious days of summer, is the only opening by which air can be introduced, yet it suffices for their needs. Moreover the hive, coated on the inside with wax and propolis by the bees themselves, and on the outside plastered with lime by the care of their owner, does not furnish any of the conditions necessary for the establishment of a natural current of air. Public halls offer, in proportion, far less obstruction to ventilation than a hive of bees, for air cannot circulate in a place which possesses only a single opening, and this moreover not favorably situated for the purpose. The following experiment will show that even
? It may add to the interest of the following chapter to recall the fact that Huber lived during the period when the foundations of modern scientific knowledge were being laid. Lavoisler in France, Priestley in England, and Scheele in Sweden had, within his life time, made their discoveries as to the nature of the atmosphere, the laws governing combustion and their applica- tion to living beings. Thus though his work on this subject may seem elementary to us in reality he was amongst the most advanced scientists of his age and was applying the newly discovered laws to his own particular hoSby.
were the opening much larger, the air would not penetrate from the outside except by artificial means.
Talce a box or bell-glass of the size of a hive and place it, with the opening at the bottom, on a board in which is cut a groove wider than a hive entrance. Introduce under this glass a lighted candle. In a few minutes the flame will flicker, become bluish, and die out. Air does not enter the vessel fast enough to sustain combustion, since there is no means of setting up a through current. The effect on any living things shut up in large numbers in such a glass would be analogous to that on the lighted candle.
Why then is not the same result shown in a hive inhabited by bees? Why do they not perish, when a candle flame cannot continue to burn? Are they so unlike all else in nature? Do they breathe differently from other animals, or do they not breathe at all?
I could not admit a deduction so opposed to general laws. I therefore wished to find out if these questions appeared of equal interest to persons more enlightened than myself.
I first put the problem to Mr. Charles Bonnet, who, struck by its singularity, warmly encouraged me to investigate it. But his death having unfortunately deprived me of the satisfaction which I found in sending him my results, I approached an eminent scientist whose approval was alone sufficient to incite me to new efforts. M. de Saussure listened with interest to the details of my experiments, and his conversation gave me greater confidence and eagerness to continue the work which I had undertaken.
But, inexperienced as I was in the analysis of gases, I should have had difficulty in attaining my end if I had not been aided, as I have said elsewhere, by M. Senebler, who kindly took an active part in my experiments, and gave a part of his time to the actual scientific tests which my investigations needed. M. Senebler as the colleague of Spallanzani, who was researching on the breathing of insects,'s had the advantage which I had not of knowing the similarity which was shown between his records and mine.
The Professor of Pavia, with the ingenuity for which he is distinguished, investigated the breathing of insects and reptiles, compared the results, examined the influence which the life and even the death of these animals had on the composition of the atmosphere, and observed them in a state of suspended animation as in sleep, etc., etc.
All his work went to prove that insects breathe, that they corrupt the atmosphere (of which they consume more in proportion than other animals), and that their bodies after death still render up carbonic acid gas.
The experiments which I on my part made with bees, had the advantage that I was able to work on a larger scale owing to the ease with which I could introduce a considerable number into the same receptacle. They offered circumstances which gave me special problems to be solved, and led me to results as satisfactory to my mind as the more general ones of the Italian author.
8"Memorandum on Respiration," by Spallanzani, 4 volumes, 8 vo., obtainable from J. J. Paschoud, publisher, Geneva and Paris.
## Part II Experiments on the Respiration of Bees.
Proceeding systematically in our researches, we began by observing the effect of different gases on adult bees. We repeated the same tests on larvae and nymphs and came to the conclusion that it was necessary to examine with greater care than heretofore the external organs of respiration.
The first tentative experiments were designed to discover whether bees are differently formed in this respect from other animals. If they are not under the necessity of breathing, they should be able to withstand a vacuum. They should be able to live as well in hermetically sealed jars as in ordinary air: in short their relation to the atmosphere ought to make little or no difference to their existence.
## First Experiment.
We introduced some bees into a receptacle connected with a vacuum pump. The first few strokes of the pump did not appear to make any appreciable difference to them. They walked and flew for some time, but when the mercury in the pressure gauge had dropped to within a quarter of an inch of the level they fell on their sides and remained motionless. They were however only rendered senseless, and on air being readmitted they were soon completely restored. The experiments which followed also showed without doubt that a certain amount of air is indispensable to these insects.
### Second Experiment.
I wished to ascertain the effect on bees of keeping them in an enclosed space, and to note at the same time whether any alterations took place in the air with which they had been in contact. We took three sixteen-ounce flasks which contained ordinary air and introduced 250 worker bees into the first, the same number into the second, and 150 drones into the third. The first and the third were carefully sealed. The second, destined to serve, as a basis for comparison, was only closed in such a way as to prevent the escape of the bees inside.
The experiment began at midday. At first there appeared to be no difference between the bees in the sealed flasks and those in the unsealed one. Some seemed to show signs of impatience with their captivity, but without giving any sign of discomfort. At a quarter past twelve those in the sealed flask began to show signs of suffering. Their rings contracted and dilated with greater rapidity, they breathed more heavily, and seemed to undergo a great change for they licked up the moisture from the sides of the flask.
At half past twelve the cluster, till then hanging around a straw smeared with honey, suddenly gave way, and the bees composing it fell to the bottom of the flask and were not able to rise again. At a quarter to one they were all asphyxiated. We then took them out of their prison into the fresh air, and a few minutes afterwards they regained the use of their powers. The drones suffered the most tragic results from the confinement to which wehad condemned them, as none of them came back to life. The bees shut up in the second flask with free access to the air had not suffered at all.
We next examined the state of the air in the sealed flasks and found it greatly altered. Other bees introduced into it were quickly suffocated. A lighted candle would not burn in it and a sample shaken with water showed a decrease in volume of 14%. It precipitated chalk from lime water, lettuce seeds would not germinate in it, and lastly, tests with nitrous oxide showed the total absence of oxygen.*
In order to learn whether the absence of the last named gas was the cause of the collapse of the bees, and whether I ought to attribute their return to life when restored to liberty to its presence, I made the following experiment. We took a ten ounce jar and poured into it nine ounces of water; the tenth part was reserved for the bees, and a layer of cork separated them from the liquid: the bees were therefore in ordinary air, and we had only to seal the opening.
In this experiment as in the preceding one the air was consumed by the bees who were quickly suffocated. We then opened the lower part of the jar under water and introduced one ounce of oxygen.*
The result was very satisfactory. Hardly had the oxygen reached the part of the jar occupied by the bees when we noticed slight movements in their proboscis and antennae: next the rings of the abdomen resumed their normal functions, and a further dose of the life-giving fluid completely restored the insects to the full use of their powers.
When other bees were placed in an atmosphere of pure oxygen they lived eight times as long as in ordinary air, a very striking result. However in the end they also died of suffocation, all the oxygen having been converted into carbonic acid gas,*
The production of carbon dioxide from the breathing of 50 bees in oxygen during five hours may be put at 2 cu. ins., the lime precipitated from lime water being about 2% grains. To these tests we added sundry others on the effects produced on bees by various harmful gases.
* Endiometric tests: Ordinary air 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 0.99. Air consumed by workers 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 1.93. Air consumed by drones 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 1.85.
* The method employed for measuring the consumption of oxygen was the one used by Priestley of absorbing the remaining oxygen with nitrous oxide and measuring the loss in volume.
* Endiometric tests: Ordinary air 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 0.99. Oxygen 1 part, nitrous oxide 3 parts, residue 1.98. Oxygen consumed by bees 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 1.58.
## Chapter 18 The Respiration of BES.
### 18.1 The Respiration of BES.
The Respiration of BES is a _bifurcation_ of the BES. The Respiration of BES is a _bifurcation_ of the BES.
so that the conditions might be those of a normal colony. We then connected up a flask with a tap arranged in such a way as to permit the introduction of air from the cylinder. This air, displaced by the fall of water or mercury contained in the flask, mounted into it when the communicating taps were opened, and these were closed again with all the necessary precautions. The mercury or water used in this experiment was received in a funnel which conducted it into a basin situated at the bottom of the hive so that the bees did not suffer any inconvenience.
The air of the hive, taken at different times of the day, was analysed by M. Senebler by means of nitrous oxide. The results were very different from those we had expected, for he found the air nearly as pure as that of the atmosphere. In the evening he found a slight alteration but this was not appreciable and could be explained in other ways.[12]
In another experiment a flask was connected with the hive for a period of six hours and when the air was analysed it was found as pure as that of the atmosphere.[13]
Have the bees then either in themselves or in their hive any means of supplying oxygen? One of our experiments showed that neither wax nor pollen produced it.
Empty cells of 82 grains in weight, also the same quantity filled with pollen were shut for 12 hours in a six ounce flask at the temperature of the hive and did not make the air any richer in oxygen. It even seemed slightly poorer.
Not yet satisfied that I had found any solution to my,problem I decided to try an experiment which seemed more promising. I thought that if the bees had in their hive any source of oxygen capable of supplying their needs, it should be a matter of indifference whether the door of the hive were open or closed, which we could try by sealing them in their hive and testing the air inside. This test would overcome all objections which could be raised to the preceding experiments: for by separating bees from their fellows, their larvae, and their hive we might have indirectly exercised an influence on them.
Second Experiment.
It was only necessary to shut the bees in a hive with transparent walls which would permit observation of what passed inside. For this experiment I made use of my swarm living in the cylinder.
12 Endiometric tests: Ordinary air 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 1.05. Air taken from the hive at 9 a. m.. residue 1.10. At 10 a. m.. 1.12, at 2 p. m.. 1.13, 6 p. m.. 1.16. At 11 a. m.. 1.13, at 3 p. m.. 1.13. Midday 1.13, at 4 p. m.. 1.13, at 8 p. m.. 1.16. 1 p. m.. 1.13, at 5 p. m.. 1.13. 13 Endiometric tests: Ordinary air 1 part, nitrous oxide 1 part, residue 1.02. Air from the hive, 1.05 Air from the hive, 1.06.
contained in the hive, namely to admit that the bees possess the extraordinary faculty of being able to draw fresh air into the hive and at the same time to expel that used up by their breathing.
We had therefore to find out whether their activities offer any special circumstance which would explain this phenomenon. Not finding any satisfactory explanation our attention was again drawn to the possible connection between the circulation of the air and the fanning of the wings which we had previously noticed and which produced a continual hum from the interior of the hive. We surmised that the motion of the wings being pronounced enough to produce a definite sound, might also be sufficient to replace the air used up in breathing.
But could so apparently slight a thing dispose of the waste air resulting from the respiration of the bees? At first sight in seems difficult to believe, but on considering how continuous and energetic is the fanning of the bees it seems to offer a simple and satisfactory explanation of the problem. Anyone who places his hand near a bee when in the action of fanning will notice that she sets up an appreciable current, her wings moving so rapidly that one can scarcely distinguish them. United at their edges by little hooks the two wings at each side make a very effective fan, the more so as they are slightly concave. The movement of the wings is through an angle of 90\({}^{\circ}\) which can be easily verified as they move so rapidly that they can be seen in all positions practically simultaneously.
The bees brace themselves firmly against the floor of the hive: the first pair of legs are stretched out in front, the second are spread to the right and left of the body, while the third, very close to one another, and immediately beneath the abdomen, enable the insect to raise and lower itself.
During the summer a certain number of bees may always be seen beating their wings in this manner in front of the hive door, and others can be observed within, most commonly stationed on the floor of the hive. All those thus occupied, whether inside or out face towards the interior of the hive.
It is evident that the bees place themselves in order so that they may fan with greater effect: they form themselves into rows, often converging towards the door. This however is not necessarily the case owing probably to the necessity of the fanners giving place to the foraging bees whose rapid coming and going might knock them over at every moment were they not ranged in rows.
Sometimes as many as 20 bees or more are fanning within the hive. At other times their number is more limited. Each bee fans for more or less time. We have watched individuals at work for as much as 25 minutes during which time they did not stop at all though several times they seemed to take breath ceasing the vibration of their wings for a fraction of a second. As soon as any cease to fan, others replace them, so that there is never any interruption in the hum of a well inhabited hive.
If in winter they are obliged to fan near to the center of the cluster, doubtless they perform this important function between the irregular combs whose surfaces leave between them enough space to permit the movement
## Chapter 6 On the respiration of bees.
of the wings, for there must be a space of at least half an inch to allow free movement.
A further question is whether ventilation is necessary for bees in their wild state as for those in hives. Dwelling as they do in hollow trees and in holes in rocks, their different circumstances might give rise to variation in their method of renewing the air of the hive. Consequently we sought to imitate natural conditions by placing bees in a hive five feet high. It was glazed the whole height so that it was easy to see on all sides the cone shaped cluster which hung from the combs at the top of the hive. The door was placed at the bottom as in ordinary hives.
We saw that there were only a few bees fanning near the entrance, the majority being always on the side of the hive and that the one nearest the cluster. They were spaced only a short distance from one another in the same path as that of the foragers returning from the field.
This ventilation by the bees or the humming which is the indication of it, manifests itself not only in the heat of summer, but throughout the year. It even appears at times to be more marked in the middle of the winter than when the temperature is more moderate. An action which so continuously occupies a certain number of bees must have a very marked effect on the atmosphere. The equilibrium once being upset, a current should be established and the air thus renewed.
But so remarkable a result cannot come about without some outward sign, and nothing is easier than to show this. For this purpose we fixed a small indicator (lit: anemometer) in front of the hive entrance. It must be very light--of.paper, feathers, or cotton wool, and this should show us whether there is any appreciable current of air passing in or out of the hive door and if so what is its strength?
For this experiment we chose a calm day and a time when the bees were all in their hive, taking the precaution to fix a screen at some distance from the entrance in order not to be confused by any chance current from outside.