BEE-spoke-data/bees-v0 huggingface dataset:
### a caution about entering into the out-apiary business.
We have already gone over -- the ground of the general subject of out-apiaries, and what contributes toward making their management a success. While there are many bee-keepers who have brains and capacity enough to manage a series of out-apiaries, there are also more who had better never think of entering into the project. To be a keeper of several out-apiaries --means -- great --perseverance and a good deal of system, besides ability to manage not only the bees, but the help who are to take care of --them. If you can not make fifty or sixty colonies pay in one location, do not --delude -- yourself by the idea that you can make bees pay by establishing a series of out-apiaries. The man who can not make a small business pay probably will not make a large one do so. When you can manage successfully your home apiary, it may be profitable, as soon as the --increase is sufficient, to take a part of it to an outyard.
### Overstocking.
By this term we mean having more colonies in a given place than the locality can support. Our treatment of the question under Out-Apiaries (which see) hints at benefits of restriction to 75 strong stocks in any one apiary. While, doubtless, better to retain at home unavoidable increases to the limit, perhaps, of 50 or 30 swarms, still, when 50 -- more than the requisite number is reached, a new yard should be started two miles away, or, better, even four.
A given locality with only ten -- colonies to gather the nectar in it may show a wonderful average per colony--perhaps 200 or 300 pounds. When the number is tripled or quadruplele, the average will be cut down a half. The locality should be carefully studied, and only that number of colonies be used which on an average, one year with another, will give the largest results in honey, with a minimum of labor and capital. If 75 hives during an average season would furnish an average of 150 pounds to the alive, then, obviously, the number might be increased to 100 or even 150. When, on the other hand, the average -- is, say, only 50 lbs. of extracted honey, and there are only 50 colonies in the apiary, then, clearly, 50 would be all there could be kept with profit in that spot -- and it could be questioned whether or not 35 might not be just as profitable, and at the same time -- save a little in the investment and some labor in gathering and harvesting the crop.
But in some locations, notably California, Colorado, Cuba, and in some portions of -- Florida, one -- can have as many as 300 or 400 colonies, and in some rare instances 500 colonies in one apiary. The late E. W. Alexander, of Delanson, N. Y., had some 700 colonies in one bee-yard; but he had immense averages of buckwheat and goldenrod. The celebrated --segege apiary, in Southern California, owned -- by J. F. McIntyre, has, in one yard, some 600 hives of -- bees; but the
**P.ALMETTO** (_Sabul chamevons_) is frequently an excellent yielder of good honey, but only on the peninsula of Florida. There are numbers of these trees in the Carolius and Georgia, but not in sufficient numbers to be valuable to the bee-keeper. There are two paintedts in Florida which yield honey --viz., the creeping palmetto (_Sabul 10dm. sonii_) and the saw palmetto (_Sabul sevenoa_), also a creeper. The leaves of the latter are very sharp, and serious impediments to walking through the woods in some parts of Florida, hence the popular name. In some seasons a very heavy honey-yield is obtained from the Florida palmetto, of a quality considered excellent by connoisseurs.
The palmetto grows to a height of 70 feet or more in Southern Florida, where it succeeds best, and where, too, the landscape is greatly beautified by many specimens of it. It generally blooms in June, just before the rainy season, sending out great racemes of creamy-white flowers that form a mass four to seven feet long and two feet wide.
The honey can scarcely be distinguished from that collected from black mangrove; and it frequently happens that both flower simultaneously, and the bees, therefore, mix the nectar.
**PARTHENOGENESIS.** In the great majority of cases the sex cells disintegrate unless they unite with the products of the opposite sex of the same species; but in some cases of the animal kingdom cells are given off from the ovary, which, without fertilization, are able to undergo development. That these cells are true eggs is evident from their origin, appearance, behavior, and fate, while the only difference between these eggs and eggs requiring fertilization is that the former are able to divide and grow without receiving the stimulus given by the male sex cell. To this phenomenon the name " parthenogenesis " is applied.
The word parthenogenesis (virgin development) was first used in this sense by Professor v. Sielbold in his classic paper, "Parthenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees," in 1856.
However, earlier writers described the phenomenon under various other names.
In 1745 Charles Ilonnet described the parthenogenetic development of plant-lice; and Prof. Oscar Hertwig, the great German embryologist, designated this work as marking one of the milestones in the history of the science of development.
Just one hundred years later the Rev. Johannes Dzierzon, of Carlsmarkt, Germany, put forth the theory that the drone or male bee is produced from an egg which is not fertilized. This work, published in the _Eichstadt Bienenzeitung_, may well be looked on as the starting-point of the theory of parthenogenesis, since it began a very important discussion, and marks the origin of a host of works along similar lines. Dizerzon based his views on the following facets observed by him and since confirmed by many others: 1, An unmated queen occasionally lays eggs, but these produce only drones.
2. Workers, under certain peculiar circumstances, lay eggs, but these develop only into drones. Worker bees have never been known to mate.
3. Old queens may exhaust their supply of spermatozoa received in mating, and thereafter produce only drones. As the supply diminishes they lay an ever increasing percentage of drone eggs.
While this theory is based on the work of Dzierzon, it must not be forgotten that its establishment is due in no small part to the researches of Professors Leuckart and von Siebold, of Germany.
The facts brought out in an examination of this work have an important bearing on the practical work of the apiary, and it is necessary for the queen-breeder, at least, to know the application. If, for example, a Cyprian queen is mated to an Italian drone, the resulting workers are a cross between the two races, or Cyprio-Italians. Any queens reared from this colony are also Cyprio-Italians; but the drones of this cross-mated queen are pure Cyprians, the Italian drone in the cross having no influence on the male offspring of the Cyprian mother. If, therefore, but one purely mated queen is obtained, her daughtersproduce pure drones, regurolless of mismating, and the race may be established in an apiary.
The conclusion frequently drawn from this theory is that the queen can voluntarily control the sex of an egg by withholding or allowing its fertilization. It is sometimes further held that all eggs in the ovary are male, and the sex changed by fertilization. These conclusions are not based on observation, and proof is entirely lacking. In a statement of the theory, therefore, it is necessary to stick to known facts.
The Dzierzon theory has been combated by many different scientists, most recently by Dickel, a foreman bee-keeper with scientific aspirations. While the theory has been somewhat modified by recent work, it remains the prevalent view to-day, and Dickel generally receives the condemation so richly deserved.
Parthenogenesis occurs in many other orders of both plants and animals, and a comparison of the various results is most interesting. Merely to cite some cases for comparison: In the bee, only males are produced parthenogenetically; in certain lepidoptera, only females are so produced; while in plant-lice and certain small crustacea, both males and females are produced from unfer utilized eggs. Ants were formerly supposed to have a parthenogenetic development identical with that seen in the honey-lee; but more recent work makes this doubtful as a general statement. The silkworn is occasionally parthenogenetic.
**PEDDLING HONEY.** See Honey-pedding; also Extracted Honey.
**PEPEY-REE (_Schinus molle_). From Peru. This is really not a pepper-tree at all; its flowers and the honey have a pepper flavor, and the seeds resemble pepper. It is a magnificent shade-tree, and in California has been very largely planted. The honey is thick and dark, but it serves a very useful purpose in helping the bees to title over bad times without feeding. It is under a ban now, as it is supposed to harbor injurious insects; but it seems probable these pests would still exist even if all pepper-trees were destroyed.
**PERFORATED ZINC.** See DIORES.
**PHAECELIA (_P. tanoetifolia_) has been boomed as a honey and forage plant in Europe, introduced there from California. Some, however, deny its value as a forage-plant, and not till 1904 did any California even mention it as such. There is no question, however, that it is a honey-plant of the first rank, having a blue flower much resembling helirotope, the beauty of which makes it worthy of a place in the flower-garlen, where the bees may be found on it in great numbers.
**PICKED BROOD.** See DIORES of Bees.
**POISONED BROOD** See Fruit-blisons.
**POISONOUS HONEY.** There are cases on record, apparently authenticated, which seem to show that honey gathered from flowers of plants that are in themselves poisonous is also poisonous either to human beings or to the bees themselves, or both. Xenophon tells how, in the memorable march of the ten thousand Greek soldiers to the sea, some of them were taken seriously ill after eating poisonous honey. The facts are so carefully and minutely recorded as to leave no doubt of the honey-poisoning.
The wild honey in one or two of the Southern States, in a very few isolated localities, is reported to produce sickness, and in some instances this is so sudden and violent that it has given occasion for alarm. In certain regions of Virginia, especially near Halifax Court-house, there is grown in the mountains, quite extensively, mountain laurel. The bees are very fond of it; and while it does not seem to affect them particularly, it is dangerous to human beings, or at least so reported. The plant itself is an extremely distressing narcotie, varying in effects according to the quantity taken into the stomach. Dr. Granmer, of Halifax Court-house, reports that, during the late civil war, himself and quite a number of comrades were poisoned by eating honey from this plant. There was, he says, a queer sensation of ting all over, indistinct vision, with an empty, dizzy feeling about the head, and a horrible nausea that could not be relieved by vomiting. This lasted for an hour or so, while the effects did not wear off for several days.
Another honey-plant yielding honey said to be poisonous is the yellow jasmine found in certain localities of Georgia, especially in the vicinity of Augusta. The roots, leaves, and flowers are all highly poisonous; and Dr. J. P. H. Brown, a bee-keeper, says the honey from it is also of like character, as he knows of several persons who came very near losing their lives by eating it. In his opinion bees do not work on it from choice; for when other bloom is jedling honey at the same time, the jasmine lowers are seldom visited.
Notwithstanding these reported cases,-freely without any ill effects. But the question might arise as to whether they actually state any honey from the plants in question, _or from some harmless plants_ that were in bloom at the same time. In a matter involving severe sickness or possible loss of life it would seem to be policy to err on the safe side--that is, to let the honey from mountain laurel, yellow jasmine, and other poisonous plants, entirely alone. If it does not kill the bees, let them have it for brood rearing, but make no other use of it.
Doubltess you have all heard bees humming about hollychock blossoms, and perhaps most of you have passed on thinking that it was nothing strange, for bees are always humming about flowers. Suppose we stop just a minute, and look into the matter a little. The bee, although on the wing, is almost motionless as it hovers about the dust in the center of the flower, and, by careful watching, we may see that its tongue is extended to a considerable length. This tongue looks much like a delicate pencil-brush as it sweeps about among the grains of pollen; and as the pollen adheres to it and is from time to time put away somehow, we are led to infer that there must be something adhesive on it. We believe the bee, when it starts out to gather pollen, carries some honey if it finds any in the blossom. Well, we will suppose it has moistened its long, flexible,brush-like tongue with honey, has spread it out and brushed it among the pollen-grains and then --right here we shall have to give you some pictures to explain what happens next.
The illustrations shown on the next page, taken from 'theshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, show the leg of the bee.
In a general way it will be noted that the legs are covered with rough hairs, fringes of coarser hairs, and short spines or combs. These are located on the different parts of the legs of the bees, and each set is designed for a different purpose ;, at, in the reproduction from Cheshthe under side of the body of the bee, and that the pinecrs form them so that they can be handled by the fore legs and deposited in the comb.
Below these jaws, or pinecrs, at B, will be found a series of combs, or spines, on the inner side of the legs. On the same joints of the other legs these seem to be absent, as well as nectar, for it seems to be fringed with fine hair on which pollen dust might readily lodge. Just how the bee cleans its tongue it is difficult to see; but the brushes on the fore legs are evidently designed for the purpose of rolling off these grains which possibly contain a little honey or nectar. In any event, they are transferred to the middle legs from the fore legs, and from the middle legs to the pollen-basket in a way that leaves
this notch is a spur, or \(\exp,v\). The same thing on a smaller scale can be seen at C. This opening is fringed on the inside with a row of hairs, an enlarged view showing at F. It will be noted that this cleaner is located, we might say, in the "'elbow " of the fore legs, and within easy reach of the antennae. If flour is dusted upon these organs the bee will immediately slip this notch over the antennae, push \(v\) over to place, cleaning every portion of the antennae at two or three sweeps. Some have thought that the same device is used for cleaning the tongue in a similar manner, but this is hardly probable. The tongue, unless at the extreme end, is too large to go in this opening. If it could starts out again without paying any further attention to the matter.
After the pollen is dropped in the cells, it will fall out if the comb is turned over; and when the maples are first out in the spring, we have heard and seen pollen rattle out like shot, in turning the combs horizontally to look at the queen. Very soon after pollen is thus deposited, nursing-bees cone and wash it down into a hard cake. We have not been able to discover how.
Before we consider the wonderful little schemes of nature to bring about the work of cross-fertilization, it will be necessary at this point to give a few of the common terms employed in botany to designate the different parts of the flower. In the accompanying illustration we have a case of what is known as the hermaphrodite flower, that is to say, a perfect flower that is capable of self-fertilization. In most of the specimens that we show, we shall present deviations from the perfect flower. In most flowers we have the male and female organs, the latt \(r\) represented by what is known as the pistil at the top of which is a receptive surface called the stigma. Sometimes there is a tube connecting the stigma with the ovary. This is called the style. The male organs are designated by the name of anthers. These contain little granules of powder known as pollen. Around the male and female organs are what is known as the corolla consisting of leaves of various colors, and outside of these is the calyx, usually green. The stem that supports the anther is called the filament. The nectaries are usually located at the base of the pistil or the bottom of the flower as at B. The main portion of the pistil called the ovary is what constitutes the embryo fruit. In order that this may develop, the pollen from A must be conveyed in some manner to the surface of the stigma as at C. The fertilizing fluid passes downward, causing the fruit to develop. It would be well to bear in mind these botanical terms in the description which follows in order to understand how beautiful and perfect is the design of nature in bringing about cross-pollination.
Before we proceed to the general subject under this head, something should be said regarding the evident intent of nature to bring about crossing between the species both in the animal and the vegetable kingdom. For instance, among animals inbred ing has a strong tendency to weaken offspring. The same principle holds true to a certain extent among plants. "\(\Lambda\) study of the devices provided by nature to insure cross-fertilization," says Dr. Fletcher, "forms one of the most charming branches of the whole study of lotany." The great naturalist Charles Darwin is recorded as pollen from some plants is blown not only from flower to flower, but, in soa eases, clear out to sea. Cases are on record where pollen from certain species of pines has been found hundreds and hundreds of miles floating in the air and lodging in the rigging of ships. Rain doubtless has a large influence, because it spatters, the fertilizing element from one flower to another. Gravity must necessarily convey the pollen located on the tops of the trees or plants to the blossoms situated further down, whether on the same or other plant of the same species.
Among the animate agencies for the distribution of pollen, insects (and especially bees) are by far the most important. To a very limited extent animals and birds may assist. While insects other than bees undoubtedly perform a very valuable service, the honey-bee, from the very fact that it is out earlier in the spring than all other insects, must necessarily be regarded as by far Cross-fertilization among some plants is brought about by the male and female organs, the stamens and pistils being located in different flowers, sometimes on the same plant or tree, and again on separate trees. In the willows, for example, the male catkins, that is, the portion of the flower bearing the stamens, appear on one tree while the pistils appear on another. This technically is called staminate and pistillate infloresesence. As the willows are a source of honey as well as pollen, and as they come to bloom very early in the season, it is apparent that bees must play a large part in their cross-pollination. Common cases of male and female flowers on the same plant are found in the buttentrum, hickors, birches, oaks, and hazels. In some instances the male portion of the flower comes to maturity before the female and _vice versa_. In others there seems to be an effort on the part of nature, through a special form and arrangement of the parts of the flower, to prevent self-fertilization. In this case it appears that the bee, or some insect, must carry the pollen from one plant to the other.
Common corn is an illustration of a class of plants that bear both kinds of blossoms on the same plant. The blossom that bears the seed is low down, and is what we commonly term the silk of the ear. The one that bears the pollen is at the very summit of the stalk, and the pollen, when ripe, is shaken off and falls on the silk below; or, what is still better, it is wafted by the wind to the silk of the neighboring stalks, thus preventing in-and-in breeding, in a manner strikingly analogous to the way in which the drones fly out in the air, that the chances may be greatly in favor of their meeting queens other than those from their own hives. You may object, that the silk from the ear of corn is not properly a flower, so we will give you a more striking instance.
The common ragweed, _Ambrosia otentisistifolia_, also sometimes called bitterweed, or hogweed, bears two distinct and entirely unlike flowers. On the ends of the tall rncemes, as at B, the pollen-bearing blossoms are seen very conspicuously; and many of you who are familiar with the weed, perhaps never imagined that it had any other blossom at all. If so, will you please go outdoors and take a look at them again? Right close to the main stem, where the branches all start out, you will find a very pretty little flower; however it possesses no color except green, and it is here where all the seeds are borne, as you will see on some of the branches where they are matured. Now, if you will get up early in the morning you will find that these plants,when shaken, give off a little cloud of fine green dust, and this is the pollen of the plant of which we have been speaking. As these plants are in no way dependent on bees for the fertilization of their blossoms, they contain no honey, or at least we never were able to detect any; although we have, during two seasons, seen the bees quite busily engaged gathering the pollen. It is said that corn sometimes bears honey as well as pollen, although we have never been able to get proof of it. These two plants, as we have before remarked, seem to insure crossing the seed with other plants of the same variety, by bearing the pollen-bearing flowers aloft, on slender stalks; also by furnishing a great preponderance in numbers of these blossoms, for precisely the same reason that a thousand or more drones are reared toone queen. A stalk that succeeds in pushing itself above the others, and bearing a profusion of pollen-flowers, will probably be the father, so to speak, of a multitude of the rising generation; and this process, repeated for generations, would develop just the tendency of corn and ragweed, to shoot up tall spikes, clothed with an exuberance of the pollen-bearing blossoms. As the plants that give the greatest distance on the stalk between the lower (or seed) blossoms, and the upper ones, are most likely to shed the pollen on neighboring plants, this, too, fosters the tendency mentioned.
Int what shall the great multitude of plants do that have no tall spikes with which to shake their pollen to the breezes? Here is where the bees come in and fulfill
next flower, B, where the upper portion of the tongue and mouth becomes dusted with the pollen from the anthers, and the pollen dust that was secured from the other flower \(\Lambda\) will just reach the stigma in the flower B. The pollen dust that was received from the flower B will just reach the stigma in the flower A. There is anothersignificant and interesting fact, that the pollen granules of B are too large to be received in the stigma of B, but just right to go in the stigma of A. Thus we see how nature has convincingly devised a scheme of what is called diomorphic cross-fertilization. In other words, she has so planned it that the pollen of the same flower can not fertilize its own stigma, hence we see the necessity of some insect of
puls about the right size, as the bee, of exactly the same tongue length that the bee has. Let us take another example.