The results from discontinued operations for our former Digital Television business unit were as follows:
||2009|2008|
||(In millions)|
|Net revenue|$—|$73|
|Expenses|-3|-147|
|Impairment of goodwill and acquired intangible assets|—|-609|
|Restructuring charges|—|-1|
|Loss from discontinued operations|$-3|$-684|

Recently Adopted Accounting Standards Noncontrolling Interest.
In June 2009, the FASB issued guidance that amends the evaluation criteria to identify the primary beneficiary of a variable interest entity.
Additionally, this guidance requires ongoing reassessments of whether an enterprise is the primary beneficiary of the variable interest entity.
This guidance became effective for interim and annual reporting periods after November 15, 2009.
We adopted this new guidance as of the beginning of 2010, and we applied such guidance in evaluating whether we could deconsolidate GF given the changes in governance over the operations of GF that occurred effective December 28, 2009.
See Note 3 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information.
ITEM 7A.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURE ABOUT MARKET RISK Interest Rate Risk.
Our exposure to market risk for changes in interest rates relates primarily to our investment portfolio and long-term debt.
We usually invest our cash in investments with short maturities or with frequent interest reset terms.
Accordingly, our interest income fluctuates with short-term market conditions.
As of December 25, 2010, our investment portfolio consisted primarily of time deposits, money market funds, commercial paper and ARS.
With the exception of our ARS, these investments were highly liquid.
Due to the short-term nature of our investment portfolio and the current low interest rate environment, our exposure to interest rate risk is minimal.
As of December 25, 2010, all of our outstanding debt is fixed interest rate debt.
Consequently, our exposure to market risk for changes in interest rates on reported interest expense and corresponding cash flows is minimal.
We will continue to monitor our exposure to interest rate risk.
Default Risk.
We mitigate default risk in our investment portfolio by investing in only the highest credit quality securities and by constantly positioning our portfolio to respond appropriately to a significant reduction in a credit rating of any investment issuer or guarantor.
Our portfolio includes investments in debt and marketable equity securities with active secondary or resale markets to ensure portfolio liquidity.
We are averse to principal loss and strive to preserve our invested funds by limiting default risk and market risk.
We actively monitor market conditions and developments specific to the securities and security classes in which we invest.
We believe that we take a conservative approach to investing our funds in that we invest only in highly-rated debt securities with relatively short maturities and do not invest in securities we believe involve a higher degree of risk.
As of December 25, 2010, substantially all of our investments in debt securities were AAA rated by at least one of the rating agencies.
While we believe we take prudent measures to mitigate investment related risks, such risks cannot be fully eliminated as there are circumstances outside of our control.
We believe the current credit market difficulties do not have a material impact on our financial position.
However, a future degradation in credit market conditions could have a material adverse effect on our financial position.
As a result of the uncertainties in the credit markets, all of our ARS were negatively affected and auctions for these securities failed to settle on their respective settlement dates.
As of December 25, 2010, we had
The table below provides information about the fair value carrying amount and the contractual principal outstanding of assets or liabilities accounted for under the fair value option at December 31, 2010 and 2009.
||December 31|
||2010|2009|
||||Fair Value|||Fair Value|
||||Carrying|||Carrying|
|| Fair Value | Contractual |Amount|Fair Value |Contractual |Amount|
|| Carrying | Principal |Less Unpaid|Carrying |Principal |Less Unpaid|
|(Dollars in millions)| Amount| Outstanding|Principal|Amount|Outstanding|Principal|
|Corporate loans and loan commitments-1|$4,135|$3,638|$497|$5,865|$5,460|$405|
|Loansheld-for-sale|25,942|28,370|-2,428|32,795|36,522|-3,727|
|Securities financing agreements|116,023|115,053|970|95,100|94,641|459|
|Other assets|310|n/a|n/a|253|n/a|n/a|
|Long-term deposits|2,732|2,692|40|1,663|1,605|58|
|Asset-backed secured financings|706|1,356|-650|707|1,451|-744|
|Commercial paper and other short-term borrowings|6,472|6,472|–|813|813|–|
|Long-term debt|50,984|54,656|-3,672|45,451|48,560|-3,109|

(1) Includes unfunded loan commitments with an aggregate fair value of $866 million and $950 million and aggregated committed exposure of $27.3 billion and $27.0 billion at December 31, 2010 and 2009, respectively.
n/a = not applicable The tables below provide information about where changes in the fair value of assets or liabilities accounted for under the fair value option are included in the Consolidated Statement of Income for 2010, 2009 and 2008.
Gains (Losses) Relating to Assets and Liabilities Accounted for Under the Fair Value Option
||2010|
|(Dollars in millions)|Trading Account Profits (Losses)|Mortgage Banking Income (Loss)|Equity Investment Income (Loss)|Other Income (Loss)|Total|
|Corporate loans and loan commitments|$2|$–|$–|$105|$107|
|Loansheld-for-sale|–|9,091|–|493|9,584|
|Securities financing agreements|–|–|–|52|52|
|Other assets|–|–|–|107|107|
|Long-term deposits|–|–|–|-48|-48|
|Asset-backed secured financings|–|-95|–|–|-95|
|Commercial paper and other short-term borrowings|-192|–|–|–|-192|
|Long-term debt|-625|–|–|22|-603|
| Total|$-815|$8,996|$–|$731|$8,912|
||2009|
|Corporate loans and loan commitments|$25|$–|$–|$1,886|$1,911|
|Loansheld-for-sale|-211|8,251|–|588|8,628|
|Securities financing agreements|–|–|–|-292|-292|
|Other assets|379|–|-177|–|202|
|Long-term deposits|–|–|–|35|35|
|Asset-backed secured financings|–|-11|–|–|-11|
|Commercial paper and other short-term borrowings|-236|–|–|–|-236|
|Long-term debt|-3,938|–|–|-4,900|-8,838|
|Total|$-3,981|$8,240|$-177|$-2,683|$1,399|
||2008|
|Corporate loans and loan commitments|$4|$–|$–|$-1,248|$-1,244|
|Loansheld-for-sale|-680|281|–|-215|-614|
|Securities financing agreements|–|–|–|-18|-18|
|Long-term deposits|–|–|–|-10|-10|
|Asset-backed secured financings|–|295|–|–|295|
|Total|$-676|$576|$–|$-1,491|$-1,591|

Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements 1.
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies Principles of Consolidation The accompanying consolidated financial statements include the accounts of PPG Industries, Inc.  (“PPG” or the “Company”) and all subsidiaries, both U. S.  and non-U.
S. , that it controls.
PPG owns more than 50% of the voting stock of most of the subsidiaries that it controls.
For those consolidated subsidiaries in which the Company’s ownership is less than 100%, the outside shareholders’ interests are shown as noncontrolling interests.
Investments in companies in which PPG owns 20% to 50% of the voting stock and has the ability to exercise significant influence over operating and financial policies of the investee are accounted for using the equity method of accounting.
As a result, PPG’s share of the earnings or losses of such equity affiliates is included in the accompanying consolidated statement of income and PPG’s share of these companies’ shareholders’ equity is included in "Investments" in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet.
Transactions between PPG and its subsidiaries are eliminated in consolidation.
Use of Estimates in the Preparation of Financial Statements The preparation of financial statements in conformity with U. S.  generally accepted accounting principles requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements, as well as the reported amounts of income and expenses during the reporting period.
Such estimates also include the fair value of assets acquired and liabilities assumed as a result of allocations of purchase price of business combinations consummated.
Actual outcomes could differ from those estimates.
Revenue Recognition The Company recognizes revenue when the earnings process is complete.
Revenue from sales is recognized by all operating segments when goods are shipped and title to inventory and risk of loss passes to the customer or when services have been rendered.
Shipping and Handling Costs Amounts billed to customers for shipping and handling are reported in “Net sales” in the accompanying consolidated statement of income.
Shipping and handling costs incurred by the Company for the delivery of goods to customers are included in “Cost of sales, exclusive of depreciation and amortization” in the accompanying consolidated statement of income.
Selling, General and Administrative Costs Amounts presented as “Selling, general and administrative” in the accompanying consolidated statement of income are comprised of selling, customer service, distribution and advertising costs, as well as the costs of providing corporatewide functional support in such areas as finance, law, human resources and planning.
Distribution costs pertain to the movement and storage of finished goods inventory at company owned and leased warehouses, terminals and other distribution facilities.
Advertising Costs Advertising costs are expensed in the year incurred and totaled $345 million, $288 million and $245 million in 2013, 2012 and 2011, respectively.
Research and Development Research and development costs, which consist primarily of employee related costs, are charged to expense as incurred.
The following are the research and development costs for the years ended December 31:
|(Millions)|2013|2012|2011|
|Research and development – total|$505|$468|$443|
|Less depreciation on research facilities|17|15|15|
|Research and development, net|$488|$453|$428|

Legal Costs Legal costs are expensed as incurred.
Legal costs incurred by PPG include legal costs associated with acquisition and divestiture transactions, general litigation, environmental regulation compliance, patent and trademark protection and other general corporate purposes.
Foreign Currency Translation The functional currency of most significant non-U.
S.  operations is their local currency.
Assets and liabilities of those operations are translated into U. S.  dollars using year-end exchange rates; income and expenses are translated using the average exchange rates for the reporting period.
Unrealized foreign currency translation adjustments are deferred in accumulated other comprehensive loss, a separate component of shareholders’ equity.
Cash Equivalents Cash equivalents are highly liquid investments (valued at cost, which approximates fair value) acquired with an original maturity of three months or less.
Short-term Investments Short-term investments are highly liquid, high credit quality investments (valued at cost plus accrued interest) that have stated maturities of greater than three months to one year.
The purchases and sales of these investments are classified as investing activities in the consolidated statement of cash flows.
Marketable Equity Securities The Company’s investment in marketable equity securities is recorded at fair market value and reported in “Other current assets” and “Investments” in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet with changes in fair market value recorded in income for those securities designated as trading securities and in other comprehensive income, net of tax, for those designated as available for sale securities.
The following table indicates the percentage of net sales represented by each of our major product categories during fiscal 2017 and 2016:

Question: what was the percentage change in research and development net from 2011 to 2012?

Python solution:
def solution():
    # Define variables name and value
    net_research_2012 = 453
    net_research_2011 = 428
    
    # Do math calculation to get the answer
    difference = net_research_2012 - net_research_2011
    percentage_change = (difference / net_research_2011) * 100
    
    return percentage_change

Answer: 5.8411214953