FMFRP 0-63

## Troop Construction In The Middle East Troop Construction In The Middle East

U.S. Marine Corps PCN i'4U U00b30 00
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
Headquarters United States Marine Corps Washington, D.C. 203800001
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
Headquarters United States Marine Corps Washington, D.C. 203800001
19 December 1990
FOREWORD
19 December 1990
FOREWORD
1.

PURPOSE
Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 0-63, Troop Construction in the Middle East, provides information on engineerrelated support essential to military operations conducted in the Middle East.

1.

PURPOSE
Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 0-63, Troop Construction in the Middle East, provides information on engineerrelated support essential to military operations conducted in the Middle East.

## 2. Scope 2. Scope

This manual contains detailed engineerrelated information useful at the tactical and operational levels of war.

It is provided as a regional reference publication to assist in the planning and conduct of MAGTF operations in arid environments.

This manual contains detailed engineerrelated information useful at the tactical and operational levels of war.

It is provided as a regional reference publication to assist in the planning and conduct of MAGTF operations in arid environments.

## 3. Background 3. Background

a.

While the unique aspects of the desert environment have profound impact on MAGTF operations, most of the doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures employed in operations in other parts of the world apply to operations in the desert.

The unique aspects to operations in the desert stem primarily from the effects of heat and the scarcity of moisture, terrain features, and vegetation.

The challenge to MAGTF operations in a desert environment is adapting to the arid climate and conditions.

a.

While the unique aspects of the desert environment have profound impact on MAGTF operations, most of the doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures employed in operations in other parts of the world apply to operations in the desert.

The unique aspects to operations in the desert stem primarily from the effects of heat and the scarcity of moisture, terrain features, and vegetation.

The challenge to MAGTF operations in a desert environment is adapting to the arid climate and conditions.

b.

FMFRP 0-63 is a consolidated handbook originally prepared and published by the U.S. Army Civil Engineer Research Laboratory and the U.S. Army Waterways Experimental Station in
1982.

b.

FMFRP 0-63 is a consolidated handbook originally prepared and published by the U.S. Army Civil Engineer Research Laboratory and the U.S. Army Waterways Experimental Station in
1982.

## 4. Recommendations 4. Recommendations

Comments on this manual are welcomed.

Submit comments to
Comments on this manual are welcomed.

Submit comments to

Commanding General
Marine Corps Combat Development Command (WF12) Quantico, VA. 221345001
Commanding General
Marine Corps Combat Development Command (WF12) Quantico, VA. 221345001

## 5. Certification 5. Certification

Reviewed and approved this date.

Reviewed and approved this date.

BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS
M. P. CAULF
LD
Major General, U.S. Marine Corps Deputy Conunander for Warfighting Marine Corps Combat Development Command Quantico, Virginia M. P. CAULF
LD
Major General, U.S. Marine Corps Deputy Conunander for Warfighting Marine Corps Combat Development Conunand Quantico, Virginia Disi:
I4UUUOb3000
Disi:
I4UUUOb3000
2

## Pre Face Pre Face

The hot, barren desert environment of the Middle East requires special consideration in wartime planning and operations.

The purpose of this report is to consolidate all engineerrelated aspects of problems In base development into a single source handbook covering construction problems in the Middle East.

The hot, barren desert environment of the Middle East requires special consideration in wartime planning and operations.

The purpose of this report is to consolidate all engineerrelated aspects of problems In base development into a single source handbook covering construction problems in the Middle East.

This document is designed to assist planners in the identification of resource requirements for both men and material when preparing engineering support plans and to provide builders in the field with various construction techniques to facilitate the use of their available assets.

This document is designed to assist planners in the identification of resource requirements for both men and material when preparing engineering support plans and to provide builders in the field with various construction techniques to facilitate the use of their available assets.

FOR
THE COMMANDER:
FOR ThE
COMMANDER:
ineers inee rs iii

Page
Page
111
vii
PREFACE
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
111
vii
PREFACE
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
1
INTRODLJCTION........
Background. . . . . . . . .
Objective.. . . . . . . . .
11
I1
11
11
15
........D.,........
11
........Q........
11
........D........
11
........,........
11
........
15
........v........ ......
1
........
........ ........
Regions
... ........o....
ISSV -  445So ...5.S.
11
Se*S SD. pS54 te5S
 -  SSS QS4tIS . S - S
- .......O. S454*t 5
S4S5.4SG44ISSS.SSS55
S S 5..5e.4IS S 44 44. . S
As suuIptions... . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of Desert
Approach and Scope.......
Background.... . . . . . . . .
Objective.
. . . . . . . . .
Assumptions... . . . . .. . . .
Characteristics
of Desert
Approach and Scope.......
1.1 1.2 1.3
1.4
1.5
1
INTRODUCTION........
........
5S
........
Regions
44StS*
1.].
1.2
1.3 1.4
1.5
........
PLAN1NC AND SITING........
21
21
'21
........e........
- . 4 - e 4 4,54 -  - S -
0e - S S S -  -  -  - S
........ ...-.......#...s..I.ee.. 4
22
21
21
21 22
2
BASE
2.1
2.2 2.3
PLAN1NG AND SITING.
Introduction........
Site Selection......
Site Planning.......
2
BASE
2.1.
2.2
2.3
I nt rod uc t ion. . - ...
-
. ... . .
Site Selection.. .. . Site
Planning.. - . -  . . . . . .
........ ........
31
31
PROTECTION......
3
BASE
31
Introduction... . . . . . ........ ........ I
31
31
........ ........
........'....
.... ........
32
.......
32
32
........
31 31
31
32 32 32
3
BASE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4 3.5
3.6
3.7
...
.S
cc3
(C3)
37
Explosive Excavation........
Mine Use.. ........  4S5 ........
S5S S.445
Field
Fortifications.. ....... . .
Overhead
Cover for Prepared Position.
Construction of Cotmnand, Control and
Bunkers
SSSteS5
S
cation a
.......
.......
........
........
)........
S.......
5SSS
5SS
cation a
........
....S..
.......
.......
Couni
.......
.....,e
.......
Introduction...... . . . . ........ . . . . . .
General........ Explosive Excavation......
Mine Use........
Field Fortifications...
Overhead Cover for Prepared Position. Construction of Command, Cottrol and
Bunkers. . . . . . . . .
flage Problems........
MineS in Shifting Sands.
..
3.8
Special Camou
3.9
Placement of
3.10 Mine Removal........
t.
St .5 S S .5 5
........
- S S I 4 - 4 I
37
310 310 310 310
.....'. .......
........
........
. . . . . . . . ..
5 . S S S
- 4 .
311
S.....
.5...
..
5S
S S S S S
........
5SS
5SSSS
37
37
310
310 310 310
311
. . . . . ..
........
3.11 Effects of Temperature Extremes on Hines...
3 - 12 Mine Detector ANPRS7. ..
.. .
.
3.13 Visual Detection of Minefield Intruders........
S. S.

- .
4-.-..
31.1
31.1
4- 4
of Extreme Environment on SenaOr-...0........,,.
of Extreme Environuient on Senaor..0........,.
3.14 Effect
44405
......
Couni
45
3.8
Special Camouflage Problems........
3.9
Placement of Mines in Shifting Sands........
3. 10 Mine Removal.. . . .
. . . . . . . . . - . . . . . , . . . . .
3.11 Effects of Temperature Extremes on Hines....
3.12M1neDetectorANPRS7.......
3.13 Visual Detection of Minefield Intruders.....
3.14 Effect
DISTRIBUTION, AND GROUNDING:
4
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION,
41
DISTRIBUTION, AND GROUNDING:
........
4I.
. . . . . . . . .
.
. .
. . . . S
- S .S
-
- 4 - I - 4 5 4 - 4 - S -  S S S S S
4 5 5 5
S S S 5 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 - S S
. . . . . . . . . S
- e . . . . . . . .
42
41
41
42 47
47
421
421
S555..SS5S54445S5SS*II55SS5
S 5,45 5 5 S SS.I54. S4.. 554.4. S 455 S 55 I S S .5e
........
4
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION,
SWA BASE CAMPS.. ... .. ...
4.1
Introduction..
4.2
Generation........
4.3
Distribution........
4.4
Grounding.......
SWA BASE CAMPS........
4.1
Introduction.. . . . .
4.2
Generation......
4.3
Distribution..
4.4
Grounding.....
51
5
EXPEDIENT WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES...... .... . ..... .. .. .. .....
51
5.1
Introduction.... .... .. .... ........ ..... ... ..  - ......
51
53
54
5.2
Environmental Setting........
5.3
NearTerm Water Supply Concept for Arid Regions........
5.4
Water Conservation Opportunities...... . . - - .. ..... .. .. ........
537
559
562
51
51 5-1
53 54
3 7
559 562
5
EXPEDIENT WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES........ . .
5.1
Introduction...... . . ........ ..... ........ .. .. ... . ...
5.2
Environmental Setting........
5.3
NearTerm Water Supply Concept for Arid Regions........
5.4
Water Conservation Opportunities...... . . - . ... ... . . .. . ..
5.5
Water and Wastewater Use Opportunities and Priorities...4.444..5
5.6
Membrane Sheeting (Linee)........
5.7
Water Consumption Planning Factors for Conetruction........
5.5
Water and Wastewater Use Opportunities and Priorities........
5.6
Membrane Sheeting (Lines)..... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .
5.7
Water Consumption Planning Factors for Conetruction........

V

## Contents (Cont'D)

CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Page
Page
61
6
VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION........
6.1
Introduction........
6.2
Improving Habitability.... ..... . ... . ... ....... ..... . . ...
6.3
IndigenousBuildingMethodsandMaterials........
61 61
69
635 636
644
61
61
61
69
635 636
644
6
VERTICAL COSTRUCTLON........
6.1
Introduction........
6.2
Improving Habitability........
6.3
Indigenous Building Methods and Ma
6.4
Prefabricated Structural Systems..
6.5
Tents........
6.6
Facility Design Drawings........
6.4
Prefabricated Structural Systets........
6.5
Tents........
6.6
Facility Design Drawlngs........ ........
.. ........ .
t erials . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . .
- . . - . . - . . - . . . . . - . . - p - . . - . -  - p s
- . . - . . . .. . . . . . - .. . . -  . 4
........t..tt.....t*pp

........
71
........
71
........
........
ues . . - .
... S
..
........
72
........

........5....5........
719
.
1.5......
- . . . . -  . . . . - . - . . . . . . - . . .
720
........,......
.720
........,...
722
........
723
..
.....
728
........
..
730
P.S......
71 71 71
72
73
719
720
7-20
722
723
728
730
733
7
HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION..... ..... .... . ...... ... . . .. ... .. . ... .
7.1
General...... . . .. ..... .. ... ........ . . . . . . . .......
7.2
Existing Construction........
7.3
Soils and Aggregate8........
7.4
Horizontal Construction Techniques....... . . . . . . . .. . . . .
7.5
Roads Over Loose Sand........
7.6
Intermittent Stream Crossing...... . . . . . . . .
7.7
Control cf Drifting Sand........o........,......
7.8
Dust Control........i........,...
7.9
ConstructIon of C13O Airstrips.. ........ ......
7.10 Runway Bomb Dacnage Repair........
..
7.11
Foundtton Pads........
7.12 Field ldentification of Soils...... . . . . . .
7
HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION........
7.1
General........
7.2
Existing Coastruction........
7.3
Soils and Aggregates........
7.4
Horizontal Construction Techniq
7.5
Roads Over Loose Sand........
7.6
Intermittent Stream Crossing...
7.7
Control cf Drift.ing Sand......
7.8
Dust Control
.

7.9
Construction of C130 Airstrips
7.10 Runway Bomb Damage Repair...... 7.11 Foundation Pads
. . . . . .
7.12
Field identification of Soils..
8
PORT CONSTRUCTION.....
..sss.ss.s....s.. ...... . .. .. . S
-
P
8
PORTCONSTRUCTION........
........
81 81 81 81 81 81
8.1
Introduction
8.2
DredgIrg of Channels....
Maintenance
- . . S 5.

S S P
82

82

........
82
83 83
82
83
83
8.3
Training of Personnel in Operation and
of Local MaterialsHandling Equipment
8.4
POLTerminalFacilities........
8.5
Lack. of ContainerHandling Facilities..
8.6
Rapid ReiovalofDebris........
8.7
InadequaceRoadNetwork.
83
S....
....
...
. . P..
....
S
83
84
S.S........
55sP
...5.....*.
of ThroughPut Operations.....
for Construction and Repair of
Part
Maintenance
........
........ . ... ..... .
........
. . . . . . . . .-. S
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
of
ThroughPut Operations....... ...... .
for
Construction and Repair of Port
84
84
. . ...
8.1
Introduction.. . . . . . . . .
8.2
Dredgirg of Channels....
8.3
Training of Personnel in Operation and
of Loca1 MaterialsHandling Equipment
8.4
POLTerminalacilities........
8.5
Lack. of ContainerHandling Facilities..
8.6
RapId RtiovalofDebris........
8.7
Inadequace Road Network........
8.8
Temporary Methods
8.9
Lack of Materials
Faci1itie. . .
8.8
Temporary Methods
8.9
Lack of Materials
Facilities
9-h. ]
91
91
95
9
FACTORSAFFECT1NGENGINEERWORKFORCE........
9.1
Introcuction........
9.2
Health and Operational Effectiveness........
9.3
Construction and Engireering Equipment Maintenance...
9
FACTORS AFFECT1NGENtINEER WORKFORCE........
9.1
Introduction
- . . - . . . . . ... ., ... . . . . ..e..e..s4 .
9.2
Health and Operational Effectiveness........ ........
9.3
Construction and Engineering Equipment Maintenance........
10-i
101
101
101
91
........
91
........
9s.
........
95
........
.. . ........ .... . . .
101 101
10 1NDIGE4OUS CONSTRUCTION MATERI&LS........
.
10.1
Introduction
........e......oSSo
10.2 Construction Materials and Applicability
to Const.ructjon Methods
10.3 Cement Production Facilities (From CEMBUREAU)........
10.4 Concrete Block Plants OperatinE in MidEast........
10 1NDIGE4OUS CONSTRUCTION MATERI&LS........
10.1 Introduction.
10.2 Construction Materials and Applicability
to Construction Methods
... . . . .....
10.3 Cement Production Facilities (From CEMBUREAU).
10.4 Concrete Block Plants OperatinE in MidEast...
1013 1016
1013 1016
. . . . . . . . ... . . . .
....... ........
....... ..... . .....
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...... ........_._........ Abbreviationsi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...
........ Abbreviationsi
1NDEX........,........,........ Indexi
iNDEX
...... Indexi

vi

## Tables Tables

Number
Number
4.1
Allowable Ampacities of InBul&ted Conductors
Rated 02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Not More Than Three
Conductors
412
4.1
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors
Rated 02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Not More Than Three
Conductors
412
4.2
Allowable Axnpacities of Ineulated Conductora Raed
02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Single Conductors
413
4.2
Allowable Axnpacities of Insulated Conductors Rated
02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Single Conductors
413
4.3
Allow&ble Axnpacities of Insulated Conductcre
Rated 110 to 250C:
Not More Than Three Conductors
414
4.3
Allowable Liupacities of Insulated Conductors
Rated 110 to 2500C:
Not More Than Three Conductors
414
4.4
Allowable Ampacitiee of Insulated Conductors
Rated 110 to 250C, and for Base and Covered Conductors
415
4.4
Allowable Ampacltiee of Insulated Conductors
Rated 110 to 250C, and for Base and Covered Conductors
415
4.5
Electric Power Requirements
419
4.5
Electric Power Requirements
419
4.6
Propo8ed Schedule of Facilities
420
4.6
Propo8ed Schedule of Facilities
420
4.7
Electric Current Abroad - Characteristics
422
4.7
Electric Current Abroad - Characteritica
422
5.1
Water Consuiuption Activities for Desert/
Arid Climate
563
5.1
Water Consuptiofl Activities for Desert/
Arid Climate
563
6.1
Results of BLAST Analysis
67
6.1
Results of BLAST Analysis
67
6.2
Mortars
621
6.2
Mortars
621
6.3
Property LimIts
625
6.3
Property Umits
625
7.1
Engineer MRterials for Horizontal Construction
72
7.1
Engineer Mter1als for Horizontal Construction
72
7.2
Comparison of Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
79
7.2
Comparisoi of Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
79
7.3
Expected Perforaiance of Bituminous Mixtures Prepared From
Aregates Found in the MidE&st
714
7.3
Expected Performance of Bituminous Mixtures Prepared From
Aregates Found in the MidEast
714
7.4
Proportioning GuidelineB and Expected Percoranre for
Ccr.te Made With Aggregates Found in the MidE&st
7'I8
7.4
Proportioning Guidelines and Expected Perrormanre for
Ccr.te Made With Aggregates Found in the MidEast 7-I8
7.5
Miniatum Runway Requirements for C130
727
7.5
Miniium Runway Requirements for C130
727
7.6
Thickness Requirements for Cement Stabilized Foundation Pads
731
7.6
Thickness Requireenta for Cement Stabilized Foundation Pada
731
7.7
Thickness Requirements for Asphalt Stabilized Foundation Pads
732
7.7
Thickness Requirements for Laphalt Stabilized Foundation Pade
732
7.8
Settling Times for Small Particlee
749
7.8
Settling Times for Small Particles
749
7.9
Cast Test Reactione
750
7.9
Cast Test Reactions
750
9.1
Schedules of Work, If Necessary, During Accltitatising
Period
94
9.1
Schedules of Work, If Necessary, During Acclimatizing
Period
94
9.2
Water Requirements
9'4
9.2
Water Reqoireents
94

vii

## F Icures Figures

Number
Page
Number
Page
1.1
Political Map of Southwest Asia
12
1.1
Political Map of
Southwest Asia
12
1.2
Climatic Zones
14
1.2
ClImatic Zones
14
2.1
Building Placement
23
2.1
Building Placement
23
2.2
Building Layout:
EastWest Orientation
24
2.2
Building Layout:
EastWest Orientation
24
2.3
Parking Shades
24
2.3
Parking Shades
24
2.4
Vegetation
25
2.4
VegetatIon
25
2.5
Effect of Wind on High Rises
25
2.5
Effect of Wind on High Rises
25
3.1
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensions
For Optimally Buried Chargea in Dry Gravelly Sand As Functions of Charge Weight
33
3.1
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensions
For Optimally Buried Charges in Dry Gravelly Sand As Functions of Charge Weight
33
3.2
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensions
For Optinially Burled Charges In Weak Sandstones and
Shales As Functions of Charge Weight
34
3.2
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensione
For Optimally Buried Charges in Weak Sandstones and
Shales As Functions of Charge Weight
34
3.3
Explosive Barrier Ditching Designs (Plan View)
35
3.3
Explosive Barrier Ditching De8igns (Plan View)
35
3.4
ExplosIve Barrier Ditch Cross Sections
36
3.4
Explosive Barrier Ditch Cross Sections
36
4.].
Typical Semipermanent Portable Generator Site
43
4.1
Typical Semipermanent Portable Generator Site
4.-3
4.2
Expedient TG Sunshade and Windbreak
45
4.2
ExpedIent TG Sunshade and Windbreak
45
4.3
Underground Muffler
46
43
Underground Muffler
46
4.4
Typical Expedient Road Crossing,
UGD
49
4.4
Typical Expedien.t Road Crossing, UGD
4-
4.5
Direct Burial of Cable Showing Proper Cable Spacing
and Depth
410
4.5
Direct Burial of Cable Showing Proper Cable Spacing
and Depth
410
46
Proposed Low Voltage Distribution Layout (1000 Man Base Camp)
416
46
Proposed Low Voltage Distribution Layout (1000 Man Base Camp)
416
4.7
Electric Distribution Layout (1000 Man Base Camp)
417
4.7
Electric Distribution Layout (1000 Man Base Camp)
417
4.8
Typical High Voltage Distribution Layout
418
4.8
Typical High Voltage Distribution Layout
418
4.9
Expedient TG Grounding Grid
429
4.9
Expedient TG Grounding Grid
429
4.10
Grounding Using Sewage Drain
431
4.10
Grounding Using Sewage Drain
431
4.11
Expedient Grounding Pipe
431
4.11
Expedient Grounding Pipe
431
4.12
Expedient Grounding Trench
432
4.12
Expedient Grounding Trench
432

viii

## Figures (Cont'D) Figures (Cont'D)

Number
Page
Number
Page
5.1
Schematic of Total Water Supply System
55
5.1
Schematic of Total Water Supply System
55
5.2
Savings
58
5.2
Savings
58
5.3
Water Chiller Concept
510
5.3
Water Chiller Concept
510
5.4
Shower Water Collection Basin
516
5.4
Shower Water Collection Basin
516
5.5
Shower Wastevater Reuse Unit
517
5.5
Shower Wastevater Reuse Unit
517
5.6
Rinsewater Reuse System
522
5.6
Rinsewater Reuse System
522
5.7
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
523
5.7
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
523
5.8
Multiple Casualty Treatment
527
5.8
Multiple Casualty Treatment
527
5.9
Sand Filter
531
5.9
Sand Fiher
531
5.10
Field Expedient Water Distribution
533
5.10
Field Expedient Water Distribution
533
5.11
Expedient Road Crossing Guard
542
5.11
Expedient Road Crossing Guard
542
5.12
Storage Container
544
5.12
Storage Container
544
5.13
Storage Basin
545
5.13
storage Basin
545
5.14
He11copL.r Washing
Facility
549
5.14
HeflcopLr Washing Facility
549
5.15
Water dad Wastewater Use Opportunities and
Priorities
558
5.15
Water dnd Wastewater Use Opportunities and
Priorities
558
6.1
An EastWest BuildiigOriented c1s
63
6.1
An EastWest BuildingOriented cis
63
6.2
Comforr. and
Discomfort Lines, Linee of Equal Wetted Area
68
6.2
Comforr. and Discomfort Lines; Lines of Equal Wetted Area
68
o.2
Traditirinal. Method of Evaporative Cooling
69
o.2
Traditiiinal Method of Evaporative Cooling
69
6.4
Concrete Block Manufacturing Process
614
6.4
Concrete Block Manufacturing Proceas
614
6.5
Adobe
619
6.5
Adobe
619
6.6
Compressive Strength Test SetUp
623
6.6
Compressive Strength Test SetUp
623
6.7
Modulus of Rupture Test SetUp
624
6.7
Modulus of Rupture Test SetUp
624
6.8
Roundwood PoleB
633
6.8
Roundwood PoleB
633
6.9
Traditional Floor Construction (Iraq)
634
6.9
TradItional Floor Construction (Iraq)
634
6.10
CementAsbestos Panels
635
6.10
CementAsbestos Panels
635

ix

## Figures (Cont'D)

FIGURES (Cont'd)

Number
Number
6.11
Tent, GeneralPurpose, Medium, With Kit and Liner
637
6.11
Tent, GeneralPurpoee, Medium, With Kit and Liner
637
6.12
Fly Configuration for Tent1 GeneralPurpoee
Medium
6-39
6.12
Fly Configuration for Tent, GeneralPurpose, Medium
639
6.13
Extender Concept for Tent1 GeneralPurpose, Large and Medium
640
6.13
Extender Concept for Tent, GeneralPurpose, Large and Medium
640
6.14
Egyptian Army Tents
641
6.14
Egyptian Army Tents
641
6.15
TEMPER Tent With Transition
642
6.15
TEMPER Tent With Transition
642
6.16
A Complete TEMPER Tent System
643
6.16
A Complete TEMPER Tent System
643
6.17
Ground Anchors
644
6.17
Ground Anchors
644
6.18
Typical 24ftwide (7.3-is) Building
645
6.18
Typical 24ftwide (7.3-is) Building
645
6.19
Wall Sections
646
6.19
Wall Sections
646
6.20
Concrete Block, Precast Concrete, and PouredInPlace
Concrete Roof System
647
6.20
Concrete Block, Precast Concrete, and PouredInPlace
Concrete Roof System
647
7.1
Block Diagram of Hot Desert Mount and Plain Terrain
Showing the Four Engineering Zones
7.1
Block Diagram of Hot Desert Mount and Plain Terrain
Showing the Four Engineering Zones
7.2
Gradation Curves> Upper and Lower Limits; Beach
and Dune Sands
74
7.2
Gradation Curves> Upper and Lower Limits; Beach
and Dune Sands
7,4
7.3
Gradation Curves, Sand Zone II, Desert Fill Zone XV
75
7.3
Gradation Curves, Sand Zone II, Desert Fill Zone XV
75
7.4
Gradation Curves Upper and Lower Limits1 Silty Stone,
Zone III
76
7.4
Gradation Curves, Upper and Lower Limits, Silty Stone,
Zone III
76
7.5
Gradation Curves) Upper and Lover Liits1 Fan Gravel,
Zone II
77
7.5
Gradation Curves, Upper and Lover Limits, Fan Gravel,
Zone II
7-7
7.6
Gradation Curves, Upper and Lover Limits,
Sandy Stone,
Zone III, and Stone Pavement, Zone IV
78
7.6
Gradation Curves, Upper and Lover Limits,
Sandy Stone1
Zone LII, and Stone Pavent, Zone XV
78
7.7
subgrade Strength Requirements1 C130 Aircraft, Medium
Lift Forward Area Airfield
724
7.7
Subgrade Strength Requirements, C130 Aircraft, Medium
Lift Forward Area Airfield
724
7.8
Minimum Runway Requirements for a C130
726
7.8
Minimum Runway Requirements for a C130
726
7.9
Widening a NoWay Road
729
7.9
Widening a NoWay Road
729
7.10
Breaking or Dry Strength Teat
739
7.10
Breaking or Dry Strength Teat
739
7.11
Roll or Thread Test
740
7.11
Roll or Thread Test
740
7.12
Ribbon Test
742
7.12
Ribbon Test
742

x

## Figures (Cont'D)

FIGURES (Cont'd)

Number
Page
Number
Page
7.13a
Wet Shaking Test (Initial Sample)
744
713a
Wet Shaking Test (Initial Sample)
744
7.13b
Wet Shaking Test (Livery Appearance)
744
7.13b
Wet Shaking Test (Livery Appearance)
744
7.13c
Wet Shaking Test (Squeezing the Sample)
_45
7.1k
Wet Shaking Test (Squeezing the Sample)
745
7.13d
Wet Shaking Test (Crumbling the Sample)
7.l3d
Wet Shaking Test (Crumbling the Sample)
745
7.14
Suggested Procedure for Hasty Field Ident{fication
748
7.14
Suggested Procedure for Hasty Field IdentIfication
78
8.1
typical Facilities in a Small Port in the Middle East
82
8.1
Typical Facilities in a Small Port in the Middle East
82
9.1
Gasoline Storage Life Based on a Gasoline With Storage Life
of 12 Months at 100F
99
9.1
Gasoline Storage Life Based on a Gasoline With Storage Life
of 12 Months at 100F
99
9.2
Probability of EquipmentDifficulty
910
9.2
Probability of EquipmentDifficulty
910

xi

## Troop Construction In Tre Middle East Troop Construction In The Middle East Qiapter 1 - Inthoduction Qiapter 1 - Inthoduction 1.1 Background 1.1 Background

The planning efforts for base development and operational contingencies in Southwest Asia (SWA) (Figure 1.1) involve unique challenges.

The extremely harsh environment of the de8ert and very limited local building construction materials contribute to these challenges.

There io such published literature concerning not only the effects of the desert envlronaaent on iaterial, equip
bent, and facilitie8, but also the unusual proble8 aesociated with construction and operation activities In such areas.

A need exi8ts to summarize all engineerrelated a8pects of the problem, and provide a single source of infor
ination for planners and engineer units to use for base development in SWA.

The planning efforts for base development and operational contingencies in Southwest Asia (SWA) (Figure 1.1) involve unique challenges.

The extremely harsh environment of the desert and very limited local building construction materials contribute to these challenges.

There is much published literature concerning not only the effects of the desert environment on material, equipment, and facilities, but also the unusual problems associated with construction and operation activities in such areas.

A need exists to summarize all engineerrelated aspects of the problem, and provide a single source of information for planners and engineer units to use for base development in SWA.

## 1.2 Objective 1.2 Objective

The purpose of this report is to consolidate all engineerrelated aspects of the problem in base development and provide planners and engineers with a single source handbook covering construction problems and practiceB unique to the Middle East.

The purpose of this report is to consolidate all engineerrelated aspects of the problem in base development and provide planners and engineers with a single source handbook covering construction problems and practices unique to the Middle East.

## 1.3 Assumptions 1.3 Assumptions

1.
The areas of concern are the desert regions of SWA.
1.
The area8 of concern are the desert regionB of SWA.
2.
The facilities will be used for up to 12 months.
2.
The facilities will beu8ed for up to 12 months.
3.

Strategic air and sea lines of communication (LOC) will be lImited to existing facilities.

3.

Strategic air and sea lines of communication (LOC) will be limited to existing facilities.

4.

Some areas in the theater of operations (TO)vill be.eubject .to hoe.
tile fire; others will not.

4.

Some areas in the theater of operations (TO)vill be.eubjeet .to ho8.
tile fire; others will not.

5.

The standard of con8truction will be auBtere.

Joint Chiefs of Staff
(JCS) Publication 3 initial standard (0 to 6 months) will govern.

5.

The staiidard of construction viii be austere.

Joint Chiefs of Staff
(JCS) Publication 3 initial standard (0 to 6 months) will govern.

6.

The deploying force8 will arrive in the TO per Time Phased Force Deployment Data with TOE equipment.

6.

The deploying forces will arrive in the TO per Time Phased Force Deployment Data with TOE equipment.

## 1.4 Characteristics Of Desert Regions 1.4 Characteristics Of Desert Regions

To provide some insight into the challenges that will be faced in base construction, it is important to understand the characteristics of desert environments.

To provide some insight into the challenges that will be faced In base construction, it is important to understand the characteriatics of' desert environnents.

*
SAUDI AIASIA
*
+
Hill,


1.4.1
Terra
1.4.1
Terra
This region of the world contains three basic types of deserts:
mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or dune deserts.

While each has itB
own distinctive characteristics, they share common featureE of barrennese1 aridity, and eeverity.

Because of such Inhospitable condition most of the population is concentrated along the coasts and the few wajor rivere where one can find some relief from the heat and dusts and where water is iore plentiful.

This region of the world contains three basic types of deserts:
mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or dune deserts.

While each has its own distinctive characteristics, they share common features of barrenness, aridity, and severity.

Because of such Inhospitable conditions, most of the population is concentrated along the coasts and the few major rivers where one can find some relief from the heat and dusts and where water is more plentiful.

Mountain deserts are areas of barren hills and Bteepsided aountains with intervening dry, flat basins.

Rainfall ig infrequent and runs off rapidly to produce flash floods that erode deep gullies and ravines.

The ground surface is badly dissected, with areas of exposed bedrock and Btony soil.

Mountain deserts are areas. of barren hills and steepsided mountains with intervening dry, flat basins.

Rainfall is infrequent and runs off rapidly to produce flash floods that erode deep gullies and ravines.

The ground surface is badly dissected, with areas of exposed bedrock and stony soil.

Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas where the surface is Btrewn with broken rock, boulders and gravel.

TheBe areas are cut by steep
walled eroded valleys, known as wadis, and contain scattered oaseB around which small villages often are found.

These deserts also contain salt flats)
areas where the surface is crusted with salt and underlaIn wth brine
saturated soil.

They are normally dry in the aumer and marshy in the winter.

Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas where the surface is strewn with broken rock, boulders and gravel.

These areas are cut by steepwalled eroded valleys, known as wadis, and contain scattered oases around which small villages often are found.

These deserts also contain salt flats, areas where the surface is crusted with ealtand underlan wfth brine
saturated Boil.

They are normally dry in the summer and marshy in the winter.

Dune or sand deserts are relatively flat) winderoded areas covered with sand or gravel.

Greed and shaped by the wind, dunes consist of loose sand of vriois parirJe sizes and vary in heighr from a few feet to several hundred feet.

Areas beLwen the dunes are generally hard with no distinct landmarks excepL fcr i occasional oasis.

Dune or sand deserts are relatively flat, winderoded areas covered with sand or gravel.

Created and shaped by the .-ind, dunes consist of loose sand of various parirJe sizes and vary in heighr from a few feet to several hundred feet.

Areas between the dunes are generally hard with no distiict landmarks except fcr i occasional oasis.

It Lust b kept in mind that all three terrain types are usually not It ut b k'pt in mind that all three terrain types are usually not dccld nt veel:atin.

The vegetation can range from sparse straggly to con
tiuou and
'rJea depending on ground conditions.

The native vegetation will usualLy be low t 'e ground, though commonly 3 ft to 4 ft (0.91
to 1.22 in)
I1h vairie cri be seen.

de.'cld ot veel:ation.

The vegetation can range from sparse straggly to con
tir.uou and
'rJea depending on ground conditions.

The native vegetation will usually be low t 1e ground, though commonly 3 ft to 4 ft (0.91 m to 1.22 in)
Itlh varierie cri be seen.

An linportan feature of nominal desert soils is the surface :0mpacti0n soraetlines referred to as "desert pavement."
This compaction is caused by action of rain (for compaction) and wind (to remove the fine particles).

This
".sert pavei.ent' usually is 1/2 in. to 4 in. (1.77 cm to 10.16 cm) thick and ciewhat fragll.

Most of the time troops will not break through,. butwith cw exc tl: trked or wheeled vehicles usually will.

Once the "desert raveneot" is bre"-ed, the heavy blowing sand and dirt conditions reported in WII inUitr rerort.s is the rule.

It is in general this "desert pavement"
that is founv between the dunes in the "sand deserts," the major portion of the "Rocky plateau deserts," and the dry flat basins in the "Mountain deserts."
An 1inportan feature of nominal desert soils is the surface Ompaction soraet1jne referred to as "desert pavement."
This compaction is caused by action of rain (for compaction) and wind (to remove the fine particles).

This
".sert pavei.ent' usually is 1/2 in. to 4
in..

(1.77 cm to 10.16 cm) thick and ciewhat frag!l.

Most of the time troopswili not break through) biitwith exc tl: tr-ked or wheeled vehicles usually will.

Once the "desert verent is breed, the heavy blowing sand and dirt conditions reported In WII mUitry reort.. is the rule.

It is In general this "desert pavement"
that is four between the dunes in the "sand deserts," the major portion of the "Rocky p1ateu deserts," and the dry flat ba8ins in the "Mountain dser ts."

## 1.4.2 Ciim. 1.4.2 Ciim.

While desert regions of the SWA are-arid and generally have low humidity, some coastal regions have high humidity levels.

Figure 1.2, a map of climatic zones, shows three climatic categories covering the Middle East:
hot, dry desert; intermediate hot dry desert; and humid, hot coastal desert.

While deserL regions of the SWA are-arid and generally have low humidity, some coastal regions have high humidity levels.

Figure 1.2, a ap of climatic zones, shows three climatic categories covering the Middle East: hot, dry disert; intirnediate hot dry desert; and humid, hot coastal desert.

Desert area of SWA experience a wide range of daily temperatures.

During the day, solar radiation warms the air and ground to produce summertime Dest?rt area of SWA experience a wide range of daily temperatures.

Ouring the day, so1r radiation warms the air and ground to produce sucnmertime
13
aambient tempEdtures well over 100F (38C).

At night in the hotdry regions, the heat dissipates quickly due to clear skies and low humidity, causing temperatures to drop 500 to 70F (10 to 21C).

Wintertime temperatureB are noticeably lower, ranging from 450 to 60F (70 to 16C) during the day to near freezing at night.

AreaB with high humidity have much lower day to night temperature 8wings.

ambient tempE-dtures well over 100F (38C).

At night in the hotdry regions, the heat dissipates quickly due to clear skies and low humidity, causing temperatures to drop 500 to 70F (100 to 21C).

Wintertime temperatureB are noticeably lower, ranging from 450 to 60F (7 to 16C) during the day to near freezing at night.

AreaB with high humidity have much lower day to night temperature swings.

Along with the daytime heat, the region is exposed to almost incessant wind.

Velocities near hurricane force are not infrequent during the day and night throughout the year.

Such wind storms, often lasting for several days, carry large quantities of dust and sand, and are frequently accompanied by rapid changes in temperature.

Along with the daytime heat, the region is exposed to almost incessant wind.

Velocities near hurricane force are not infrequent during the day and night throughout the year.

Such wind storms, often lasting for several days, carry large quantitie8 of du8t and sand, and are frequently accompanied by rapid changes in temperature.

Characteri8tic of desert areas are the limited amounts of precipitation and rapid evaporation.

In desert regionB, rainfall is less than 10 in. (254
Characteristic of desert areas are the limited amounts of precipitation and rapid evaporation.

In desert regions, rainfall is less than 10 in. (254
) per year, and frequently this is in the form of violent storms.

In the mountains and hilly areas, runoff is rapid and destructive, while in the flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depressions and salt, flat where that which does not percolate into the soil.quickly evaporates in the hot sun.

) per year, and frequently thi8 is in the form of violent storms.

In the mountains and hilly areas, runoff is rapid and de8tructive, while in the flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depressions and salt flat9
where that which doe8 not percolate into the soil.quickly evaporates n the hot sun.

## 1.5 Approach And Scope 1.5 Approach And Scope

This study was conducted in two phases.

Phase I involved:
(1) compilation of information based on actual field experiences and knowledge of laboratory personnel and other U.S. Army Corps of Engineers employees, and on a review of literature pertinent to con8truction in de8ert region8, and (2) Identification of research area8 or problem area8 requiring additional study. Pha8e II involved studying the identified problem area8 and refining information from Phase I.

This report documents the work of Phase II, and replaces the Phase I report, Theater of Operations Construction in the Desert:
A
book of Lessons Learned in the Middle East.

This study was conducted in two phases.

Phase I involved:
(1) compilation of information based on actual field experiences and knowledge of laboratory personnel and other U.S. Army Corps of Engineers employees, and on a review of literature pertinent to construction in desert regions, and (2)
identification of research areas or problem areas requiring additional study.

Phase II involved studying the identified problem areas and refining information from Phase I.

This report documents the work of Phase II, and replaces the Phase I report, Theater of Operations Construction in the Desert:
A
book of Lessons Learned in the Middle East.

As in the Phase I document, this report covers the various engineering disciplines involved ia base development.

These include ba8e planning. and siting (Chapter 2), base protection (Chaptsr.3) .electrical.genEration and distribution (Chapter 4) water supply, distribution, and disposal (Chapter S) vertical construction (Chapter 6), horizontal construction (Chapter 7), and port construction (Chapter 8).

Factors affecting the engineer work force are also considered (Chapter 9).

For definitions of abbreviations u8ed in this reports see page Indexl.

As in the Phase I document, this report covers the various engineering disciplines involved in base development.

These include base planning. and siting (Chapter 2), base protection (Chaptsr.3)., electrical, generation and distribution (Chapter 4), water supply, distribution, and disposal (Chapter
5), vertical construction (Chapter 6), horizontal construction (Chapter 7), and port construction (Chapter 8).

Factors affecting the engineer work force are also considered (Chapter 9).

For definitions of abbreviations used in this report, see page Indexl.

## Chapter 2 - Eae Planning And Siting

CHAPTER 2 - EAE PLANNING AND SITING

## 2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction

For a base to withstand a harsh environment and to keep occupants reasonably comfortable, the location of a facility or installation within a site should be determined by analyzing the constraints and features of the area.

Overall siting analysis should include the climatic constraints of solar radiation, temperature, precipitation, and prevailing winds, as well as the natural features of the ground surface, such as topography, ground cover, and drainage patterns.

This chapter provides some fundamental considerations for base planning and siting in the desert regions of SWA.

For a ba8e to withstand a har8h environment and to keep occupants reaaon
ably comfortable, the location of a facility or inetallation within a 8ite
8hould be determined by analyzing the constraints and feature8 of the area.

Overall siting analy8i8 should include the climatic constraints of solar radiation, temperature, precipitation, and prevailing winds1 as well as the natural features of the ground surface, such as topography ground cover, and drainage pattern8.

This chapter provides some fundamental considerations for ba8e planning and siting in the deBert regiona of WA.

## 2.2 Site Selection 2.2 Site Selection

Several factor8 mu8t be con8idered in tbe selection of a. aite in an arid region.

The site hali preferably be in an area where water resources are available nearby (see Chapter 5).

The site must be eaaily accessible by existing roads, or the landform must allow a landing Strip to be built nearby. *
Several factors must be considered in the .selection.of a. site in an arid region.

The site shall preferably be in an area where water resources are available nearby (see Chapter 5).

The site must be easily accessible by existing roads, or the landform must allow a landing strip to be built nearby. *
Areas where drifting sand is a problem should be avoided.

If tI4s cannot Areas where drifting sand is a problem Bhould be avoided.

If tIis cannot be done, a barrier or fence similar to the temporiry snow fences uBed along highways In the United States can be used to hold the sand; unfortunately, the sand never melts but only grows and moves.

Perbonnel may take advantage of this by placing fence8 where stockpiles of sand would be u8eful for construction or camouflage.

Emulsified asphalt or crude oil can also be applied to temporarily stabilize the soil.**
be done, a barrier or fence similar to the temporary snow fences used along highways in the United States can be used to hold the sand; unfortunately, the sand never melts but only grows and moves.

Personnel may take advantage of this by placing fences where stockpiles of sand would be useful for construction or camouflage.

Emulsified asphalt or crude oil can also be applied to temporarily stabilize the soil.**
The drainage of the site uu8t also be con8idred becau8e even though the desert receives little rain, when it does occur, it is usually sudden and inten8e and causes flash flooding even if the rainfall i8 miles from the Bite.

Lowlying areas where there i8 8 likelihood of ponding ehould be avoided.

Natural drainage swale8 (wadis ehould be located and avoided because of the likelihood of flaBh flooding.

The drainage of the site must also be considered because even though the desert receives little rain, when it does occur, it is usually sudden and intense and causes flash flooding even if the rainfall is miles from the site. Lowlying areas where there is a likelihood of ponding ehould be avoided.

Natural drainage swales (wadis2 should be located and avoided because of the likelihood of flaBh flooding.*
*
Drainage and mosquitoes may be a problem where there are salt marhea.

These areas should also be avoided; however, if they are properly drained and graded, the hazards cat be removed.

Light oils can also be applied to marshy areas to kill mosquito larvae.

Drainage and mosquitoes may be a problem where there are salt marshes.

These areas should also be avoided; however, if they are properly drained and graded, the hazards can be removed.

Light oils can also be applied to marshy areas to kill mosquito larvae.

The hot Bummer wind is a problem because it blows sand.

In addition, the wind should be blocked during the hot part of the day, but should be used in the evening to help cool the base.

The hot summer wind is a problem becau8e it blows sand.

In addition, the wind should be blocked during the hot part of the days but should be used th the evening to help cool the ba8e.

*
Gideon Golany, Urban Planning for Arid Zones (New York:
John Wiley 6 S0n8,
1978), p 7.
** Martin Evans, Iousing, Climate and Comfort (London:
The Architectural
Press, 1980), p 57.
**.*Golany, p 11.
*
Gideon Golany, Urban Planning for Arid Zones (New York:
John Wiley 6 Sons,
1978).
p 7.
** Martin Evans, Housing, Climate and Comfort (London:
The Architectural
Press, 1980), p 57.
***Golany, p Il.
21
There are seven landforma in the deserts piedmont, play., alluvial, fan, floodplain, coastal plain, eolian landforiis - bees and sand dunes, and mesa.

Of the.., the mesa coastal plain, and piedmont are moat suitable for construction.

These three landforms are the ones moat likely to be located with water resources nearby.*
However, the exact location viii be dictated by the military requirements.

     There irs svsn landforma in the deserts
                                               piedmont, playt, alluvial, fan,
floodplain, coastal plain, eolian landforms - bess and sand dunes, and mesa.
Of those, the mesa, coastal plain, and piedmont are moat suitable for con
itruction.
            Thee. three landforms are the ones moat likely to be located with
vater rssourcs, nearby.*
                           liowever, the exact location will be dictated by the
military rsquirsmants.

     A site's elevation can influence its climate.
                                                    An increase in elevation
causes the temperature to decrease, and the relative hidfty and the wind
ventilation to increase.
                          !4esas and piedmont regions have this characteristic;
however, mesas are not as easily accessible because of the straight cliffs
surrounding them .**

    A site's elevation can influence its climate.
                                                   An increase in elevation
u.es the temperature to decrease, and the relative humidity and the wind
ventilation to increase.
                         Mesas and piedmont regions have this characteristic;
however, mesas are not as easily accessible because of the straight cliff .
surrounding them.**

     The piedmont region is the area sloping down from a mountain.
                                                                        Slopes
facing away from the equator are preferable because they receive lea, direct
solar radiation and therefore have lower
                                           temperatures (Pigure 2.1).
                                                                         Slope.
facing west and southwest should be avoided because of their increased solar
radiation and higher temperatur,es.***

    The piedmont region is the area sloping down
                                                  from a mountain.
                                                                    Slopes
facing away frOm the equator are preferable because they receive less direct
solar radiation and therefore have lover temperatures (Figure 2.1).
                                                                     Slope.
facing west and southwest should be avoided because of their increased solar
radiation and higher temperatures.***

    Coastal plains slope toward the sea; because of the high humidity along
the coast, the wind is an important factor in cooling.
                                                        There may be a problem
with salt water entering the water table because of the nearness c. the sea.

    Coastal plains slope toward the sea; because of the high humidity along
the coast, the wind is an important factor in cooling.
                                                       There may be a problem
with salt water entering the water table because of the nearness o' the sea.

## 2.3 Site Planning 2.3 Site Planning

Two main factors must be controlled when designing a base in a hot, arid region.

The intense solar radiation must be reduced at critical period. by orientation and shading, and the hot, dry daytime windi must be reduced.

Two main factors must be controlled when designing a base in a hot, arid region.

The intense solar radiation must be reduced at critical periods by orientation and shading, and the hot, dry daytime winds must be reduced.

     Reducing the amount of solar radiation that reaches the building surfaces
and ground surfaces is the best way to reduce the heat gain in the base.
Buildings should be designed with their long axis oriented in an eastvest
direction to minimize the east and vest wall exposure (Figure 2.2).+
                                                                       Build-
ings should also be placed as close together as possible in order to shade
each other.
             Building overhangs, cantilevers, or arcades should be used when-
ever possible to provide shade for walkwaysandbuilding valli... A cloth
canopy or some type of shade netting can also be installad between buildings
to shad. th. streets and valkvays.l

     Reducing the amount of solar radiation that reaches the building surface.
and ground surfaces is the best way to reduce th. heat gain in ths base.
Buildings should be designed with their long axis oriented in an saltvest
direction to minimize th. east and vest will exposure (Pigurs 2.2).+
                                                                       Build-
ings should also be placed as close together ii possible in order to shads
each other.
             Building overhangs, cantilevers, or arcades should be used when-
ever possible to provide, shad. for walkways and..buildLng vail.... A cloth
canopy or some type of shada netting can also be installed between buildings
to shad. the streets and valkvay.."

     The ,tr..ts should be as narrow as practical.
                                                    Shade ihould be provided
if practical in parking areas to keep the vehicles from becoming unbearably
hot.
      Shade can be provided by canvas or some type of netting (Figure 2.3).

     The streets hould be as narrow as practical.
                                                        Shad. should be provided
if practical in parking arias to keep ths vehicles from b.coming unbearably
hot.
      Shade can be provided by canvas or some type of netting (Figur. 2.3).

Only heavily traveled .treets and pedastrian walkway. should be paved
ince the pavement will. uradiate more of the polar radiation than vill the Only heavily traveled .tr..ts and pedestrian valkvay should be paved
inc the pavement viiiraradiats more of the polar radistion than viii th.

*
Golany, p 12.
** Golany,. p 16.
***Evan., p 54.
+
Victor Olgyay, Design With Climets (Princ.toni
Prineeton University Press,
1973), p .
+1' Lsthl.sst Kelly and I, T. Pehnadsl.back, Landseiping the laudi Arabia Desert
(PhLlad.lphias
The Delaney
Press, 1976), p 40.
*
Golany, p 1.2.
" Gol.any,. p 1.6.
***y1
p
54.
+
Victor Olgyay, D.stiti With Climate (Princ.toni
Prineeten University Prsss
1973), p .
4+ Kathisv Kelly and I. T. Pehcadiiback, Lands.ping the Isudi Arabia ..ert
(PhLled.iphias
The Delaney Priss, 1976), p 40.
A. NORTh-SOUTH SLOPE
B. EAST-WEST SLOPE
23

## Wf>E

ground surface.

The streets should be paved in light earth colors rather than white (because of the glare) or dark colors, which would cause the area to become quite hot.

Large open plazas should be avoided because they do not provide shade and viii become too hot to use.

In addition, the wind will deflect into them and cause turbulence and blowing sand.

Vegetation helps to reduce the amount of radiation which reaches the ground, to hold the soil in place, and to reduce the amount of blowing sand
(Figure 2.4).*
Therefore, vegetation should be protected whenever possible during base construction.

heights of the buildings should be kept as low and uniform as possi
the distances between buildings no greater than the height of the so the wind stays above the base.

Taller buildings will create and eddies in the base (Figure 2.5).

The heights of the buildings should be kept as low and uniform as possible, with the distances between buildings no greater than the height of the structures so the wind stays above the base.

Taller buildings will create turbulence and ed1ies ir the base (Figure 2.5).

The ble, with structures turbulence Wind towers can be used to catch the wind and provide ventilation and cooling for the building interiors.

Walled courtyards will provide protection from the wind and offer shade.

Wind towers can be used to catch the wind and provide ventilation and cooling for the building interiors.

Walled courtyards will provide protection from the wind and offer shade.

designed perpendicular to the prevailing winds and be Long, wide, straight streete should be avoided because and heat will rake conditions unbearable.

designed perpendicular to the prevailing winds and be Long, wide, straight streets should be avoided because and heat will make conditions unbearable.

Streets should be as narrow as possible.

the wind, blowing sand, Streets should be as narrow as possible.

the wind, blowing sand, Many of the factors discussed here contradict those which must be considered for base protection and concealment.

Base protection has not been considered in this chapter; only the factors relating to climatesensitive design have been discussed.

Many of the factors discussed here contradict those which must be considered for base protection and concealment.

Base protection has not been considered in this chapter; only the factors relating to climatesensitive design have been discussed.

7c

## Chapter 3 - Base Protection Chapter 3 - Base Protection 3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses problems with base protection, which include camouflage, explosive excavation, mine utilization, field fortifications, and installation physical security.

Most of these problems are common to all theaters of operation (To) and are only slightly changed because of the peculiarities of the region under study.

In particular, the lack of water, temperature extremes, and low humidity have little effect on (or affect only indirectly) base protection.

However, two dominant characteristics of the region do have an effect:
the soil conditions, including dust, and the lack of building materials.

This chapter discusses problemB with base protection, which include camouflage, explosive excavation, mine utilization, field fortificationB1 and installation physical security.

Most of these problems are common to all theaters of operation (TO) and are only slightly changed because of the peculiarities of the region under study.

In particular, the lack of water, tein
perature extrelDes, and low humidity have little effect on (or affect only indirectly) base protection.

However, two dominant characteristic8 of the region do have an effect:
the 8oil conditions including dust, and the lack of building materials.

## 3.2 General 3.2 General

A general rule is that successful camouflage is 80 percent proper 8iting and 20 percent treatment.

In arid regions, featureless or flat terrain and limited vegetation make camouflage of key elements at fixed facilities partic
ularly valuable.

(See FM 903, Desert Operations.)
Dispersing easily identifiable features into irregular or nongeometrical patterns, avoiding open plains, and keying into local natural terrain irregularities  such as rock outcrops, ditches, arid drainageways  are basic practices that can significantly increase a base's chance of surviving air attacks.

When keying camouflage to natural drainage features, however, caution must be exercised since such areas may be subject to flash flooding.

Thus, their potential for incorporation into the camouflage plan may be somewhat limited.

Since Army stock camouflage items may not be available for rapid deployment, local materials can be used to fabricate acceptable alternatives.

In all cases, a total camouflage plan should be addressed on a force and unit basis, not on an itembyitem basis.

Best results can be achieved by a small (6 to 10man)
team assigned camouflage responsibility.*
Local labor should be used, if at all possible, to construct expendient camouflage measures.

Contngency plans should be made ahead of time.

A general rule is that successful camouflage i8 80 percent proper aiting and 20 percent treatment.

In arid regions, featurele9s or flat terrain and liuiited vegetation make camouflage of key elementB at fixed facilities particularly valuable.

(See FM 903. Desert Operations.)
Dispersing easily Identifiable features into irregular or nongeometrical patterns, avoiding open plains, and keying into local natural terrain irregularities  such as rock outcrops, ditches, and drainageways  are basic practices that can significantly increase a base's chance of surviving air attacks.

When keying camouflage to natural drainage features1 however, caution oust be exercised since such areas may be subject to flash flooding.

Thus, their potential for incorporation into the camouflage plan ay be somewhat linited.

Since Army stock camouflage items may not be available for rapid deployuent, local materials can be used to fabricate acceptable alternatives.

In all cases, a total camouflage plan should be addressed on a force and unit basis, not on an itetbyitem baais.

Best results can be achieved by a auiall (6 to 10man)
teaiii assigned camouflage responsibility.*
Local labor should be used1, if at all possible, to construct expendient camouflage measuree.

Contingency plans should be made ahead of time.

## 3.3 Explosive Excavation 3.3 Explosive Excavation

The need may arise to excavate large soil volumes for tank obstacles, place storage below ground, or emplace field fortifications.

The principal problems are (1) emplacing the explosives deep enough to use their full potential, and (2) predictIng the resulting crater.

The need may arise to excavate large soil volumes for tank obetacles1
place storage below ground1, or euiplace field fortifications.

The principal problems are (1) emplacing the explosives deep enough to use their full potential, and (2) predicting the resulting crater.

## 3.3.1 Emplacement 3.3.1 Emplacement

The emplacement problem will be difficult in many of the cemented desert soils.

Drilling equipment and/or shaped charges offer the only practicel The emplacement problem will be difficult in many of the ceaented desert soils.

Drilling equipment and/or shaped charges offer the only practicel

* Wherevr
the words man, men,
or their related pronouns appear, either as
words or parts of words (other than referring to a specific individual), they have been used for literary purposes and are meant in their generic
sense to include both sexes.
* Wherever
the words man, men,
or their related pronouns appear1 either a
words or parts of words (other than referring to a specific individual),
they have been used for literary purposes and are meant in their generic
sense to include both sexes.
31
solutions.

The crater dimensions can be approximated from the curves in Figures 3.1. and
3.2.

While these curves are recommended for general use, in the Middle East they will give most accurate result8 for TNT in dry granular sand and weak rocks, the cage for which they were developed.

solutions.

The crater dimensions can be approximated from the curves in Fig
ureB 3.1.

and
3.2.

WhIle these curves are recommended for general use1 in the Middle East they will give most accurate results for TNT in dry granular sand and weak rocks1 the case for which they were developed.

## 3.3.2 Tank Obstacles 3.3.2 Tank Obstacle8

The best explosive excavation system for tank obstacles is a 4in, plastic pipe buried to about 61/2 ft (2 m) and pumped full of slurry explosive.

This system can be primed with C4 on one end, and the resulting linear ditch can run several hundred meters.

Two to three hundred is probably practical without additional priming at intervals along the pipe..

A system such as a large Ditch Witch or Badger Plow may not be available to emplace pipe, so Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are provided for explosives in boreholes.

Note that in addition to the problem of providing enough boreholes, large amounts of explosives are also required.

The best explosive excavation system for tank obstacles ie a 4in. plastic pipe buried to about 61/2 ft (2 m) and pumped full of Blurry exp]oeive.

This system can be primed with C4 on one end1 and the resulting linear ditch can run several hundred meters.

Two to three hundred is probably practical without additional priming at intervals along the pipe..

A system such as a large Ditch Witch or Badger Plow may not be available to emplace pipe, so Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are provided for explosives in boreholes.

Note that in addition to the problei of providing enough boreholes1 large amounta of explosives are also required.

## 3.4 Mine Use 3.4 Mine Use

Mine warfare has required major engineering and logistical efforts in previous desert combat.

FM 903 points Out that in most cases, dcs'ert mine
fields, because of the terrain, must cover large areas to be effective.

Two possible problems that can arise in certain desert terrains and causediffi
culty in using mines to prevent intrusion are:
(1) certain cemented or gravelly soils will be difficult to dig for underground emplacement of nines, and, when dug leave an obvious signature; and (2) drifting sands can cover scatterable mines, can cover buried mines too deeply for mine effectiveness, and can expose mines that have been previously buried.

No solutions are suggested to these problems.

Mine warfare has required major engineering and logistical efforts in previous desert combat.

FM 903 points out that in most cases1 dcsert nine
fields, because of the terrain must cover large areas to be effective.

Two possible problems that can arise in certain desert terrains and causediffi
culty in using mines to prevent intruBion are:
(1) certain cemented or gravelly soils will be difficult to dig for underground emplacement of uines, and1 when dug1 leave an obvious signature; and (2) drifting sands can cover scatterable mines, can cover buried niines too deeply for mine effectiveness and can expose iines that have been previously burled.

No solutions are suggested to these problems.

## 3.5 Field Fortifications 3.5 Field Fortifications

Command posts and underground bunkers will be difficult to construct due to lack of beams, timbers1 and general construction materials.

In one of the Sinai campaigns, existing railroads were- torn up -so, that rails.and ties coul,d be used to roof bunkers and fighting positions.

Full advantage must be taken of expedient items that can be salvaged from existing or demolished buildings in the TO.

For the larger structures, such items as rails and railroad crossties, beams, and joists from demolished buildings, etc., may be available.

Competition for such salvaged materials should be expected because of the general lack of timber and structural steel.

CoTnmand posts and underground bunkers will be difficult to construct due to lack of beanis timbers1 and general construction materials.

In one of the Sinai caipaigns, existing railroads were. tornup -s.o.that rails.andties couLd be used to roof bunkers and fighting positions.

Full advantage must be taken of expedient items that can be salvaged from existing or demolished buildings in the TO.

For the larger Structures 8uch items as rails and railroad crossties, beams, and Joists frozn demolished buildings1 etc.1 may be available.

Competition for such salvaged materials should be expected because of the general lack of timber and structural steel.

## 3.6 Overhead Cover For Prepared Positions 36 Overhead Cover For Prepared Positions

In arid regions there will be few natural materials from which to build overhead cover for prepared fighting poeitionB such as positions for Dragon and Law antitark weapons and two-man fighting positions.

Due to the extreme temperatures, it may be just as important for overhead cover to provide shade protection from incoming fire.

Dust and blowing sands will be irritating to the troops, may cause damage to the weapons, and can obscure the field of fire during battle.

For antitank weaponsp the dust stirred up from the backblast In arid regions there will be few natural materials from which to build overhead cover for prepared fighting positions such as positions for Dragon and Law antitank weapons and twoman fighting positions.

Due to the extreme temperatures, it may be just as important for overhead cover to provide shade protection from incoming fire.

Dust and blowing sands will be irritating to the troops. may cause damage to the weapons, and can obscure the field of fire during battle.

For antitank weapons, the dust stirred up from the backblast
32

## - Optiu Epth Of 3Uriaj B - Optimum Epth Of 3Uriaj

200
0
a
3
2
0. 3
)00
200
SO
0.3 0.2
34
JIM AVLI SPAN
and missile will not only give away the location of the positions but can also decrease the gunner's field of vision to the point where he may lose his target.

and missile will not only give away the location of the position, but can also decrease the gunner's field of vision to the point where he may lose his target.

## 3.6.1 Possible Solutions 3.6.1 Possible Solutions

Use tubular sandbags for overhead cover.

These sandbags are about 79 in.

(200 cm) long and 10 in. (25 cm) wide when empty.

When filled and arched they can span a 24In. (60cm) wide trench providing overhead cover for the Dragon and twoman fighting positions shown in TC 7750, pp 49 and 12, respectively. The tubular sandbag should be filled using soil dug from the bottom of the position.

The Boil at the ground surface may be too dry for the filled bags to arch properly.

The arched bags will provide overhead cover for both shade and protection froo fragmentation.

This method does not solve the problem of backblast.

Use tubular sandbags for overhead cover.

These sandbags are about 79 in.

(200 cm) long and 10 in. (25 cm) wide when empty.

When filled and arched they can span a 24in. (60cm) wide trench, providing overhead cover for the Dragon and twoman fighting positions shown in TC 7750, pp 49 and 12, respectively.

The tubular sandbag should be filled using soil dug from the bottom of the position.

The soil at the ground surface may be too dry for the filled bags to arch properly.

The arched bags will provide overhead cover for both shade and protection froo fragmentation.

This method does not solve the problem of backblast.

## 3.6.2 Special Consideritions 3.6.2 Special Consideritions

Tubular sandbags are used in Germany by the Army and by civilians for flood control.

These bags should be considered for inclusion as part of the forces' aandbag supply.

Tubular sandbags are used in Germany by the Army and by civilians for flood control.

These bags should be considered for inclusion as part of the forces' sandbag supply.

36

## 3.7 Constructici Of Command, Control, And Communications (C3) Bunkers 3.7 Constructioi Of Command, Controand Communications (C3) Bunkerb

Construction of C3 bunkers at operations ba9e8 and strong pointB u8ing designs presently in Army field manuals requires large quantities of uiaterials
(concrete. tinber, and corrugated wetal) and considerable effort by engineer troops.

A force operating in remote and arid regions will have neither the materials nor engineer support to con8truct C3 bunkers using designs in the field manuals.

Another problem in arid regions is the extreme temperature that, without adequate ventilation, could nake staying in the bunker unbearable.

Construction of C3 bunkers at operations bases and strong points using designs presently in Army field manuals requires large quantities of materials
(concrete, timber, and corrugated metal) and considerable effort by engineer troops.

A force operating in remote and arid regions will have neither the materials nor engineer support to construct C3 bunkers using designs in the field manuals.

Another problem in arid regions is the extreme temperature that, without adequate ventilation, could make staying in the bunker unbearable.

## 3.7.1 Posbibie Soiutiona 3.7.1 Posbibie Soiutiona

Use buried frane fabric shelter9.

These 8helters can be fabricated from materials that will be found in builtup areas of the country and iaterials brought in by the force.

The frame for the shelter can be made either from smalldiameter (11/2 to 2in.) Bteel or aluminun pipe connected with pipe fitting or fron lumber taken froixi existing structures.

Frame Bpacing should be a aximuiti of 30 in. (6O m) and designed tosupport 18 to 24 in. .(460.to
610 uim) of soil.

The fabric cover, should be a neoprenecoated nylon fabric, such as T17 landing menbrane, or possibly the fabric from which large water bladders are iade.

Excavation for the bunker can be done using engineer equipulent or explosives.

Entranceways should be placed on both ends of the bunker for ventilation.

If available, blowers should also be used to increase the ventilation.

Approximately 16 in. (410 nm) of soil cover will provide adequate fragmentation protection.

Use buried frame fabric shelters.

These shelters can be fabricated from materials that will be found in builtup areas of the country and materials brought in by the force.

The frame for the shelter can be made either from smalldiameter (11/2 to 2in.) steel or aluminum pipe connected with pipe fitting or from lumber taken from existing structures.

Frame spacing should be a maximum of 30 in. (760 mm) and designed to.support 18 to 24 in. (460.to
610 mm) of soil.

The fabric cover, should be a neoprenecoated nylon fabric, such as T17 landing membrane, or possibly the fabric from which large water bladders are made.

Excavation for the bunker can be done using engineer equipment or explosives.

Entranceways should be placed on both ends of the bunker for ventilation.

If available, blowers should also be used to increase the ventilation.

Approximately 16 in. (410 mm) of soil cover will provide adequate fragmentation protection.

## 3.7.2 Special Casdrations 3.7.2 Special Casdrations

Several framefabric shelters are being considered for type classifica-
Several franefabric shelters are being considered for type classification.

These shelters are lightweight, require little shipping space, and can be erected rapidly by the users with engineer support required only for excavation and placement of soil cover.

In recent years, these shelters have been used by the Israelis.

tion.

These shelters are lightweight, require little 8hippittg space, and can be erected rapidly by the users with engineer 8upport required only for excavation and placement of soil cover.

In recent years, these shelters have been used by the Israelis.

## 3.8 S,Pecial Camouflage Problems. 3.8 Special Canoufiage Problenis

3.8.1
racks,
Taiwaya, PlpelineB, and Other Linear Featuz'ee
3.8.1
racks, Twiwaya, PipelineB, and Other Linear Featuree
1.

Possible solutions.

Bury pipes, avoid straight lines, and use thermal blankets and screens to break up lines and patterns of piping.

Use adhesives and local soil to match background color.

Shadows must be elim
1.

Possible solutions.

Bury pipes, avoid straight lines, and use thermal blankets and screens to break up lines and patterns of piping.

Use adhesives and local soil to ciatch background color.

Shadows must be elim mated.

Use discipline to curtail tracking.

Rake out connecting tracks to canouflage installations.

Taxiways can be patterned by use of adhesives and local soils.

Special fireproof adhesives are required.

Inated.

Use discipline to curtail tracking.

Rake out connecting tracks to camouflage installations.

Taxiways can be patterned by use of adhesives and local soils.

Special fireproof adhesives are required.

2.

Don'ts.

Do not employ comlEon adhe9ives on taxiiaya.

Loose sand and fire from common adhesives are hazards to jet engines.

2.

Don'ts.

Do not employ common adhesives on taxiways.

Loose sand and fire from common adhesives are hazards to jet engines.

3.

Special considerations.

Pipelines, offroad tracks, and taxiways are all highly visible linear signatures and keys to specific target locations.

kush and screets used randonily along pipelines help reduce detectability.

Local material8 such as canvas, shrimp netting, screen, sheeting, straw,
3.

Special consjderations.

Pipelines, offroad tracks, and taxiways are all, highly visible linear signatures and keys to specific target locations.

Brush and screens used randomly along pipelines help reduce detectability.

Local materials such as canvas, shrimp netting, screen, sheeting, straw,
37
feathers, steel wool, and glass wool can be used to produce screens by tying them to a mesh base 8upport of wire or cord.

feathers, steel wool, and glass wool can be used to produce screens by tying them to a mesh base 8upport of wire or cord.

## 3.8.2 Electrical Power Generators 3.8.2 Electrical Power Generators

1.

Possible solutions.

Emplace under cover of buildings.

Bury in natural or dug ground Cuts.

Cover installation with ecreenirg.

Use thermal blankets and radiation Bhields between generator and the expected angle of incoming attack aircraft.

Distribute generators to avoid regular aignature patterns.

Employ antiradar screens.

Insulate exhaust stack8 and hot areas.

Bury power cables where possible.

Employ decoy thermal sources to de8troy ground Bignature of site.

Exhaust hot air and gases into the atmoBphere from shielded vents.

The detection and identification of generators by thermal devices is a principal threat to site1 unit, and activity identification.

1.

Possible solutions.

Emplace under cover of buildings.

Bury in natural or dug ground cuts.

Cover installation with screening.

Use thermal blankets and radiation shields between generator and the expected angle of incoming attack aircraft.

Distribute generators to avoid regular signature patterns.

Employ antiradar screens.

Insulate exhaust stack8 and hot areas.

Bury power cables where possible.

Employ decoy thermal sources to destroy ground signature of site.

Exhaust hot air and gases into the atmosphere from shielded vents.

The detection and identification of generators by thermal devices is a principal threat to site, unit, and activity identification.

2.

Don'ts.

Do not restrict air flow through generators.

Do not exhaust hot air onto objects and terrain (these will become secondary radiators).

Do not rely on visual screens to hide from thermal detection.

Where possible, avoid open terrain.

2.

Don'ts.

Do not restrict air flow through generators.

Do not exhaust hot air onto objects and terrain (these will become secondary radiators).

Do not rely on visual screens to hide from thermal detection.

Where poBsible, avoid open terrain.

3.

Special considerations.

Use local aaterials and labor to fabricate needed camouflage.

In a thermal region, the main objective is to it heat escape by convection while shielding radiation from detectors.

Hot gases are not readily detectable, but surfaces warmer or colder than their backg.ounds are.

Straw, brush, and old fabrics of various kinds can be used to produce screening.

3.

Special considerations.

Use local materials and labor to fabricate needed camouflage.

In a thermal region, the main objective is to it heat escape by convection while shielding radiation from detectors.

Hot gases are not readily detectable, but surfaces warmer or colder than their backg.ounds are.

Straw, brush, and old fabrics of various kinds can be used to produce screening.

3.8.3
Tall Towra and Antennae
3.8.3
Tall 7'owr3 and Antennae
1.

Possible solutions.

Site tall features with concealment consideration.

Employ openweb construction where possible for both towers and antennae.

Pattern paint and apply shape distributors in accord with terrain using local brush or similar material.

Bury cable to towers (thermal target).

Use decoy towers to confuse force identity.

Where feasible, use existing tall structures for antennae emplacements.

1.

Possible solutions.

Site tall features with concealment conBidera
tioi.

Employ openweb construction where possible for both tower8 and antennae.

Pattern paint and apply shape distributors in accord with terrain using local brush or similar material.

Bury cable to towers (thermal target).

UBe decoy towers to confuse force identity.

Where feasible, use existing tall structures for antennae emplacements.

2.

Don'ts.

Do notcluster antennae. Donotaddedge dlsrupt'or8 to rotating antennae.

Do not pattern paint rotating antennae.

Color tone antennae to match background terrain, not the sky.

Avoid making tracks between guy wire anchor points.

Do nt add to visual cross section of towers.

2.

Don'ts.

Do notclusterantennae. Donotaddedge disruptors to rotating antennae.

Do not pattern paint rotating antennae.

Color tone antennae to match background terrain, not the sky.

Avoid making tracks between guy wire anchor points.

Do not add to visual cross section of towers.

3.

Special considerations.

Antennae on tall towers are easily identified reference points for attack from the air.

High windB must be considered for all camouflage measures.

3.

Special considerations.

Antennae on tall towers are easily identified reference points for attack from the air.

High winds must be considered for all camouflage measures.

## 3.8.4 Individual Buildings And Shzters 3.8.4 Individual Buildings And Shelters

1.

Possible solutions.

Use existing structures where possible and do not modify their exterior appearance.

Disperse new structures, shelters, and tentage in nongeonietrical patterns tied into existing terrain featuree.

Bury structures where forced to use open areas.

Use adhesive and local soils to tone down exposed surfaces.

Conceal shadows and destroy geometric shape of structures by use of screening made from local materials applied to wire
netting base.

Especially screen all openings to prevent "blackhole effect.

1.

Possible solutions.

Use existing structures where possible and do not modify their exterior appearance.

Disperse new structures, shelters, and tentage in nongeometrical patterns tied into existing terrain featuree.

Bury structures where forced to use open areas.

Use adhesive and local soils to tone down exposed surfaces.

Conceal shadows and destroy geometric shape of structures by use of screening made from local materials applied to wire
netting base.

Especially screen all openings to prevent "blackhole effect.

38
Extend ground ;.attern with soil treatments using oils, dark earth, etc.

Maintain random road networks.

Use decoy structures where appropriate to confuse the attacker and provide false targets.

Metal screening can reduce detection by radar.

Trash can be used to conceal vital building8.

Screening materials of local nature are available to help in the form of adhesives from milk, soybeans, flour, molasses) etc.

Garnish from straw, fabrics) canvas, and traah can also be used.

Supporting mesh can be made froni materials such as chicken wire and old fish nets.

Extend ground ;.attern with soil treatments uBing oils, dark earth, etc.

Main
tam random road networks.

Use decoy structures where appropriate to confuse the attacker and provide false targets.

Metal screening can reduce detection by radar.

Trash can be used to conceal vital buildings.

Screening materials of local nature are available to help in the form of adhesives from milk, soybeans, flour, molasses, etc.

Garnish from straw, fabrics, canvas, and trash can also be used.

Supporting mesh can be made from materials such as chicken wire and old fish nets.

2.

Don'ts.

Avoid positions in openplain areas.

Avoid positions on crests or ridges.

Do not alter exterior appearance of existing damaged buildings except to torte down.

Do not permit traffic and parking near critical buildings or shelters.

Do not use open geometric patterns for tents and vans.

Keep antennae arid other highly identifiable features at a distance frog critical headquarters buildings.

2.

Don'ts.

Avoid positions in openplain areas.

Avoid positions on crests or ridges.

Do not alter exterior appearance of existing damaged buildings except to tone down.

Do not permit traffic and parking near critical buildings or shelters.

Do not use open geometric patterns for tents and vans.

Keep antennae and other highly identifiable features at a distance from critical headquarters buildings.

3.

Special considerations.

Use local materials and labor where possible.

Basic use of local soil 'adhered to structures is valuable for tone down.

Screens made from straw, brush, rags, or shrimp netting tied to Bupporting netting are good substitutes for inventory screening.

Adhesives can be made from molasses, oil, bituminous emulsions, resins, glues, starches, soybean and milk protein, and flour.

3.

Special considerations.

Use local iaterials and labor where possible.

Ba8ic use of local soil adhered to structures is valuable for tone down.

Screens made from straw, brush, rags, or shrimp netting tied to supporting nettirg are good substitutes for inventory screening.

Adhesives can be made from mola8ses, oil, bituminous emulsions, resins, glues, starches, soybean and milk protein, and flour.

## 3.8.5 Open Material Storage Sites And Fuel Storage 3.8.5 Open Material Storage Sites And Fuel Storage

1.

Possible solutions.

Use natural terrain features and lines to stock stores.

Use broken ground, gullies, existing roadsides, and shadows of buildings to disperse supplies so that from a distance they appear as a part of the natural order of things.

Employ local materials such as brush, straw, and fabrics to break up linear patterns of stock supplie8.

Use adhesive and local soils to fabricate screens for covering larger items.

Disperse large items consistent with security.

Create decoy storage sites in open areas using the usual military squares and piles of trash.

Patterns can be created on the ground in arid areas with oil or other dark colorants to simulate stocks of stores by represent:lng their shadow.

Use existing buildings where possible to pruvide both concealment and cover.

Where possible, employ existing fuel storage facilities.

Bury bladders, keeping the shape of revetments Irregular.

Disperse into irregular geometric patterns.

Use screening to cover shadow line and employ local soil as colorant.

Vertical tanks should be emplaced ainst rocky outcrops or burled.

Screening trash and treated paper can simulate rocky backgrounds.

Thermal insulation (such as foam) on paper or fabric covering can reduce infrared detection when used over tanks and bladders. Screens of patterned canvas are suitable in desert areas if wind load is taken into account.

1.

Possible solutions.

Use natural terrain features and lines to stock stores.

Use broken ground, gullies, existing roadsides, and shadows of buildings to disperse supplies so that from a distance they appear as a part of the natural order of things.

Employ local materials euch as brush, straw, and fabrics to break up linear patterns of stock supplies.

Use adhesive and local soils to fabricate screens for covering larger items.

Disperae large items consistent with security.

Create decoy storage sites in open areas using the usual military squares and piles of trash.

Patterns can be created on the ground in arid areas with oil or other dark colorants to simulate 8tocks of stores by representing their shadow.

Use existing buildings where possible to pruvide both concealment and cover.

Where possible, employ existing fuel storage facilities.

Bury bladders, keeping the shape of revetments Irregular.

Disperse into irregular geouetric patterns.

Use screening to cover .8hadow line and employ local soil as colorant.

Vertical tanks should be emplaced ainst rocky outcrops or buried.

Screening tra8h and treated paper can simulate rocky backgrounds.

Thermal insulation (such as foam) on paper or fabric covering can reduce infrared detection when used over tanks and bladders. Screens of patterned canvas are suitable in desert areas if wind load is taken into account.

2.

Don'ts.

Avoid stereotyped geometric ground patterns in etablishing storage 8ites.

Avoid use of openplain areas.

Avoid creating more roads than necessary.

2.

Don'ts.

Avoid stereotyped geometric ground patterns in etab1ishing storage sites.

Avoid use of openplain areas.

Avoid creating more roads than necessary.

3.

Special considerations.

Material storage is an inviting target.

While moderately Increasing Inventory and controlling access are valuable techniques, the use of passive measures to protect stores is worth the cost.

Take precautions when using natural drainage features since they may be subject to flash flooding.

3.

Special considerations.

Material storage is an inviting target.

While moderately increasing inventory and controlling access are valuable techniques, the use of passive measures to protect stores is worth the cost.

Take precautions when using natural drainage features since they may be subject to flash flooding.

39

## 3.9 Placement Of Mineb In Shifting Sands 3.9 Placement Of Mines In Shifting Sands

Placement of mines in areas known to have shifting sands may result in buried mines being uncovered, thus making it easier for others to detect mine locations.

Mines placed in wadis or other intermittent water courses may be dislocated or even detonated when rains fill these channels.

Burial of mines in desert plateau areas where the ground is flat and stony may prove diff icult.

(Information source, Landmine and Countermine Warfare, North Africa,
19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories, June 1972J.)
Possible solutions include minefield locations carefully selected with full knowledge of the possible adverse environmental impacts.

Placement of mines in areas known to have shifting sands may result in buried mines being uncovered, thus making it easier for others to detect mine locations.

Mines placed in wadis or other interiBittent water courses may be dislocated or even detonated when rains fill these channels.

Burial of IBines in desert plateau areas where the ground is flat and stony may prove difficult.

(Information source, Landmine and Countermine Warfare1, North Africa,
19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories, June 1972J.)
Possible solutions include minefield locations carefully selected with full knowledge of the possible adverse environmental impactB.

## 3.10 Mine Removal 3.10 Mine Removal

Featureless terrain without easily locatable landmarks makes finding and removing friendly minefields difficult.

Possible solutions include starting points located and recorded by. taking azimuths and distances from more than one landmark and ensuring the landmarks are the most permanent terrain feature available.

Featureless terrain without easily locatable landmarks makes finding and removing friendly minefields difficult.

Possible solutions include starting points located and recorded by taking azimuths and distances from more than one landmark and ensuring the landmarks are the most perinanelit terrain feature available.

## 3.11 Effects Of Temperature Extremes On Mines 3.11 Effects Of Temperature Extremes On Mines

Extreme temperatures and abrupt daily temperature changes can affect the functioning of buried mines and create increased dangers from mine detonation8
in openstorage dump areas.

Surface laying of mines caii increa8e the temperature extremes that mines are subject to.

(Information source1, Landuiine and Countermine Warfare, North Africa, 19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resource Inventories, Juiie 1972].)
Extreme temperatures and abrupt daily temperature changes can affect the functioning of buried mines and create increased dangers from mine detonations in openstorage dump areas.

Surface laying of mines can increase the temperature extremes that mines are subject to.

(Information source, Landmine and Countermine Warfare, North Africa, 19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resource Inventories, June 1972].)

## 3.11.1 Possjbl Solutions 3.11.1 Possibi Solutions

This problem was noted from World War II experiences in North Africa.

Current landmine manuals indicate that U.S. landniiiies are built to function in temperatures as high a 125F (51C) and niay be stored in areas up to 160F
(70C).

Little information was found pri what. has been, done to improve the ability of mines to fuiiction in these extreme temperatures since World War U.

However, mines placed in a desert eiwironment may reach temperatures greater than 150F (65C) due to 8olar heating, especially if they are surface laid.

This problem was noted from World War II experiences in North Africa.

Current landmine manuals indicate that U.S. landniines are built to function in temperatures as high as 125F (51C) and may be stored in areas up to 160F
(70C).

Little information was found on what, has been done to improve the ability of mines to function in these extreme temperatures since World War II.

However, mines placed in a desert environment may reach temperatures greater than 150F (65C) due to solar heating, especially if they are surface laid.

## 3.11.2 Dont's 3.11.2 Dont

Do not store mines in enclosed buildings where temperatures might exceed
150F (65C).

Do not Store mines in enclosed buildings where temperatures might exceed
150F (65C).

## 3.12 Mine Detector AnPrs7 3.12 Mine Detector AnPrs7

Thi currellt nonnietallic mine detector, ANPRS7, does not funetion well in soils with au extremely low moisture conteut.

This problem was noted during the clearance of miues at the Suez Caual; however1, no practical solution is known.

The current nonmetallic mine detector, ANPRS7, does not function well in soils with an extremely low moisture content.

This problem was noted during the clearance of mines at the Suez Canal; however, no practical solution is known.

310

## 3.13 Visual Detection Of Minefield Intruders 3.13 Visual Detection Of Minefield Intruders

Visual detection of minefield intruders will be hindered by afternoon haze in deserts on clear, hot days.

Between 1500 and 1700 hours, haze may limit visibility close to the ground to approximately 200 yd.

(Inforwation Bource, Landmine and Countermine Warfare North Africa,
19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories June 1972J.)
Use aentry dogs or other sen
aors to detect intruders during periods when haze liiits ground visibility.

Visual detection of minefield intruders will be hindered by afternoon haze in deserts on clear hot days.

Between 1500 and 1700 hours, haze may limit visibility close to the ground to approximately 200 yd.

(Information source, Landmine and Countermine Warfare North Africa,
19401943 [Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories, June 1972J.)
Use sentry dogs or other sen
aors to detect intruders during periods when haze limits ground visibility.

## 3.14 Effect Of Extreme Environment On Sensors 314 Effect Of Extreme Environment On Sensors

Extreme environmental factors such as high temperatures, haze, winds, and sandstorms can degrade sensor performance by creating excessively high false alarm rates, reducing effective detection rangeB, and causing mechanical and electronic component failures.

Sandstorms could even bury the sensor completely.

Infrared sensors will be adversely affected by haze, ground fog, or sandstorms.

Detection capabilities during high temperatures will be reduced because the temperature differentials between the target and the background will be small.

Extreme temperature fluctuations will make it difficult to adjust the dynamic range of infrared equipment.

The radar's effectiveness will be reduced during sandstorms due to reduced effective ranges and clogging of moving components (such as sweeping dishes) with sand.

Acoustic sensors will be adversely affected by background noises created by high winds and blowing sand, which can clog or abrade microphones Seismic sensors il1 be difficult to emplace and be less sensitive where bedrock is exposed.

To Bolve such difficulties, electronic components should be shielded from the sun and cooled.

Verifying sensors should be used to reduce false alarm rates.

Low
frequency radars should be used during sandstorus (up to 1.0 GHz).

When possible, alter terrain to extend effective ranges of sensors.

Extreme environmental factors such as high temperatures, haze, winds, and sandstorms can degrade 8ensor performance by creating excessively high false alarm rates, reducing effective detection ranges, and causing mechanical and electronic component failures.

Sandstorms could even bury the sensor completely.

Infrared sensors will be adversely affected by haze, ground fog, or sandstorms.

Detection capabilities during high temperatures will be reduced because the temperature differentials between the target and the background will be small.

Extreme temperature fluctuations will make it difficult to adjust the dynamic range of infrared equipment.

The radar's effectiveness will be reduced during sandstorms due to reduced effective ranges and clogging of moving components (such as sweeping dishes) with sand.

Acoustic sensors will be adversely affected by background noises created by high winds and blowing sand, which can clog or abrade microphones.

Seismic sensors will be difficult to emplace and be less sensitive where bedrock is exposed.

To solve such difficulties, electronic components should be shielded from the sun and cooled.

Verifying sensors should be used to reduce false alarm rates.

Low
frequency radars should be used during sandstorms (up to 1.0 GHz).

When possible, alter terrain to extend effective ranges of sensors.

311

## Chapter 4 - Ejectric Power Generation, Distribution, And Grounding: Swa Base Camps Chapter 4 - Ejectric Power Generations Distribution, And Grounding: Swa Base Camps 4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

This chapter considers aspects of electric power generation and distribution that present significant challenges to Army deployment and operations in SWA environent8.

Field engineers can use thi8 infonnation a a guide to specific problenis with electric di8tribution 8yste8 in a desert environment, and a an outline of typical distribution/generation equipment expected to be u8ed.

The information collected here i8 applicable to Arniy base camps or logistic complexes that may be built in area8 forward of de8ignated, pre 8tocked, intermediate staging base8 (ISB5), and therefore to any region of SWA.

This chapter considers aspects of electric power generation and distribution that present significant challenges to Army deployment and operations in SWA environments.

Field engineerB can use this information as a guide to specific problem8 with electric distribution systems in a desert environment, and as an outline of typical distribution/generation equipment expected to be u8ed.

The information collected here is applicable to Army base camps or logistic complexes that may be built in areas forward of designated, pre stocked, intermediate staging bases (ISB8), and therefore to any region of SWA.

This chapter is based on-the following assumptions: Thi8 chapter i8 based on-the following a8sumption8:

1.
Base camps will be developed in an arid, sandy, and hot environment
with high winds.
1.
Base canips will be developed in an arid, sandy, and hot enviromnent
with high winds.
2.
Logistics and resupply capability will be limited.
2.
Logistics and resupply capability will be limited.
3.
Host nation power will be either unavailable or incompatible with
power deniand.
3.
Host nation power will be either unavailable or incompatible with
power demand.
4.
Use of organic TOE generators for more than a few weeks will not be
acceptable because of troop unit operational degradation.
4.
Use of organic TOE generators for more than a few weeks will not be
acceptable because of troop unit operational degradation.
5.
Engineer support will be overtasked; shortages of experienced electric distribution specialists are expected.
5.
Engineer support will be overtasked; shortage8 of experienced electric distribution specialists are expected.
6.
Base camps may have to be relocated for tactical or logi8tical reasons.
6.
Base camps may have to be relocated for tactical or logistical reasons.
A very simplified electric distribution system is required.

A more elaborate or extensive system would not be feasible to construct or maintain using presently available distribution equipment/materials.

A limited and simplified power distribution system would be compatible with currently considered levels of austerity within the base camp.

As an example of electric utilities' austerity, recent findings indicate that the average electric power available at typical OCONUS Army bases is between 0.75 and 1.6 kW per man.

Base camp planning for SWA forward areas consider power levels of .10 to .20
kW per man.

Certain ISB locations provide for total electric consumption of S
MW, whereas base camps will provide about 1 MW for equivalent size units.

A very simplified electric distribution system is required.

A more elaborate or extensive system would not be feasible to construct or maintain using presently available di8tribution equipment/materials.

A 11iited and simplified power distribution system vould be compatible with currently considered levels of au8terity within the base camp.

As an example of electric utilities' austerity recent findings indicate that the average electric power available at typical OCONUS Army bases is between 0.75 and 1.6 kW per man.

BaBe camp planning for SWA forward areas consider power levels of .10 to .20
kW per man.

Certain ISB location8 provide for total electric consumption of 5
MW, whereas base camps will provide about 1 MW for equivalent size units.

Other con8iderations in this chapter are reliance on fieldexpedient measures and common 8ense, along with tactical considerations that may become important at later phase8 of base camp operation.

In most scenarios which include a base camp, both air superiority and positive region control are assumed.

This assuniption may not hold for extended periods.

Other considerations in this chapter are reliance on fieldexpedient measures and common sense, along with tactical considerations that may become important at later phases of base camp operation.

In moat scenarios which include a base camp, both air superiority and positive region control are assumed.

This assumption may not hold for extended periods.

The electric power distribution system considered here is intended to support a typical 1000man base camp.

Although larger ba8e sizes of 3000 and The electric power distribution system considered here is intended to support a typical 1000man base camp.

Although larger base sizes of 3000 and
5000man capacity are being planned, it is recommended, for simplicity and least demand on electric distribution expertise, that the 1000man distribution network be duplicated as necessary to accommodate these larger camps.

Extension of completely centralized distribution (i.e., using larger generators and longer trunk lines) would necessitate use of higher voltages, additional types of equipment, and personnel with more expertise in distribution.

5000man capacity are being planned, it is recocnmended,r for simplicity and least demand on electric distribution expertise1, that the 1000man distribution network be duplicated as necesgary to accommodate these larger camps.

Extension of completely centralized distribution (i.e.1 using larger genera
tore and longer trunk lines) would necessitate use of higher voltages, additional types of equipment1, and personnel with more expertise in distribution.

At this stage in the planning for base camp development1, exact
or even approximate  power demand profiles have not been specified because of ongoing revisione in Army Facility Component System (AFCS) facilities for use in SWA.

Since any distribution system must be tailored to match a known demand, specific recommendations for generation/distribution equipment size are not included here.

However, examples of typical distribution systems, and those proposed by other studies, are included.

General principles for using these systems are considered.

At this stage in the planning for base camp development, exact  or even approximate  power demand profiles have not been specified because of ongoing revisions in Army Facility Component System (AFCS) facilities for use in SWA.

Since any distribution system must be tailored to match a known demand, specific recommendations for generation/distribution equipment size are not included here.

However, examples of typical distribution systems, and those proposed by other studies, are included.

General principles for using these systems are considered.

## 4.2 Generation 4.2 Generation

Army standard tactical generators (TGs) are recommended for base camp use during initial and temporary phases of base camp occupation.

T.- DOD's bbile Electric Power Program (MEPP) monitors development, standardization, and procurement of these units.

Particularly applicable to base camp distribution are the 60 kW, 100 kW, and 200 kW sizes.

The entire line of available TCs is described in MILSTD633E.

Recent base development studies* have incorporated the low voltage 100 kW TC with parallel operation to meet austere 1000man camp demands of 100 kW or
200
kW.

The 100kW diesel generator produces
120/208 V 3
4)
4 wire or 240/416 V,
3
4) 4 wire electrtc power.

Its specified mean time between failures (MTBF) is 24 days, which means a backup generator is needed on site.

For best reliability, the older TG should be used as the backup.

Principles of TG selection and matching of generator size to specific load balancing configurations are explained in TM 5766 and TM 5765.

Army standard tactical generators (TGS) are recommended for base camp use during initial and temporary phases of base camp occupation.

T.- DOD's bbile Electric Power Progracu (MEPP) monitors development1, tandardization1, and procurement of these units.

Particularly applicable to base camp distribution are the 60 kW, 100 kW1, and 200 kW sizes.

The entire line of available TGs is described in MILSTD633E.

Recent base development studies* have incorporated the low voltage 100 kW TC with parallel operation to meet austere 1000man camp demands of 100 kW or 200 kW.

The 100kW diesel generator produces
120/208 V 3
4
4 wire or 240/416 V,
3
4 wire electrtc power.

Its specified mean time between failures (MTBF) is 24 days, which means a backup generator is needed on site.

For best reliability1, the older TG should be used as the backup.

Principles of TG selection and matching of generator size to specific load balancing configurations are explained in TM 5766 and TM 5765.

TG sets are designed with an integral housing to permit freestanding operation in traditional environments.

However, extended operation of TGs in the harah desert environment must be appraached with provIsions for additional protection from intense solar radiation, wind blown dust, and etcroaching Band dunes.

Field experience has shown -that with additional environmental protection1, TCs can perform satiafactorily in desert areas.

These generators have been known to continue satisfactory operation, though at reduced power levels, when so protected - even at ambient air temperatures over 125F (52C).

TG sets are designed with an integral housing to permit freestanding operation in traditional environments.

However, extended operation of TG8 in the harsh desert environment must be approached with provisions for additional protection from intense solar radiation, wind blown dust, and eicroaching sand dunes.

Field experience has shown -that with additional environmental protection, TCs can perform satisfactorily in desert areas.

These generators have been known to continue satisfactory operation, though at reduced power levels, when so protected - even at ambient air temperatures over 125F (52C).

Figure 4.1 is an example of a portable 'FG protective structure.

This is uBed for the smaller 15kW and 30kW TGs.

For larger TG5, it is recomn2ended that a sandbag walled structure be partially buried in the soil.

The floor should be reinforced with a layer of sandbags or 4 in.

(100 mm) of concrete1, if available, and provide for TG tiedowns.

The structure must allow 3 to 4 ft
(0.91 to 1.22 m) of ventilation space around all generator surfaces1, except Figure 4.1 is an example of a portable TG protective structure.

This is used for the smaller 15kW and 30kW TGs.

For larger TGs, it is recommended that a sandbag walled structure be partially buried in the soil.

The floor should be reinforced with a layer of sandbags or 4 in.

(100 mm) of concrete, if available, and provide for TG tiedowns.

The structure must allow 3 to 4 ft
(0.91
to 1.22 in) of ventilation space around all generator surfaces, except

* Staff
Study, Army Facility Component System (416th Engineer Command, 10 July
1981); Value Engineering Study, AFCS (416th Engineer Command, 25 March
1981).
* Staff
Study, Army Facility Component System (416th Engineer Coimnand, 10 July
1981); Value Engineering Study, AFCS (416th Engineer Command, 25 March
1981).
42
1
the bottom.

Where wood and roofing materials are not available, a pole and canvas system can be erected over the walls to provide a sun shade.

A 2 to
3ft (0.6096 to 0.9144rn) ventilation space must be provided between the wall top and canvas.

Such a shelter is shown in Figure 4.2.

Note that this arrangement can be adapted for evaporative cooling of radiator ventilation air, if water is available.

The pole and canvas arrangement baffles the ventilation air and removes some sand and dust particles.

the bottom.

Where wood and roofing materials are not available, a pole and canvas system can be erected over the walls to provide a sun shade.

A 2 to
3ft (0.6096 to 0.9144in) ventilation space must be provided between the wall top and canvas.

Such a shelter is shown in Figure 4.2.

Note that this arrangement can be adapted for evaporative cooling of radiator ventilation air, if water is available.

The pole and canvas arrangement baffles the ventilation air and removes some sand and dust particles.

Siting of the TG5 or TG shelter is also important in reducing environmental effects and in making the general distribution system as effective as possible.

Factors to consider in TG siting include the following:
Siting of the TGs or TG shelter is also important in reducing environmental effects and in making the general distribution system as effective as possible.

Factors to consider in TG siting include the following:

1.
The demand for electric current over relatively long distribution cables produces significant voltage drops, which dictate the use of larger cables or transformers between the generator and load.
To
reduce the need for transformers in low voltage systems, generators should be placed as close as practicable to the large8t power demand
facilities.
In austere base camps, the8e large power demands usually
come from the dispensary and mess halls.
1.
The demand for electric current over relatively long distribution cables produces significant voltage drops, which dictate the use of larger cables or transformers between the generator and load.
To
reduce the need for transformers in low voltage systems, generators should be placed as close as practicable to the largest power demand
facilities.
In austere base camps, these large power demands usually
come from the dispensary and mess halls.
2.
Existing terrain features and drainage contours should he used to
minimize exposure of units to prevailing winds.
Winds in most of SWA
blow from either the northwest or southeast.
2.
Existing terrain features and drainage contours should he used to
minimize exposure of units to prevailing winds.
Winds in most of SWA
blow from either the northwest or southeast.
3.
It will be easier to ground the generator if the TG is placed near natural or constructed water sources (i.e., near high water table, underground streams or piping systems, and near waste water disposal
3.
It will be easier to ground the generator if the TG is placed near natural or constructed water sources (i.e., near high water table, underground streams or piping systems, and near waste water disposal
sinks).
(See Section 4.4.)
sinks).
(See Section 4.4.)
Where multiple TGs are to be used in parallel or separately, online generators should be sheltered separately to minimize overheating potential.

Backup generators used as standby may be sheltered with an onlineTG.

Due to large amounts of heat given off by the generators, TGs should not be placed downwind of other operating generator units.

It should be remembered that TGs are not designed for indoor operation, and should not be housed in a completely enclosed facility.

The shelters described above are intended for use as a sunshade and windbreak.

Where multiple TG5 are to be used in parallel or separately, online generators should be sheltered separately to minimize overheating potential.

Backup generators used as standby may be sheltered with an onlineTG.

Due to large amounts of heat given off by the generators, TGs should not be placed downwind of other operating generator units.

It should be remembered that TGs are not designed for indoor operation, and should not be housed in a completely enclosed facility.

The shelters described above are intended for use as a sunshade and windbreak.

Other options may become necessary in base camp power generation.

Figure
4.3 shows an exhaust muffler used by several online generators.

The exhaust from the TG shelter is piped into underground fuel drums and finally expelled above ground into a waterfilled drum.

A larger body of water is normally recommended where water is plentiful.

The water level must not be higher than the generator set.

Thi8 muffler system should be at least 25 ft (6.35 m) from the generator to normalize back pressure.

Additionally, the muffler intake and exhaust pipe should be the 8ame size and matched in crosssectional area to the generator's exhaust pipes.

Other options may become necessary in base camp power generation.

Figure
4.3 shows an exhaust muffler used by several online generators.

The exhaust from the TG shelter is piped into underground fuel drums and finally expelled above ground into a waterfilled drum.

A larger body of water is normally recommended where water is plentiful.

The water level must not be higher than the generator set.

This muffler system should be at least 25 ft (6.35 in) from the generator to normalize back pressure.

Additionally, the muffler intake and exhaust pipe should be the same size and matched in crosssectional area to the generator's exhaust pipes.

This muffler system and subsurface generator shelter significantly reduce noise and heat signature emissions, a drawback to conventionally emplaced TGs in base camps.

This muffler system and subsurface generator shelter significantly reduce noise and heat signature emissions, a drawback to conventionally emplaced TGs in base camps.

When experienced generation/distribution personnel are not available for extended periods, it is essential that generators (particularly those in When experienced generation/distribution personnel are not available for extended periods, it is essential that generators (particularly those in parallel configurations) be equipped with appropriate power leving governors and voltage regulators.

This equipment allows startup, lo3d transfer, and shutdown of generators with a minimum of personnel expertise and generator adjustments.

The Woodward governor and Basler voltage regulator have been used reliably for this.

Note, however, that compatible governing and regulating equipment to insure most efficient operation may not autocnatically be shipped with the TG.

It must be specified or procured separately.

Particular attention should be given to proper connection and adjustment when paralleling precise power generators.

For operations in extremely hot regions, additional radiator.capacity can be obtained by using addon cooling towers (for larger TGs) or addon radiator extenders.

Because Army generators have not generally been employed in extensive desert operations, these addon devices are not commonly used.

They are available, however, and have worked well in allowing continued operation of TG
above its rated ambient temperature (normally 125F 152C1).

Where water sources are available, evaporative cooling of TG ventilation air ay bE feasible.

This method works well in hot and dry weather, Do not attempt to cool TG radiators by direct application of water to the radiator.

In a very short time, the radiator will be damaged because of scale and oxide formations on the metal surfaces.

Another important aspect of power generation is TG behavior at ambient temperatures above the generator rating.

At elevated temperatures, hot generator parts less efficiently convert mechanical power from the TG diesel engine to electric power.

ThereforeD TG output will be somewhat degraded above its rated temperature (ambient 125F [52C]).

However, a TG will continue to operate until one of several protective devices is automatically triggered.

Cutoff switches include:

1.
High water temperature
1.
High water temperature
2.
High oil temperature
2.
High oil temperature
3.
Low fuel level
3.
Low fuel level
4.
Low oil pressure
4.
Low oil pressure
5.
High alternator temperature.
5.
High alternator temperature.
Exceeded safety levels of any of these switches will shut down the diesel engine.

In missioncritical situations, these safety cutoffs can normally be manually overridden using the procedures in the TG operator's manual.

However, it is recommended that low oil pressure and high alternator temperature cutoffs never be overridden.

These two safety circuits prevent irreparable damage to the set.

As noted earlier, TGs can continue operation above 125F
(52C) ambient when adequate shelter and cooling techniques are used.

Other protective devices on TG5 deal with improper paralleling, poor load balancing, and distribution system shortcircuiting.

These cutoffs are not directly related to temperature.

Exceeded safety levels of any of these switches will shut down the diesel engine.

In missioncritical situations, these safety cutoffs can normally be manually overridden using the procedures in the TG operator's manual.

However, it is recommended that low oil presBure and high alternator temperature cutoffs never be overridden.

These two safety circuits prevent irreparable damage to the set.

As noted earlier, TGs can continue operation above 125F
(52C) ambient when adequate shelter and cooling techniques are used.

Other protective devices on TGs deal with improper paralleling, poor load balancing, and distribution system shortcircuiting.

These cutoffs are not directly related to temperature.

The newer TGs are designed to operate in sandy and dusty environments.

However, extended and continuous operation in conditions of wind driven dust and high temperatures can be expected to reduce TG MTBF.

Older generator sets were often fielded with slip rings or brushes and unsealed generator housings.

These units are particularly susceptible to premature failure because dust and sand accelerate wear to these components.

At higher temperature operation, seals and lubrication boots tend to relax, allowing entry of dust or sand to bearings and rotating windings.

The newer TGs are designed to operate in sandy and dusty environments.

However, extended and continuous operation in conditions of wind driven dust and high temperatures can be expected to reduce TG MTBF.

Older generator sets were often fielded with slip rings or brushes and unsealed generator housings.

These units are particularly susceptible to premature failure because dust and sand accelerate wear to these components.

At higher temperature operation, seals and lubrication boots tend to relax, allowing entry of dust or sand to bearings and rotating windings.

To prevent wear, personnel must maintain and clean TGs carefully.

SWA
contingency units should insure that adequate replacement parts are available for generator items particularly susceptible to sand and dust abrasion.

Older units should be used as backup generators; thir online use must be minimized during extremely dusty and windy periods.

Use of lowresidue cleaning solvents and compressed air on nonnioving parts is recommended for cleaning of TG
components.

Do not apply oil or grease to abrading surfaces because this will attract and bind more sand to the treated areas.

Most Importantly, generator operators and maintenance personnel must anticipate potential problems due to sand and dust.

To prevent wear, personnel must maintain and clean TGs carefully.

SWA
contingency units should insure that adequate replacement parts are available for generator items particularly susceptible to sand and dugt abrasion.

Older units should be used as backup generators; thir online use must be minimized during extremely dusty and windy periods.

Use of lowresidue cleaning solvents and compressed air on nonmoving parts is recommended for cleaning of TG
components.

Do not apply oil or grease to abrading surfaces because this will attract and bind more sand to the treated areas.

Most. 1mportant1y generator operators and maintenance personnel must anticipate potential problems due to sand and dust.

## 4.3 Distribution 4.3 Distribution

It is recommended that underground (UGD) and/or ontheground (OGD) distribution of electric power be used exclusively for Army base camps constructed in SWA.

This recommendation is based on several considerations, two driving ones being conatruction/maintenance costs and timeliness of emplacement.

It is recommended that underground (UGD) and/or ontheground (OGD) distribution of electric power be used exclusively for Army base camps constructed in SWA.

This recommendation is based on several considerations, two driving ones being construction/maintenance costs and timeliness of emplacement.

In most commercial applications, overhead distribution (O}iD) is less expensive to install and maintain than the conventional UGD due to ample sup plies of poles and easy access to the wires.

However, Army units in SWA generally will not be able to take advantage of the economies associated with In most commercial applications, overhead distribution (O}iD) is less expensive to install and maintain than the conventional UGD due to ample sup
plies of poles and easy access to the wires.

However, Army units in SWA generally will not be able to take advantage of the economies associated with ORD.

Additionally, ba8e camp time phasing may preclude the timeconsuming construction of OHD and allow only OGD initially.

The following considerations Bhould be taken into account:
ORD.

Additionally, base camp time phasing may preclude the timeconsuming construction of OHD and allow only OGD initially.

The following considerations should be taken into, account:

1.
PoleB and wood for crossarins would overtask logistics/transport sys
teals because these items are not locally available in $WA.
1.
Poles and wood for crossarms would overtask logistics/transport systems because these items are not locally available In SWA.
2.
PoleB and wood structureB warp and beome brittle when exposed unprotected to dry and hot desert climates.
2.
Poles and wood 8tructures warp and beome brittle when exposed unprotected to dry and hot desert climates.
3
Use of poles will require special equipment and techniques for setting and for stringing conductors.
3.
Use of poles will require special equipment and technques for setting and for stringing conductors.
4.
ORD Bystems expose conductors to intense aolar radiation, high temperatures,
abrasive blowing sands, and wind.
These cause both
reducjed conductor rating and increased maintenance/repair coats.
4.
01W systems expose conductors to intense solar radiation, high temperatures, abrasive blowing sands, and wind.
These cause both
reducjed conductor rating and increased maintenance/repair costs.
5.
Construction of DUD requires more onsite expertise than UGD.
5.
Construction of 0RD requires more onsite expertise than UGD.
6.
01W requires more construction time and labor.
6.
01W requires more construction time and labor.
7.
ORD is more susceptible to enemy actions.
7.
ORD is more susceptible to enemy actions.
Although 01W systems are used in SWA, extensive expenditures of money, manpower, and time are involved in both their construction and maintenance.

In general, Army engineers will not have the construction resources for OHD
systems.

Although OHD systems are used in SWA, extensive expenditures of money, manpower, and time are involved in both their constructioii and maintenance.

In general, Army engineers will not have the construction resources for OHD
systems.

A simplified UGD is recommended for use at base camps because it eliminates many of the problems noted above.

With this system, the conduits, manholes, and vaults are elitiinated.

Instead, the primary and secondary cables are buried directly in the ground, and the transformers and junction boxes are housed in enclosure8 above the ground.

It should be noted, however, that this simplified UGD is not readily adaptable to distribution system growth or extension.

Both the conventional UGD and DUD are adaptable to service extension.

A simplified UGD is reconimended for use at base camps because it eliminates many of the problemsnoted above.

With this system, the conduits)
manholes, and vaults are eliminated.

Instead, the primary and secondary cables are buried directly in the ground, and the transforniers and junction boxes are houBed in enclosure8 above the ground.

It should be noted) however, that thie simplified UGD is not readily adaptable to distribution Bystem growth or extension.

Both the conventional UGD and OHD are adaptable to Ber
vice extension.

The nature of deployment into a ba8e camp may dictate that electric utilities be provided on short notice.

In thi8 case, OCDcan be allowed.

This method provides expedient layout and recovery of the distribution system and does not become as laborinten8ive as UGD.

For extended base camp operations, however) it is reconunended that OGD be protected from sunlight and blowing sands as much a practicable.

Conductors that cross roads or heavily traveled lanes must be routed underground.

A recommended technique for crossing roads is shown in Figure 4.4.

This sketch show8 cable8 on either side of the road protected by aandbag8 from sun, wind, and foot movement.

Sandbag protection is es8ential for OGD and can be u8ed to help stabilize trenches for UGD.

Schedule 40 polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) conduit with a diameter of 3 to 4 in.

(76 to 102 mm) is suitable for expedient raceways under roads.

En applications where excessively high roadway temperatures are expected, achedule80 chlorinated PVC (CPVC) should be used, if available.

In temperatures over 90F
(32C)) there 8hould be no more than three per raceway to prevent unnecessary cable derating.

When u8ed a a raceway, conduit must also have at least 60
percent air space in conduit croassection.

The nature of deployment into a base camp may dictate that electric utIlities be provided on short notice.

In this case, OCDcan be allowed.

This method provides expedient layout and recovery of the distribution system and does not become as laborintensive as UGD.

For extended base camp operations, however, it is recommended that OGD be protected from sunlight and blowing sands as much as practicable.

Conductors that cross roads or heavily traveled lanes must be routed underground.

A recommended technique for crossing roads is shown In Figure 4.4.

This sketch shows cables on either side of the road protected by sandbags from sun, wind, and foot movement.

Sandbag protection is essential for OGD and can be used to help stabilize trenches for UGD.

Schedule 40 polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) conduit with a diameter of 3 to 4 in.

(76 to 102 mm) is suitable for expedient raceways under roads.

In applications where excessively high roadway temperatures are expected, schedule 80 chlorinated PVC (CPVC) should be used, if available.

In temperatures over 90F
(32C), there should be no more than three per raceway to prevent unnecessary cable derating.

When used as a raceway, conduit must also have at least 60
percent air space in conduit croassection.

In particularly hot areas, or where OGD may present certain safety hazards, the simplified distribution 'BysteaF ehould be buried in a trench-.

Figure 4.5 depicts a typical trench raceway.

The cables must be buried at a depth of at least 18 in. (460 mm) to take advantage of reduced soil temperature.

Backf tiling trenches with sandbags (never.rocky soil) is recommended, followed by loose area topsoil.

Other onhand materials such as boards, logs, and angle iron, could also be used to protect OGD and UGD from penetrations and breakage.

- Dry transformers are generally lighter than the oilinsulated type, Planning guidance for use of transformers, bus bars, junction boxes, pedestals, voltage sectionalizers, and cable types is given in TM' 5684, TM 5765, TM 5-766, and Corps of Engineers Guide Specification CE 303.06.

For base camp applications, the totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV). dry transformer is recommended where high temperatures and blowing dust are pre
valent

## Sm Minimum Between Cables

and are essentially maintenancefree.

To reduce transformer derating at high temperatures, a sunshade and reflective painting on transformer surfaces should be provided.

In general) an overheating transformer will be too hot to touch with bare hands.

When overheating occurs, the power. load through the transformer must be reduced.

Continued use at overheated conditions will permanently damage the windings and insulation materials.

The Navy, in response to U.S. Marine Corps (USMC)
demand for a rapidly installed distribution system, has reeently developed a family of copper cab]ce assemblies: and skidmounted distribution panels designed for use with Mobile Electric Power's (MEP) 15 kW 30 kW, and
100 kW lowvoltage TGs.

In general, the Army's distribution and generation equ1pmen is intended.

to readily accept only copper wire cables'.

A recent base development study has proposed the use of aluminumstranded conductors instead of cqpper conduc
tore to reduce transportation/logistics loads.*
An electrically equivalent amount of aiwninum wire weighs only half as much as copper wire. If large amounts of distribution cable were needed for base camp utilities, then the weight savings with aluminum cable might justify its use.

Also) relatively new processes in aluminum alloy applications to cable have elilinated much of the creep" and "loosening tendency so characteristic of earlier aluminum cables.

Yet the use of aluminum cable in the conetructionof a distribution system matched to commonly available Army equipment and electric part8 requires considerably more expertise and supervision to insure proper assembly.

Particularly in the corrosive soils of many SWA regions, improper connections of copper to aluminum will result in system failures and safety hazards.

It is therefore recommended that copper conductors be used for base camp power disribution.

hazards.

It is therefore recommended that copper coQductor8 be used for base camp power disribution.

The recommended cable types for base camp use are those meeting Underwriters Laboratorie8 (UL) requirements for type Underground Service Entrance
(USE).

This cable is designed for underground applications in wet or dry soil.

The insulation 18 vulcanized or chemically crosslinked polyethylene rated to 194F (90C) at continuous operation.

Stranded copper conductors in this type of cable are recommended to provide better cable flexibility and reuse potentials (as opposed to singlestrand conductors).

Where these cables are intended for extended OGD use, it is recommended that jacketed concentric neutral conductors be used.

These will provide additional system safety if the cable is broken by rodents, or by personnel or vehicular movements.

Typical wire sizes expected for base camp use are #4, #6, and #8
American Wire Gauge (AWG) copperstranded USE.

The use of corrosion-resistant disconnect/plugin type cable connectors is recommended (particularly for OGD)
to facilitate both repair and recovery.

The recommended cable types for base camp u8e are those naeeting Underwriters Laboratories (UL) requirements for type Underground Service Entrance
(USE).

This cable is designed for underground applications in wet or dry aoil.

The insulation is vulcanized or chemically cr088linked polyethylene rated to 194F (90C) at continuous operation.

Stranded copper conductorB in this type of cable are recommended to provide better cable flexibility and reu8e potentials (as opposed to single-strand conductors).

Where these cables are intended for extended OGD use, it is recoonnended that jacketed concentric neutral conductors be used.

These will provide additional system safety if the cable is broken by rodents, or by personnel or vehicular movements.

Typical wire sizes expected for base camp use are #4, #6, and #8
American Wire Gauge (AWG) copper8tranded USE.

The use of corrosionresistant disconnect/plug-in type cable connectors is recommended (particularly for OGD)
to facilitate both repair and recovery.

Although this cable's insulation Is rated up to'194F (90C), the cable's currentcarrying ability, or ampacity, begins derating at an ambient air ternperaturre of 86F (30C).

This la because the current in the cable generates its own heat in addition to heat absorbed from the environment.

Tables 4.1
through 4.4 give ampacity derating data for typical distribution cables.

These tables show that at hot desert temperatures,the allowed current load is reduced to about 65 percent of the allowd current at 86F (30C).

Neglect of this derating scheme at high ambient temperatures viii compromise the distribution cable reliability, and can directly lead to both fire and safety hazards.

Do not overload conductors.

Normally, larger conductors can be installed to handle larger currents at high temperatures.

Additionally, In lowvoltage 8ystema, larger conductors will be necessary to prevent excessive voltage drops for cables longer than a few hundred feet.

In general, voltage drops of between 5 percent and 10 percent are acceptable.

For example, allowing 10 percent voltage drop and using 3
4 wire 120/208 V system, a 10kW
load using #8 AWG stranded copper can be placed a maximum of 700 ft (213.4 in)
from the generator; #6 AWG allows a maximum run of 1100 ft (335.3 in).

Other voltage drop configurations are discussed in detail In TM 5765.

Although this cable's inBulation is rated up to194F (90C), the cable's currentcarrying ability, or ampacity, begins derating at an ambient air ternperaturre of 86F (30C).

This is because the current in the cable generates its own heat in addition to heat absorbed from the environment.

Tables 4.1
through 4.4 give ampacity derating data for typical distribution cables.

These tables 8h0w that at hot desert temperatures,the allowed current load is reduced to about 65 percent of the allowd current at 86F (30C).

Neglect of this derating scheme at high ambient temperatures will compromise the distribution cable reliability, and can directly lead to both fire and safety hazards.

Do not overload conductors.

Normally, larger conductors can be installed to handle larger currents at high temperatures.

Additionally, in lowvoltage systems, larger conductorB will be nece8sary to prevent excessive voltage drops for cables longer than a few hundred feet.

In general, voltage drops of between 5 percent and 10 percent are acceptable.

For example, allowing 10 percent voltage drop and using 3
4 wire 120/208 V systems a bky load using #8 AWG stranded copper can be placed a maximum of 700 ft (213.4 m)
from the generator; #6 AWG allows a maximum run of 1100 ft (335.3 m).

Other voltage drop configurations are discussed in detail in TM 5765.

Figures 4.6 through 4.8 are examples of conductor layout patterns that may be adopted for baee camp use.

These examples are presented only to illustrate "order of magnitude" distribution Bystem sophistication (or simplicity).

A dispersed and nonlinear approach to the 1000man base camp is shown in Figure 4.6; Table 4.5 gives facility power loads.

No lighting is supplied to troop barracks, and other facilities are electrically austere.

This system uses lowvoltage and one 100 kW TO with one 100 kW TO standby.

A more typical and Blightly less austere base camp is outlined in. Figure 4.7; the legend for Figures 4.6 through 4.8 are examples of conductor -iayoutpatterns that may be adopted for base camp use.

These examples are presented only to illustrate "ordEr of magnitude" distribution system sophistication (or simplicity).

A dispersed and nonlinear approach to the 1000man base camp is shown in Figure 4.6; Table 4.5 gives facility power loads.

No lighting is supplied to troop barracks, and other facilities are electrically austere.

This system uses lowvoltage and one 100 kW TO with one 100 kW TO standby.

A more typical and slightly less austere base camp is outlined in. Figure 4.7; the legend for the figure is in Table 4.6.

This 1000man base camp also provides no lighting to enlisted troop areas.

In most base camp developments, these troop areas may initially .be a "tent city" with Improved levels of electric power becoming available as the camp moves into temporary construction phases.

Figure 4.8
illustrates a typical "generic" layout which includes some higher voltage dis
tributIn to outlying areas.

For this layout, dry transformers rated at 5 kVA
are used to step up to and down from a 2400V transmission line voltage.

the figure is in Table 4.6.

This 1000man base camp also provides no lighting to enlisted troop area8.

In moat base camp developnients, these troop area8
may initially .be a tent city" with Improved levels of electric power becoming available aa the camp moves into temporary construction phases.

Figure 4.8
illustrates a typical "generic" layout which includes Bome higher voltage dis tributin to outlying areas.

For this layout, dry transformers rated at 5 kVA
are used to step up to and down from a 2400V tran8mi3sion line voltage.

411
Table 4.1
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductor8
Rated 02000 VoltB, 60 to 900C:
Not More Than Three Conductors R
(Reproduce with permiB8ion from tWPA 701981, National Electrical Code Copyright C 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Not More Than Three Conductors R
(Reproduce with permission from IWPA 701981, National Electrical Code Copyright C 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the complete and official the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by M&
02269.

This reprinted material is not the cotplete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by position of the standard in its entirety.

National Electrical Code and NEC are Registered the standard in its entirety.

National Electrical Code and NEC are Registered Trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.)
Quincy, MA
Trademarks of the National. Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.) 02269.)
MCII
....

B
1
1

  f The load current rejing and the uvercurrent pro(ecdon for tbee conductois
shili not exceed 15 ampere, for 14 AWO, 20 mpere for 12 AWO, and 30 amper
for 10 AW() copper; c IS umpre for 12 AWO and 25 umperes for 10 AWO atu-
mnum end pt-did aluminum.
    For dry tocaIion o,ily. Sec 75C co'umn fot wt Iocalloni

412
Rated 02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Single Conductors
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 701981, National Electrical Code Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the eocnplete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced BubJeCt which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.)
Rated 02000 Volts, 60 to 90C:
Single Conductors
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 701981, National Electrical Code'
Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.)
AWS
NCM

  fThe load current rating and the oveicuncet protection br these a,cducton
shall not exceed. 20 amperes for
                             II AWO, 25 amperes for 2 AWG, and 40 ampere.
foe IC AWO copper;
                   cc 20 amperes lot 12 AWO and 30 .Jnpcres for 0 AWC) am-
inum and ppcr-dad .b&mlnua.
   Foe dry location. only. See 75'C column foe wet locatlonL

  fThe load current r.ting and the oveicunct
                                                pro4ecion br theic ducton
shaU noi exceed. 20 amperel for II AWO, 25 Imper r 12 AWO, and 40 ampere.
   10 AWO copper cc 20 UflC1 lot 12 AWO and 30
                                                      Jnpcre8 tor tO AWO alv-
minum md ppa-dad b&minua.
   Fcc dry ocilioni ooy. S 7$C columu (or wt kicatlom

413
Table 4.3
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 110 to
250C:
Not More Than Three Conductors R
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 701981, National Electrical Code Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection A8soclation, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material ie not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.)
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 110 to 250C:
Not More Than Three Conductors
(Reproduced with permission froui NFPA 701981, National Electrical CodeR
Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection A8sociation, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.)
.

8
30
40
50
65
30
35
45
60
40
55
75
95
30
40
55
70
45
55
30
40
50
65
30
40
30
65
30
45
55
30
40
50
65
30
40
55
70
25
35
43
40
55
75 93
35
43
30
35
45O
8
6
4
8
6
4
6 4
3
2
3
2
I
90
115
135
150
ISO
75
95
130
150
85
ItS
130
145
170
80
lOS
120
133
160
90
I3
135
ISO
ISO
75
130
0
lOS
120
U3
160
85
ItS
30
l4
170
95
120
145
l6
190
65
90
tOO
113
135
60 80
95
lOS
125
60 80
95
lOS
125
95
120
145
163
190
120
45
170
195
220
120 145
170
195
220
65
90
lOG
115 135
ISO 170
195
215
190
215
245
213
200 230
265
310
180
200
225
270
225
230
285
340
90
215 245 275
ISO 170
195
115
160 180
210 245
3
2
I
0
00
000
0000
6
4
3
2
I
0
00
000
0000
210
240
275
325
210 240 275
325
200
230
265
HO
160 180
210
245
250 280
315
370
250 280
315
370
225
250
il5
340
ISO
200
225
2O
....
. ...
33
380
420
450
500
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
333
380
420
450
500
270
305
335
360 405
0
00
000
0000
250
3U0
350
400
500
315 345
390
420
470
315
45
390
420
470
270
305
335
360
405
250
275
310
333
380
250
275
310
33
380
.... . ..
. ...
.... ....
. ..
... ..
....
....
....
....
....
250
00
350
400 500
600
700
750
BOO
OOO

Table 4.4
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 701981, NatIonal Electrical Code Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NYPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by the standard In its entirety.)
Rated 110 to 250C, and for Bare and Covered Conductors
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 701981, National Electrical Code Copyright 1980, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, MA
02269.

This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NYPA on the referenced subject which is repre8ented only by the standard In its entirety.)
COPPIR

85
50
65 85
40
50
70
95
40
50
70
95
40
50
70 90
80
55
75
100
55
75
100
40
50
70
90
95
125
140
165
190
100
13C
I5C
175
205
135
ISO
175
205
125
IO
195
22
265
120
160 180
210
245
125
170
195
225
265
130
175
200
230
270
100
13C
ISC
175
205
135
180
210 240
280
210
285
335
390
450
130
175
200
230
270
135
180
210
240
280
210
285
335
390
450
120 160
180
210
245
95
125
140
165
190
100
133
150
175
205
105
140
165
185
220
105
140
165 185
220
fib
tOO
115
135
160
80
115
135
160
285
330
385
445
220
255
300
345
305 355
410
475
240
275
320 370
310
360
415
490
235 275
320 370
325 370
430
510
240
275
320
310
325
370
430
510
235 275
320
370
285
330
385
445
305
355
410
415
255
290
335
400
310
360
415
490
255
290
335
400
220
253
300
345
185
215
250
290
545
605
725
850
185
215
250
290
545
605 725
850
.
.
...
. ..
.
...
. ..
.
...
.
.
. ..
. ....
... .
... .
495
555
60
665
765
530
590
65
70
815
415
460
510
555
635
530
590
65
710
815
495
555
610
665 765
410
46C
10
555
630
410
46C
510
555
630
385
435
475 520
595
415
460
510
55
635
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
320
360
400
435
490
320 360
400
435
490
385
435
475 520
595
.
.
.
.
- ..
.
..
.
. ..
.
.
.
.
.
. ...
.
.
.
. ... . ...
.
. ..
... .
. ...
.
.
.
. ..
.
.
.
.
. .. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
720
795
125
855
720
795
125
855
855 940
980
1020
853
940
980
1020
675
745
775
805
. ...
. ... . ...
. ...
.
.
. .
. ...
. ...
675
745
775
o5

(
//
\
\\
/
/
PS
PS
PP- POWER PRIMARY
PS- POWER SECONDARY
Figure 4.7.

417
Any distribution system constructed in the field will be susceptible to corrosion of unprotected metal surfaces.

In SWA, many regions contain soils with both mineral and salt deposits that, when conbined with moiature form a very corrosive environment for electrical power equipment eitheron or under the ground.

In dry and aandy areas, this corrosion is a problem wherever Army operations introduce water to the aoil (i.e.1 latrines, water purification unit (WPU) discharge, mess kitchens, dispensary, etc.).

In coastal regions where local water tables are relatively high, the soil and aand are usually moist enough to produce aevere corrosion problema for exposed electric distribution equipment.

Many SWA coastal regions also have prevailing sea breezes carrying 8alty miata that can cause high rates of damaging corrosion.

For example, at 8everal locations in the PerBian Gulf1, painted chain link fencing has corroded so much that it is falling off its posts.

The fences had been built less than a year earlier.

Any distribution system constructed in the field will be susceptible to corrosion of unprotected metal surfaces.

In SWA, many regions contain soils with both mineral and salt deposits that, when combined with moisture, form a very corrosive environment for electt'ical power equipment eitheron or under the ground.

In dry and sandy areas, this corrosion is a problem wherever Army operations introduce water to the soil (i.e., latrines, water purification unit (WPU) discharge, mess kitchens, dispensary, etc.).

In coastal regions where local water tables are relatively high, the soil and sand are usually moist enough to produce severe corrosion problems for exposed electric distribution equipment.

Many SWA coastal regions also have prevailing sea breezes carrying 8alty mists that can cause high rates of damaging corrosion.

For example, at several locations in the Persian Gulf, painted chain link fencing has corroded so much that it is falling off its posts.

The fences had been built less than a year earlier.

To counter these adverse effecta of high temperatures and corro8ive soils, personnel must strictly comply with distribution equipment derating criteria, and the entire diatributon systems must be inspected frequently.

If per8onnel are not aware of tire effects of corrosion and high temperature, and do not maintain distribution aystetus regularly, Artuy dietribution of electric power ut SWA will be less reliable and less safe.

General maintenance of UGD/OGD conBista primarily of continuoua inspection of cable connections, dis tribution equipment, and equipment housings for signa of overheating and corrosion; then hot spots are removed and corroded areaa cleaned, tightened, and To counter these adverse effects of high temperatures and corrosive soils, personnel must strictly comply with distribution equipment derating criteria, and the entire distributIon systems must be inspected frequently.

If personnel are not aware of tire effects of corrosion and high temperature, and do not maintain distribution systems regularly, Army distribution of electric power itt SWA will be less reliable and less safe.

General maintenance of UGD/OGD consists primarily of continuous inspection of cable connections, dis tribution equipment, and equipment housings for signs of overheating and corrosion; then hot spots are removed and corroded areas cleaned, tightened, and Electric Power Requirements

(From Staff Study, Army Facility Component System
[416th Engineer Command, 10 July 1981))
(From Staff Study, Army Facility Component System
[416th Engineer Couand, 10 July 1981))
Facility/Function
Number
Unit Load (kW)
Total Load (kW)
Facility/Function
Number
Unit Load (kW)
Total
Load (kW)
Bath House
3
0.5
1.5
Bath House
3
0.5
1.5
Camp Exchange
1
0.65
0.65
Camp Exchange
1
0.65
0.65
Training/Work Area
2
1.9
3.8
Training/Work Area
2
1.9
3.8
Dispensary
1
47.9
47.9
Dispensary
1
47.9
47.9
Guard House
1
0.5
0.5
Guard House
1
0.5
0.5
HQ & Unit SupplyCo.
5
0.36
1.8
HQ & Unit SupplyCo.
5
0.36
1.8
HQ & Unit SupplyEn.
1
0.36
1.8
HQ & Unit SupplyEn.
1
0.36
1.8
Kitchen (Limited Facility)
2
13.5
27.0
Kitchen (Limited Facility)
2
13.5
27.0
Dining Facility
4
.95
3.8
Dining Facility
4
.95
3.8
Maintenance Shop
1
2.1
2.1
Maintenance Shop
1
2.1
2.1
Store House
1
0.6
0.6
Store House
1
0.6
0.6
Water Plant
1
4.0
4.0 (est)
Water Plant
1
4.0
4.0 (est)
Total:
95.65 kW
Total:
95.65 kW

protected.

Where splices are made in distribution cables, the connectors should be coated with an electrical grade antioxidant grease, then tapewrapped to enclose the grease andconnector.

Where poBsibIe1 UGfl splices should be made in aboveground junction boxes or pedestals.

These aboveground connection housings should be constructed of nonmetallic materials, if available.

In dry dusty areas aboveground connections to distribution panels, pedestals, and junction boxes should not be greasetreated (unless aluminum to copper contact is wade), but should be cleaned regularly with solvent to remove dust or sand then tightened.

In moist coe8tal regions, all exposed connection8 should be treated with antioxidant grease and protected from soil contact.

Corrosionresistant paint can also be used to protect nonelectric parts of distribution equipment from the environment.

Lightcolored or even reflective white paintB can be applied to equipment housings to help reduce overheating problems.

protected.

Where splices are made in distribution cables, the connectors should be coated with an electrical grade antioxidant grease, then tapewrapped to enclose the grease andconnector.

Where posibIe, UGfl splices should be made in aboveground junction boxes or pedestals.

These aboveground connection housings should be constructed of nonmetallic materials, if available.

In dry dusty areas, aboveground connections to distribution panels, pedestals, and junction boxes should not be greasetreated (unless aluminum to copper contact is wade), but should be cleaned regularly with 8olvent to remove dust or sand, then tightened.

In moist coastal regions, all exposed connections should be treated with antioxidant grease and protected from soil contact.

Corrosionresistant paint can also be used to protect nonelectric parts of distribution equipment from the environment.

Lightcolored or even reflective white paints can be applied to equipment housings to help reduce overheating problems.

Wbn exposed to SWA intense sunlight, cables with less than 194F (90C)
insulation rating, or any cable carrying current above rated loads may experience plastic flow of conductor insulation due to molecular relaxation at high Wbn exposed to SWA intense sunlight, cables with less than 1940F (90C)
insulation rating, or any cable carrying current above rated load, may experience plastic flow of conductor insulation due to molecular relaxation at high
419

## Proposed Schedule Of Facilities

Proposed Schedule of Facilities
(From Value Engineering Study, AFCS
[416th Engineer Command, 25 March 1981])
(Front Value Engineering Study, AFCS
[416th Engineer Command, 25 March 1981])

No.
Facility
Quantity
Total Sq Ft
No.
Facility
Quantity
Total Sq Ft
Ti
Troop Housing Enlisted
920 Man
Tl
Troop Housing Enlisted
920 Man
T2
Troop Housing Officer
8O
Man
T2
Troop Housing Officer
80 Man
BuildingS
Buildings
1
Bathhouse  80
Officer
1
400
2
Bathhouse  500
Man
2
2000
1
Bathhouse  80 Officer
1
400
2
Bathhouse  500
Man
2
2000
3
Camp Exchange
1
2000
4
Day Room
2
4800
5
Dispensary  Troop
1
1600
6
Guard House
1
1200
3
Camp Exchange
1
2000
4
Day Room
2
4800
5
Dispensary  Troop
1
1600
6
Guard House
1
1200
7
HQ & Unit Supply
Co
5
4000
8
IQ
& Unit Supply
Bn
1
2000
7
HQ & Unit Supply
Co
5
4000
8
IQ & Unit Supply
Bn
1
2000
9
Kitchen & Mea8hall 400 Men
2
15,000
10
Kitchen & Messhall 70Officer
1
1600
11
Latrine, Composite
6
1200
12
Shop  Motor
Repair
1
2400
13
Storehouse
1
2000
14
Fire Protection  Water
2
(20,000 gal)
15
Water Supply  Potable
(10,000 gal)
16
Generator/Bldg (31001kw 3 0 120/208)
300 kW
9
Kitchen & Messhall 400 Men
2
15,000
10
Kitchen & Messhall 70Officer
1
1600
11
Latrine, Composite
6
1200
12
Shop  Motor
Repair
1
2400
13
Storehouse
1
2000
14
Fire Protection  Water
2
(20,000 gal)
15
Water Supply  Potable

(10,000
gal)
16
Generator/Bldg (31001kW 3
0
120/208)

300 kW

temperatures.

This condition allows the contours of the enclosed wire stranding to become visible.

Where actual thinning of the insulation accompanies this relaxation, damaging shortcircuiting may occur.

To minimize this problem, first insure that the. highestrated cable is made available (usually
194F [90C]).

The cable should be protected from direct sunlight initorage, and extreme care should be used when handling the cable in hot temperatures.

Where this plastic flow of insulation is observed, experienced distribution specialists should inspect the damage and perform cable teats as necessary.

(TM 5684 outlines typical UGD cable testing procedures.)
If test equipment/personnel. are not available, replace the damaged cable section.

temperatures.

This condition allows the contours of the enclosed wire stranding to become visible.

Where actual thinning of the insulation accompanie8
this relaxation, damaging short-circuiting may occur.

To minimize this problem, first insure that the. highestrated.cable is made available (usually
194F [90C]).

The cable should be protected from direct sunlight in storage, and extreme care should be used when handling the cable in hot temperatures. Where this plastic flow of insulation is observed, experienced distribution specialists should inspect the damage and perform cable tests as necessary. (TM 5684 outlines typical UGD cable testing procedures.)
If test equipment/personnel. are not available, replace the damaged cable section.

Desert rodents have disrupted UGD/OGD systems by gnawing through insulation.

Extended OGD trunk lines are particularly susceptible to this problem;
however, rodent damage may occur even within the base camp.

Where rodent attacks on OGD/UGD systems have been noted, common practiae should include burial of poison (such as zinc phosphide) in the trenches as the cable is laid.

Various traps and poisoned bait can be used for OGD.

Most important, however is an awareness of-the potential problem.

Indications are that human sweat on the cables attracts the rodents.

The use of gloves in laying the Desert rodents have disrupted UGD/OGD systems by gnawing through in8ula
tion.

Extended OGD trunk lines are particularly susceptible to this problem;
however, rodent damage may occur even within the base camp.

Where rodent attacks on OGD/UGD 8ystems have been noted, common practice should include burial of poison (such as zinc phosphide) in the trenches as the cable is laid.

Various traps and poisoned bait can be used for OGD.

Most important, however is an awareness of-the potential problem.

Indications are that human sweat on the cables attracts the rodents.

The use of gloves in laying the cable, and regular inspection of OGD for sign8 of rodent attack will help eliminate thi8 problem.

cable, and regular inspection of OGD for signs of rodent attack will help eliminate this problem.

A major aBsu!nption often included in SWA scenario8  and in this chapter
- is that host nation electric power will- not be available for, or is not compatib1e with, base camp power demands.

However, many Countrie8 in SWA do have limited electric power distribution networks that would be useful when troops start to build the base camp.

If host nation power is available, it8
use should be planned to supplement exi8ting base camp generation capability;
thiB would vastly reduce fuel consumption.

The base camp must, however, main
tam its own internal generation/distribution system in case host nation power is cut off.

Most power grids in SWA ue power generated at 50 Hz, 1 or 3
4, which can be used in many ca8es to power electric light8 and heating element8.

However, only equipment specifically designated as compatible with 50Hz power should be so connected.

Most Army .equipnent/utilitie8 are designed for 60 Hz, and operating them at 50 Hz will cauBe permanent damage.

Table 4.7 listB
electric power characteristics available in variou8 SWA countries.

Thie table indicates the diver8ity of electric power within SWA.

It should be noted that the quality of this ho8t nation power is generally very poor; frequency stability and voltage regulation are substandard, and highlevel voltage transients are possible.

Appropriate power conditioner to convert and regulate host nation commercial power for Arty uses is not available now.

A major assumption often included in SWA scenarios
and in this chapter
- is that host nation electric power will-not be available for, or is not compatible with, base camp power demands.

However, many countries in SWA do have limited electric power distribution networks that would be useful when troops start to build the base camp.

If host nation power is available, its use should be planned to supplement existing base camp generation capability;
this would vastly reduce fuel consumption.

The base camp must1 however, maintain its own internal generation/distribution system in case host nation power is cut off.

Most power grids in SWA ue power generated at 50 Hz, 1 or 3
4, which can be used in many cases to power electric lights and heating elements. However, only equipment specifically designated as compatible with 50Hz power should be so connected.

Most Army equipment/utilities are designed for 60 Hz, and operating them at 50 Hz will cause permanent damage.

Table 4.7 lists electric power characteristics available in various SWA countries.

This table indicates the diversity of electric power within SWA.

It should be noted that the quality of this host nation power is generally very poor; frequency stability and voltage regulation are substandard, and highlevel voltage transients are possible.

Appropriate power conditioner to convert-and regulate host nation commercial power for Army uses is not available now.

## 4.4 Grounding 4.4 Grounding

In any electric power generation/distribution 8ystem, appropriate electrical grounding of equipment such as generator Bets, transfonners junction boxes, and bus bars is generally very important to insure both safe and reliable operation of the 8y8tem.

Traditional Army guidance requires 25 ohm resistance to ground, or les8, at all normally grounded locations.

However the nature of the soils in many SWA locations will not permit this level of assured grounding with traditional ground rods or expedient techniques.

In especially dry, rocky, or 8andy region8, 25 ohm or less groundings to earth can only be obtained using more involved and equipmentintensive methods that may.not b available to base caap engineer8.

Therefore, this chapter outline8
grounding methods that are available to field engineers, and that will provide adequate by expediency" grounding levels consistent with both time phasing of base camp construction and the distribution sy8tem used.

In any electric power generation/distribution Bystem, appropriate electrical grounding of equipment such as generator sets, transformers, junction boxes, and bus bars is generally very important to insure both safe and reliable operation of the system.

Traditional Army guidance requires 25 ohm resistance to ground, or less, at all normally grounded locations.

However, the nature of the soils in many SWA locations will not permit this level of assured grounding with traditional ground rods or expedient techniques.

In especially dry, rocky, or sandy regions, 25 ohm or less groundings to earth can only be obtained using more involved and equipmentintensive methods that may.not b available to base camp engineers.

Therefore, this chapter outlines grounding methods that are available to fiel4 engineers, and that will provide adequate by expediency" grounding levels consistent with both time phasing of base camp construction and the distribution system used.

The basic objectivee of grounding are:
The basic objectives of grounding are:

1.
To minimize damage and service interruptions due to all possible electrical faults, including lightning discharge.
1.
To minimize damage and 8ervice interruptions due to all possible electrical faults, including lightnthg discharge.
2.
To reduce overvoltages and re8ultant in8ulation daaiage due t both
normal operation (switching surges, static buildup) and abnormal
operation (lighting, fault8).
2.
To reduce overvoltages and resultant insulation damage due t both
normal operation (switching surges, static buildup) and abnormal
operation (lighting, faults).
3.
To minimize injuries to persons near electrical equipment by providing a low resistance path to the earth.
3.
To minimize injuries toper8ofls near electrical equipment by providing a low resistance path to the earth.
4.
To minimize noise in communication and control circuits by establishing a solid electrical reference.
4.
To minimize noise in commtrnication and control circuits by establishing a solid electrical reference.

Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Afghanistan
Charikar
a.c.60
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Farab
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Ghazni
a.c.50
1,3
.220/380
2,4
Yes
Gulbahar
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Herat
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Jalalabad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Kabul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Kandahar
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Kunduz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Maimana
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
MazariSharif
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Paghman
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Pul1Khumri
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Afghan is t'an
Charikar
a.c.60
13
220/380
24
!es
Farah
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Ghazni
a.c.50
1,3
.220/380
2,4
Yes
Gulbahar
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Herat
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Jalalabad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yea
Kabul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Kandahar
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Kunduz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Maimana
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
MazariSharif
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Paghinan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
PuliKhumri
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
!es
Egypt
Alexandria
a.c.50
1
110
2
No
Aeyut
.
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Aswan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Benha
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Beni Suef
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Cairo
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Damanhur
ac.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Damietta
a.c.0
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Heliopolis
a.c.50
1
110
2
No
Egypt
Alexandria
a.c.50
1
110
2
No
Aeyut
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Aewan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Benha
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Beni Suef
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Cairo
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Damanhur
a.c.50
l3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Damietta
a.c.0
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Heliopolis
a.c.50
1
110
2
No
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Heiwan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Ismaila
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Kafr el Zalyat
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Kena
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Luxor
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Maadi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Mansura
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Mahalla
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Minia
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port Fouad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port Said
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port Tewik
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Sohag
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Suez
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Heiwan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Ismaila
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Kafr el Zaiyat
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Kena
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Luxor
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Maadi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Mansura
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
El Mahalla
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Minia
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port Fouad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port Said
a.c.S0
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Port 'Tewik
a.c.5O
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Sohag
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Suez
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No

Table 4.7 (Cont'd)

Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Pha8es
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Tanta
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Zagazig
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Tanta
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Zagazig
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
23,4
No
Iran
Abadan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ahwaz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Behshahr
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ghazvin
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Iran
Abadan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ahwaz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Behshahr
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ghazvin
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ramadan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Isfahan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Karaj
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Kashan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Kerman
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
yes
Kerrnanshah
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Khorrainshahr
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Masjed Soleyman
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Meshed
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Pahievi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ramadan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Isfahan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Karaj
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Kashan
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
YeS
Kerman
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
yes
Kermanshah
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Khorramshahr
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Masjed Soleyman
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Meshed
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Pahlevi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Qom
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Qom
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Resht
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Rezaiyeh
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Resht
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Rezaiyeh
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Shiraz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Shiraz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Tabriz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Tehran
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
YeB
Tabriz
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Tehran
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Yazd
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yea
Yazd
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Iraq1-
Baghdad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2.4
Yes
Basra
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Iraq1
Baghdad
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2.4
Yes
asra
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Kirkuk
a.c.50
1,3
220/360
2,4
Yes
Kirkuk
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Mosul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Mosul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
Yes
Israel1'2'3
Beer Sheba
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Israel'2'3
Beer Sheba
a.c.5O
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Haifa
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Haifa
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Holon
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yea
Holon
a.c.5O
1,3
230/400
24
Yes
Natanya
a.c.5O
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Petah Tiqva
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
RamatCan
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Natanya
a.c.5O
1,3
230/400
2,4
YeB
Petah Tiqva
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
RamatCan
a.c.50
13
230/400
2,4
Yes
Rehovot
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Rehovot
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
YeB
Tel Aviv
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Tel Aviv
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes

Table 4.7 (Cont'd)

| Frequency        |
|------------------|
| Stability       |
| Stable           |
| Type and         |
| Enough for       |
| Frequency        |
| Number           |
| Nominal          |
| Number           |
| Electric         |
| Country and City |
| of Current       |
| of PhaseB        |
| Voltage          |
| of Wires         |
| Clocks           |
| St abi I. ity   |
| Stable           |
| Type             |
| and              |
| Enough           |
| for              |
| Frequency        |
| Number           |
| Nominal          |
| Number           |
| Electric         |
| Country and City |
| of Current       |
| of Phases        |
| Voltage          |
| of Wires         |
| Clocks           |
| Jeru8alem        |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yes              |
| Jerusalem        |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yes              |
| Jordan4'5        |
| Amman            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Ye8              |
| Irbid            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yes              |
| NabluB           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2)3,4            |
| Yes              |
| Zerqa            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| !es              |
| Jordan4'5        |
| Amman            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yes              |
| Irbid            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yea              |
| Nablue           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yea              |
| Zerqa            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,3,4            |
| Yes              |
| Kuwait           |
| Kuwait           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 240/415          |
| 2.4              |
| Yes              |
| Kuwait           |
| Kuwait           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 240/415          |
| 2.4              |
| Yes              |
| Lebanon6         |
| Aley             |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Beirut           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Bhamdoun         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Brumniana        |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Chtaure          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Dhour el Choueir |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sidon            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1)3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sofar            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| 110/190          |
| Tripoli          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2.4              |
| No               |
| Tyre             |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Zahleh           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,4              |
| Yes              |
| Lebanon6         |
| Aley             |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Beirut           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Bhamdoun         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Brumniana        |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Chtaure          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Dhour el Choueir |
| ac.50            |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sidon            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sofar            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| 110/190          |
| Tripoli          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2.4              |
| No               |
| Tyre             |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 110/190          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Zahleh           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/380          |
| 2,4              |
| Yes              |
| Libya7'8         |
| Al Azlziyah      |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Barce            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230.400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Ben Gashir       |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2)4              |
| No               |
| Benghazl         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Derna            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| El. Baida        |
| a.c.50           |
| 13               |
| 230              |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| ifoma            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Misurata         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sebha            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1                |
| 230              |
| 1                |
| No               |
| Tagiura          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Tobruk           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Tripoli          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2)4              |
| No               |
| Zavia            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Libya7'8         |
| Al Aziziyah      |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Barce            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230.400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Ben Gashir       |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Benghazi         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Derna            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| El Baida         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230              |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| lioms            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Misurata         |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Sebha            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1                |
| 230              |
| 1                |
| No               |
| Tagiura          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Tobruk           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 230/400          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Tripoli          |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Zavia            |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 127/220          |
| 2,4              |
| No               |
| Oman             |
| Muscat           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/440          |
| 23               |
| No               |
| Oman             |
| Muscat           |
| a.c.50           |
| 1,3              |
| 220/440          |
| 23               |
| No               |
Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phaees
of Wires
Clocks
Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
!ie
of Wires
Clocks
Pakistan9
Abbotabad
a.c.50
13
230/400
2,3,4
No
Bahawalpur
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Hyderabad
a.c.50
1,3
230/380
2,3,4
No
Islamabad
a.c.50
13
230/400
2,3,4
No
Karachi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Lahore
a.c.50
l3
2)0/400
23,4
No
Lyallpur
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Montgomery
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Multan
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Murree
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Peshawar
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Quetta
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Rawalpindi
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Pakistan9
Abbotabad
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Bahawalpur
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Hyderabad
a.c.50
1,3
230/380
2,3,4
No
Islamabad
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Karachi
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
Lahore
a.c.50
1,3
2)0/400
2,3,1,
No
Lyalipur
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Montgomery
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Multan
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Murree
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Peshawar
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Quetta
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Rawalpindi
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,3,4
No
Saudi Arabia'"
A]. Khobar
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Buraydah
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
No
Dammam
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Hofuf
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Jiddah
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,3,4
Yes
Mecca
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yes
Medina
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Riyadh
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Taif
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
24
Yes
Saudi Arabia10"1
Al Khobar
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Buraydah
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,4
No
Dammam
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
lee
Mofuf
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
lee
Jiddah
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,3,4
Yes
Mecca
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
2,4
Yea
Medina
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Riyadh
a.c.60
1,3
127/220
2,4
Yes
Taif
a.c.50
1,3
230/400
24
Yes
Sudan12
Atbara
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Ed Daner
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Ed Dueitn
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
El Obeid
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Massa Heisaa
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Juba
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Ye
ICassala
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Khartoum
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Ye8
Khartoum N
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Kosti
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
YeB
Malakal
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
duriuan
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Port Sudan
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Sennar
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Shendi
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Wadi Ralfa
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Sudan12
Atbara
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Ed Daner
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Ed Dueim
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
El Obeid
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Massa Heissa
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yea
Juba
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Kassala
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Khartoum
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Khartoum N
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Kosti
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Malakal
a.c.30
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Omduriuan
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Port Sudan
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Sennar
a.c.S0
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Shendi
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes
Wadi Ralfa
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2,4
Yes

425

Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Frequency
Stability
Stable
Type and
Enough for
Frequency
Number
Nominal
Number
Electric
Country and City
of Current
of Phases
Voltage
of Wires
Clocks
Wau
a.c.50
1
240
2
Yes
Wau
a.c.50
1
240
2
Yes
Syria
Aleppo
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
115/200
Damascus
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
DayrAlZawr
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Syria
Aleppo
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
115/200
Damascus
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
No
DayrAlZawr
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
llama
a.c.50
L,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
llama
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Homs
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Latakia
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Horns
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Latakia
a.c.50
1,3
115/200
2,3,4
No
Turkey13
Adana
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Adapazarl
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Afyon
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ankara
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Balikesir
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Bursa
a.c.5O
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Eskisehir
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Gaziantep
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
yes
Istanbul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Izmir
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Izmit
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Kayseri
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Konya
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Malatya
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,.3.,.4
Yes
Manisa
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Mersin
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Samsun
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Ye8
Sivas
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Trabzon
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Zonguldak
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Turkey13
Adana
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Adapazari
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Afyon
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Ankara
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Balikesir
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Bursa
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Eskisehir
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Gaziantep
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
yes
Istanbul
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Izmir
a.c.50
13
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
tzmit
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Kayseri
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Konya
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Malatya
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Manisa
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Mersin
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Samsun
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Sivas
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Trabzon
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Zonguldak
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
Yes
Yemen
(Arab Rep.)
Hoelda
a.c.50
1,3
220
2,3
No
Sana
a.c.50
1,3
220
2,3
No
Taiz
a.c.50
1,3
220
2m3
No
Yemen
(Arab Rep.)
Hoeida
a.c.50
1,3
220
2,3
No
Sana
a.c.50
1,3
220
2,3
No
Taiz
a.c.50
1,3
220
2m3
No

426
Table 4.7 (Cont'd)

## Note A

Note a

1 A grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
2 A. grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
3 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded.
4 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded.
5 A grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
6 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded.
7 Electric current is now continuous in 'ost of the cities and large towns.
8 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded except
in the case of Sebha.
9 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded.
10 Grounding conductors are not required and many houses are not wired for a
separate ground.
A grounding conductor ie required in the electrical cord attached to appli
anc e8.
2 A. grounding conductor 18 required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
3 The neutral wire of the aecondary diatribution system i grounded.
4 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution eystem ie grounded.
5 A grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
6 The neutral wire of the aecondary diBtribution eyBtem is grounded.
7 Electric current is now continuous in o8t of the cities and large towns.
8 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution aystem is grounded except
in the case of Sebha.
9 The neutral wire of the secondary diatribution eyetem iB grounded.
10 Grounding conductors are not required and any houses are not vired for a
eeparate ground.
.11 Power supply being 8tandardized &t 60 Hz, 127/200 V.
12 A grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attachedto appli
ances.
13 The neutral wire of the Becondary dietribution eystem is grounded.
.11 Power supply being standardized at 60 Hz, 127/200 V.
12 A grounding conductor
is required in the electrical cord attachedto app3i
ances.
13 The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system is grounded.
The key words in these objectives are mininiize" and reduce." It is not possible to produce a system in which each of these quantities of riek and performance degradation is reduced to zero.

Neverthele8s theobjectives gust be satisfied by any grounding technique known to be good engineering practice.

The key words in these objectives are miuiniize and reduce." It is not possible to produce a system in which each of these quantities of risk and performance degradation is reduced to zero.

Nevertheless, theobjectives must be satisfied by any grounding technique known to be good engineering practice.

Levels of adequate grounding have been identified for Army base camp operations1 where personnel expertiBe, materials, time, and special equipwent may be limited or not available:
Levels of adequate grounding have been identified for Army base camp operations, where personnel expertise, materials, time, and special equipment may be limited or not available:

1.
Lowvoltage distribution systei (i.e.
generation at 600 V or less)
deployed only for a ahort period of time (approximately 0 to 4 weeks)
(LVST).
1.
Lowvoltage distribution system (i.e., generation at 600 V or less)
deployed only for a short period of time (approximately 0 to 4 weeks)
(LVST).
2.
Lowvoltage diBtribution syBte constructed for online use over
longer periods of time (4 weeks to 2 yearB) (LVLT).
2.
Lowvoltage distribution system constructed for online use over
longer periods of time (4 weeks to 2 years) (LVLT).
3.
High and mediumvoltage distributioi systems (i.e. generation at
greater than 600 V) deployed for ahortterm oper8tion (HVST).
3.
High and mediumvoltage distributioi systems (i.e., generation at
greater than 600 V) deployed for ahorterm operation (HVST).
4.
High and mediumvoltage distribution constructed for online, long
term operation (HVLT).
4.
High and mediumvoltage distribution constructed for online, long
term operation (BVLT).
The recommended grounding techniques to be used within each of these levels are discussed below.

They apply to base camp8 constructed in arid, sandy, or rocky areas where local water tables are very lowe and to scenarios where ample water supplies are not readily available.

In coastal regions and other locations where water tables are high and soils are relatively moist, traditional grounding methods normally provide excellent grounding, because of the high mineral and salt content of most SWA soils.

In these regions, corrosion of ground connections is a significant maintenance problem because corroded terminals/connections develop their own high resistance.

This corrosion can be reduced by frequent, regular inspection, maintenances an4 treatment of ground connections, as described earlier.

The recommended grounding techniques to be used within each of these levels are discussed below.

They apply to base camps constructed in arid, sandy, or rocky areas where local water tables are very low, and to scenarios where ample water supplies are not readily available.

In coastal regions and other locations where water tables are high and soils are relatively moist, traditional grounding methods normally provide excellent grounding, because of the high mineral and Bait content of most SWA soils.

In these regions, corrosion of ground connections is a significant maintenance problem because corroded terminals/connections develop their own high resistance.

This corrosion can be reduced by frequent, regular inspection, maintenance, an4 treatment of ground connections, as described earlier.

LVST:
the generators should be grounded with a standard driven ground LVST:
the generators should be grounded with a standard driven ground rod.

Where rods cannot be driven, they should be laid horizontally in a trench about 18 in. (460 mm) deep. and.cove.red. wtth soil (not rocks)..

The distribution system's neutral wire must be connected through the generator to this ground.

As long as this threephase system has a grounded neutrals further deliberate grounding at other locations is not required.

rod.

Where rods cannot be driven, they 8hould be laid horizontally in a trench about 18 in. (460 mm) deep. and, covered, with soil (not rocks).

The distribution system'B neutral wire must be connected through the generator to this ground.

As long as this threephase system has a grounded neutral, further deliberate grounding at other locations is not required.

LVLT:
this situation is probably most typical for small base camp operation.

The generators should be placed on an electrically gridded platform
(either concrete or sandbags) that is tied to a standard ground rod driven a few feet away from the platform.

A gridded platform is shown in Figure 4.9.

The platform must be large enough to permit the generator operator.to stand on it while attending the generator.

The generator and the distribution system neutral wire must al8o be connected to this ground grid and ground rod.

Other distribution equipment (e.g., transformers, junction boxes, pedestals, distribution panels) must also be locally grounded by standard ground rods.

As water a'ailability permits, the generator and other local ground rods should be treated with salt solutions poured directly on and around the rod to saturate the soil.

This treatment should be repeated as necessary to keep LVLT:
this situation is probably most typical for Bmall base camp operation.

The generators should be placed on an electrically gridded platform
(either concrete or sandbags) that is tied to a 8tandard ground rod driven a few feet away from the platform.

A gridded platform is shown in Figure 4.9.

The platform must be large enough to permit the generator operator to stand on it while attending the generator.

The generator and the distribution system neutral wire must also be connected to this ground grid and ground rod.

Other dietribution equipment (e.g., traneforers, junction boxes pedestals, distribution panels) must also be locally grounded by standard ground rods.

As water arailability permits, the generator and other local ground rods should be treated with salt solutions poured directly on and around the rod to saturate the soil.

This treatment should be repeated as necessary to keep
428

## Copper Wire Copper Wire

I FOOT SPACING
moist the soil in contact with the rod.

Normally, 3 lb of salt per gallon of water (0.36 kg/L) gives a good saturated solution for this applie&tion.

oiet the soil, in contact with the rod.

Normally
3 lb of aalt per gallon of water (0.36 kg/L) give8 a good saturated solution for this applic&tion.

HVST:
use of high or iedium voltagee in base camp operations lay be necessary when:
HVST:
use of high or medium voltages in base camp operations lay be necessary when:

1.
The base camp receives electrical power from large Army electric distribution complexes.
1.
The base camp receives electrical power froi large Army electric distribution complexes.
2.
Host nation power is used
2.
Host nation power is used
3.
TranBformers are used to extend electric service within the base
camp.
3.
Transformers are used to extend electric service within the base
camp.
Along with traditional grounding of generators, transformers, and junction boxes for shortterm use, it is essential to have grounded neutral distribution, using the standard driven ground rod or trench buried rod in rocky areas.

In addition to 'this initial grounding, a dedicated ground wire must be run from the generator grounding rod to all grounded locations on the base.

This extra wire, orcable, may be laid in existing OGD/UGD recevays or in separate trenching, or can be formed using the concentric neutral of 3
4
wire cables.

It provides a common ground plane that is normally provided by the soils.

This grounding wire is necessary to provide adequate safety for personnel operating electrical equipment.

Along with traditional grounding of generators transformera, and junction boxes for shortterm u8e, it i easential to have grounded neutral diB
tribution, using the etandard driven ground rod or trench buried rod in rocky areas.

In addition to 'this initial grounding, a dedicated ground wire u8t be run from the generator grounding rod to all grounded locations on the base.

This extra wire, orcable, may be laid in existing OGD/UGD receways or in separate trenching, or can be forred using the concentric neutral of 3
4
wire cables.

It provide8 a coimon ground plane that is norially provided by the soils.

This grounding wire is necessary to provide adequate safety for perBonnel operating electrical equipent.

IIVLT:
for syst reliability and personnel aafety, this longert.r scenario require8 that the IIVST grounding BysteiD described above be augmented with:
HVLT:
for syst reliability and personnel safety, this longerterm scenario requires that the BVST grounding system described above be augmented with:

1.
Gridded ground planee for generatora and surfacemounted transformers
(see Figure 4.8).
1.
Gridded ground planes for generators and surfacemounted transformers
(see Figure 4.8).
2.
Direct contact of the grounding system with a known permanent water
source
such as the local. water table.
2.
Direct contact of the grounding system with a known permanent water
8ource, such as the local. water table.
It is anticipated that some form of water well viii be present in base camps whereHVLT applies.

In this case, the grounding plane/dedicated ground wires ehouid be connected to the metal veil casing, or, a separate copper conductor can be lowered Into the well to make contact with the water.

If a water well is not available, other drilling operations will be necessary to establish positive electric contact with the local water table.

Also of prime importance in this grounding system is the continuous and frequent inspection of grounding connections and dedicated ground wires for electrical continuity and low resistance of connections.

Cleaning of corrosion from, and protection of, these connections is critical in manta1ning good system reliability and safety.

It is anticipated that some form of water well will be present in base camps whereHVLT applie8.

In this case, the grounding plane/dedicated ground wires ehouId be connected to the metal well casing, or, a separate copper conductor can be lowered into the well to make contact with the water.

If a water well ia not available, other drilling operations will be necessary to establish positive electric contact with the local water table.

Also of pruDe importance in this groundir*g system is the continuous and frequent inspection of grounding connections and dedicated ground wires for electrical continuity and low reeistance of connections.

Cleaning of corrosion from, and protection of, these connections is critical in aintaining good system reliability and safety.

The preceding outline of "adequate grqpnding levels was developed based on assumptions of construction in very dry, sandy, and rocky terrain.

Personnel standing on such soils form a relatively highresistance electrical path to ground, as do driven ground rods.

In lowvoltage systems, then, even a direct 'short to ground through a soldier will not be a significant health hazard, though an unpleasant electrical shock could be sensed.

In high and aediwuvoltage systems, however, this type of short through personnel could produce fatal electrocution.

TherefQre, a dedicated ground wire should be used for highvoltage..aystems.

In effect, this extra wire serves the same purpose as the soil in normal moist environments.

It insures that faulting currents are driven back to the generator, thus tripping appropriate circuit protection devices.

Concentric neutral cables used in UGD or OGD can be used to provide this dedicated ground wire.

The preceding outline of "adequate grqpnding levels wa developed based on assulnption8 of construction in very dry, sandy, and rocky terrain.

Personnel standing on such soils form a relatively high-resistance electrical path to ground, as do driven ground rods.

In lowvoltage systems, then, even a direct 'short to ground through a 8oldier will not be a significant health hazard, though an unpleasant electrical shock could be gensed.

In high and aediwnvoltage systems, however, this type of short through personnel could produce fatal electrocution.

TherefQre, a dedicated ground wire should be used for highvoltage.aystems.

In effect, this extra wire serves the same purpose as the soil in normal moist environxnents.

It insures that faulting currents are driven back to the generator, thus tripping appropriate circuit protection devices.

Coneentric neutral cables used in UGD or OGD can be uaed to provide this dedicated ground wire.

The following diacuesion outlines Bite selection factors that should be consideired before emplacement of the generation/distribution system to improve the aystem's grounding effectiveuess'.

As noted earlier, arid and sandy areas of SWA with low water tables allow no1dea18oiut1on8 -for. ;grou.ndingelect-r.ic distribution systems with traditionally available Army grounding equiplEent.

However, other regions in SWA may provide at least reasonable opportunities for good electrical grounding when aite8 are selected carefully.

The following discussion outlines site selection factors that should be considered before emplacement of the generation/distribution system to improve the system's grounding effectiveness:.

As noted earlier, arid and sandy areas of SWA with low water tables allow no1dea1' solutions -for. grou.ndingelectr.ic distribution systems with traditionally available Army grounding equipment. However, other regions In SWA may provide at least reasonable opportunities for good electrical grounding when sites are selected carefully.

Existing water sources such as oases, river beds, or underground 8treaas often indicate that local water tables are high enough to be contacted with driven ground rods.

Deep wells can be used a described earlier to easily tie the entire groundfng systet to earth potential using dedicated grounding cables/grids.

These water sources cait also be ueed to dampen the soil around local ground rods.

Existing water sources such as oases,- river beds, or underground streams often indicate that local water tables are high enough to. be contacted with driven ground rods.

Deep wells can be used as described earlier to easily tie the entire groundfng system to earth potential using dedicated grounding cables/grids.

These water sources cait also be used to dampen the 8011 around local ground rods.

If a base camp is developed in an area that is already built up, then electrical contact with existing water piping systems ean provide excellent ground conditions.

The rebar in reinforced concrete can also be used like horizontal.ground rods.. Another good location for grounding would be inplace metal sewage systems.

Finally, existing metal fencing can be used to construct electrical grid8 for TG and transformer platforms.

If a base camp is developed in an area that is already built up then electrical contact with existing water piping systems can provide excellent ground eonditions.

The rebar in reinforced concrete can also be used like horizontal,ground rods.. Another good location for grounding would be inplace etal sewage systems.

Finally, existing metal fencing can be used to con
.truct electrical grid8 for TG and tranaformer platforms.

430
In base camp locations where such structures or water sources are not avai1abe, distribution grounding can be inproved by driving ground rode near or into operational waste water dumps or sinks.

For instance, mess hal.s and latrtnes may use septic tanks or cesspools.

Sewage liquids are normally very conductive.

Site seection should provide enhanced grounding at least for TGs.

However, care should be exercised to insure that this ground connection does not endanger personnel should a fault occur.

Figure 4.10 shows grounding using wastewater drainage.

The drain pipe must iiot be constructed with meta'.

materials.

Plastic or PVC is recommended if the sewage drain is used for grounding.

This will prevent the poeBible injectton of current into the water source (i.e., 1atrine or mess hall).

In base camp locations where such structures or water sources are not available, distribution grounding can be improved by driving ground rods near or into operational waste water dumps or sinks.

For instance, mess hal1s and iatrtnes may use septic tanks or cesapools.

Sewage liquids are normally very conductive.

Site selection should provide enhanced grounding at least for TGs.

However, care should be exercised to insure that this ground connection does not endanger personnel should a fault occur.

Figuro 4.10 shows grounding using wastewater drainage.

The drain pipe must not be constructed with metal materials.

Plastic or PVC is recommended if the sewage drain is used for grounding.

This will prevent the possible injectton of current into the water source (i.e., latrine or mess hail).

Two expedient techniques for local grounding are particularly applicable to the small, isolated TG in field applications.

The first can be easily used in deep, loose, dry sand where a quickfix" ground is needed.

Figure 4.11
shows how an 8ft (2.4rn) section of galvanized steel or copper clad pipe can Two expedient techniques for local grounding are particularly applicab'e to the small, isolated TG in field applications.

The first can be easily uBed in deep, loose, dry sand where a quickfix" ground is needed.

Figure 4.11
shows how an 8ft (2.4rn) section of galvanized steel or copper clad pipe can
431
be modified to aid immediate introduction of salt Bolutlon to the rod/Band interface.

After being driven into the ground, the perforated pipe iB filled through a funnel with a solution of 15 lb salt/5 gal (6.8 kg/l8.9 1.) water.

The salt solution percolates into the sand and ptovides a conductive soil for current flow.

This ground remains effective until the solution either eva
porateB or drains away from the rod, usually in several hours or a fe days.

This procedure tends to corrode the pipe very quickly, however1 so additional pipe will be needed occa8ionally.

Also, the grounding clamp/wire connection must be kept clean and corrosionfree for good results.

be modified to aid immediate introduction of salt solution to the rod/sand interface.

After being driven into the ground, the perforated pipe is filled through a funnel with a solution of 15 lb salt/5 gal (6.8 kg/18.9 I.) water.

The salt solution percolates into the sand and provides a conductive soil for current flow.

This ground remains effective until the solution either evaporates or drains away from the rod, usually in several hours or a few days.

This procedure tends to corrode the pipe very quickly, however, so additional pipe will be needed occasionally.

Also, the grounding clamp/wire connection must be kept clean and corrosionfree for good results.

The second technique, which is most u8eful in rocky terrain where rods are difficult to drive, has been loosely called a "caunterpoise.'
Bare copper wire is laid in a horizontal trench and is covered with soil and salt solution treatment, if available.

More wire in the trench, usually 11/2 ft (0.5 in)
deep, provides a better ground.

A "counterpoise" of this type is shown in Figure 4.12.

With this technique, too, the wire becomes unrecoierab1e after several salt solution treatments.

Note, however, that some field users have used this type of ground successfully without salt solution treatment. Another expedient grounding method that may be applicable is direct ground connection to field urinal tubes driven into the soil.

This technique is recommended only for shortterm use.

The second technique, which iB mo6t u8eful in rocky terrain where rodB
are difficult to drive, has been looBely called a "caunterpoise.'
Bare copper wire is laid in a horizontal trench and is covered with Boil and salt solution treatment, if available.

More wire in the trench, usually 11/2 ft (0.5 in)
deep1, provides a bettet ground.

A "counterpoise" of this type is shown in Figure 4.12.

With this technique, too, the wire becomes unrecoierab1e after aeveral salt solution treatments.

Note1 however, that some field users have used this type of ground Buccessfully without salt solution treatment. Another expedient grounding method that may be applicable is direct ground connection to field utinal tubes driven into the Boil.

This technique iB
recommended only for shortterm use.

Though this chapter has outlined levels of grounding that are acceptable in an expedient sense, it is nevertheless emphasized that grounding protection of less than 25 ohms resistance to earth is desirable and should be a goal of Though this chapter haB outlined levels of grounding that are acceptable in an expedient sen8e, it is nevettheleBB emphasized that grounding protection of less than 25 ohms resistance to earth is desirable and should be a goal of
20
IS
WIRE
432
the electric iistribution engineer  even in SWA base camps.

To determine the grounding statu8 of base camp grounded locations, it is recommended that onsite capability be provided for ground re8istance testing.

Te8ting procedures and appropriate test equipment are discussed in TM 5765.

Although grounding resistance of les8 than 25 ohms will not be possible in 8ome dry, sandy areas of SWA, the traditional techniques of deeper ground rods, rod8 in parallel, and rods treated with salt solution will significantly decrease the high local resistance, and will improve electrical ay8te!n reliability and Bafety.

the electric distribution engineer  even in SWA base camps.

To determine the grounding status of base camp grounded locations, it is recommended that onsite capability be provided for ground re8istence testing.

Testing procedures and appropriate test equipment are discussed in TM 5765.

Although grounding resistance of less than 25 ohms will not be possible in some dry, sandy area8 of SWA, the traditional techniques of deeper ground rods, rods in parallel, and rods treated with salt solution will significantly decrease the high local resistance, and will improve electrical system reliability and safety.

## Chapter 5 - Expedient Water Conservation Techniques

CHAPTER 5 - EXPEDIENT WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES

## 5.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to identify practical and expedient water conservation measures that can help reduce the logistics burden of water supply in SWA.

The selection of techniques and new equipment has been limited to those that would not overburden the military logi8tics system and would be consistent with the training and 8kill levels of tho8e who would employ them under tactical conditions.

In fact, selection8 reflect realistic, lowcost measures that can be readily implemented.

The objective of this chapter is to identify practical and expedient water conservation measures that can help reduce the logistics burden of water supply in SWA.

The selection of techniques and new equipment has been limited to those that would not overburden the military logistics system and would be consistent with the training and skill levels of those who would employ them under tactical conditions.

In fact, selections reflect realistic, lowcost measures that can be readily implemented.

To accomplish this work, the waterconsuming activities of a representative military force that might be deployed to SWA were examined.

Then a detailed analysis was made of each activity to identify opportunities to:
To accomplish this work, the waterconsuming activities of a representative military force that might be deployed to SWA were examined.

Then a detailed analysis was made of each activity to identify opportunities to:

1.
Control excessive water usage
1.
Control excessive water usage
2.
Minimize water lose through evaporation, spillage and contamination
2.
Minimize water losB through evaporation, spillage and contamination
3.
Reuse water by internal recycling or elsewhere by some other activity
3.
Reuse water by internal recycling or elsewhere by some other activity
4.
Substitute water of le8ser quality where it has been cu8tollary to use
fresh water.
4.
Substitute water of lesser quality where it has been customary to use
fresh water.

## 5.2 Environmental Setting 5.2 Environmental Setting 5.2.1 General 5.2.1 General

The desert conditions found throughout SWA present a variety of problems for a military force operating there.

For the U.S. Army deployed in desert warfare operations, major concerns will be the general shortage of water and everpresent dust.

To provide some inaight into the conditions that will be faced, especially those related to water availability, it is appropriate to understand the military implications of water in the desert environment.

The desert conditions found throughout SWA present a variety of problems for a military force operating there.

For the U.S. Army deployed in desert warfare operations, major concerns will be the general shortage of water and everpresent dust.

To provide some insight into the conditions that will be faced, especially those related to water availability, it is appropriate to understand the military implications of water in the desert environment.

Limited amounts of precipitation and rapid evaporation are characteristic of deaert areas.

In SWA rainfall is less than 10 in. (254 mm) per year and frequently this is in the form of violent storms.

In the mountains and hilly areas runoff is rapid and destructive, while in the flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depression8 and salt flats where that which does not percolate into the soil quickly evaporates in the hot sun.

Limited amounts of precipitation and rapid evaporation are characteristic of desert areas.

In SWA rainfall is less than 10 in. (254 mm) per year and frequently this is in the form of violent storms.

In the mountains and hilly areas runoff is rapid and destructive, while in the flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depressions and salt flats where that which does not percolate into the soil quickly evaporates in the hot sun.

## 5.2.2 Military Implications 5.2.2 Military Implications

The single most important characteristic of desert areas is the lack of water.

Surface water is limited to a very few rivers and intermittent streams that benefit from the sparse rainfall.

Except for areas primarily along the coast, subsurface water iB also limited, and that which can be obtained from wells is generally unfit to drink because of the high salt content and the presence of minerals such as calcium and magnesium.

Consequently, a military force must be prepared to produce its own potable water from any available The single most important characteristic of desert areas is the lack of water.

Surface water is limited to a very few rivers and intermittent streams that benefit from the apars rainfall.

Except for areas primarily along the coast, s,ibsurface water is also limited, and that which can be obtained from wells is generally unfit to drink because of the high salt content and the presence of minerals such as calcium and magnesium.

Consequently, a military force must be prepared to produce its own potable water from any available supplies1 and to be diligent about conserving water, regardless of ite quality and use.

supplies, and to be diligent about conserving water, regardless of its quality and use.

The American soldier is not indoctrinated to use water sparingly.

Consequently, part of his training before deploying to SWA must include intensive instruction on water conservation.

Such training should be accompanied by measures to make water less available.

This will reduce the temptation to return to wasteful habits.

The most effective means of doing this1 particularly for activities in Corps rear areas and the Communications Zone1 is to prohibit the installation of piped water Bystems and waterborne sewage facilities in base development complexes.

The American soldier is not indoctrinated to use water sparingly.

Consequently, part of his training before deploying to SWA must include intensive instruction on water conservation.

Such training should be accompanied by measures to make water less available.

This will reduce the temptation to return to wasteful habits.

The most effective means of doing this, particularly for activities in Corps rear areas and the Communications Zone, is to prohibit the installation of piped water systems and waterborne sewage facilities in base development complexes.

Without a piped water system, each organization or troop complex must have enough storage capability for at least one day's water requirements.

Some units which currently do not have storage facilities, but would need them for operational purposes, include the field laundry and bath, aviation, and engineer units.

Any unit which uses collapsible fabric tanks muSt minimize water losses due to evaporation and dust contamination by securely covering the tanks at all times.

Even careful attention to protecting potable and non potable water supplies might not prevent contamination; therefore, the capability to treat and recover such water should be available.

This suggests retention of ERDLator equipment in the Army supply system to augmer.t the portable reverse osmosis water purification unit (ROWPIJ).

Without a piped water system, each organization or troop complex must have enough storage capability for at least one day's water requirements.

Some units which currently do not have storage facilities, but would need thei for operational purposes, include the field laundry and bath, aviation1 and engineer unitB.

Any unit which uses collapsible fabric tanks muBt minimize water losses due to evaporation and dust contamination by securely covering the tanks at all times.

Even careful attention toprotecting potableand non potable water supplies might not prevent contamination; therefore1 the capability to treat and recover such water should be available.

This suggests retention of ERDLator equipment in the Army supply system to augmer.t the portable reverse osnosis water purification unit (ROWPIJ).

Actual potable and nonpotable water consumption can be reduced below the
20 gal (76 L) per man per day water consumption planning factor for arid environments by diligent application of the conservation measures presented in this chapter.

Conservation must begin with the individual soldier; he must be made aware of the need to save water and must be taught about the nany opportunities to reuse wastewater for some other purpose.

He must be assisted in this effort by everyone up the chain of command.

There is no substitute for command emphasis on water conservation.

Actual potable and nonpotable water consumption can be reduced below the
20 gal (76 L) per man per day water consumption planning factor for arid environments by diligent application of the conservation measures presented in this chapter.

Conservation must begin with the individual soldier; he muet be made aware of the need to save water and nust be taught about the nany opportunities to reuse wastewater for some other purpose.

He must be assisted in this effort by everyone up the chain of command.

There is no substitute for command emphasis on water conservation.

Planners can also play a major role in the conservation effort.

For example, activities which require large amounts of potable water should be located near water terminals and tank farms to minimize transportation requirements and losses during handling.

In addition, facilities that may use nonpotable water should be sited near a suitable generator of wastetater e.g., wastewater from laundry and shower units could be used for concrete mixing, 8011 compaction, and dust control needed for the installation of storage depots.

Planners can also play a major role in the conservation effort.

For example, activities which require large amounts of potable water should be located near water terminals and tank farms to minimize transportation requiremente and losses during handling.

In addition, facilities that may use nonpotable water should be 8ited near a suitable generator ofwastetater e.g., wastewater from laundry and shower units could be used for concrete mixing, 8oil compaction1 and dust control needed for the installation of storage depots.

Planning should also consider installation of a pipeline for transporting seawater or brackish water, either of which can be used for concrete, soil cement, soil compaction, and dust control.

The two latter tasks will probably be major engineering efforts because the limited existing road networks in many SWA countries will need to be expanded to provide adequate lines of corn
munications, and the deterioration of roads from heavy truck traffic will demand continuous maintenance.

Another significant advantage of a nonpotable water pipeline would be the convenience of large quantities of nonpotable water fo' Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) decontaminating purposes, should the need ever arise.

Planning should also consider installation of a pipeline for transporting seawater or brackish water1 either of which can be used for concrete1 soil cement, soil compaction1 and dust control.

The two latter tasks will probably be major engineering efforts because the limited existing road networks in many SWA countries will need to be expanded to provide adequate lines of communications1 and the deterioration of roads from heavy truck traffic will demand continuous maintenance.

Another significant advantage of a nonpotable water pipeline would be the convenience of large quantities of nonpotable water fo' Nuclear, Biological1 Chemical (NBC) decontaminating purposes, should the need ever arise.

52

## 5.3 NearTerm Water Supply Concept For Arid Regions 5.3 NearTerm Water Supply Concept For Arid Regions 5.3.1 General 5.3.1 Gnral

This section describes the nearterm operational concept for managing water resources in an arid environment.

In addition, it. includes background information about the various types of water resources of such areas and the uses that can be made of each.

This section describes the nearterm operational concept for managing water reaources in an arid environment.

In addition, it. includes background information about the various types of water resources of such areas and the useB that can be made of each.

## 5.3.2 Water Supply Concept 5.3.2 Water Supply Concept

Within the Army, responsibilities in water resource management are shared by engineer, combat service support, and medical organizations.

The engineers locate water supplies, drill wells, and install pipelines; combat service support units operate water purification equipment, pipelines, and waste distribution facilities; medical organizations insure that the quality of water is adequate for its intended purpose.

Within the Army, responsibilitieB in water re8ource management are shared by engineer, combat service support, and medical organizations.

The engineers locate water supplies, drill wells) and install pipelines; combat service support units operate water purification equipment, pipelines, and waste distribution facilities; medical organizations insure that the quality of water is adequate for its intended purpose.

Water supply support of a force in an arid region is to be developed in three phases:
Water supply support of a force in an arid region is to be developed in three phases:
1.

The deployment phase is the entry of combat units into a combat zone.

Potable water (enough for immediate survival purposes) is to be carried in individual canteens, 5gal (19L) cans, and other authorized equipment.

Resupply will be by tactical aircraft with delivery in 500 and 50gal (1890 and 190L) fabric drums or airdropped in expendable 6gal (23L) bags/bozes.

During this phase, potable water consumption is at the rate of 7.2 gal
(27.3 L) per man per day.

1.

The deployient phase is the entry of combat units into a combat zone.

Potable water (enough for immediate 8urvival purposes) is to be carried in individual canteens, 5gal (19L) cans, and other authorized equipment.

Resupply will be by tactical aircraft with delivery in 500 and 50gal (1890 and 190L) fabric drums or airdropped in expendable 6gal (23L) bagB/boKes.

During this phase, potable water consumption Is at the rate of 7.2 gal.

(27.3 L) per man per day.

2.

In the lodgment phase, when followon forces arrive in the objective area, aerial water resupply is gradually replaced as an incountry water supply system is established.

Combat Service Support units arriving with purification capability will start water management operations near the seashore or other major source of water.

When additional water resources are required, Engineer elements will identify potential well sites and begin drilling.

Largescale purification, storage, and distribution operations are then fol
lowed, enabling combat units to replenish water supplies at suppiy.points using organic water trailers.

During this phase, when the ashore water supply system is put into operation, water consumption level increases to an austere rate of 11.7 gal (44.3 L) per man per day.

2.

In the lodgment phase, when followon forces arrive in the objective area, aerial water resupply is gradually replaced as an incountry water 8up
ply system is established.

Combat Service Support units arriving with purification capability will start water management operations near the seashore or other major source of water.

When additional water reBources are required Engineer elements will identify potential well sites and begin drilling.

Largescale purification, storage, and distribution operations are then followed, enabling combat units to replenish water supplies at supplypoints using organic water trailers.

During this phase, when the aghore water supply system is put into operation, water consumption level increases to an austere rate of 11.7 gal (44.3 L) per man per day.

3.

The buildup phase begins once the lodgment area is firmly established.

This includes the arrival of additional support units to install and operate water pipelinea/hoselinea and tank farms, and to begin line haul operations using water tanker trucks.

When the water production and storage system is fully developed, a 1day reserve supply of potable water is to be maintained at brigade, division, corps, and task force levels for a total of 4
days within the area of operations.

With completion of the buildup phase, water consumption reaches the full requirement rate of 18.9 gal
(71.5 L) per man per day.

This is enough to satisfy the demands for drinking, maintaining proper standards of hygiene, medical care, food preparation, equipment operations, and construction.

3.

The buildup phase begins once the lodgment area is firmly established.

This includes the arrival of additional support units to install and operate water pipelines/hoselines and tank farms, and to begin line haul operations using water tanker trucks.

When the water production and 8torage aystem is fully developed, a 1day reserve supply of potable water is to be maintained at brigade, division, corps, and task force levels for a total of 4
days within the area of operation8.

With completion of the buildup phase, water conawnption reacheB the full requirement rate of 18.9 gal (71.5 L) per man per day.

This is enough to satisfy the demands for drinking, maintaining proper standards of hygiene, medical care, food preparation, equipment opera
tions, and construction.

Much of the equipment required for the above water supply system has been developed by the U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command; the individual equipment items are illustrated in Figure 5.1.

Much of the equipment required for the above water supply sy8tem has been developed by the U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command; the individual equipment items are illu8trated in Figure 5.1.

## 5.4 Water Conservation Opportunities 5.4 Water Conservation Opportunities 5.4.1 General 5.4.1 General

Th18 section discus8es waterdemanding activitie8 that are expected to be performed by a U.S. military force deployed to a hot arid region such as SWA.

For each activity, the related water requirements (quality, quantity, and possible 8ources) are de8cribed and specific potential water con8ervation mea8
ure8 are 8uggested.

This section discusses waterdemanding activities that are expected to be performed by a U.S. military force deployed to a hot arid region such as SWA. For each activity, the related water requirements (quality, quantity, and possible sources) are described and specific potential water conservation measures are suggested.

Throughout this section, various qualitie8 and types of water are mentioned.

To aid the reader, the following de8criptions of each are provided:
Throughout this section, various qualities and types of water are mentioned.

To aid the reader, the following descriptions of each are provided:
1.

Potable water has been examined and treated to meet appropriate 8tandards and declared fit for domestic consumption.(food preparation) byre8ponsible authorities.*
1.

Potable water has been examined and treated to meet appropriate standards and declared fit for domestic consumption(food preparation) byrespon sible authorities.*
2.

Nonpotable water ha8 not been examined, properly treated, and approved by approporiate authorities as being safe for dome8tic consumption
(food preparation).

All water8 are con8idered nonpotable until declared pot-
2.

Nonpotable water has not been examined, properly treated, and approved by approporiate authorities as being safe for domestic consumption
(food preparation).

All waters are considered nonpotable until declared potable. *
able .*
3.

Seawater obtained offshore at a location removed from a sewage outfall is normally relatively clean.

tt is very salty, and contains suspended particles of 8and and probably some bacteria.

This water can be used, without any adver8e effects, for construction, hou8ekeeping tasks, firefighting,
8hovering and laundering.

It 8hOuld not be used where continued use could corrode critical metal surfaces.

When used for showers, laundries, and per
sonal hygiene purposes, calcium hypochlorite 8hOuld be added to the water to protect again8t diseasecausing organisms.

Potable water can be produced from seawater u8iflg the ROWPUs.

3.

Seawater obtained offshore at a location removed from a sewage outfall is normally relatively clean.

tt is very salty, and contains suspended particles of sand and probably some bacteria.

This water can be used, without any adverse effects, for construction, housekeeping tasks, firefighting, showering and laundering.

It should not be used where continued use could corrode critical metal surfaces.

When used for showers, laundries, and per
sonal hygiene purposes, calcium hypochiorite should be added to the water to protect against diseasecausing organisms.

Potable water can be produced from seawater using the ROWPUs.

4.

Surface water and well water containIng a high cOnaentration of salt is called brackish.

The salt content is much less than found in seawater, but is high enough to give the water a distinctive salty taste.

Brackish water may contain dissolved calcium, sulfur, magnesium1, and iron salts which make the water difficult to lather (forms curds), and when heated leaves hard mineral deposits on the wetted surface of the container.

Surface brackish water may be expected to contain microorganisms, while brackish well water should contain few or none.

As with seawater, brackish water can be used for construction, firefighting, and general housekeeping tasks.

It is not generally recomiended for those purposes where it is to be heated to near boiling temperatures.

Potable water can also be produced from it by reverse osmosis treatment.

4.

Surface water and well water containIng a high cOnceittration of salt is called brackish.

The 8alt content is much less than found in seawater, but is high enough to give the water a distinctive salty ta8te.

Brackish water may contain dissolved calcium, sulfur, magne8ium, and iron salts which make the water difficult to lather (forms curd8), and when heated leaves hard mineral depocits on the wetted surface of the container.

Surface brackish water may be expected to contain microorganisms, while brackish well water
8hOuld contain few or none.

As with seawater, brackish water can be used for construction, firefighting, and general housekeeping tasks.

It is not generally recomiended for those purposes where it is to be heated to near boiling temperatures.

Potable water can also be produced from it by reverse osmosis treatment.

5.

Fresh water has no apparent salty taste, but when found on the surface (river, stream, oasis) it may contain suspended materials, dissolved
5.

Fresh water ha8 no apparent 8alty taste, but when found on the surface (river, stream, oasis) it may contain 8uspended materials, dissolved
* TB MED 229.

*
TB MED 229.

minerals, fecal matter, and bacteria and other diseasecausing organisln8.

When obtained from wells or an incountry municipal water supply system it will normally be clean in appearance with no significant odor.

On the other hand, it can dissolve mineral Baits and bacteria.

To make it drinkable (potable), disinfection through chlorination with specified residuals of free available chlorine (TB MED 229) is often the only treatment required.

When it contains significant amounts of dissolvei Baits of magnesium, sulfur, and Iron, drinking It may often cause an increased laxative effect.

Fresh water can be used for most cleaning and nonconsumptive purposes without purification.

To make it potable, treatment using conventional water purification procedures (ERDLator) is normally adequate.

When dissolved mineral content s too high, it can only be purified by reverse osmosis treatment.

To assume that any one municipal water supply in the Middle East Is potable (by U.S.

standards) would be a mistake.

Most countries in the region do not treat water to the standards required by the Army.

Therefore such water sources must first be examined and declared suitable for human consumption by medical authorities, as cited above.

Surface fresh water sources can also be a major health hazard.

These waters, primarily rivers, are. used by nearby inhabitants to dispose of all forms of human waste, and- hence are potential sour'ces of pathogenic organisms.

They also harbor a variety of other organisms which may infect the human body simply through bodily contact with the water. .The moat dangerous is a blood fluke (spawned from a snail) which may enter the body to cause a disabling disease known as Schistosomlasis.

minerals, fecal matter, and bacteria and other diseasecausing organisin8.

When obtained from wells or an incountry municipal water supply system it will normally be clean in appearance with no significant odor.

On the other hand, it can dissolve mineral Baits and bacteria.

To make it drinkable (potable), disinfection through chlorination with specified residuals of free available chlorine (TB MED 229) is often the only treatment required.

When it contains significant auounts of dissolved salts of magnesium, sulfur, and iron, drinking it may often cause an increased laxative effect.

Fresh water can be used for most cleanin,g and nonconsumptive purposes without purification.

To make it potable, treatment using conventional water purification procedures (ERDLator) is normally adequate.

When dissolved mineral content s too high, it can only be purified by reverse osmosi5 treatment.

To assume that any one municipal water supply in the Middle East is potable (by U.S.

standards) would be a mistake.

Most countries in the region do not treat water to the standards required by the Army.

Therefore such water sources must first be examined and declared suitable for human consumption by medical authorities, as cited above.

Surface fresh water sources can also be a major health hazard.

These waters, primarily river9, are. used by nearby inhabitants to dispose of all forms of human waste, and- hence are potential sour'ces of pathogenic organisms.

They also harbor a variety of other organisms which may infect the human body simply through bodily contact with the water.

The most dangerous is a blood fluke (spawned from a snail) which may enter the body to cause a disabling disease known as Schistosomiasis.

The concepts and suggestions in this section are based on engineering judgment and militarytested experience and can save water in a desert environment.

Although valid, a critical aspect in the implementation of any suggestion presented here is approval by appropriate U.S. Army Medical Department authorities at all levels of command.

The Surgeon General of the Department of the Army is responsible for insuring that sanitary control and surveillance of field water supplies from source to consumer 18 accomplished and making such recommendations as may be necessary to protect the health of the individual soldier, and consequently the various commands.

The concepts and suggestions in this section are based on engineering judgment and militarytested experience and can save water in a desert environment.

Although valid, a critical aspect in the implementation of any suggestion presented here is approval by appropriate U.S. Artny Medical Department authorities at all levels of command.

The Surgeon General of the Department of the Army is responsible for insuring that sanitary control and surveillance of field water supplies from source to consumer is accomplished and making such recommendations as may be necessary to protect the health of the individual soldier, and consequently the various commands.

Whenever in this report the use of water of a lesser quality than that prescribed for potable waters  such as for showers, laundries, and bathing
- is suggested, it must be noted that the. practice should only be.impiemented after the advice and approval of competent medical and engineer personnel have been obtained.

Whenever in this report the use of water of a lesser quality than that prescribed for potable waters
such as for showers, laundries, and bathing
- is sugge8ted, it must be noted that the practice should only be.impiemented after the advice and approval of competent medical and engineer personnel have been obtained.

## 5.4.2 Water Conservation 5.4.2 Water Conservation

Much can be learned from some of the waterconserving habits of the region's inhabitants.

The basic water conservation principles below, which should be followed by a military force in the field, are generally observed by desert people:
Much can be learned from some of the waterconserving habits of the region's inhabitants.

The basic water conservation principles below, which should be followed by a military force in the field, are generally observed by desert people:
I.

Make each soldier aware of his responsibility to conserve water by avoiding wasteful practices and being everconscious that there is some useful purpose for wastewater or unsuitable (e.g., hot) potable water.

1.

Make each soldier aware of his responsibility to conserve water by avoiding wasteful practices and being everconscious that there is some useful purpose for wastewater or unsuitable (e.g., hot) potable water.

2.
Place command emphasis on water conservation and water reuse.
2.
Place command emphasis on water conservation and water reuse.
3.

Protect potable water from all sources of contaminationb including sand and du'.

3.

Protect potable water from all sources of contamination, including sand and du'.

4.

Do not dispo8e of water of any type without considering alternative us e 8.

4.

Do not dispose of water of any type without considering alternative uses.

5.

Prohibit water thievery from storage container8and pipelines, and the indiscriminant use of expedient showers.

5.

Prohibit water thievery from storage container8and pipelines, and the indiscriminant use of expedient showers.

6.

Avoid installatioii of centralized pressure water syBteins for temporary facilities needed to support a nilitary force in the field.

6.

Avoid installation of centralized pressure water 8yateins for temporary facilities needed to support a ni1itary force in the field.

7.

Use expedient human va8te disposal techniques instead of vasteborne sewage systems.

7.

Use expedient human waste disposal techniques instead of vasteborne sewage systems.

The potential savings in water to be realized by the application of the specific techniques discussed in the remainder of this chapter can be significant, as indicated in Figure 5.2.

EBtimates are shown for two groups of activities:
those that require only potable water and those that can e nonpotable water if available.

In each instance, the -savings are measured against the water consumption planning factors contained in TRADOC Pamphlet
52511.

The potential savings in water to be realized by the application of the specific techniques discussed in the remainder of this chapter can be significant1 as indicated in Figure 5.2.

Estimates are shown for two groups of activities:
those that require only potable water and those that can e nonpotable water if available.

In each instance, the savings are measured against the water consumption planning factors contained in TRADOC Pamphlet
52511.

The reduced water con8umption levels shown in Figure 5.2 for each of the major activities reflects the benefits from:
(1) installation of water saving devices and procedures (full figures), and (2) the additional savings if wastewater treatment and recycling are employed (ghosted figures).

The latter savings are those associated with laundry and shower operationsb and have been estimated to be an 80 percent reduction.

These benefits should be verified by field testing treatment procedures.

However, as indicated in the following discussion of various waterconsuming activitiesb there are many opportunities to use the wastewater.

Although the quantities of water are relatively small and difficult to quantify they could be significant in the aggregate.

The reduced water consumption levels shown in Figure 5.2 for each of the major activities reflects the benefits from:
(1) installation of water saving devices and procedures (full figures), and (2) the additional savings if wastewater treatment and recycling are employed (ghosted figures).

The latter savings are those associated with laundry and shower operations, and have been estimated to be an 80 percent reduction.

These benefits should be verified by field testing treatment procedures.

However, as indicated in the following discussion of various waterconsuming activities, there are many opportunities to use the wastewater.

Although the quantities of water are relatively small and difficult to quantify, they could be significant in the aggregate.

The use of water of lesser quality is also regarded here to be a viable method of conservation.

Especially in SWA where the dissolved mineral content can be quite highb any opportunity to use local water and avoid the costly reverse osmosis treatment process has both logistic and ecoaomic advantages.

These benefits are most apparent when it comes to water required for construction (concrete mixingb soil compactionb etc.).

Untreated 8eawater or brackish water is quite satisfactory for most theater of operations construction that is only intended for shortterm use.

The use of water of lesser quality is also regarded here to be a viable method of conservation.

Especially in SWA where the dissolved mineral content can be quite high, any opportunity to use local water and avoid the costly reverse osmosis treatment process has both logistic and economic advantages.

These benefits are most apparent when it comes to water required for construction (concrete mixing, soil compaction, etc.).

Untreated seawater or brackish water is quite satisfactory for most theater of operations construction that is only intended for shortterm use.

As shown in Figure 5.2, the projected minimum savings in potable water from the application of all conservation measures discussed above is about 3.7
gal/man/day (14.0 L/m/d), or a reduction of 26 percent from the established consumption planning factor of 14.3 gal/man/day (54.1 L/m/d).

Likewise, the amount (4.6 gal/man/day [17.4 L/m/d]) of fresh water required for activities that do not involve ingestion of water (lower portion of Figure 5.2) can be reduced about 80 percent bya combination of recycle/reuse and water quality reduction measures.

If viewed from the standpoint that potable water only would be produced and used by all activities identified in Figure 5.2, the projected savings becomes even more significant.

The overall savings in potable water could amount to 7.4 gal/man/day (3.7 gal/man/day +
3.7
gal/man/day)
As shown in Figure S.2b the projected minimum savings in potable water from the application of all conservation measures discussed above is about 3.7
gal/man/day (14.0 L/m/d)b or a reduction of 26 percent from the established consumption planning factor of 14.3 gal/iran/day (54.1 L/m/d).

Likewiseb the amount (4.6 gal/man/day [17.4 L/m/d]) of fresh water required for activities that do not involve ingestion of water (lower portion of Figure 5.2) can be reduced about 80 percent bya combination of recycle/reuse and water quality reduction measures.

If viewed from the standpoint that potable water only would be produced and used by all activities identified in Figure 5.2, the projected savings becomes even more significant.

The overall savings in potable water could amount to 7.4 gal/man/day (3.7 gal/man/day +
3.7
gal/man/day)
57
(28.0 L/in/d)
which is a 39 percent reduction prom the unadjusted consumption planning fat-r of 18.9 gal/man/day (71.5 L/m/d).

(28.0 L/in/d) which is a 39 percent reduction prom the unadjusted consumption planning fat-r of 18.9 gal/man/day (71.5 L/m/d).

## 5.4.3 Activity: Drinking Water 5.4.3 Activity: Drinking Water

Hot, arid, external conditions and Strenuous activity required of a soldier cauBe body temperatures to increase.

The body rid8 it8elf of this heat by the evaporation of sweat.

Thia natural cooling system is efficient)
and the body continues to function well if its water losses are replaced.

When they are not, dehydration takes place, and with it there is a corre8pond ing loss in body function efficiency.

If dehydration ig allowed to progres8, an individual can quickly become incapacitated and then must be treated for heat stroke.

Without prompt treatment, a severe caBe of heat stroke could result in death.

Hot1, arid, external conditions and strenuous activity required of a soldier cause body temperatures to increase.

The body rids itself of this heat by the evaporation of sweat.

Thia natural cooling system is efficient)
and the body continues to function well if its water losses are replaced.

When they are not, dehydration takes place, and with it there is a corresponding loss in body function efficiency.

If dehydration is allowed to progress, an individual can quickly become incapacitated and then must be treated for heat stroke.

Without prompt treatment, a severe case of heat stroke could result in death.

The normal thirst sensation is not a reliable indicator of the water required.

It will be necessary, therefore, for individuals to drink water frequently during the hot and most active part of the day.

The normal thirst sensation is not a reliable indicator of the water required.

It will be necessary, therefore, for individuals to drink water frequently during the hot and most active part of the day.

Quality:
Water for drinking should only be obtained from authorized potable sources.

Although water from other sources may appear clear and drinkable, it will probably contain chemical and/or pathogenic contaminanta that can cause a variety of intestinal disorders.

Drinking water from Bources used by local desert tribesmen should generally be avoided.

Under emergency conditions, this water may be used, but only after being disinfected with iodine tablets or brought to a rolling boil for 15 seconds.

Quality:
Water for drinking should only be obtained from authorized potable sources.

Although water from other sources may appear clear and drinkable, it will probably contain chemical and/or pathogenic contaminants that can cause a variety of intestinal disorders.

Drinking water from sources used by local desert tribesmen should generally be avoided.

Under emergency conditions, this water may be used, but only after being disinfected with iodine tablets or brought to a rolling boil for 15 seconds.

Quantity:
Approximately 4 gal (15 L) of cooled potable drinking water will be provided for each soldier per day.

Those engaged in strenuous physical activities will normally require this amount of water to maintain their strength during the hottest period of the day.

Those who are less active will need to drink less.

Under all circumstances, every soldier needs to develop a habit of drinking frequently during the day, vhether he feels thirsty or not. To encourage the individual soldier to drink increased quantitiea of water, the U.S. Army has adopted "water chiller concept.

This has resulted in the development of a small mobile chiller.wbichisexpectedtobe a.part.of the organic equipment for forces operating in arid regions (Figure 5.3).

Quantity:
Approximately 4 gal (15 L) of cooled potable drinking water will be provided for each soldier per day.

Those engaged in strenuous physical activities will normally require this amount of water to maintain their strength during the hottest period of the day.

Those who are less active will need to drink less.

Under all circumstances, every soldier needs to develop a habit of drinking frequently during the day, whether he feels thirsty or not. To encourage the individual soldier to drink increased quantities of water, the U.S. Army has adopted "water chiller concept.

This has resulted in the development of a small mobile chiller.vbichisexpectedto.be a.part.of the organic equipment for forces operating in arid regions (Figure 5.3).

Water Sources:
Only water approved by Task Force Surgeon and provided through the establi8hed supply system should be used for drinking.

Units will either obtain their water from designated distribution points or will have it delivered if they do not have the transport capability.

Individuals should rely on unit Lyater bags, 5gal (19L) cans, or 400gal (1510L) water trailers
(Water Buffalo).

Water Sources:
Only water approved by Task Force Surgeon and provided through the establi8hed supply system should be used for drinking.

Units will either obtain their water from designated distribution points or will have it delivered if they do not have the transport capability.

Individuals should rely on unit Lyster bags, 5gal (19L) cans, or 400gal (1510L) water trailers
(Water Buffalo).

1.

Extra care must be exercised when filling canteens or 5gal (19L)
water cns to avoid any spillage.

Unnecessary waste deprives others of water when they come for a fillup.

1.

Extra care must be exercised when filling canteens or 5gal (l9L)
water ens to avoid any spillage.

Unnecessary waste deprives others of water when they come for a fillup.

59
WATER BUFFALO OR ALTERNATE
TANK
0
2.

After filling a canteen or 5gal (19L) can, the cap or lid should be securely fe.. ..ened.

This will prevent spillage or contaminants from getting into the water.

In addition, water containers should be shaded to prevent loss of chlorine and to keep them reaBonably cool.

2.

After filling a canteen or 5gal (19L) can1 the cap or lid should be securely fe.. ..ened.

This will prevent spillage or contaminants from getting into the water.

In addition, water containers should be shaded to prevent loss of chlorine and to keep them reasonably cool.

3.

Water that has become warm can be made more drinkable by blending it with cool water from the water chiller.

3.

Water that has become warm can be made more drinkable by blending it with cool water from the water chiller.

4.

Water in canteens or 5gal (19L) cans which may have become too warm to drink, or otherwise degraded from potable quality, should not be discarded.

It should be made available for other purposes) specifically:
4.

Water in canteens or 5gal (19L) cans which may have become too warni to drink, or otherwise degraded from potable quality, should not be discarded.

It should be made available for other purposes, specifically:

- For washing and shaving.
- For washing and shaving.

- For vehicle radiator makeup.
- For vehicle radiator makeup.
- For some activity requiring water (hand washing, maintenance shop,
latrine facility, cleaning equipment, helicopters, vehicle
windshields, and photo laboratory film processing).
- For some activity requiring water (hand washing, maintenance shop,
latrine facility, cleaning equipment, helicopters, vehicle
windshields, and photo laboratory film processing).
Water supplies should be shaded for protection against solar radiation even though containers themselves may be insulated.

Survivor blankets or wet tarpaulins can provide effective shielding.

Water supplies should be shaded for protection against solar radiation even though containers themselves may be insulated.

Survivor blankets or wet tarpaulins can provide effective shielding.

## 5.4.4 Activity: !4Ess Operations 5.4.4 Activity: !4Ess Operations

Mess operations include food and beverage preparation and the cleaning of eating and cooking utensils.

In hot and arid climates these activities will be simplified by relying primarily on processed foods rather than fresh meat, fruit, and raw vegetables, at least through the first 6 months of a military operation.

In the Corps area and Communications Zone, except for hospital patients, two hot meals daily will usually be provided, and the remaining meal will be an operational ration.

The hot meals will be the same rations as used in the combat zone, but may be augmented with limited perishab1es (e.g., salads, milk), when the situation permits.

The food will be prepared at unit level in a fieldtype kitchen (soft frametype shelter) and served on permanent plastic, compartmented trays or in individual mess kits.

As soon as the situation in rear area pe.rmits, unit kitchens will be integrated into area kitchens, with a capacity to serve up to 800 to 1000 troops daily on a continuous basis.

Mess operations include food and beverage preparation and the cleaning of eating and cooking utensils.

In hot and arid climates these activities will be simplified by relying primarily on processed foods rather than fresh meat, fruit, and raw vegetables, at least through the first 6 months of a military operation.

In the Corps area and Communications Zone, except for hoBpital patients, two hot meals daily will usually be provided, and the remaining meal will be an operational ration.

The hot meals will be the same rations as used in the combat zone, but may be augmented with limited perishab1es (e.g., salads, milk), when the situation permits.

The food will be prepared at unit level in a fieldtype kitchen (soft frametype shelter) and served on permanent plastic, compartmented trays or in individual mess kits.

As soon as the situation in rear area pe.rmits, unit kitchens will be integrated into area kitchens, with a capacity to serve up to 800 to 1000 troops daily on a continuous basis.

In general, hospital patients will receive only the Standard B Ration, except those requiring modified dietary rations.

The modified rations will consist of the B Hospital Ration or the B Hospital Liquid Ration.

Patients would be routinely fed individual combat rations only under exceptional circumstances.

In general, hospital patients will receive only the Standard B Ration, except those requiring modified dietary rations.

The modified rations will consist of the B Hospital Ratios or the B Hospital Liquid Ration.

Patients would be routinely fed individual combat rations only under exceptional circumstances.

Following active combat operations, food service will offer three high
quality, hot meals each day.

These meals may be a combination of T and A
Ration items, with the latter consisting of fresh and frozen meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, and milk  all of which require conventional cooking and refrigeration facilities.

Following active combat operations, food service will offer three high
quality, hot meals each day.

These meals may be a combination of T and A
Ration items, with the latter consisting of fresh and frozen meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, and milk  all of which require conventional cooking and refrigeration facilities.

511
The current B Ration is a nonperishable1, bulk operational ration planned for a 10day menu cycle.

It consists largely of dehyrated, dehydrated compressed1 or thermally processed items which allow for reasonably long storage periods and eliminate the need for refrigeration equipment.

The current B Ration is a nonperishable, bulk operational ration planned for a 10day menu cycle.

It conBists largely of dehyrated, dehydrated compresBed1 or thermally processed items which allow for reasonably long storage period8 and eliminate the need for refrigeration equipment.

Messing operations will require facilities to wash individual mess gear and cooking equipment and utensils.

The use of I Rations (tray meals and disposable mess kit liners) will keep washing to a minimum.

On the other hand, the introduction of A Rations will greatly increase need for washing facilities and the effort involved in washing.

Messing operations will require facilities to wash individual mese gear and cooking equipment and utensils.

The use of I Rations (tray meals and disposable mess kit liner8) will keep washing to a minimwn.

On the other hand, the intr.oduction of A Rations will greatly increase need for washing facilities and the effort involved in washing.

Quality:
Water for all aspects of mess operation must be potable.

Thug, the initial supply must be potable and reserve supplies must be protected against contamination from dust, insects, etc.

Quality:
Water for all aspects of mess operation must be potable.

Thug, the initial supply must be potable and re8erve supplies must be protected againat contamination from dust, insects, etc.

Quantity:
The amount of water for mess operations varies depending on the types of rations used
C or MRE (Meal Ready to Eat) Rations require no water; B Rations require 0.5 gal (1.9 L)/ration/day, while A Rations could require 1.0 gal (3.8 L)/ration/day for cooking.

Quantity:
The aaount of water for mess operations varies depending on the types of rations used
C or MRE (Meal Ready to Eat) Rations require no water; B Rations require 0.5 gal (1.9 L)/ration/day, while A Rations could require 1.0 gal (3.8 L)/ration/day for cooking.

The mess kit washline assembled for sanitation purposes has four 32gal
(121L) CI cans with immersion heaters attached for heating water.

These facilities are also used by food preparers to clean cooking utensils, pots, and pans.

The normal mess kit washline requires 80 gal (303 L)/ineal. of potable water.

The mess kit washline asBembled for sanitation purposes has four 32gal
(121L) CI cans with iminerBion heaters attached for heating water.

These facilities are also used by food preparers to clean cooking utensils, pots, and pans.

The normal mess kit washline requires 80 gal (303 L)/ineal of potable water.

Water Sources;
Potable water for me8s operations is normally obtained from the 400gal (1510L) water trailer organic to each conipanyaize unit.

Water Sources:
Potable water for mess operations is normally obtained from the 400gal (1510L) water trailer organic to each companysize unit.

1.

Mess personnel need to minimize a,illage in filling cooking containers and mess kit washline CI cans.

1.

Me8s personnel need to minimize aillage in filling cookig containers and mesa kit washline GI cans.

2.

Open water containers Bhould be covered to minimize evaporation and contamination from airborne dust.

WaghlineGI cats could be fitted with ply.

wood covers or tops cut frocn 55gal (209L) drums.

2.

Open water containers should be covered to minimize evaporation and contamination from airborne dust.

WashiineG1 cals could be fitted with ply.

wood covers or tops cut from 55gal (209L) drums.

3.

Mess kits or feeding trays and cooking utensils should be scraped clean with napkins or Banitary wipes provided to each diner to minimize the amount of food entering the washwater.

Inserts for mess kits under development by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratories would achieve this objective even more effectively.

3.

Mess kits or feeding trays and cooking utensils should be scraped clean with napkins or Banitary wipes provided to each diner to minimize the amount of food entering the waBhwater.

InBertg for IneB8 kits under development by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratorie8 would achieve this objective even more effectively.

4.

Predip, rinse, and final rinsewater from the mess kit washline can be saved and reused for making the soapy washwater at the head of the washline needed for the next meal.

4.

Predip, rin8e, and final rinsewater from the mess kit washline can be saved and reused for making the soapy wa8hwater at the head of the waBhline needed for the next meal.

5.

Rot predip and rinse waters remaining after a meal are a source of hot water for shaving orvehicle radiator makeup water.

5.

Rot predip and rinse waters remaining after a meal are a source of hot water for shaving or vehicle radiator makeup water.

512
6.

Su4sy washwater should not automatically be discarded.

It can be filtered th-ough cloth to remove food particles, 8oap and greaBe and used for hand washing at latrines and vehicle maintenance facilitie8, general purpose cleaning (e.g., vehicles, stoves, duckboards) or wetting the earth around any electrical equipment that needs to be grounded (see Chapter 4).

6.

Su4sy washwater should not automatically be discarded.

It can be filtered th-ough cloth to remove food particles, soap and grease and used for hand washing at latrines and vehicle maintenance facilities, general purpose cleaning (e.g., vehicles, stoves, duckboarda) or vetting the earth around any electrical equipment that needs to be grounded (see Chapter 4).

## 5.4.5 Activity: Persanaz 12'Ygiene 5.4.5 Activity: Persanaz Bygiene

PerBonal hygiene involves those sanitary measures required for an individual to keep the body clean and prevent disease.

Thi8 is ea9ential in maintaining combat effectiveness and high atorale within a unit.

Constant attention will have to be given to proper field sanitation because of the difficulties in maintaining body cleanliness in a hot and dusty environment.

Personal hygiene involves those sanitary measures required for an individual to keep the body clean and prevent disease.

This is essential in maintaining combat effectiveness and high morale within a unit.

Constant attention will have to be given to proper field sanitation because of the difficulties in maintaining body cleanliness in a hot and dusty environment.

Quality:
To maintain proper standards of personal hygiene1 the soldier is to be provided potable water each day for a helmet bath, shaving, brushing teeth1 comfort cooling, and handwashing before eating and after. using the latrine.

Quality:
To maintain proper standards of personal hygiene1 the aoldier is to be provided potable water each day for a helmet bath) Bhaving, brushing teeth? comfort cooling, and handwashing before eating and after using the latrine.

Quantity:
Approximately 2.7 gal (10.2 L) of potable water is to be provided for personal hygiene each day.

It is allocated for the following purposes:
daily shaving (11/2 qt [1.4 U, or helmet capacity); helmet baths on alternate days (four helmets each); comfort cooling (1/2 qt [0.5 U
over the soldier's head, eight times a day); brushing teeth and handwashing (21/4 qt Quantity:
Approximately 2.7 gal (10.2 L) of potable water is to be provided for personal hygiene each day.

It is allocated for the following purposes:
daily shaving (11/2 qt [1.4 U, or helmet capacity); helmet baths on alternate days (four helmets each); comfort cooling (1/2 qt [0.5 U
over the goldier's head, eight times a day); brushing teeth and handwashing (21/4 qt
[2.1 U).

[2.1 U).

Water Sources:
The principal sources of water for the8e purposes are the unit water storage containers  400gal (1510L) water trailer, 5gal (19L)
cans or Lyster Bag.

Water of unknown quality from other sources should not be used; however, troops near the seacoast could use 8eawater for comfort cooling, bathing, and shaving.

Water Sources:
The principal sources of water for these purposes are the unit water storage containers  400gal (1510L) water trailer, 5gal (19L)
cans or Lyster Bag.

Water of unknown quality from other sources should not be used; however, troops near the seacoast could use 8eawater for comfort cooling, bathing, and shaving.

1.

Individuals should avoid spillage when filling their helmets or other containers used to obtain water for shaving or bathing.

When helmets are used, some means of support is needed to prevent tipping.

See FM 2110, Field Hygiene and Sanitation, for expedient procedures that can be used under field conditions.

1.

Individuals should avoid spillage when filling their helmets or other containers used to obtain water for -Bhaving or bathing.

When helmets are used, Bome means of Bupport is needed to prevent tipping.

See FM 2110, Field Hygiene and Sanitation, for expedient procedures that can be used under field conditions.

2.

During cool weather, hot rinse water from the mess kit cleaning line can be used for shaving.

2.

During cool weather, hot rinse water from the mess kit cleaning line can be used for shaving.

3.

Seawater should be used by those on the seacoast for comfort cooling, bathing, and handwashing.

3.

Seawater should be used by those on the seacoast for comfort cooling, bathing, and handwashing.

4.

No attempt should be made to recover or reuse water used for personal hygiene.

When convenient, wastewater should be disposed of in .soakage pits constrted to provide grounding for electrical equipment.

4.

No attempt should be made to recover or reuse water used for personal hygiene.

When convenient, wastewater should be dispo8ed of in .aoakage pits constrted to provide grounding for electrical equipment.

5.

The use of vaterborne sewage systems should be avoided.

An exception to this policy could be made for a cantonment or major facility located near the coast where seawater could be readily used as the transport medium.

5.

The use of waterborne sewage Byateins should be avoided.

An exception to thie policy could be made for a cantoitment or major facility located near the coast where seawater could be readily used as the transport medium.

## 5.4.6 Activitj: Shower Operati.On8 5.4.6 Activitj: Shower Operation8

Showers are necessary in any contbat theater, and especially in hot arid regions, to help maintain an acceptable level of personal hygiene and sanitation among the fighting forces.

This results in a decreaeed incidence of diseaoe which translates to increased combat effectiveness.

For those engaged in atrenuous activities, the availability of shower facilities can also contribute to their general morale.

The printary means of providing ehowers in the field is the eightshowerhead Portable Bath Unit 141958, or the more recently type classified nineshowerhead Bath Unit (AM!!).

Expedient Bhowers consisting of an elevated water storage tank (55gal [209LI drum)and dispensing piping and valve have been conlinonly fabricated in the past by mdividual units when regular bath units have not been readily available.

Showers are necessary in any combat theater, and especially in hot arid regions, to help maintain an acceptable level of personal hygiene and sanitation among the fighting forces.

This results in a decreased incidence of disease, which translates to increased combat effectiveness.

For those engaged in strenuous activities, the availability of shower facilities can also contribute to their general morale.

The primary means of providing showers in the field is the eightshowerhead Portable Bath Unit 141958, or the more recently type classified nineshowerhead Bath Unit (AM!!).

Expedient showers consisting of an elevated water storage tank (55gal [209LI drum)and dispensing piping and valve have been commonly fabricated in the past by mdi
vidual units when regular bath units have not been readily available.

Quality:
In hot and arid climates, it ie prescribed that. potable water be used in the Portable Bath Unit.

However, there may be occasiorzo when bacterially safe nonpotable water (e.g., river and stream water) can be used by military units.

In these instances, however, approval to use water from rivers and similar sourcea without treatient should be obtained from the Unit Surgeons.

As an additional precaution, soldiers should be warned against drinking nonpotable water while showering.

Quality:
In hot and arid climates, it is prescribed that potable water be used in the Portable Bath Unit.

However, there may be occasiono when bacterially safe nonpotable water (e.g., river and stream water) can be used by military units.

In these instances, however', approval to use water from rivers and similar sources without treatment should be obtained from the Unit Surgeons.

As an additional precaution, soldiers should be warned against drinking nonpotable water while showering.

Quantity:
Water is to be provided on the basis of a 3minute shower, requiring 4.5 gal (17 L) of potable water per shower.

For a nineshowerhead bath unit operating 20 hours per day, the maximum daily water requirement is about 16 200 gal (61 300L) per day.

However, if individual shower time is not controlled, the 45 gal (17.0 L)/person viii probably be exceeded.

Quantity:
Water is to be provided on the basis of a 3minute showers requiring 4.5 gal (17 L) of potable water per shower.

For a nineshowerhead bath unit operating 20 hours per day, the maximum daily water requirement is about 16 200 gal (61 300L) per day.

However, if individual shower time is not controlled, the 45 gal (17.0 L)/person will probably be exceeded.

Water Sources: Water Sources:
1.

Potable water:
1.

Potable water:
a.

Primary source is the nearest base water storage terminal or water tank farm, with delivery provided by tanker trucks of Water Transportation Teams (G.J).

a.

Primary source is the nearest base water storage terminal or water tank fariu, with delivery provided by tanker trucks of Water Transportation Teams (G.J).

b.

An alternate source, when available, i8 a municipal water system approved for use by Corps or Task Force Surgeon.

b.

An alternate Bource, when available, i8 a municipal water system approved for use by Corps or Task Force Surgeon.

2.

Nonpotable water:
2.

Nonpotable water:
a.

Surface water sources (e.g., river) that has been approved by Corps or Task Force Surgeon.

a.

Surface water sources (e.g., river) that has been approved by Corpa or Taek Force Surgeon.

b.
Pretreated wastevater from
shower unit itself.
b.
Pretreated wastewater from
8hower unit iteelf.
3.

Brac-ish water and seawater an expedient for short periods.

Long
term use Is uut recommended due to residual salts left on the skin; these may irritate the skin and might not provide the degree of cleanliness desired.

3.

Brac-ish water and seawater:
an expedient for short period8.

Long
term use is uot recommended due to residual salts left on the skin; these may irritate the 8km and might not provide the degree of cleanliness desired.

1.
Limiting water consumption:
1.
Limiting water consumption:
a.

Prohibit the fabrication of expedient showers when regular controlledtimeofuse bath unit facilities are available.

a.

Prohibit the fabrication of expedient showers when regular controlledtimeofuse bath unit facilities are available.

b.

Replace current 8howerhead valves on the M1958 and A1H Bath UnitB
with springloaded valve8 to prevent continuou8 flow.

An alternative means is to require an operator of the bath unit to manually control the flow of water to the 8hower with the 8hower stand control valve on top of the water heater.

b.

Replace current showerhead valves on the M1958 and A1H Bath Units with springloaded valves to prevent continuous flow.

An alternative means Is to require an operator of the bath unit to manually control the flow of water to the shower with the shower stand control valve on top of the water heater.

2.

Using nonpotable surface water:
bath and laundry units serving a
8pecified area should be near each other  particularly when it i neceesary to pretreat nonpotable surface water for a shower and laundry.

TB MED 229
provides the guidelines to be used when employing nonpotable surface water8.

The Unit Surgeon should also be conaulted.

2.

Using nonpotable surface water:
bath and laundry units serving a specified area should be near each other  particularly when it is necessary to pretreat nonpotable surface water for a shower and laundry.

TB MED 229
provides the guidelines to be used when employing nonpotable surface waters.

The Unit Surgeon should also be consulted.

3.

Using recycled shower water:
shower wastewater may be reused after proper treatment and then recycled through the bath unit.

To do this, It will be necessary to collect the wastewater for treatment.

This involves the construction of a shallow basin (4 to 6in. [100 to 150mm] deep and large enough to accommodate the duckboards on which the bather stands to shower), and the installation of a system to transfer the wastewater to collapsible water storage tanks for treatment (Figure 54).

Suggested equipment and procedures for pretreating shower wastewater are shown In Figure 5.5.

3.

Using recycled Bhower water:
shower wa8tewater may be reused after proper treatment and then recycled through the bath unit.

To do this, it will be necessary to collect the wa8tewater for treatment.

This involves the construction of a shallow basin (4 to 6in. [100 to 150mm] deep and large enough to accommodate the duckboards on which the bather etands to 8hOwer), and the installation of a system to transfer the wastewater to collap8ible water storage tank8 for treatment (Figure 54).

Suggested equipaient and procedures for pretreating Bhower wastewater are shown in Figure 5.5.

The quality of the treated water produced by the wastewater treatment process essentially meets potable water quality standards.

However, its acceptability for showering should be tested using the Preventi.ve Maintenance and/or Engineer Water Quality Analysis Kits for compliance with Corps or Task Force Surgeon procedures.

In the absence of a 420 gph (0.442 L/s) diatornlte filter, or in case of a filter malfunction, It is possible to use chlorinated water that has undergone clarification by coagulation and sedimentation.

Rowever, bathers should be warned not to drink the water during showering.

The minimum standards to be observed under these circumstances are as follows:
The quality of the treated water produced by the wastewater treatment process eseentially meets potable water quality standards.

Howeyer, its acceptability for showering should be tested using the Preventive Maintenance and/or Engineer Water Quality Analysis Kits for compliance with Corps or Task Force Surgeon procedures.

In the absence of a 420 gph (0.442 L/s) diatomite filter, or in case of a filter malfunction, it is possible to use chlorinated water that has undergone clarification by coagulation and sedimentation.

Row
ever, bathers should be warned not to drink the water during showering.

The minimum standards to be observed under these circumstances are as follows:

pH
6.5 to 7.5 (after chlorination to point of user)
Turbidity
1 to 5 units
Chlorination
30minute free available chlorine residual of
5 mg/L at 20C and above.
pH
6.5 to 7.5 (after chlorination to point of user)
Turbidity
1 to 5 units
Chlorination
30minute free available chlorine residual of
5 mg/L at 20C and above.

4.

Using brackish and seawater shower water:
brackish water and seawater which are clean In appearance and free of obnoxious odors are suitable for showers.

Continued use Is not desirable because a bather will not feel as clean as with fresh water.

For best results it will be necessary to provide saltwater soap.

Brackish water and seawater are generally classified as "hard waters" and, therefore, require additional soap when used for showering or laundering.

However, It is better for troops to use hard brackish water or
4.

Using brackish and seawater shower water:
brackish water and seawater which are clean in appearance and free of obnoxious odors are suitable for showers.

Continued use is not desirable because a bather will not feel as clean as with fresh water.

For best resulte it will be necessary to provide saltwater soap.

Brackish water and seawater are generally classified as "hard waters" and, therefore, require additional soap when used for showering or laundering.

However, it is better for troops to use hard brackish water or TO COLLECTING TANK
CONCRETE BASIN
COLLECTING TANK
MEMBRANE LINER
MEMBRANE LINER
516
UNIT
'I
V
GENERATOR
seawater to conserve potable water and not feel clean, than to waste potable water for showers.

seawater to conserve potable water and not feel clean, than to waste potable water for showers.

5.4.6.3
Shover Wastewater Reuse Unit (SWRU):
A typical arrangement of the SWRU installed with the standard Portable Bath Unit (NSN 4510001681963) is shown in Figure 5.5.

A field bath unit consists of a raw water pump, water heater, 3kW electrical generator, and two shower stands with four shower nozzles per stand.

Since shower nozzles do not have control valves, the discharge rate is a 16 gpm (1.0 LIs)
continuous flow.

An improved bath unit scheduled for type classification in FY81 has the number of shower nozzles increased to nine and an individual control valve added to each nozzle.

Under optimum conditions, the maximum rate of discharge of a shower unit is the capacity of the pumping unit, or 20 gpm (1.3 L/s).

Norrcally, a field bath unit is near a water source such as a lake or river, and the raw water is pumped from the source through the water heater to the shower nozzles.

Every effort is made to locate clean water sources.

Each bath unit is provided an electrically driven raw water pump that delivers 18 to 20 gpm at 65 to 70 ft total dynamic head (1.1 to 1.3 L/s at 19.8 to 21.3 ox TDR).

5.4.6.3
Shover Wastewater Reuse Unit (SWRU):
A typical arrangement of the SW'RU installed with the standard Portable Bath Unit (NSN 4510001681963) is shown in Figure 5.5.

A field bath unit consists of a raw water pump, water heater, 3kW electrical generator, and two shower stands with four shower nozzles per stand.

Since shower nozzles do not have control valves, the discharge rate is a 16 gpm (1.0 L/s) continuous flow.

An improved bath unit scheduled for type classification in FY81 has the number of shower nozzles increased to nine and an individual control valve added to each nozzle.

Under optimum conditions, the maximum rate of discharge of a shower unit is the capacity of the pumping unit, or 20 gpm (1.3 LIe).

Normally, a field bath unit is near a water source such as a lake or river, and the raw water is pumped from the source through the water heater to the shower nozzles.

Every effort is made to locate clean water sources.

Each bath unit is provided an electrically driven raw water pump that delivers 18 to 20 gpm at 65 to 70 ft total dynamic head
(1.1 to 1.3 LIs at
19.8 to 21.3 ox TDR).

In semiarid regions or areas where natural water sources are scarce, the SWRU system is designed to conserve fresh water.

The basic procedure. is as follows:
150gal (5680L) of potable water would be trucked or pipd into the
1500gal (5680L) fresh water storage tank.

The raw water pump with the bath unit is used to transfer the water from the storage tank through the heater to the showerheads.

The shower stands are installed on a shallow rectangular coated fabric tank to collect wastewater.

From there it flows by gravity or is pumped to a 1500gal (5680L) pillovtype storage tank.

When the pillow tank is filled, the wastewater is pumped to one or two open, cylindrical,
1500gal (5680L) treatment tanks.

Before wastewater is pumped into the tank,
24 lb (10.9 kg) of powdered activated carbon (1920 ppm) is manually added to the empty tank.

Approximately 15 minutes is required to fill the tank and mix the activated carbon with the wastewater.

When the tank is filled, 40 ppm of the cationic polyelectrolyte (Type I Polymer) is added and the threeway plug valve on the pump suction is positioned to permit recirculation of the waste water in the tank for about 30 minutes.

After mixing is completed, 0.5 ppm of thenon1onic polyelectrolyte (Type II Polymer) is added and recirculation is stopped and the coagulated wastewater ie allowed to settle for about 30
minutes.

In semiarid regions or areas where natural water sources are scarce, the SWRU system is designed to conserve fresh water.

The basic procedure. is as follows:
150gal (5680L) of potable water would be trucked or pipd into the
1500gal (5680L) fresh water storage tank.

The raw water pump with the bath unit is used to transfer the water from the storage tank through the heater to the showerheads.

The shower stands are installed on a shallow rectangular coated fabric tank to collect uastewater.

From there it flows by gravity or is pumped to a 1500gal (5680L) pillowtype storage tank.

When the pillow tank is filled, the wastewater is pumped to one or two open, cylindrical,
1500gal (5680L) treatment tanks.

Before wastewater is pumped into the tank,
24 lb (10.9 kg) of powdered activated carbon (1920 ppm) is manually added to the empty tank.

Approximately 15 minutes is required to fill the tank and mix the activated carbon with the wastewater.

When the tank is filled, 40 ppm of the cationic polyelectrolyte (Type I Polymer) is added and the threway plug valve on the pump suction is positioned to permit recirculation of the waste water in the tank for about 30 minutes.

After mixing is completed, 0.5 ppm of thenonionic polyelectrolyte (Type II Polymer) is added and recirculation is stopped and the coagulated wastevater ie allowed to settle for about 30
minutes.

After the 30minute Bettling period, the water has been clarified and is ready to be filtered.

Suction hoses attached to the filter are suspended by floats to permit withdrawal from the upper water level in the treatment tank.

Two diatomite filters operating in paralle.l are used to maintain continuous delivery of 16 gpm (1.0 L/s) to the fresh water tank.

The diatomite filter from the 420 gph (0.442 L/s) Water Purification Unit (NSN 4610009370222)
was selected because it can operate as a separate component.

The filter is lightweight and can be manually hatd1ed.

Further, it is selfcontained, with an electrically driven filter pump and has all necessary accessories for pre
coating and filter backwash.

Body feed is not used because the precoat will provide enough cake thickness for one filter cycle, or time to filter the contents of one treatment tank.

A Dole flow control valve is added to control filter operation at the constant rate of 8 gpm (0.5 L/s) over a variable pressure range.

After the 30minute settling period, the water has been clarified and is ready to be filtered.

Suction hoses attached to the filter are suspended by floats to permit withdrawal from the upper water level in the treatment tank. Two diatomite filters operating in parallel are used to maintain continuous delivery of 16 gpm (1.0 L/B) to the fresh water tank.

The diatoruite filter from the 420 gph (0.442 LIe) Water Purification Unit (NSN 4610009370222)
was selected because it can operate as a separate component.

The filter is lightweight and can be manually hatdled.

Further, it is selfcontained, with an electrically driven filter pump and has all necessary accessories for pre
coating and filter backwash.

Body feed is not used because the precoat will provide enough cake thickness for one filter cycle, or time to filter the contents of one treatment tank.

A Dole flow control valve is added to control filter operation at the constant rate of 8 gpm (0.5 LIs) over a variable pressure range.

A 3kW enginedriven generator with circuit breakers and switch box would normally be required to operate the diatoinite filter pumps.

However, in hot, arid regions where ambient water temperatures are relatively high, the requirement to operate the heater is reduced.

Consequently, the filter pumps could be operated from the 3kW generator provided with the bath unit.

A 3kW enginedriven generator with circuit breaker8 and switch box would normally be required to operate the diatomite filter pump8.

However, in hot, arid regions where ambient water temperatures are relatively high, the requirement to operate the heater is reduced.

Consequently1 the filter pumps could be operated from the 3kW generator provided with the bath unit.

The filJered water is collected in the 1500gal (5680 L) opentop tank.

Periodically, on a predeterroined schedule, a meaaure c.f calciun hypochlorite must be added to chlorinate the stored water.

The treated wastewater is chlorinated because of the presence of bacteria or microorganisms which can increa8e in numb2r1 especially in hot1 sunny locations.

Further, calcium hypochlorination iB effective in destroying a difficulttoremove contaminant, urea.

The fi]jered water is collected in the 1500gal (5680 L) opentop tank.

Periodically, on a predetermined schedule, a measure c'.f calcium hypochlorite must be added to chlorinate the stored water.

The treated wastewater ia chlorinated because of the presence of bacteria or microorganisms which can increase in number, especially in hot, sunny locations.

Further, calcium hypochiorination is effective in destroying a difficulttoremove contaminant, urea.

Some makeup water Is required periodically to compensate for losses.

The principal losses are from evaporation and retention on the body as individuals leave the shower.

However, about 98 percent of shower wastevater in each cycle should be collected for treatment, where the water losses are minimal.

Other losses, estimated at less than 1 percent, include those associated with the periodic removal of sludge from the coagulation tanks and the backwashlng of the filter.

Iii a 20hour operating day, the total water loss would be about 3 percent, or 575 gal (2180 L).

Some makeup water is required periodically to compensate for losse8.

The principal losses are from evaporation and retention on the body as individuals leave the shower.

However, about 98 percent of shower wastewater in each cycle should be collected for treatment, where the water losses are minimal.

Other losses, estimated at less than 1 percent, include tho8e associated with the periodic removal of 8ludge from the coagulation tanks and the backwashing of the filter.

In a 20hour operating day, the total water loss would be about 3 percent, or 575 gal (2180 L).

The SWRU, as described above and shown in Figure 5.5, is a simple and effective field treatment system.

Many component items, such as chemicals, hoses, and the gasenginepowered (CED) pump are the same as in the Shower Wastewater Treatment Kit, NS 4610010234537 (Pollution Abatement Kit).

Additional items required include diatomite filters and a 1500gal (5680L)
pillowtype water storage tank.

The filters are available in existing 420 gph
(0.442 L/s) ERDLator water purification units.

Upon type classification of the 600 gph (0.631 L/s) ROWP1J, the 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDlator filter could be made available for this set.

The 1500gal (5680L) pillowtype tank is not currently in the Army supply system, although it has been te8ted and military specifications have been prepared.

The diatomite filters are available in existing 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDLator Water Purification Units.

With the type classification of the 600 gph (0.631 L/s)
ROWPU, the 420 gph (0.442 L/s)
ERDLator filter could be made available for this purpose..

The SWRU1 as described above and shown in Figure 1 is a simple and effective field treatment system.

Many component items, such as chemicals, hose8, and the gasenginepowered (CED) pump are the same as in the Shower Wastewater Treatment Kic, N5 4610010234537 (Pollution Abatement Kit).

Additional item8 required include diatomite filters and a 1500gal (5680L)
pillowtype water storage tank.

The filters are available in existing 420 gph
(0.442 L/s) ERDLator water purification units.

Upon type clas8ification of the 600 gph (0.631 L/s) ROWPU1, the 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDlator filter could be made available for this set.

The 1500gal (5680L) pillowtype tank is not currently in the Army supply system, although it ha been te8ted and military specifications have been prepared.

The diatomite filters are available in existing 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDLator Water Purification Units.

With the type classification of the 600 gph (0.631 L/s) ROWPU, the 420 gph (0.442 L/s)
ERDLator filter could be made available for this purpose.

## 5.4.7 Activity: Laundry Operat1.Onb 5.4.7 Activity: Laundry Operationa

Clean field clothing, socks, and underwear are needed to help maintain proper standards of hygiene and morale among soldiers in the field.

In hot, arid climates where individuals are expected to perspire freely and become covered with dust, clean clothing will be needed each time an individual showers.

Clean field clothing, socks, and underwear are needed to help maintain proper standards of hygiene and niorale among soldiers in the field.

In hot, arid climates where individuals are expected to perspire freely and become covered with dust, clean clothing will be needed each time an individual showers.

Clothes are laundered in the field by Laundry and Renovation Company, General Support1 u8irl.g the trailermounted laundry unit, M532.

Mounted or the trailer is a water heater, washerextractor air compressor1 dryer
tumbler1 enginegenerator, and water pump.

Each unit has a washer capacity of
60 lb (27 kg) of clothes and use8 about 140 gal (530 14 of water per load, or
280 gal (1060 L) per hour.

Normal operations are 20 hours per day, 7 days per week.

A new and slightly larger model of the portable laundry is under Clothes are laundered in the field by Laundry and Renovation Company, General Support, using the trailermounted laundry unit, M532.

Mounted on the trailer is a water heater, washerextractor, air compressor, dryer
tumbler, enginegenerator, and water pump.

Each unit has a washer capacity of
60 lb (27 kg) of clothes and uses about 140 gal (530 L) of water per load, or
280 gal (1060 L) per hour.

Normal operations are 20 hours per day, 7 days per week.

A new and slightly larger model of the portable laundry is under
519
development; the washer and extractor are separate unitB.

Thie equipment is not expected to be available to troop units for 2 to 3 years. development; the washer and extractor are separate units.

This equipment is not expected to be available to troop units for 2 to 3 years.

An approach to laundering which was considered here eBpecially for imple mentation in the temporary phase of troop deployment in an arid region iB the use of dry cleanthg," rather than water wash, using the troopissued, trailermounted laundry unit.

Dry cleaning is a closed loop process using a solvent other than water, which i9 recovered and reused through many cycles before it must be replaced.

In 1976, the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory conducted studieB which tested, with "encouraging" results, a commercially available dry cleaning unit for uee on individual military garments and gear.

This potential for application in an arid region cannot be ignored.

However, it must be weighed and compared with the water wa8h alternative in each specific case before the Army decides to use it.

An approach to laundering which was considered here especially for implementation in the temporary phase of troop deployment in an arid region is the use of "dry cleaning," rather than water wash, using the troopissued, trailermounted laundry unit.

Dry cleaning is a closed loop process using a solvent other than water, which is recovered and reused through many cycles before it must be replaced.

In 1976, the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory conducted studies which tested, with "encouraging" results, a commercially available dry cleaning unit for use on individual military garments and gear.

This potential for application in an arid region cannot be ignored.

However, it must be weighed and compared with the water wash alternative in each specific case before the Army decides to use it.

Quality:
Potable water is not required for laundry operations; however, there are certain constraints on what can be used.

Hard water not only reduces the cleaning power of soaps, but can deposit insoluble residue on clothing.

Brackish and saltwater can corrode metal parts of laundry equipment.

However, both these problems can be overcome in an austere oesert environment.

Saltwater detergents in the DOD inventory and developed primarily for the Department of the Navy by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory can be used.

Although brackish water and seawater are more corrosive, the tradeoff between immediate requirements vs. increased equipment wear and tear for a short time probably warrant the use of these waters.

Quality:
Potable water is not required for laundry operations; however, there are certain constraints on what can be used.

Hard water not only reduces the cleanthg power of soaps, but can deposit insoluble re8idue on clothing.

Brackish and saltwater can corrode metal parts of laundry equipment.

However, both theae problems can be overcome in an austere oesert environment.

Saltwater detergents in the DOD inventory and developed primarily for the Department of the Navy by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory can be used.

Although brackish water and Beawater are more corrosive, the tradeoff between immediate requirements vs. increa8ed equipment wear and tear for a short time probably warrant the use of these waters.

quantity:
About 280 to 300 gal (1060 to 1140 L) of water per hour are required for each washer.

When water conservation is not a concern, water is obtained from a lake or stream and the waste washwater and rinsevater diecharged in a convenient area offsite.

Quantity:
About 280 to 300 gal (1060 to 1140 L) of water per hour are required for each washer.

When water conservation is not a concern, water is obtained from a lake or stream and the waste washwater and rinsevater discharged in a convenient area offsite.

## 5.4.7.2 Water Sources: 5.4.7.2 Water Source8:

1.
Nonpotable water:
1.
Nonpotable water:
a.

Brackish water and seawaterB, especially if seawater detergents are available.

a.
Brackish water and seawaterB, especially if seawacer detergents are
available.
b.
Municipal water system.
b.
Municipal water system.
c.
Potable water which may have become contaminated with dust could
prove to be usable.
c.

Potable water which may have become contaminated with dust could prove to be usable.

2.

Potable water:
Potable water from the nearest water tank farm can be used if no other acceptable nonpotable source is available.

2.

Potable water;
Potable water from the nearest water tank farm can be used if no other acceptable nonpotable source is available.

3.
Recycled water:
3.
Recycled water:
a.

Laundry rinsewater may be used without pretreatment for washwater or used in subsequent rinse cycles.

a.

Laundry rinsewater may be used without pretreatment for wa8hwater or used in eubsequent rinse cyclee.

b.

Law ry wastewater  hot wash and rinsewater
may be reused in a laundry unit, but some pretreatment is required.

b Law ry wastewater  hot wash and rinsewater  may be reused in a laundry unit, but some pretreatment is required.

1.

Control spillage Exercise care in making hose connections and opening valves to prevent loss of water from leaks and accidental spills.

1.

Control spillage:
Exercise care in making hose connections and opening valves to prevent loss of water from leaks and accidental spills.

2.

Water Reuse:
2.

Water Reuse:
a.

Reuse Laundry Rinsewater.

Collect the rinsewater from the washer in either a bladder tank or a collapsible fabric tank and use for subsequent wash cycles.

Washcycle water is not to be reused for subsequent washes, but should be collected and used for other purposes, e.g., dust control, vehicle washing, etc.

Modification of the wastewater discharge line on the washer is required in order to direct washwater (70 gal (265 U) to one storage tank and rinsewater (70 gal [265 U]) to another (see Figure5.6).

a.

Reuse Laundry Rinsewater.

Collect the rinsewater from the washer in either a bladder tank or a collapsible fabric tank and use for subsequent wash cycles.

Washcycle water is not to be reused for subsequent washes, but should be collected and used for other purposes, e.g., dust control, vehicle washing, etc.

Modification of the wastewater discharge line on the washer is required in order to direct washwater (70 gal (265 U) to one storage tank and rinsewater (70 gal [265 U]) to another (aee Figure 5.6).

b Reuse Laundry Wastevater.

All vastewater from a field laundry may be reused, but pretreatment is necessary to remove oils, dirt, and other contaminants from washwater (not rinsewater).

Additional equipment is required for this purpose  three
1500gal (5680U) collapsible fabric tanks three 420gph
(O.442L/s) diatomite filters, and hoses.

The process involves flocculation of contaminants using powdered carbon and polyelectrolytes.

b Reuse Laundry Wastewater.

All wastewater from a field laundry ay be reused, but pretreatment is necessary to remove oils, dirt, and other contaminants from washwater (not rinsewater).

Additional equipment is required for this purpose  three
1500gal (5680U) collapsible fabric tankB three 420gph
(0.442L/s) diatomite filters, and hoses.

The process involves flocculation of contaminants using powdered carbon and polyelectrolytes.

3.

Dry Cleaning:
in the latter stages of deployment and if the tactical situation is relatively stabilized, this measure should be considered
especially for implementation in base camp development.

3.

Dry Cleaning:
in the latter stage8 of deploynent and if the tactical situation is relatively stabilized, this measure should be considered
especially for implementation in base camp development.

5.4.7.4
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (LWRU):
A typical layout of the Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (LWRIJ) to treat wastewater from the standard 60lb
(27kg) capacity, Trailer Mounted Laundry Unit, NSN 3510007825294, is shown in Figure 5.7.

In many instances, field laundries operate as a.team, with two laundry unite per team.

Wastewater generated by a laundry unit is about 250 gph
(.26 L/s);
two units at one location would generate about 500 gph (.53 L/s) of wastewater.

Wastewater is discharged from the drain in the bottom of the trailermounted unit which can be connected by hose to a 500gal (1890L)
pillow collection tank.

If two laundry units are near one another, the drains would be manifolded before connection to the pillow tank.

5.4.7.4
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (UWRU):
A typical layout of the Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (UWRIJ) to treat wastewater from the standard 60lb
(27kg) capacity, Trailer Mounted Laundry Unit, NSN 3510007825294, is shown ii Figure 5.7.

In many instances, field laundries operate as a.team, with two laundry unitB per team.

Wastewater generated by a laundry unit is about 250 gph
(.26 L/s); two units at one location would generate about 500 gph (.53 L/s) of wastewater.

Wastewater is discharged from the drain in the bottom of the trailermounted uiut which can be connected by hose to a 500gal (1890L)
pillow collection tank.

If two laundry units are near one another, the drains would be manifolded before connection to the pillow tank.

The procedure for treating laundry wastewater is like that described for shover wastewater with two exceptions.

The 1500gal (5680L) treatment tanks in the proposed Shower Wastewater Reuse Unit are replaced with 500gal
(1890U) capacity tanks.

This reduction in size is possible because the quantity of wastewater from two laundry units is less than from one bath unit.

In addition, only one diatomite filter is required for the laundry units.

The chemicals and dosages (ppm) are the same, as is the method of operation.

The procedure for treating laundry wastewater is like that described for shower wastewater with two exceptions.

The 1500gal (5680U) treatment tanks in the proposed Shower Wastewater Reuse Unit are replaced with 500gal
(1890U) capacity tanks.

This reduction in size is possible because the quantity of wastewater from two laundry units is less than from one bath unit.

In addition, only one diatomite filter is required for the laundry units.

The chemicals and dosages (ppm) are the same, as is the method of operation.

The set of equipment for the LWRU basically consists of the Pollution Abateicnt Kit (Laundry Wastewater Treatment Kit, NSN 4610010234536), and additional components, such as a 420gph (.44 Lfs) diatonilte filter, portable generator, hose, tanks, and a variety of connectors.

The set of equipment for the LWRU basically consists of the Pollution Abateicnt Kit (Laundry Wastewater Treatment Kit, NSN 4610010234536), and additional components, such as a 420gph (.44 Lfs)
diatomite filter, portable generator, ho8e, tanks, and a variety of connectors.

522
PROPOSED SYSTEM HARDWARE
GENERATOR
TREATMENT
5.4.7.5
Personnel and Training Requirements:
It is estimated that two men can assemble the SWRU for operation in about 2 hours.

The LWRU would require two men and approximately 1 hour for assembly.

The LWRU requires less time because the 500 gal (1890L) tanks are easier to fielderect than the 1500 gal
(5680L) tanks.

One man would be required per shift to operate either the SWRU or the LWRU.

Operator level of training would be equivalent to what the MOS 52N receives today for the operation of ERDLator water purification units.

5.4.7.5
Personnel and Training Requirements:
It is estimated that two men can assemble the SWRU for operation in about 2 hours.

The LWRU would require two men and approximately 1 hour for assembly.

The LWRU requires less time because the 500 gal (1890L) tanks are easier to fielderect than the 1500 gal
(5680L) tanks.

One man would be required per shift to operate either the SWRU or the LWRU.

Operator level of training would be equivalent to what the MOS 52N receives today for the operation of ERDLator water purification units.

5.4.7.6
Logistic Support:
The consumable Supplies used in operation of wastewater reuse units are prinarily chemicals and fuels.

It is noted that the chemical requirements for activated carbon are high because the dosage8
are based on the initial charge.

In batch coagulation, the activated carbon settleB to the bottom of the tank and is resuspended along with the new charge of carbon when the tank is refilled.

The carbon particles not effectively used in the first treatment are returned to contribute to further treatment. If beneficial, the subsequent charges of activated carbon could theoretically be reduced.

It is known that in the present batch coagulation system, the dosage of activated carbon is 1920 ppm.

In field tests using continuous flow clarifier equipment for treating laundry and shower wastewater, effective results were obtained using 425 ppm activated carbon dosages.

5.4.7.6
Logistic Support:
The consumable supplies used in operation of vastewater reuse units are primarily chemicals and fuels.

It is noted that the chemical requirements for activated carbon are high because the dosage8
are based on the initial charge.

In batch coagulation, the activated carbon settles to the bottom of the tank and is resuspended along with the new charge of carbon when the tank is refilled.

The carbon particles not effectively used In the first treatment are returned to contribute to further treatment. If beneficial, the subsequent charges of activated carbon could theoretically be reduced.

It is known that in the present batch coagulation system, the dosage of activated carbon is 1920 ppm.

In field tests using continuous flow clarifier equipment for treating laundry and shower wastewater, effective results were obtained using 425 ppm activated carbon dosages.

5.4.8
Activ.Lty:
HospitaZ Operations
5.4.8
Activity:
HospitaZ Operations
The hospital consumption planning factor of 1 gal/man/day (3.8 L/ni/d) is based on a projection of 65 gal/day (246 L/day) for each patient bed and 10
gal/day (38 L/day) per hospital staff member.

These rather significant quantities of water are based on daily bathB for the medical staff and the majority of patients; changes of uniforms and bedding each day; and the various general sanitation, food preparation and housekeeping operations done each day in support of patients and hospital staff.

Although TRADOC PAMPHLET 52511
indicates that only potable water is to be produced for hospital use, a number of medical support actuivities do not actually require water of this quality.

The hospital consumption planning factor of 1 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) is based on a projection of 65 gal/day (246 L/day) for each patient bed and 10
gal/day (38 L/day) per hospital staff member.

These rather significant quantities of water are based on daily baths for the medical staff and the majority of patients; changes of uniforms and bedding each day; and the various general sanitation, food preparation and housekeeping operations done each day in support of patients and hospital staff.

Although TRADOC PAMPHLET 52511
indicates that only potable water is to be produced for hospital use, a number of medical support actuivities do not actually require water of this quality.

The primary factors Influencing water consumption in a theater of operations are the casualty rate and the patient evacuation policy.

In regard to the latter, the sooner inpatients are evacuated from the theater for continued treatment, the lower the amount of water will be.

The primary factors influencing water consumption in a theater of operations are the casualty rate and the patient evacuation policy.

In regard to the latter, the sooner inpatients are evacuated from the theater for continued treatment, the lower the amount of water will be.

Quality:
TRADOC PAMPHLET 52511, "NearTerm Water Resources Management"
mandates that all waters intended for hospital use (65 gal/man/day Quality:
TRADOC PAMPHLET 52511, "NearTerm Water Resources Management"
mandates that all waters intended for hospital use (65 gal/man/day
[246 L/rn/di)
be potable.

However, since host,ital operations comprise several subactivities, some of which offer an outstanding opportunity for water conservation, a hard consideration of their respective demands for potable quality water is indeed warranted.

Existing U.S. Army Medical Department documents explore these possibilities, indicating the potential for using nortpot
able waters to achieve selected functions within the scope of field hospital operations."
[246 L/rn/di)
be potable.

However, since hosital operations comprise several subactivities, some of which offer an outstanding opportunity for water conservation, a hard consideration of their respective demands for potable qual
ity water is indeed warranted.

Existing U.S. Army Medical Department documents explore these possibilities, indicating the potential for using nonpot
able waters to achieve selected functions within the scope of field hospital operations."
Quantity;
The 1 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) value translates to 65
gal/bed/day (246 L) potable quality.

Of these, 10 gal/man/day (38 L/mjd) are estimated for human consumption; the remaining 55 gal/bed/day (208 L) are intended for nonconsumptive purposes (e.g. laundry, showers, cleansing of Quantity:
The 1 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) value translates to 65
gal/bed/day (246 L) potable quality.

Of these, 10 al/man/dav (38 L/m/d) are estimated for human consumption; the remaining 55 gal/bed/day (208 L) are intended for nonconsumptive purposes (e.g. laundry, showers, cleansing of
524
equipment and areas, operation of equipment such as pumps and distillers)1 and could be satisfied using nonpotable quality water.

(These waters may in fact have been treated and highly disinfected with chlorine or other suitable corn
pounds, 9uch ag Wescodyne, so that they are nonpotable, but free of any pathogenic organisms.)
In proportion, then, under austere water conditione, about
88 percent (62/72) of the water demand for hospital operations could come from other than the "potable" quality Sources.

equipment and areas, operation of equipment such as pumps and distillers)1 and could be sat.sfied using nonpotable quality water.

(These waters may in fact have been treated and highly di8infected with chlorine or other suitable compounds, suLch as Wescodyne, so that they are nonpotable, but free of any pathogenic organisms.)
In proportion, then, under austere water conditions, about
88 percent (62/72) of the water demand for hospital operations could come from other than the "potable" quality sources.

## Water Sources: Water Sources:

1.

Potable:
From the field water distribution Bystem.

Authority to use other than potable water must be obtained from the Surgeon.

1.

Potable:
From the field water distribution system.

Authority to use other than potable water must be obtained from the Surgeon.

2.
Nonpotable:
2.
Nonpotable:
a.
Fresh water from a municipal water 8ystem or from producing wells.
a.
Fresh water from a municipal water system or from producing wells.
b.
Brackish water and seawater lowin suspended solids.
b.
Brackish water and seawater lowin suspended solids.
c.
ROWPU brine.
c.
ROWPU brine.
1.
Use ROWPU brine water e8pecially for cleansing operations.
1.
Use ROWPU brine water especially for cleansing operations.
2.
See paragraph 5.4.3.
2.
See paragraph 5.4.3.
3.
See paragraph 5.4.4.
3.
See paragraph 5.4.4.
4.
See paragraph 5.4.5.
4.
See paragraph 5.4.5.
5.
See paragraph 5.4.9.
5.
See paragraph 5.4.9.
6.
See paragraph 5.4.20.
6.
See paragraph 5.4.20.
7.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
7.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
8.
See paragraph 5.4.23.
8.
See paragraph 5.4.23.
9.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
9.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
10.
See paragraph 5.4.23.
10.
See paragraph 5.4.23.

## 5.4.9 Activity: Rat Casualty Treatment 5.4.9 Activity: Beat Casualty Treatment

This section is not intended to be a guide to the identification and treatment of heat casualtiea, but rather presents field expedients suitable for conserving and/or maintaining the quantities of water required in their treatment.

However, one must note that anticipated heat casualties will cover a broad spectrum of severity, from mild (heat exhaustion) to severe (heat stroke), with water being a prime factor in the degree of treatment applied.

The victim must be rehydrated and also cooled.

Water for rehydration must be potable and cool, but that required for cooling may be of a lesser quality.

Th18 8ection is not intended to be a guide to the identification and treatment of heat casualties, but rather presents field expedients suitable for conserving and/or maintaining the quantities of water required in their treatment.

However, one must note that anticipated heat casualties will cover a broad spectrum of severity, from mild (heat exhaustion) to severe (heat stroke), with water being a prime factor in the degree of treatment applied.

The victim must be rehydrated and also cooled.

Water for rehydration must be potable and cool, but that required for cooling may be of a lesser quality.

quality:
Water used for rehydration must be potable.

For body cooling purposes, consideration can be given to a lesser quality, especially if large quantities are needed in a short time  e.g., large influx of heat casualquality:
Water used for rehydration must be potable.

For body cooling purposes, consideration can be given to a lesser quality1, especially if large quantities are needed in a short time  e.g.,
.arge influx of heat casual ties.

Ingestion of such waters must be avoided.

ties.

Ingestion of such waters must be avoided.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed to treat each casualty could range from 5 to 10 gal (19 to 38 L), depending on the level of treatment.

Present planning factors require 1.0 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) for heat treatment
this is in addition to the quantity allocated for drinking purposes (4.0
gal/man/day [15 L/m/d]).

The concept is for water intended for heat treatment to be moved only as far forward as the combat battalion level, and that it will be distributed to the unit level in 5gal (19L) cans by an ambulance.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed to treat each casualty could range from 5 to 10 gal (19 to 38 L), depending on the level of treatment.

Present planning factors require 1.0 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) for heat treatment
this is in addition to the quantity allocated for drinking purposes (4.0
gal/man/day [15 L/m/d)).

The concept is for water intended for heat treatment to be moved only as far forward as the combat battalion level, and that it will be distributed to the unit level in 5gal (l9L) cans by an ambulance.

Water Sources:
Potable water for heat treatment through rehydration will usually be obtathed from the storage capacity allocated each hospital
(i.e., 20,000 gal [76 000 L] storage) or from the 400 gal (1510. L) water trailer organic to each company9lze unit.

Nonpotable water may come from a variety of sources.

Water Sources:
Potable water for heat treatment through rehydration will usually be obtained from the storage capacity allocated each hospital
(i.e., 20,000 gal [76 000 L] storage) or from the 400 gal (1510, L) water trailer organic to each companysize unit.

Nonpotable water may come from a variety of sources.

The following steps apply only to the use of nonpotable waters for, body
"cooling," thereby reducing the demand on potable sources.

The following steps apply only to the use of nonpotable waters for, body
"cooling," thereby reducing the demand on potable sources.

1.
Use ROWPU brine if the water temperature gradient is suitable and
near a water production facility.
1.
Use ROWPU brine if the water temperature gradient is suitable and
near a water production facility.
2.

Install a casualty treatment reservoir which permits water to be reused for successive patients.

The suggested field expedients illustrated in Figure 5.8 use the Small Mobile Chiller (SMC) and a 500 gal (1890 L) reservoir to treat successive heat casualty patients (if only about fourfifth. full this will be within the capacity of the Small Mobile Chiller.

2.

Install a casualty treatment reservoir which permits water to be reused for successive patients.

The suggested field expedients illustrated in Figure 5.8 use the Small Mobile Chiller (SMC) and a 500 gal (1890 L) reBervoir to treat successive heat casualty patients (if only about fourfifth. full this will be within the capacity of the Small Mobile Chiller.

3.

Rely on the high rate of evaporation in desert areas to cool heat stroke patients.

Cooled water from a Small Mobile.Chiller. c.an be sprayed on a patient's body by fitting a spray device to the nozzle on the hose of the Chiller.

Additional cooling will result a the water evaporates naturally or can be enhanced if a fan is available.

3.

Rely on the high rate of evaporation in desert areas to cool heat stroke patients.

Cooled water from a Small Mobile.Chlller. c.an be sprayed on a patient's body by fitting a spray device to the nozzle on the hose of the Chiller.

Additional cooling will result as the water evaporates naturally or can be enhanced if a fan is available.

5.4.10
Activit,y:
Graves Registration
5.4.10
Activit,y:
Graves Registration
Craves registration is carried out at several levels or echelons within a combat zone.

It involves the handling of remains1, which demands the application of good sanitation practices, especially among the Craves Registration Personnel.

Some water i8 needed for washing remains1, but most is used for hygiene.

Handlers are required to wash and disinfect themselves frequently.

Graves registration is carried out at several levels or echelons within a combat zone.

It involves the handling of remains, which demands the application of good sanitation practices, especially among the Craves Registration Per8onnel.

Some water 18
needed for washing remains, but most is used for hygiene.

Handler8 are required to wash and disinfect themselves frequently.

Quality:
Water used for washing and preparation of remains may be of nonpotable quality.

Handlers could disinfect themselves using a previously prepared chemical solution.

Nonpotable water could be used when potable vatet Quality:
Water used for washing and preparation of remains may be of nonpotable quality.

Handlers could disinfect themselves using a previously prepared chemical solution.

Nonpotable water could be used when potable vatet

## Any La8Le Or Wh Appr

is not available or in short Bupply, but authority to use it should be obtained from the Corpe or Taek Force Surgeon. is not available or in short Bupply, but authority to use it should be obtained from the Corps or Task Force Surgeon.

gntity:
Approximately 50 gal (190 L) of water are required for each casualty for both the processing of remains and handler hygiene.

gntity:
Approximately 50 gal (190 L) of water are required for each casualty for both the processing of remains and handler hygiene.

Water Sources: Water Sources:
1.

Potable water from the field water distribution system.

Authority tc use other than potable water should be obtained from the Task Force Surgeon.

1.

Potable water from the field water distribution system.

Authority tc use other than potable water should be obtained from the Task Force Surgeon.

2.
Fresh water from a municipal water sy8tern or from producing wells.
2.
Fresh water from a municipal water system or from producing wells.
3.
Brackish water, seawater low in suspended solids, or ROWPU brine.
3.
Brackish water, seawater low in suspended solids1 or ROWPU brine.
1.

No attempt should be made to reuse wastewater from graves registration activities.

Whenever convenient, disposal should be in a soakage pit next to a facility requiring electrical grounding.

1.

No attempt should be made to reu8e wastewater from graves registration activities.

Whenever convenient, disposal should be in a soakage pit next to a facility requiring electrical groundiig.

2.

Nonpotable water or brine from the water treatment process ou1d be used wherever possible and when authorized by:he Thsk Force Surgeon.

Salire water will require the use of saltwater soaps.

2.

Nonpotable water or brine from the water treatment process ould be used wherever possible and when authorized hy:he Task Force Surgeon.

Saline water will require the use of saltwater soaps.

5 - 4.11
.lctivi ty:
Cons truction-Conere te Misinq and Curing
5.4.11
.ctivity:
Construction-('onerete Mis&q and Curing
The requirenient for concrete during the eriy stases of a military operation is projected to be minimal since units and cttvities will rely primarily on Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) structures rather than on base developmenttype facilities.

However, as the buildup matures, more engineer effort my be available for constructing temporary facilities that require concrete footings and floors.

tn addition, concrete may be required f'r road culverts, bridge abutments, headwalls, and footings for generators.

Some of the concrete rilL require reinforcing steel.

In addition, procedures insuring that the concrete cures properly wilL be needed.

The requirement for concrete during the early stages of a military operation is projected to be minimal since units and acttvities will rely primarily on Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) structures rather than on base developmenttype facilities.

However, as the buildup matures, more engineer effort may be available for constructing temporary facilities that require concrete footings and floors.

tn addition, concrete may be required for road culverts, bridge abutments, headwalls, and footings for generators.

Some of the concrete will require reinforcing steel.

En addition, procedures insuring that the concrete cures properly will be needed.

Water for concrete mixtures is normally transported to the work site in water distributors issued to construction engineer units, which also have pumps to obtain water from available surface sources.

Water for concrete mixtures is normally transported to the work site in water distributors issued to construction engineer units, which also have pumps to obtain water from available surface sources.

The requireaents for concrete aggregate rashing are discussed In paragraph 5.4.13.

The requirements for concrete aggregate washing are discussed in paragraph 5.4.13.

Quality:
Concrete mixes for most military field applications do not require better than nonpotable quality water.

In general, satisfactory concrete can be mixed using natural surface water, brackish water and seawater, or any ;ater that is free of oil, and suspended organic matter, especially sugar.

Also, sewage effluent that has undergone the equivalent of secondary treatment is suitable for concrete.

Quality:
Concrete mixes for clost military field applications do not require better than nonpotable quality water.

In general, satisfactory concrete can he mixed using natural surface water, brackish water and seawater, or any ;ater that is free of oil, and suspended orani matter, especi. ally sugar.

Also, sewage effluent that has undergone the equivalent of secondary treatment is suitable for concrete.

528
Quantiv The watertocement ratio varie8 depending on the strength of concrete desired, quality and gradation of aggregrates available, and the type of structure being built.

However, for generalpurpose concrete, a rule of thumb for an average mix is 6 gal/sack (23 L) of regular Portland cement and
5 gal/sack (19 L) for underwater concretes watertight structures, and mixtures using airentrained cements, brackish water, or seawater.

Quantit The watertocement ratio varie8 depending on the strength of concrete desired, quality and gradation of aggregrates available) and the type of structure being built.

However, for generalpurpose concrete, a rule of thumb for an average mix is 6 gal/sack (23 L) of regular Portland cement and
5 gal/sack (19 L) for underwater concrete, watertight structures, and mixtures using airentrained cements, brackish water, or 8eawater.

Water will also be required for cleaning mixing equipment and curing concrete if curing compounds are not available.

Allowing 2 gal/sack (8 L) for these purposes, approxinately 40 gal (151 L) of water would be required per cubic yard of concrete.

Water will also be required for cleaning mixing equipment and curing concrete if curing compounds are not available.

Allowing 2 gal/sack (8 L) for these purposes, approximately 40 gal (151 L) of water would be required per cubic yard of concrete.

Water Sources:
Water Sources:
1.

Nonpotable:
Wastewater from field showers and laundries is a good source of mix water, but it must first be treated to remove organics, oils, and soap.

The treatment processes involve all or a combination of the following:
skimming to remove oils and soap, flocculation, filtration, and chemical additives if available.

1.

Nonpotable:
Wastewater from field showers and laundries is a good source of mix water, but it must first be treated to remove organics, oils, and soap.

The treatment processes involve all or a combination of the following:
skimming to remove oils and soap, flocculation, filtration, and chemical additives if available.

2.

Surface:

2.
Surface:
a.

Water from rivers, streams, and canals will probably be high in organics, including fecal material from both humans and animals.

Consequently, the requirement to treat such water before use should be anticipated. Surface water sources in the Middle East may contain the parasite which can cause schistosomiasis.

Care should be taken not to touch surface water.

a.

Water from riverB, streams, and canals will probably be high in organics, including fecal material from both humans and animals.

Consequently, the requirement to treat such water before use should be anticipated.

Surface water sources in the Middle East may contain the parasite which can cause schistosomiasis.

Care should be taken not to touch surface water.

b.

Brackish well water or surface water with a high mineral content
(sulfate, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and some potassium) or salinity ahould also be filtered if it contains oils and other organics.

b.

Brackish well water or surface water with a high mineral content
(sulfate, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and some potassium) or salinity should also be filtered if it contains oils and other organics.

c.

The salt content of seawater from the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf is greater than 2 percent and will reduce the strength of concrete.

These effects, however, can be compensated for by decreasing the water/cement ratio. Suspended organic material should be filtered out before use.

c.

The salt content of seawater from the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf is greater than 2 percent and will reduce the strength of concrete.

These effects, however, can be compensated for by decreasing the water/cement ratio. Suspended organic material should be filtered out before use.

d.

Where the ROWPU is used, the brine resulting can be u8edfor concrete mixes, but only after dilution with equal parts of fresh water to reduce the salt concentration.

d.

Where the ROWPU is used, the brine resulting can be usedfor concrete mixes, but only after dilution with equal part6 of fresh water to reduce the salt concentration.

Alternate Water Sources: Alternate Water Sources:
1.

Avoid using potable water for mixing concrete.

Instead, rely on available seawater or brackish water that is relatively free of organic matter.

1.

Avoid using potable water for mixing concrete.

Instead, rely on available seawater or brackish water that is relatively free of organic matter.

2.
Reduce water/cement ratio for minimum use of water where practical.
2.
Reduce water/cement ratio for minimum use of water where practical.
3.

Wastewater from shower8 and laundries may be used for concrete mixtures.

In producing small quantities of concrete (5 cu yd [3.8 m3] or less), a convenient method of pretreating such wastewater is the use of a simple
3.

Wastewater from showers and laundries may be used for concrete mixtures.

In producing small quantities of concrete (5 cu yd [3.8 m3] or less), a convenient method of pretreating such wastewater is the use of a simple
529
expedient sand filter (Figure 5.9).

(Paragraph 5.4.11.3 explains the operation of this filter.)
For larger quantities the ERDLator would be a more efficient means of producing larger volumes of acceptable water. expedient sand filter (Figure 5.9).

(Paragraph 5.4.11.3 explains the operation of this filter.)
For larger quantities, the ERDLator would be a more efficient means of producing larger volumes of acceptable water.

4.

Avoid using water for curing concrete by employing commercial curing compounds.

However, if none are available, wastewatersoaked burlap or sandbags could be an acceptable alternative.

4.

Avoid using water for curing concrete by enploying commercial curing compounds.

However, if none are available, wastewatersoaked burlap or sandbags could be an acceptable alternative.

## 5.4.11.3 Operating Procedure For Sand Filter: 5.4.11.3 Operating Procedure For Sand Filter:

1.

Use:
Produces small quantities of subpotable water for concrete mixes, generalpurpose cleaning, radiator nakeup water, etc.

1.

Use:
Produces small quantities of subpotable water for concrete mixes, generalpurpose cleaning, radiator makeup water, etc.

2.

Capability:
Filters up to 1000 gal (3790 L) of wastewater per day.

2.

Capability:
Filters up to 1000 gal (3790 L) of wastewater per day.

3.

Procedure:
Wastewater (messkit washline, field laundry, and shower)
is poured by hand through the burlap filter until drum is full.

Maintain water level at top by periodically refilling drum.

Adjust valve to control quality of water desired; the smaller the discharge, the higher the quality of..

water produced.

Filtered water can be collected ina1500gal (5680L) pillow tank or other available container.

3.

Procedure:
Wastewater (nesskit washline, field laundry, and shower)
is poured by hand through the burlap filter until drum is full.

Maintain water level at top by periodically refilling drum.

Adjust valve to control quality of water desired; the smaller the discharge, the higher the quality of..

water produced.

Filtered water can be collected ina1500gal (5680L) pillow tank or other available container.

If the sand filter is used continuously at one location, the tp 2 or 3
in. (50 to 80 n2m) of sand should be removed and replaced with clean sand after each 1000 gal (3790 L) filtered.

A longhandled scoop will have to bemade for this purpose.

For small projects, dispose of the filter material upon completion of the job and reconstitute the filter at the next project site.

If the sand filter is used continuously at one location, the tp 2 or 3
in. (50 to 80 mm) of sand should be removed and replaced with clean sand after each 1000 gal (3790 L) filtered.

A longhandled scoop will have to beinade for this purpose.

For small projects, dispose of the filter material upon completion of the job and reconstitute the filter at the next project site.

5.4.12
Activity:
Construction - Soil
Conrpaction/Soil Cement
5.4.12
Activity:
Construction - Soil
Conrpaction/Soil Cement
Road networks and roadbeds themselves throughout SWA have capacities that will be inadequate for a military force that relies heavily on vehicle movement of supplies and equipment.

Consequently, a significant amount of engineer effort is expected to be devoted to establishing and maintaining an adequate line of communications.

Road networks and roadbeds themselves throughout SWA have capacities thst will be inadequate for a military force that relies heavily on vehicle movement of supplies and equipnent.

Consequently, a significant amount of engineer effort is expected to be devoted to establishing and maintaining an adequate line of communications.

Tasks involved will be largely earthwork and roadbed construction, but can include culvert and bridge construction.

In mountain and plateau deserts, the soil is generally hard and rocky, making road construction in flat areas simply a matter of rock removal and grading.

In sand or dune deserts, the problem is much greater unless the dunes themselves are avoided.

Tasks involved will be largely earthwork and roadbed construction, but can include culvert and bridge construction.

In mountain and plateau deserts, the soil is generally hard and rocky, making road construction in flat areas simply a matter of rock removal and grading.

In sand or dune deserts, the problem is much greater unless the dunes themselves are avoided.

Fill areas in roadbeds and backfill for culverts and bridge abutments will need to be compacted.

Where there are loose granular soils, dry compaction using vibratory rollers or' tracked vehicles can be effective.

Clay and silty soils will require water to compact to optimum density.

Fill areas in roadbeds and backfill for culverts and bridge abutments will need to be compacted.

Where there are loose granular soils, dry compaction using vibratory rollers or' tracked vehicles can be effective.

Clay and silty soils will require water to compact to optimum density.

In desert areas, opportunities to use soil cement surfaces appear to be numerous  stabilization of storage yards and depots, expedient floors for maintenance tents and buildings.

This construction technique not only provides a durable surface, but helps to minimize dust.

In desert areas, opportunities to use soil cement surfaces appear to be numerous  stabilization of storage yards and depots, expedient floors for maintenance tents ad buildings.

This construction technique not only provides a durable surface, but helps to minimize dust.

531

Quality:
Nonpotable fresh, Bait, or brackish water is suitable for both Boil compaction and soil cement.

Quality:
Nonpotable fresh, Bait, or brackish water is suitable for both soil compaction and soil cement.

Quantity:
Water quantities will vary widely, depending on the types of soil encountered.

because of the general absence of soil moisture, that needed for compaction will have to be added.

This would amount to 30 gal/cu yd
(150 L/tn3) to reach a moisture content of 10 percent.

On the other hand, soil cement requires 40 to 60 gal/cu yd (200 to 300 L/m3).

Quantity:
Water quantities will vary widely, depending on the types of soil encountered.

because of the general absence of soil moisture, that needed for compaction will have to be added.

This would amount to 30 gal/cu yd
(150 L/tn3) to reach a moisture content of 10 percent.

On the other hand, soil cement requires 40 to 60 gal/cu yd (200 to 300 L/m3).

## 5.4.12.2 Water Sources: 5.4.12.2 Water Sources:

1.

Nonpotable fresh water.

Wastewater from showers, laundries, and ROWPUs are suitable for relatively small soil compaction and soil cement projects.

1.

Nonpotable fresh water.

Wastewater from showers, laundries, and ROWPUs are suitable for relatively small soil compaction and soil cement projects.

2.

Surface.

Rivers and canals providesuitable water for soil compaction/cement.

Al8o catchnients could-be constructed to collect rainfall.

2.

Surface.

Rivers and canals provide suitable water for soil compaction/cement.

Also, catchments could-be constructed to collect rainfall.

3.

Brackish.

Water from wells despite its high mineral contert, is acceptable for these applications.

3.

Brackish.

Water from veils, despite its high mineral contert, is acceptable for these applications.

4.

Seawater.

Satisfactory soil compaction/cement tasks can beaccom
plished with seawater.

4.

Seawater.

Satisfactory soil compaction/cement tasks can beaccotn
pushed with seawater.

-
1.

Standard soil compaction tests to determine opti1rnim density and uiois
ture 8hould be conducted before compaction operations are started.

Equipment for this purpose is contained in the unit equipment issued to Construction Engineer Battalions.

1.

Standard soil compaction tests to determine opti-irnim density and uiois
ture 8hOuld be conducted before compaction operations are started.

Equipment for this purpose is contained in the unit equipment issued to Construction Engineer Battalions.

2.

Wastewater of any type should be used for small compaction tasks.

Larger projects, demanding larger amounts of water, should rely on saltwater or brackish water supplies.

A separate pipeline for this purpose could prove feasible.

2.

Wastewater of any type should be used for small compaction tasks.

Larger projects, demanding larger amounts of water, 8hou].d rely on saltwater or brackish water supplie9.

A 9eparate pipeline for this purpose could prove feasible.

3.

When water is not available, or loose granular soils are encountered, vibratory compaction techniques, which require no water, could prove satisfactory.

If an issued vibratory compactor is not available, passes with bulldozers, tanks, and large wheeled trucks can effectively compact most soils.

3.

When water is not available, or loose granular soils are encountered vibratory compaction techniques which require no water could prove satisfactory.

If an issued vibratory compactor is not available, passes with bulldozers, tanks, and large wheeled trucks can effectively compact most soils.

4.

Application of water to raise soil moisture to optimum levels for compaction should be carefully regulated and closely monitored at the work
site.

When a water distributor is used, control can be readily effected; for field expedient water distributors it is more difficult.

Suggested designs for achieving a more uniform distribution of water are shown in Figure 5.10.

4.

Application of water to raise soil moisture to optimum levels for compaction should be carefully regulated and closely monitored at the work
8ite.

When a water distributor is used, control can be readily effected; for field expedient water di8tributors it is more difficult.

Suggested designs for achieving a more uniform distribution of water are shown in Figure 5.10.

532
FIELD EXPEDIENT VATER DISTRIBUTOR
I OVERLAP

. MOt.*(T SPLASH PLATE SUCH THAT ITS BACX EDGE
OVERLAPS THE BACK EDGE OF THE DOWNSPOUT
BY APPRlMArELY I INCH (SEE DETAIL).
. MOt.*rT SPLASH PLATE SUCH THAT ITS BACK EDGE
OVERLAPS THE BACK EDGE OF THE DOWNSPOUT
BY APPRIMArELY I INCH (SEE DETAIL).
2. ATTACH SPLASH PLATE WITH WV'GNUT TO ALLOW FOR
FiELD ADJUSTMENT OF ANGLE.
2. ATTACH SPLASH PLATE WITH WV'GNUT TO ALLOW FOR
AELD ADJUSTMENT OF ANGLE.
NOTES I. ANGLE PLATE SLIGHTLY DOWNWARD TO ENABLE
WATER TO CASCADE FROM TRAILING EDGE.
OF SPRAYBAR TO PERMIT CLEANING.
NOTES I. ANGLE PLATE SLIGHTLY DOWNWARD TO ENABLE
WATER TO CASCADE FROM TRAILING EDGE.
2. INSTALL REMOVABLE CAP OR PLUG ON BOTH EM)S
OF SPRAYBAR TO PERMIT CLEANING.
HOLES 40.C.

533

5.4.13
Activity:
Construction - Aggregate Cleaning
5.4.13
Activity:
Construction - Aggregate Cleaning
Large sources of clean angular sand are frequently found in dune desert areae but are not common to other types of deserts.

Furthers natural sources of good sand may not be cloBe to the intended construction site.

Likewise, wellgraded gravel may not be readily available and muet be produced from rock fragmenta and boulder by cruBhing.

Large sources of clean angular sand are frequently found in dune desert areas but are not common to other types of deserts.

Further, natural sources of good sand may not be close to the intended construction site.

Likewise, wellgraded gravel may not be readily available and must be produced from rock fragments and boulder by crushing.

These ingredients of concrete should be relatively free of fines, and less than 200 mesh, to insure good bonding with the cement.

Clay and other fines can often be removed from gravel during crushing and screening.

If fines are difficult to remove when dry, it may be neceasary to apply a water spray or pressure air during the crushing and screening operation.

Similarly, excessive fines can be washed from sand.

In most instances, this can be done by constructing a simple sluice, putting sand in it, and filling it with water.

Most of the fines can be washed away if water continuously flows into the sluice and the sand is simultaneously agitated in the water.

Such an arrangement should be a closed system to permit the wash water to be reused once the fines have settled out.

These ingredients of concrete should be relatively free of fines and less than 200 mesh to insure good bonding with the cement.

Clay and other fines can often be removed from gravel during crushing and screening.

If fines are difficult to remove when dry it may be neceasary to apply a water spray or pressure air during the crushing and screening operation.

Similarly, excessive fines can be washed from sand.

In most instances, this can be done by constructing a simple sluice, putting sand in it and filling it with water.

Most of the fines can be washed away if water continuously flows into the sluice and the sand is simultaneously agitated in the water.

Such an arrangement should be a closed system to permit the wash water to be reused once the fines have settled Out.

Quality:
Any clean water can be used for washing concrete aggregate.

Salt and brackish water are suitable despite the salt residual that w.l1
remain once the material has been allowed to drain.

Salt will decrease the strength of concrete, and in time the concrete will deteriorate.

However, this is not expected to occur during the short period of time the structure is to be used by a military force.

Quality:
Any clean water can be used for washing concrete aggregate.

Salt and brackish water are suitable despite the salt residual that wUl remain once the material has been allowed to drain.

Salt will decrease the strength of concrete, and in time the concrete will deteriorate.

However, this is not expected to occur during the short period of time the structure is to be used by a military force.

Quantity:
The amount of water required for cleaning aggregate depends on the condition of the eand and gravel and the amount of those materials required.

Therefore, the quantity of water cannot be readily quantified.

Under average conditions about 500 gal per cu yd (2500 L/m3) can be used for estimating purposes.

Another useful estimate can be made according to the capacity of the rock crusher used.

A 75 ton/hr (19 Kg/s) crusher requires
25,000 to 50,000 gal/hr (26 to 53 L/s) and a 225 ton/hr (57 kg/s) crusher requires. 100,000 to 200,000 gal/hr (105 to2lQL/s).

Quantity:
The amount of water required for cleaning aggregate depends on the condition of the sand and gravel and the amount of those materials required.

Therefore, the quantity of water cannot be readily quantified.

Under average conditions, about 500 gal per cu yd (2500 L/m3) can be used for estimating purposes.

Another useful estimate can be made according to the capacity of the rock crusher used.

A 75 ton/hr (19 Kg/s) crusher requires
25,000 to 50,000 gal/hr (26 to 53 L/s) and a 225 ton/hr (57 kg/s) crusher requires. 100,000 to 200,000 gal/hr (105 to2lQL/s).

Water Sources: Water Sources:
1.

Relatively clean water from a surface resource is preferred.

1.

Relatively clean water from a surface resource is preferred.

2.

Salt and brackish water is acceptable and would probably be the primary Bource where large quantities of aggregate and sand require cleaning.

2.

Salt and brackish water is acceptable and would probably be the primary source where large quantities of aggregate and sand require cleaning.

3.

Clean nonpotable water from treating shower or laundry water could be used if the amount of material to be cleaned is relatively small.

3.

Clean nonpotable water from treating shower or laundry water could be used if the amount of material to be cleaned is relatively small.

1.

Pressure air (air compressor) should be employed where the fines are not firmly adhered to the sand and gravel.

1.

Pressure air (air compressor) should be employed where the fine8 are not firmly adhered to the sand and gravel.

534
2.

Any washing facility established to continuously process large amounts of sand should include a closedloop water system.

Integral to the system should be settling ponds with enough capacity to permit fines to settle out of the wastewater while previously clarified water i being reused.

This procedure would not be necessary if seawater could be obtained in generally unrestricted amounts.

2.

Any washing facility established to continuously process large amounts of sand should include a closedloop water Bystem.

Integral to the system should be settling ponda with enough capacity to permit fines to settle out of the wastewater while previously clarified water is being reused.

This procedure would not be necessary if 8eawater could be obtained in generally unrestricted amounts.

3.

Clean sand relatively free of dust and finea can be obtained in areas where loose sand iB found on the ground surface by erecting a fence (equivalent of a snow fence) perpendicular to the prevailing wind.

When the wind blows, the fine particles will pass through the openings in the fence and the coarser particlea will collect along the fence line.

Strips of camouflage netting about 4 ft (1.2 m) wide placed end to end and supported by long barbed wire pickets could be used as a field expedient.

3.

Clean sand relatively free of dust and fines can be obtained in areas where loose sand lB found on the ground surface by erecting a fence (equivalent of a snow fence) perpendicular to the prevailing wind.

When the wind blows, the fine particles will pass through the openings in the fence and the coarser particles will collect along the fence line.

Strips of camouflage netting about 4 ft (1.2 m) wide placed end to end and supported by long barbed wire pickets could be used as a field expedient.

5.4.14
Activity:
Contration  Dust Control/Soil Stabilization
5.4.14
Activity:
Contration -- Dust Control/Soil Stabilization
The dry surface conditions and nearly constant wind throughout SWA keep the air full of dust during most of the year.

Military operations with the continuous movement of vehicles, and landing and takeoff of helicopters
only compound this problem.

Ground visibility will be restricted, and men and equipment will become covered with dust.

The dry surface conditions and nearly constant wind throughout SWA keep the air full of dust during most of the year.

Military operations with the continuous movement of vehicles, and landing and takeoff of helicopters
only compound thiB problem.

Ground visibility will be restricted, and men and equipment will become covered with dust.

Total control of dust is not possible) but measures can be taken to minimize its generation  especially at airfieldB, heliports, and active storage areas and depots.

Several materials, including water, can be used.

However, water is probably the poorest choice for desert areas because its effect is only shortterm due to the high evaporative rate in arid climates. Furthermore, water must be continually applied to be effective.

Another coin
mon expedient dust suppressant material ie waste engine oil from vehiclea.

This should be used; but because of the rather limited quantities produced at any one location, only localized use in unit motor parks is coneidered practical.

Diesel fuel and other oil products have been employed by construction contractors in the Middle East for this purpoae.

However, in the quarLtities required by a military force, this technique would be a great logistics burden and too expensive, unless supplies could be obtained or captured in the region.

Total control of dust Is not possible, but measures can be taken to minimize its generation  especially at airfields, heliports, and active storage areas and depots.

Several materials, including water, can be used.

However, water Is probably the poorest choice for desert areas because its effect is only shortterm due to the high evaporative rate In arid climates. Furthermore, water must be continually applied to be effective.

Another coin
mon expedient dust suppressant material is waste engine oil from vehicles.

This should be used; but because of the rather limited quantities produced at any one location, only localized use in unit motor parks Is considered practical.

Diesel fuel and other oil products have been employed by construction contractors in the Middle East for this purpose.

However, in the quantities required by a military force, this technique would be a great logistics burden and too expensive, unless supplies could be obtained or captured in the region.

The following types of commercial suppressants have recently become available.

The following types of commercial suppressanta have recently become available.

1.

Magnesium Chloride Bitterns (MgC12) concentrate (a liquid) is used in large quantity applications and doeB not require dilution with water.

It is applied like water, in initial quantities of about 0.5 gal/sq yd (2.3 L/tn2)
for roads.

Therefore, a water distributor could be used.

The MgC12 is somewhat corrosive; hence, equipment compatibility should be determined.

The initial application usually causes the road surface to become very hard, and In many cases only one or two applications a year are required.

Obviously, weather, traffic levels, and soil conditions will affect the durability of the product.

1.

Magnesium Chloride Bitterna (NgCI2) concentrate
(a liquid) is uaed in large quantity applications and does not require dilution with water.

It is applied like water, in initial quantities of about 0.5 gal/sq yd (2.3 L/m2)
for roads.

Therefore, a water distributor could be used.

The MgCI2 is some
vhat corrosive; hence, equipment compatibility should be determined.

The initial application usually causes the road surface to become very hard, and in many cases only one or two applications a year are required.

Obvioualy, weather, traffic levels, and soil conditions will affect the durability of the product.

2.

Resin emulsions can suppress dust and stabilize soil.

Some are petroleumba6ed products; others are acrylic.

Both are diluted with water and are applied like water to the surface.

Dilution ratios (agent to water) vary
2.

Resin emulsions can suppress dust and stabilize soil.

Some are petroleumbased products; others are acrylic.

Both are diluted with water and are applied like water to the surface.

Dilution ratios (agent to water) vary from 1:4 to 1:15 or more.

The degree of stabilization is determined by the amount of water used.

Thick dust layers can be controlled by using a more dilute solution.

This provides greater penetration) but the surface must be compacted for the adhesive characteristics to be effective.

Heavily trafficked surfaces tend to become more hardened with use, and lighter or no
traffic areas become more resistant to wind and water erosion.

from 1:4 to 1:15 or more.

The degree of stabilization is determined by the amount of water used.

Thick dust layers can be controlled by using a more dilute solution.

This provides greater penetration, but the surface must be compacted for the adhesive characteristics to be effective.

Heavily trafficked surfaces tend to become more hardened with use, and lighter or no traffic areas become more resistant to wind and water erosion.

3.

Oilbased commercial dust palliatives are available and some experience has been obtained from their use in Viet Ham.

PENEPRIME was most generally used for road and offroad dust control.

It is applied undiluted using an asphalt distriblitor.

It military disadvantage of this product is the dark residual on treated areas.

3.

Oilbased commercial dust palliatives are available, and some experience has been obtained from their use in Viet Ham.

PENEPRIME was most generally used for road and offroad dust control.

It is applied undiluted using an asphalt distributor.

It military disadvantage of this product is the dark residual on treated areas.

Quality:
Water of any quality is suitable by itself for controlling du8t and stabilizing soil.

Freshwater, brackish water, or seawater can be mixed with commercial palliatives,.

In general, any water clean enough not to clog spray nozzles is acceptable.

Quality:
Water of any quality is suitable by itself for controlling dust and stabilizing soil.

Freshwater, brackish water, or seawater can be mixed with commercial palliativa.

In general, any water clean enough not to clog spray nozzles is acceptable.

Quantity:
The amount of water required for mixing with commercial dust palliatives varies with the product and the nature of the applicstin.

Quantity:
The amount of water required for mixing with commercial dust palliatives varies with the product and the nature of the applicati'n.

Water Sources:
The nature of the dust problem in an arid region essentially dictates that only major sources be used, i.e., large producing veils or seawater.

Water Sources:
The nature of the dust problem in an arid region essentially dictates that only major sources be used, i.e., large producing wells or seawater.

1.

Because of the need to control dust, the use of water can hardly be avoided.

It can be minimized, however, if some of the commercial dust pallia
tives on the market are used.

Limited product evaluation and teBting was completed in 1981 by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory for Region VIII, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

However, interferences from these tests on the use of these palliatives in arid tactical areas with salt water or brackish water as dilutents would be rieky since this is a unique application.

Further research on palliative selection to match specific soil types, dilutents, trafficability, and application races is needed.

If this becomes a validated, highpriority research need, the U.S.

Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station will be requested to undertake the reBearch effort.

1.

Because of the need to control dust, the use of water can hardly be avoided.

It can be minimized, however, if some of the commercial dust pailia
tives on the market are used.

Limited product evaluation and testing was completed in 1981 by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory for Region VIII, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

However, Interferences from these tests on the use of these pailiatives in arid tactical areas with salt water or brackish water as dilutents would be rieky since this is a unique application.

Further research on palliative selection to match specific soil types, dilutents, trafficability, and application rates is needed.

If this becomes a validated, highpriority research need, the U.S.

Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station will be requested to undertake the research effort.

2.

Saltwater or brackish water should be the only typeB used for major dust control programs.

Brackish water, if available, may be the better choice since the magnesium salts in brackish water may form a longerlasting crust than the eodium and calcium salts.

Magnesium chloride is the active ingredient of one of the commercial palliatives tested for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

2.

Saltwater or brackish water should be the only types used for major dust control programs.

Brackish water, if available, may be the better choice since the magnesium saltB in brackish water may form a longerlasting crust than the sodium and calcium salts.

Magnesium chloride is the active ingredient of one of the commercial palliatives tested for the U.S. Environmental Protection Pgency.

3.

Waste engine oil should be used instead of water for localized dust control.

3.

Wasce engine oil should be used instead of water for localized dust control.

4.

Facilities that can be adversely affected by sand (e.g., hospitals, communications centers) can be given some protection from blowing sand by
4.

Facilities that can be adversely affected by sand (e.g., hospitals, conununicac ions centers) can be given some protection from blowing sand by
536
erecting swtype fencing around the perimeter.

Open netting, such as camouflage netting, supported by long barbed wire pickets could Berve as a field expedient fence.

erecting swtype fencing around the perimeter.

Open netting, such as camouflage netting, supported by long barbed wire pickets could serve as a field expedient fence.

## 5.4.15 Actiuitj: Potabz-E Water Production 5.4.15 Actiuitj: Potabz-E Water Production

Since municipal or fresh surface water resources are not expected to be available to a military force in SWA, it will be necessary to produce potable water from any available source.

The primary military equipment used for this will be the ROWPU because it is mobile and can produce potable water from seawater, and brackish ground water and surface water sources.

Since municipal or fresh surface water resources are not expected to be available to a military force in SWA, it viii be necessary to produce potable water from any available source.

The primary military equipment used for this will be the ROWPU because it is mobile and can produce potable water from seawater, and brackish ground water and surface water sources.

Environmental conditions characteristic of desert areas also suggest that potable water supplies can easily become contaminated with dust and sand from frequent dust Btorms.

It therefore appears prudent to have available the nowstandard ERDLator equipment to treat water contaminated with dust and other aolids so that it does not have to be disposed of or used for other, less critical, purposes.

The advantage of the ERDLator treatment is that.

almost 100 percent of the water can be recovered for use.

Environmental conditions characteristic of desert areas also suggest that potable water supplies can easily become contaminated with dust and sand from frequent dust storms.

It therefore appears prudent to have available the nowstandard ERDLator equipment to treat water contaminated with dust and other solids so that it does not have to be disposed of or used for other, less critical, purposes.

The advantage of the ERDLator treatment is that.

almost 100 percent of the water can be recovered for use.

Desert 8ufl and heat can cause a variety of problems for those engaged in producing water.

Equipment can become so hot as to make the handling of valves and other components difficult.

Membrane elements, calcium hypochlor
ite, and water quality test reagents can deteriorate rapidly whennot adequately protected.

Desert 8un and. heat can cause a variety of problems for those engaged in producing water.

Equipment can become 90 hot as to make the handling of valves and other components difficult.

Membrane elements, caleiwn hypochlor
ite, and water quality test reagents can deteriorate rapidly whennot adequately protected.

guality:
Despite the great versatility of reverse osmosis to produce potable water from almost any source, some limitations may be encountered in purifying water in desert areas.

The efficiency of the membrane in removing dissolved minerals increases as the temperature of the water rises above 25C
(77F).

However, should the temperature exceed 45C (113F), membrane compaction occurs more rapidly, membrane adhesives weaken, and a structural failure may develop that causes the element to become inoperative.

Membrane life can be shortened when the pH of the water is below 4.0 and above 9.0.

Fouling of membrane surfaces, reducing water production capability, occurs. when iron, manganese, and silica are present in the raw water.

Iron and manganese can be reduced by aeration (cooling concept) and filtration, but since such pretreatment may not always be practical in the field, frequent replacement of elements will have to be anticipated or allowance made for less water production.

guality:
Despite the great versatility of reverse osmosi8 to produce potable water from almo8t any source, Bome litnitation may be encountered in purifying water in desert area8.

The efficiency of the membrane in removing dissolved minerals increases as the temperature of the water rises above 25C
(77F).

However, should the temperature exceed 45C (113F), membrane compaction occurS more rapidly, membrane adhesives weaken, and a structural failure may develop that causes the element to become inoperative.

Membrane life can be shortened when the pH of the water is below 4.0 and above 9.0.

Fouling of membrane surfaces, reducing water production capability., occurs. when iron, manganese, and silica are present in the raw water.

Iron and manganese can be reduced by aeration (cooling concept) and filtration, but since such pretreatment may not always be practical in the field, frequent replacement of elements will have to be anticipated or allowance made for less water production.

When a military ROWPU is operating normally, only 1 gal (3.8 L) of potable water is produced from e.wery 3 gal (11.4 L) of feed water, regardless of its quality.

However, the brtre from the treatment of brackish and nonpotable fresh water can and should be recycled to produce additional potable water.

The limit on recycling these waters is reached when the dissolved mineral content of the brine reache8 that of Beawater.

When a military ROWPU is operating normally, only 1 gal (3.8 L) of potable water is produced from ewery 3 gal (11.4 L) of feed water, regardless of its quality.

However, the brtre from the treatment of brackish and nonpotable fresh water can and should be recycled to produce additional potable water.

The limit on recycling these waters is reached when the dissolved mineral content of the brine reaches that of seawater.

Water Quality Analysis Sets and the skilled personnel to use them are essential in the production of potable water.

For the most part, present equipment provides for making basic tests, e.g., chlorine residual, pH, turbidity, hardness.

Certain test reagents normally have a 8hort life, and when exposed to desert sun and heat can quickly become useless.

Consequently, Water Quality Analysis Sets and the skilled personnel to use them are essential in the production of potable water.

For the most part, present equipment provides for making basic tests e.g., chlorine residual, pH, turbidity, hardness.

Certain test reagents normally have a short life, and when exposed to desert sun and heat can quickly become u8eless.

Consequently, operating personnel should be alert to the expiration date of reagents and protect test equipment by keeping it shaded and as cool as possible.

operating personnel should be alert to the expiration date of reagents and protect test equipment by keeping it shaded and as cool as possible.

quantity:
While any available water gource may be used to produce potable water, every effort should be made to use the largest, highe9t quality, and most reliable source available.

Quantity:
While any available water source may be used to produce potable water, every effort should be made to use the largest, highest quality, and most reliable source available.

Water Sources:
It ig expected that the sea and wells are the moat productive sources for producing potable water.

Surface water resources are generally preferable since less effort and cost is required to treat such waters given the equipment and manpower resources of a field fighttng force.

Water Sources:
It is expected that the sea and wells are the most productive sources for producing potable water.

Surface water resources are generally preferable since less effort and cost is required to treat such water, given the equipment and manpower resources of a field fighting force.

1.

Control waste.

Operators of water eupply points should keep spillage of potable water produced to a minimum.

1.

Control waste.

Operators of water supply points should keep spillage of potable water produced to a minimum.

2.

Make maximum use of all water.

Brine produced in the operation of the ROWPU should not be discharged as waste, but collected and stored for other uses.

This water, which is normally wasted, has been subjected to two stages of filtration before being processed through the membrane elements; therefore, the brine is practically free of all suspended mattet, This water is adequate iii supply and quality for purposes such as graves registration activities, soil compaction, soil cem.nt, and dust control.

When there is a general shortage of potable water, it can also be used for showers and laundries -
2.

Make maximum use of all water.

Brine produced in the operation of the ROWPU should not be discharged as wa8te but collected and stored for other uses.

This water, which is normally vaated has been Bubjected to two stages of filtration before being proceaed through the membrane elements; therefore, the brine is practically free of all suspended mattet This water is adequate iii supply and quality for purposes such a graves registratLon activities, soil compaction, soil cem.nt, and dust control.

When there is a general shortage of potable water, it can also be used for showers and laundries.

3.

Renovation of contaminated water.

Water that may have been contaminated with dust or other removable suspended substances should be retreated rather than wasted.

ERDLator equipment is most suitable for this purpose since most troublesome dissolved salts and minerals are removed by the reverse Osmosis process.

3.

Renovation of contaminated water.

Water that may have been contaminated with dust or other removable suspended substances should be retreated rather than wasted.

ERDLator equipment is most suitable for this purpose since most troublesome dissolved salts and minerals are removed by the reverse osmosis process.

4.

Water quality testing.

Water quality tests should be done as accurately as possible to preclude unsatisfactory water being distributed and later having to be declared unsuitable for human consumption.

4.

Water quality testing.

Water quality tests should be done as accurately as possible to preclude unsatisfactory water being distributed and later having to be declared unsuitable for human consumption.

5.

Equipment protection.

ROWPU equipment, spare membrane elements, calcium hypochiorite, and Water Quality Analysis Sets should be protected from sun and heat to prevent deterioration and insure proper functioning.

5.

Equipment protection.

ROWPU equipment, spare membrane elements, calcium hypochlorite, and Water Quality Analysis Sets should be protected from sun and heat to prevent deterioration and insure proper functioning.

## 5.4.16 .4Ctiz.Iity: Wells Drilling 5.4.16 Actiity: Well Drilling

The general absence of surface water in desert areas and the prospect that Incountry municipal water supplies may not be accessible require the deploynent of fully trained and wellequipped drilling units to develop needed, water supplies.

Equipment now bethg procured by the Army to provide this capability includes modern 6in. (150mm) diameter high speed rotary drills.

The general absence of surface water in desert areas and the prospect that incountry municipal water supplies may not be accessible require the deployment of fully trained and wellequipped drilling units to develop needed, water supplies.

Equipment now being procured by the Army to provide this capability includes modern 6in. (150mm) diameter high speed rotary drills.

Highly sophisticated geophysical and seismic systems and techniques are often used by professional well drillers to locate groundwater.

In the absence of these techniques, Army drillers should, if possible, consult local inhabitants for assistance in identifying prospective drilling sites.

Highly sophisticated geophysical and seismic systems and techniques are often used by professional well drillers to locate groundwater.

In the absence of these techniques Army drillers should, if possible, consult local inhabitants for assistance in identifying prospective drilling sites.

538
The depth co groundwater can vary from about 50 ft (15 in) in coastal regions to 500 ft (150 m) or more further inland.

Also, the quality of groundwater can vary from one location to another.

Often it will be brackish or high in mineral content (sulfur, calcium, magnesium, arid iron) and, therefore, require treatment to make it potable.

The depth co groundwater can vary from about 50 ft (15 in) in coastal regions to 500 ft (150 in)
or more further inland.

Also, the quality of groundwater can vary from one location to another.

Often it will be brackish or high in mineral content (sulfur, calcium, magnesium, arid iron) and, therefore, require treatment to make it potable.

A supply of water is essential to produce the drilling fluid
mud.

This is a mixture of native clay and/or commercial clay (bentonite) and water. The mud cleans the drill bit, removes cuttings from the hole, cools the bit, and reduces friction between the drill rod and the sides of the hole, and plasters the sides of the hole to prevent loss of drilling fluid.

A supply of water is essential to produce the drilling fluid - mud.

This is a mixture of native clay and/or commercial clay (bentonite) and water. The mud cleans the drill bit, removes cuttings from the hole, cools the bit, and reduces friction between the drill rod and the sides of the hole, and plasters the sides of the hole to prevent loss of drilling fluid.

a1lty:
Water sources locally available usually dictate the type of water used in drilling fluid, but generally the water should be reasonably free of dissolved salts.

Some salts soluble in water tend to alter the clay suspensions properties of the mud.

Saltwater or water with a high chloride content tends to flocculate (curdle) the clay particles and destroythe col
loidal properties of the mud, which are essential in wall building and in the sealing off of permeable formations.

In an emergency, either brackish water or seawater could be used; but as soon as possible after drilling has been completed, pumps and equipment exposed to salt should be thoroughly flushed to prevent corrosion.

_uality:
Water sources locally available usually dictate the type of water used in drilling fluid, but generally the water should be reasonably free of dissolved salts.

Some salts soluble in water tend to alter the clay suspensions properties of the mud.

Saltwater or water with a high chloride content tends to flocculaLe (curdle) the clay particles and destroythe colloidal properties of the mud, which are essential in wall building and in the sealing off of permeable formations.

In an emergency, either brackish water or seawater could be used; but as soon as possible after drilling has been completed, pumps and equipment exposed to salt should be thoroughly flushed to prevent corrosion.

Quantity:
The amount of water required for drilling varies with the porosity of the formation penetrated and the depth of the hole.

A 6in.

(152mm) diameter hole will require about 20 gal of water per foot (250 L/m)
of depth.

Quantity:
The amount of water required for drilling varies with the porosity of the fortuation penetr.ted and the depth of the hole.

A 6in.

(152mm) diameter hole will require about 20 gal of water per foot (250 L/m)
of depth.

Water Sources:
Water may be available in the general area of the dril
ling site or from municipal resources in the region.

If not, It will have to be transported to the site.

Personnel should use supplies that may have become contaminated with sand and dust, or untreated water collected in catch
merits, before turning to potable resources.

Water Sources:
Water may be available in the general area of the drilling site or from municipal resources in the region.

If not, it will have to be transported to the site.

Personnel should use supplieb that may have become contaminated with sand and dust, or untreated water collected in catch
ments, hefort turtiing to potable resources.

Key Indicators of groundwater in dese'rt areas are the presence of habitation, localized green vegetation, and existing wells.

Groundwater can also be found to shallow depths in alluvial fans at the base of any significant mountain range or in dry stream beds or wadis.

Key indicators of groundwater in desert areag are the presence of habitation, 1ocall.zcd green vegetation, and existing wells.

Groundwater can also be found to shallow depths in alluvial fans at the baae of any significant inoun
tam ranIge or In dry stream beds or wadis.

1.

Nonpotable water should be used for drilling whenever possible.

If bacteria are suspected, the water should be disinfected by the addition of approximately 1 teaspoon of calcium hypochiorite per 50 gal (approximately
12 g/200 L)
1.

Nonpotable water should be used for drilling whenever possible.

If bacteria are suspected, the water should be disinfected by the addition of approximately 1 teaspoon of calcium hypochlorite per 50 gal (approximately
12 g/200 L)
2.

Sheets of membrane liner or scrap tarpaulin may be used as an expedient to line a slush pit (container for drilling mud) to minimize the loss of water.

2.

Sheets of membrane liner or scrap tarpaulin may be used as an expedieit to line slush pit (container for drilling mud) to minimize the loss of water.

539
3.

During the development of a well, pumped water should not be wasted but collected for treatment to produce potable water or used directly for other purposes  e.g., concrete, 9oil compaction, fire fighting.

3.

During the development of a well, pumped water should not be wasted but collected for treatment to produce potable water or used directly for other purposes  e.g., concrete, soil compaction, fire fighting.

4.

Fresh water is often found in relatively thin lenses overlying Balty groundwater.

In such cases, water should be pumped Out at very low rates to prevent saltwater contamination.

This procedure is only applicable to 8hallow coastal well9 (less than 40 ft [12 m]), where the overburden is relatively unconsolidated.

4.

Fresh water is often found in relatively thin lenses overlying salty groundwater.

In such cases, water should be pumped out at very low rates to prevent saltwater contamination.

This procedure is only applicable to shallow coastal wells (less than 40 ft [12 in]), where the overburden is relatively unconsolidated.

5.

Commercial drilling fluids, such as foam, can be used and thereby substantially reduce the amount of water needed.

An example of a brandname drilling fluid is "Quick Foam" manufactured by Baroid of Houston, Texas.

5.

Commercial drilling fluids, such as foam, can be used and thereby substantially reduce the amount of water needed.

An example of a brandname drilling fluid is "Quick Foam" manufactured by Baroid of HouBton, Texas.

## 5.4.17 Activity: Water Distribution 5.4.17 Activity: Water Distribution

The distribution of large quantities of water under tactical conditions will be by pipeline, trucks carrying bladders, and 5000gal (18 900L) tanker trucks.

Smaller quantities will be pickedup from tank farms or storage and distribution points in 400gal (1510L) water trailers or in refillable fabric drums and 5gal (19L) cans.

The distribution of large quantities of water under tactical conditions will be by pipeline, trucks carrying bladders, and 5000gal (18 900L) tanker trucks.

Smaller quantities will be pickedup from tank farms or storage and distribution points in 400gal (1510L) water trailers or in refillable fabric drums and 5gal (19L) cans.

Each action involving the transfer of water fron storage to transporter and distribution to unit Water containers can result in spillage.

Despite all reasonable precautions, spills will occur.

A means for collecting and storing spilled water for other uses is prudent.

Each action involving the transfer of weter from storage to transporter and distribution to unit water containers can result in spillage.

Despite all reasonable precautions, spills will occur.

A means for collecting and storing spilled water for other uses is prudent.

Pipelines can also cause water losses.

Leakage can occur at joints1
and breaks can occur as a result of sabotage or vehicles crossing the line and crushing it.

Major breaks could result in the loss of water in a 2mi (3.2
km) segment, or about 15,500 gal (58 700 L) (normal interval between pumping stations).

The loss of water from the entire pipeline is prevented by pressure sensors which shut pumps off when there is a drop below normal operating pressure.

Pipelines can also cause water losses.

Leakage can occur at joints, and breaks can occur as a result of sabotage or vehicles crossing the line and crushing it.

Major breaks could result in the loss of water In a 2mi (3.2
kin) segment, or about 15,500 gal (58 700 L) (normal interval between pumping stations).

The loss of water from the entire pipeline is prevented by pressure sensors which shut pumps off when there is a drop below normal operating pressure.

A newly inst1led potable water pipeline must be flushed and disinfected.

.ater used for this need only be relatively elean becauSe It will be dosed to
100 ppm free avai1ble chlorine which effectively kills any pathogenic bacteria using a contact time of 30 minutes.

Flushing and disinfection can be done in 2mi (3.2kin) segments to minimize water required; however, temporary storage facilities (tanks or storage basin) would be required at each 2mi
(3.2kin) interval.

At the end of eachplpeline, this water can be collected to be used for other purposes  e.g., concrete, aircraft washing, dust control, disinfection of open storage tanks.

A newly inst1led potable water pipeline must be flushed and disinfected.

.ater used for this need only be relatively cl'ean because it will be dosedto
100 pp free available chiorthe which effectively kills any pathogenic bacteria usthg a contact time of 30 minutes.

Flushing and disinfection can be done in 2mi (3.2kin) segments to minimize water required; however, temporary storage facilities (tanks or storage basin) would be required at each 2-mi
(3.2kin) interval.

At the end of eachpipeline, this water can be collected to be used for other purposes  e.g., concrete, aircraft washing) dust control, disinfection of open storage tanks.

In a theater of operations there is always a chance the Army may have to take over the repair and operation of a municipal water system.

Although most systems will be similar to those employed in the United States, problems can be expected in obtaining replacement parts arid operating supplies.

Sizes and dimenslo.is of basic components can be expected to differ from those used in the United States and even require the use of metric tools.

Also, certain nations may u ione for water disinfection rather than chlorine.

Under these circunstaiLces the Army should consider the hire of former local employees who are faiziliar wIth the equipment to operate and maintain the system.

In a theater of operations there is always a chance the Army may have to take over the repair and operation of a municipal water system.

Although most systems will be similar to those employed in the United States, problems can be expected in obtaining replacement parts and operating supplies.

Sites and dimensios of basic coipotents can be expected to differ from those used in the United States and even require the use of metric tools.

Also, certain nations may uc one for water disinfection rather than chlorine.

Under these circumstalLces the Army should consider the hire of former local employees who are faiUar wIth th equipment to operate and maintain the system.

540

Quality:
The only water needed for inBtalling a water distribution ys
tern is for flushing and disinfecting the pipeline or an open tank that will be used to store potable water.

Fresh water relatively free of suspended solids can be used.

quality:
The only water needed for installing a water distribution system is for flushing and disinfecting the pipeline or an open tank that will be used to store potable water.

Fresh water relatively free of suspended solids can be used.

Quantity:
Approximately 17,000 gal (64 000 L) of water are required for flushing and disinfection.

Quantity:
Approximately 17,000 gal (64 000 L) of water are required for flushing and disinfection.

Water Sources: Water Sources:

1.
Water from a tanker ship could be used, if available.
1.
Water from
a tanker ahip could be used, if available.
2.

Fresh water wells may have to be drilled, or potable water can be produced by ROWPU equipment.

2.

Fresh water wells may have to be drilled, or potable water can be produced by ROWPU equipment.

1.

Waterdispensing equipment should be equipped with automatic Bhutoff valves or nozzles to prevent spillage.

1.

Waterdispensing equipment should be equipped with automatic shutoff valves or noz1es to prevent spillage.

2.

Spillage at a major dispensing point should be anticipated and a container built to collect and store this water for other purposes.

A membrane
lined basin could be used.

2.

Spillage at a major dispensing point should be anticipated and a container built to collect and store this water for other purposes.

A membrane
lined basin could be used.

3.

When the tactical situation permits and engineer effort is available, pipelines should be buried 21/2 ft (0.8 in) deep to prevent damage from crossing vehicles and minimize heat absorption.

As an alternative, hoseline and pipeline suspension kits and road crossing guards should be installed for damage prevention.

Expedient crossings similar to those shown in Figure 5.11 can be fabricated in the field at appropriate intervals.

3.

When the tactical situation permits and engineer effort is available, pipelines should be buried 21/2 ft (0.8 m) deep to prevent damage from croes
ing vehicles and minimise heat absorption.

As an alternative, hoseline and pipeline suspension kits and road crossing guards Bhould be in8talled for damage prevention.

Expedient crossingB Bimilar to those shown in Pigure 5.11 can be fabricated in the field at appropriate intervals.

4.

Pipelines should be patrolled frequently and inspected for leaks and illegal taps.

4.

Pipelines should be patrolled frequently and inspected for leaks and illegal taps.

5.

Pipelines used to distribute potable water are vulnerable to sabotage and illegal tapping.

Also, the large quantity ofwat-er required to fill thea is susceptible to loss when the line is broken.

A nonpotable pipeline does not present quite the same risks, and loss of nonpotable water would not be as critical.

This suggests that the current shortterm water resource tnanagemeat concept be revised.

5
Pipelines used to distribute potable water are vulnerable to sabotage and illegal tapping.

Also, the large quantity ofwater required to fill thea is susceptible to loss when the line is broken.

A nonpotable pipeline does not present quite the same risks, and loss of nonpotable water would not be as critical.

This suggests that the current shortterm water resource management concept be revised.

6.

Water used to flush and disinfect pipelines should be collected and used for other purposes.

6.

Water uBed to flush and disinfect pipelines should be collected and used for other purposes.

## 5.4.18 Activity: Water Storage 5.4.18 Activity: Water Storage

Military tactical and supporting units are equipped with a variety of water storage equipment.

The sniallest is the individual canteen; for a company-.3ize unit, the largest is the 400 gal (1510 L) water trailer.

To enable these contaiaers to be refilled) larger amounts of water are poBitioned throughout a theater of operations to be readily acceBsible for pickup by units or to be delivered by large tanker trucks to the larger water consurmerB.

Military tactical and supporting units are equipped with a variety of water storage equipment.

The smallest is the individual canteen; for a company-aize unit, the largest is the 400 gal (1510 L) water trailer.

To enable these containers to be refilled) larger amounts of water are positioned throughout a theater of operations to be readily accessible for pickup by units or to be delivered by large tanker trucks to the larger water consumers.

541
To insure an tiinterrupted supply of water for all, a 4day supply is normally maintained within a theater of operations.

To insure an tiinterrupted supply of water for all, a 4day supply is normally maintained within a theater of operations.

In the Army's nearterm water resources management concept, water is to be stored using a combination of flexible bladders ranging in size up to
50,000 gal (189 000 L) capacity, a family of smallercapacity pillow tanks, various sizes of fabric drums, and expendable 6gal (23L) bags/boxes.

In the Army's nearterm water resources management concept, water is to be stored using a combination of flexible bladders ranging in size up to
50,000 gal (189 000 L) capacity, a faintly of smallercapacity pillow tanks, various sizes of fabric drums, and expendable 6gal (23L) bags/boxes.

To implement a conservation program in which wastewater is collected and reused, additional storage capacity would be required.

For the8e purposes, the collapsible fabric stave tanks now in the military supply system would be most suitable.

In addition, expedient storage containers can be field fabricated using lumber and membrane sheeting (Figure 5.12) or storage basins can be excavated and lined with membrane sheeting (Figure 5.13).

The latter can also be installed to provide a reservoir to collect rainfall and supplement available water resources.

To implement a conservation program in which wastewater is collected and reused, additional storage capacity would be required.

For the8e purposes, the collapsible fabric stave tanks now in the military aupply system would be moet suitable.

In addition, expedient storage containers can be field fabricated using lumber and membrane sheeting (Figure 5.12) or storage basins can be excavated and lined with membrane sheeting (Figure 5.13).

The latter can also be installed to provide a reservoir to collect rainfall and supplement available water resources.

Qualitl:
Water is not required in the installation of water-storage facilities.

The water stored must be protected from lose, contaniination, and sun.

In hot desert areas, storage tanks should be ahaded, since burying bladders and pillow tanks are not practical.

A more practical technique would be to erect standard camouflage nets over tank farms and Set up tarpaulins to protect Sulall water storage facilities.

In each instance, enough airspace should be provided between the container and sun shade to permit air circulation.

Quality:
Water is not required in the installation of water-storage facilities.

The water stored must be protected from lose, contamination, and sun.

In hot desert areas, storage tanks should be shaded, since burying bladders and pillow tanks are not practical.

A more practical technique would be to erect standard camouflage nets over tank farms and set up tarpaulins to protect suiall water storage facilities.

En each instance, enough airspace should be provided between the container and sun shade to permit air circulation.

Quantity:
The amount of basic Water storage capacity would be 30 inillior Quantity:
The amount of basic water storage capacity would be 30 million gal (112 000 Tn3) for a force of about 375,000.

Supplementary storage for collection of wastewater and for nonpotable water needed for construction could increase the storage requirement up to 25 percent.

gal. (112 000 Tn3) for a force of about 375,000.

Supplementary storage for col
lection of wastewater and for nonpotable water needed for construction could increase the storage requirement up to 25 percent.

Water Sources:
Water to be stored is produced from a variety of water sources, as discussed in paragraph 5.4.15.

Likewise, wastewater that can be collected and stored temporarily before use is produced by a variety of activities, as discussed in paragraph 5.5.

Water Sources:
Water to be stored is produced from a variety of water sources, as discussed in paragraph 5.4.15.

Likewise, wastewater that can be collected and stored temporarily before use is produced by a variety of activities, as discussed in paragraph 5.5.

1.

Water storage containers should be inspected frequently for leaks and repaired.

1.

Water storage containers should be inspected frequently for leaks and repaired.

2.

Stored water should be protected from solar radiation by some form of
8hading.

Containers should be covered to prevent contamination from dust and losB from evaporation.

Water that is too hot to touch may be spilled by those who distribute and handle it.

Any shade is beneficial:
a varietyof field expedients can be used for this purpose  camouflage nets, suspended tarpau
lins, survivor blankets, and painting tanks a light color.

Double covers, where a second layer is suspended over the primary shield, are ever more effective.

This technique creates a live air space between the two covers to allow air to circulate and produce a cooling effect.

2.

Stored water should be protected from solar radiation by some form of shading.

Containers should be covered to prevent contamination from dust and losB from evaporation.

Water that is too hot to touch may be spilled by those who distribute and handle it.

Any shade is beneficial:
a varietyof field expedients can be used for this purpose  camouflage nets1, suspended tarpau
lins, survivor blankets, and painting tanks a light color.

Double covers, where a second layer is suspended over the primary shield, are ever more effective.

This technique creates a live air space between the two covers to allow air to circulate and produce a cooling effect.

545
3.

Tank farm bladders should be placed in shallow excavations or in a bermed area to protect them against enemy fire and reflected 8olar radiation.

3.

Tank farm bladders 8hould be placed in shallow excavations or in a bermed area to protect them against enemy fire and reflected solar radiation.

4.

Supplementary water storage capability should be available to enable wastewater to be collected, treated, and reu8ed wherever possible.

Collapsible fabric stave tanks or fieldfabricated tanks using membrane sheets can be used.

Such containers should be clearly and distinctively marked to indicate they contain nonpotable water.

4.

Supplementary water storage capability should be available to enable vastewater to be collected, treated, and reused wherever possible.

Collapsible fabric stave tanks or fieldfabricated tanks using membrane sheets can be used.

Such containers should be clearly and distinctively marked to indicate they contain nonpotable water.

5.

Simple storage basins or large catchnients for collecting rainfall runoff can be constructed by excavation and inBtallation of membrane sheeting to provide leakproof storage.

Floating covers of lightweight and light
colored membrane sheeting supported by timbers would be needed to. protect water from dust contamination and to limit water loss from evaporation.

5.

Simple storage basins or large catchments for collecting rainfall runoff can be constructed by excavation and installation of membrane sheeting to provide leakproof storage.

Floating covers of lightweight and light
colored membrane sheeting supported by timbers would be needed to. protect water from dust contamination and to limit water loss from evaporation.

5.4.19
Activity:
Aircraft Thrust Augmentation
(Water Injection)

5.4.19
Activity:
Aircraft Thrust Augmiztation
(Water Injection)
Certain U.S. Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAC) aircraft use .a water injection thrust augmentation system.

When water is injected into the air intake of a jet engine, it cools the intake air, which becomes more dense.

When the air is mixed with the hotter fuel, the result is a beneficial combustion mixture producing added thrust..

Water injection is generally used under heavy aircraft loads and in hot dry weather.

Water injection is fbi. used in Army aircraft.

Certain U.S. Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAC) aircraft use.a water injection thrust augmentation system.

When water is injected into the air intake of a jet engine, it cools the intake air, which becones more dense. When the air is mixed with the hotter fuel, the result is a beneficial combus
tion mixture producing added thrust..

Water injection is generally used under heavy aircraft loads and in hot dry weather.

Water injection is noi. used in Army aircraft.

Currently, the following SAC aircraft employ water injection;
B52D, B52G, and KC135.

About half of the KC135s have been equipped with fanjet engines, which do not use water injection.

Currently, the following SAC aircraft employ water injection:
B52D, B52G, and KC135.

About half of the KC135s have been equipped with fanjet engines, which do not use water injection.

Water used in thrust augmentation must meet certain standards of purity over and above usual potable water standards; therefore, SAC T0&E includes portable ion exchange deinineralizing equipment.

Such units are deployed with aircraft and maintenance personnel.

Water used in thrust augmentation must meet certain standards of purity over and above usual potable water standards; therefore, SAC TO&E includes portable ion exchange deinineralizing equipment.

Such units are deployed with aircraft and maintenance personnel.

Additionally, SAC FBl1l aircraft contain an internal environmental control (cooling) system which uses water as the coolant.

Additionally, SAC FBlll aircraft contain an internal environmental control (cooling) system which uses water as the coolant.

Quality:
Potable water should be provided for the detnineralization processing required for thru8t augmentation.

Specifications call for water that contains no more than 10 ppm total solids and a pH of 6.0 to 9.5.

In tactical situations, water up to 50 ppm is acceptable.

Quality:
Potable water should be provided for the detnineralization processing required for thrust augmentation.

Specifications call for water that contains no more than 10 ppm total solids and a pH of 6.0 to 9.5.

In tactical situations, water up to 50 ppm is acceptable.

Quantity: Quantity:
Water consumption, by aircraft, is as follows: Water consumption, by aircraft, is as follows:
B52D - 300 gal/sortie (1100 L)
B52D
300 gal/sortie (1100 L)
B52G
1200 gal/sortie (45 000 L)
BSW
1200 ai/sortie (45 000 L)
KC135 - 670 gal/sortie (2500 L)
KC135 - 670 gal/sortie (2500 L)
FB111
27 gal/sortie (100 L).

FBll1
27 gal/Bortie (100 L).

To obtain I gal (3.8 L) of demineralized water, it will be necessary to process 11/2 al (5.7L) of potable water.

To obtair'
I gal (3.8 L) of demineralized water, it will be necessary to process 11/2 al (5.7b) of potable water.

Water Sources:
Water normally vould be supplied for thrust augmentation from the U.S. Air Force organic selfsustaining potable water supply.

However, the Armyoperated Base Terminal would supplement any U.S. Air Force shortfall through the Tactical Water Distribution Set (TWDS) and Storage!

Distribution network.

Water Sources:
Water normally vould be supplied for thruBt augmentation from the U.S. Air Force organic selfsustaining potable water supply.

However, the Armyoperated Base Terminal would supplement any U.S. Air Force shortfall through the Tactical Water Distribution Set (TWDS) and Storage/
Distribution network.

## 5.4.19.2 Water Conservation Methods: 5.4.19.2 Water Conservation Methods:

The waste concentrate from the demineralizatioa process could be reprocessed to produce potable and/or nonpotable quality, or used without treatment for other purposes  e.g., aircraft washing  thereby reducing the demand upoa potable water Bupplie8.

The waste concentrate from the demineralization process could be reprocessed to produce potable and/or nonpotable quality, or used without treatment for other purposes  e.g., aircraft washing  thereby reducing the demand upon potable water supplies.

## 5.4.20 Activfty: Aircraft Czeaning 5.4.20 Activity: Aircraft Czeaning

The dusty environment common to desert areas is harmful to aircraft engines and operating mechanisms.

Consequently, care must be taken o avoid hovering helicopters close to the ground and moving craft on the ground under their own power, and to cover all apertures when the aircraft is not in use.

Regardlesi of all the care taken, dirt and dust does accumulate and can only be removed by washing.

Normally, helicopters  the predominant Army aircraft
- undergo scheduled maintenance every 25 flying hours.

The turbine engine, i-Dtor blades, and fuselage are thoroughly washed with water soluble cleaner aad a soft brush, then rinsed with clean water in a pressurized spray.

Equip
Inent needed to sprayclean water under field conditions is not available now, but a cleaning and deicing unit is being tested.

Current practices discard The dusty environment common to desert areas is' harmful to aircraft engines and operating mechanisms.

Consequently, care must be taken to avoid hovering helicopters close to the ground and moving craft on the ground under their own power, and to cover all apertures when the aircraft is not In use.

Regardless of all the care taken, dirt and dust does accumulate and can only be removed by washing.

Normally, helicopters  the predominant Army aircraft
- undergo scheduled maintenance every 25 flying hours.

The turbine engine, ntor blades, and fuselage are thoroughly washed with water soluble cleaner aad a soft brush, then rinsed with clean water In a pressurized spray.

Equip
meat needed to sprayclean water under field conditions Is not available now, but a cleaning and deicing unit is being tested.

Current practices discard alil wastewaters to the surrounding environment.

alil wastewaters to the surrounding environment.

Qua.ity:
Water for aircraft washing does not have to be potable, but should be low in salt and mineral content (soft water) and suspended solids.

Bacteria levels are not considered critical since they can be easily con
rolled through field disinfection using chlorine.

As a rule, brackish water saltwater should be avoided due to their corrosive actionon metals.

Qua.ity:
Water for aircraft washing does not have to be potable, but should be low in salt and mineral content (soft water) and suspended solids.

Bacteria levels are not considered critical since they can be easily con trailed through field disinfection using chlorine.

As a rule, brackish water d saltwater should be avoided due to their cortosive 'actionon metals.

Quantttl.

About 25 gal (95 L) of water are needed to clean the air inlet area, inlet guide vanes, and compressor rotor blades of a turbine engine.

An additional 100 gal (380 L) are required for the remainder of an aircraft.

Quantttl.

About
25 gal (95 L) of water are needed to clean the air inlet area, inlet guide vanes, and compressor rotor blades of a turbine engine.

An additional 100 gal (380 L) are required for the remainder of an aircraft.

Water Sources:
If at all possible, the source of water should be other than the potable water distribution system.

Alternatives could include surface water, If It is of suitable quality; municipal water; potable water which may have become too contaminated to use for drinking or food preparation
e.g., dustcontaminated water; and rainwater colected in an expedient catch
nent basin.

Water Sources:
If at all possible, the source of water should be other than the potable water distributioa system.

Alternatives could include surface water, if it is of suitable quality; municipal water; potable water which may have become too contaminated to use for drinking or food preparatioa
e.g., dustcontaminated water; and rainwater colected in an expedient catch
cent basin.

Wastewater from activities such as a central shower or laundry would also be suitable for aircraft washing if it is treated to remove grit, oils, and soap, and chlorinated.

See paragraphs 5.4.6 and 5.4.7 for shower and laundry field treatment procedures.

Wastewater from activities such as a central shower or laundry would also be suitable for aircraft washing if it is treated to remove grit, oils, and soap, and chlorinated.

See paragraphs 5.4.6 and 5.4.7 for shower and laundry field treatment procedures.

547
Water collected from aircraft washing operations can also be treated and reused.

Water collected from aircraft washing operations can also be treated and reused.

1.

Employ and enforce a 8tanding operating procedure for aircraft washing to insure that a minimum of water is used for cleaning.

1.

Employ and enforce a standing operating procedure for aircraft washing to insure that a minimum of water is used for cleaning.

2.

Consolidate aircraft washing operations, where practicable, by installing an areawide wa8hing facility serving multiple aviation unite.

Such a facility could be colocated with General Support Aircraft Maintenance units.

2.

Consolidate aircraft washing operations where practicable, by inBtalling an areawide wa8hing facility serving multiple aviation unitB. Such a facility could be colocated with General Support Aircraft Maintenance units.

3.

Reuse aircraft wash water.

Wastewater from aircraft cleaning should be collected wherever, in the judgment of the aviation unit commander, reuse offers an advantage over obtaining fresh water.

A suggested layout for a washing facility is shown in Figure 5.14.

3.

Reuse aircraft wash water.

Wastewater from aircraft cleaning should be collected wherever, in the judgment of the aviation unit commander, reuse offers an advantage over obtaining fresh water.

A suggested layout for a washing facility is shown in Figure 5.14.

4.

Collect and use wastewater under any circumstances for other purposes, e.g., generalpurpose cleaning, moistening soil for electrical ground, dust control.

4.

Collect and use wastewater under any circumstances for other purposes, e.g., generalpurpose cleaning, moistening soil for electrical ground, dust control.

## 5.4.20.3 Helicopter Washing Facility 5.4.20.3 Helicopter Washing Facility

1.
Use:
Washing six or more aircraft using recycled washuater.
1.
Use:
Washing six or more aircraft using recycled washwater.
2.

Materials:
Membrane Surfacing Outfit, Airfield Roads, SC 568097
CLEOl, Part
1 (66 ft x 100 ft [20 m x 30 inj), or 40mil nylon reinforced membrane sheeting.

2.

Materials:
Membrane Surfacing Outfit, Airfield Roads, SC 568097
CLEO1, Part
1.

(66 ft x 100 ft [20 m x 30 mJ), or 40mu nylon reinforced membrane sheeting.

3.

Procedure:
A suitable area is graded for a parking apron and covered with Tl7 membrane surfacing.

Integral with the apron is a lined collection ditch with sump to permit the recovery of washwater.

3.

Procedure:
A suitable area is graded for a parking apron and covered with T17 membrane surfacing.

Integral with the apron is a lined collection ditch with sump to permit the recovery of washwater.

Wastewater is transferred from the sump to one of two 1500gal (5680L)
collapsible collecting tanks where grit and other heavy particles are allowed to settle out, and oil and scum to rise to the surface.

Once the tank has been filled, the contents should be allowed to itand Lor 24 hours.

At the end of this period, floating materials need to be skimmed from the surface before the water can be reused.

This can be done by skimming with a fieldexpedient scoop or by installing a flexible hose to the tank drain and attaching a funnel to the other end.

By slightly submerging the funnel, floating materials can be quickly withdrawn by opening the drain at the bottom of the tank.

Wastewater is transferred from the sump to one of two 1500gal (5680L)
collapsible collecting tanks where grit and other heavy particles are allowed to settle out, and oil and scum to rise o the surface.

Once the tank has been filled, the contents should be allowed to stand Eor 24 hours.

At the end of this period, floating materials need to be skimmed from the surface before the water can be reused.

This can be done by skimming with a fieldexpedient scoop or by installing a flexible hose to the tank drain and attaching a funnel to the other end.

By slightly submerging the funnel, floating materials can be quickly withdrawn by opening the drain at the bottom of the tank.

Some chemical cleaning solution will be retained in the treated water, but not enough to preclude its use as rinsewater.

When withdrawing water from the tank, care oust be taken not to disturb sediment collected in the bottotn.

When the tank is empty, the valve at the base should be opened to drain it before refilling.

This wastewater could be used for dust control near the washing facility rather than discharging ft to waste.

Some chemical cleaning solution will be retained in the treated water, but not enough to preclude its use as rinsewater.

When withdrawing water from the tank, care must be taken not to disturb sediment collected in the bottom.

When the tank is empty, the valve at the base should be opened to drain it before refilling.

This wastewater could be used for dust control near the washing facility rather than discharging it to waste.

Some fresh water will be required periodically to make up for water lost by evaporation and retained on the aircraft.

The number of times wastewater Some fresh water will be required periodically to make up for water lost by evaporation and retained on he aircraft.

The number of titnes wastewater
548
wastewater may be reused before it becomes too dirty must be determined by operating personnel.

wastewater ay be reused before it becomes too dirty must be determined by operating pe8onnel.

If a central aircraft washing facility is established to clean many helicopters in a day, a 420gph (0.442 L/s) Water Purification Equipment Set
(ERDLator could be much more efficient and effective in treating the wastewa
ter than the settling tank.

If a central aircraft washing facility iB eBtablished to clean many helicopters in a days a 420gph (0.442 L/s) Water Purification Equipment Set
(ERDLator could be much more efficient and effective in treating the wasewa
ter than the Bettling tank.

5.4.21
Activity:
Vehicl.e and Equipment CZ.eaning
5.4.21
Activity:
Vehicl.e and Equipment Cleaning
Dusty roads and frequent dust storms in desert areas make vehicles and equipment dirty, abrade unprotected moving parts, and contribute to malfunctions.

Consequently, equipment operators must diligently perform prescribed maintenance, including cleaning.

Because water supplies are limited, the construction of vaahracks or equipment washing facilities should be prohibited.

Therefore, cleaning would be performed primarily by such mechanical methods as brooms, highpressure air, and dry wiping.

tn certain inStances, however, it will be necessary to use water to clean critical surfaces and parts:
e.g., windshields, head and taillights, mirrors, and gauges.

Dusty roads and frequent dust storms in desert areas make vehicles and equipment dirty, abrade unprotected moving parts and contribute to malfunctions.

Consequently equipment operaorB must diligently perform prescribed maintenances Including cleaning.

BecauBe water supplies are limited the construction of washracks or equipment washing facilities should be prohibited.

Therefore, cleaning would be performed primarily by such mechanical methods as brooms highpressure air, and dry wiping.

In certain instances however it will be necessary to use water to clean critical surfaces and parts:
e.g., windshields head and taillights mirrors and gauges.

Every effort should be made to protect equipment and thereby uinimize the need for cleaning.

Small equipment items in particulars should be covered with tarpaulin or membrane sheeting to protect them from dust when not in use.

Every effort ehould be made to protect equipment and thereby minimize the need for cleaning.

Small equipment items, in particular, should be covered with tarpaulin or membrane sheeting to protect them from dust when not in use.

Quality:
Water of any type or quality can be used for cleaning provided it is generally free of oil grease and soap.

In additions water with high salt content (seawater and brackish water) should not be used on unpainted surfaces, or where corrosion could develop and interfere with the operation of the equipment.

quality:
Water of any type or quality can be used for cleaning, provided it is generally free of oil, grease, and soap.

In addition, water with high salt content (seawater and brackish water) should not be used on unpainted surfaces, or where corrosion could develop and interfere with the operation of the equipment.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed for cleaning is not readily quantified.

It could become excessive if strict restrictions are not imposed by commanders.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed for cleaning is not readily quantified.

It could become excessive if strict restrictions are not imposed by commanders.

## Water Sources:

Water Sources:

## 1. The Use Of Potable Water For Cleaning Equipment Should Be Prohibited. 1. The Use Of Potable Water For Cleaning Equipment Should Be Prohibited.

2.

Potable water that has been contaminated with dust and dirt, and where a means of restoring it to potable quality is not readily available, could be used for cleaning.

2.

Potable water that has been contaminated with dust and dirts and where a means of restoring it to potable quality is not readily available, could be used for cleaning.

3.

The primary sources of wastewater that can be used for cleaning are showers, laundries, and messkit washlinea.

Some type of fabric should be used to filter oil, grease, and putrescible material before using the water.

3.

The primary sources of wastewater that can be used for cleaning are showers, laundries and messkit washlines.

Some type of fabric should be used to filter oil grease, and putrescible material before using the water.

## 5.4.21.2 Water Conservation Measures  Operational Procedures 5.4.21.2 Water Conservation Measures  Operaiional Procedures

Commanders should issue specific instructions regarding the equipment and vehicles to be cleaned, give guidance on how cleaning will be performed, and restrict the use of water to what is absolutely essential to insure safety and operational effectiveness.

Commanders should issue specific instructions regarding the equipment and vehicles to be cleaned give guidance on how cleaning will be performed and restrict the use of water to what is absolutely essential to insure safety and operational effectiveness.

5.4.22
Activity:
Vehicle Radiator Makeup Water
5.4.22
Activity:
Vhicl Radiator Makeup Water
High daytime temperatures in hot, arid climates cause water in vehicle radiators to boil; with continued use, engine coolant can become dangerously low.

To prevent engine damage, the operator must check the radiator often
(perhaps even several times each day) and add water when needed.

High daytime temperatures in hot, arid climates cause water in vehicle radiators to boil; with continued use, engine coolant can become dangerously low.

To prevent engine damage, the operator must check the radiator often
(perhaps even several times each day) and add water when needed.

Quality:
Water for vehicle radiators does not have to be of potable quality, but should be relatively clean and contain only small amounts of dissolved minerals.

Certain surface and well waters are normally high in dissolved salts and minerals and will eventually leave deposits that will clog radiator cores.

Consequently, seawater and brackish water should not be used as engine coolants.

Quality:
Water for vehicle radiators does not have to be of potable quality, but should be relatively clean and contain only small amounts of dis
solved minerals.

Certain surface and well waters are normally high in dissolved salts and minerals and will eventually leave deposits that will clog radiator cores.

Consequently, seawater and brackish water should not be used as engine coolants.

Quantity:
Based on estimated loss of 25 percent of the engine coolant capacity per day, the average amount of makeup water required is about
7 gal/truck (27 L)
.

For trucks transporting water and other supplies from rear areas to forward units, the loss by evaporation could be much larger.

Any water added should be adjusted by the amount of additives (e.g., rust, inhibitor, glycol coolant, etc.) that may be prescribed for the area of operations.

Quantity:
Based on estimated loss of 25 percent of the engine coolant capacity per day, the average amount af makeup water required is about
7 gal/truck (27 L)
.

For trucks transporting water and other supplies from rear areas to forward units, the loss by evaporation could be much larger.

Any water added should be adjusted by the amount of additives (e.g., rust, inhibitor, glycol coolant, etc.) that may be prescribed for the area of operations.

Water Sources:
Makeup water will normally be obtained from a potable source such as a municipal water system unit water supply.

However, contaminated potable water should be used whenever possible.

Water Sources:
Makeup water will normally be obtained from a potable source such as a municipal water system unit water supply.

However, contaminated potable water should be used whenever possible.

Water Reuse:
Water from canteens or 5gal (19L) cans which has become too hot to drink should be put into radiators.

Also, any potable water which may have become contaminated with sand and dust can be filtered through cloth or sandbags and used as coolant.

Water Reuse:
Water from canteens or 5gal (19L) cans which has become too hot to drink should be put into radiators.

Also, any potable water which may have become contaminated with sand and dust can be filtered through cloth or sandbags and used as coolant.

Coolant Recovery System:
Installing coolant recovery equipment on radiators of tactical vehicles could essentially eliminate water loss.

Coolant Recovery System:
Installing coolant recovery equipment on radiators of tactical vehicles could essentially eliminate water loss.

## 5.4.23 Activity: Electrical Grounding 5.4.23 Activity: Electrical Grounding

Electrical generators and critical electronic equipment
such as radio transmitters, radars, and computers  must be grounded to protect operating personnel and the equipment itself.

In the inland areas of SWA, the lack of soil moisture makes special measures to establish an effective ground.

Electrical generators and critical electronic equipment
such as radio transmitters, radars, and computers  must be grounded to protect operating personnel and the equipment itself.

In the inland areas of SWA, the lack of soil moisture makes special measures to establish an effective ground.

An effective expedient technique for fabricating a grounding system is to add moisture to the subsoil to improve its conductivity.

However, for the electrical ground to remain effective, it willbe necessary to keep the subsoil wet because of the high rate of evaporation common to arid regions.

Water ubed for this purpose should be relatively free of putrescible matter to avoid creating a source of odors and an attraction for flies and other insects
(see Chapter 4).

An effective expedient technique for fabricating a grounding system is to add moisture to the subsoil to improve its conductivity.

However, for the electrical ground to remain effective, it willbe necessary to keep the subsoil wet because of the high rate of evaporation common to arid regions.

Water ubed for this purpose should be relatively free of putrescible matter to avoid creating a source of odors and an attraction for flies and other insects
(see Chapter 4).

Quality:
Water of any quality, wastewater from all sources, and even urine can be used to add moisture to soil.

Qualitl:
Water of any quality1 wastewater from all Bource8 and even urine can be used to add moisture to 8oil.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed to establish and maintain an effective grounding system depends on the capacity of the electrical equipment and cannotbe quantified here.

Quantity:
The amount of water needed to establish and maintain an effective grounding system depends on the capacity of the electrical equipment and cannotbe quantified here.

## Water Sources: Water Sources:

1.

Saltwater is ideal for establishing a grounding system.

Therefore seawater1 brackish water, and brine from water treatment (ROWPU) can be used when available.

Urine is a suitable alternative to these waters.

1.

Saltwater is ideal for establishing a grounding system.

Therefore, seawater, brackish water, and brine from water treatment (ROW'PU) can be used when available.

Urine is a suitable alternative to these waters.

2.

Any wastewater from other activities  such as mess operations, laundry, showers, aircraft washing  can effectively be used.

2.

Any wastewater from other activitie8  such as mess operations, laundry, showers1 aircraft washing  can effectively be used.

3.

Potable water should not be used 8ince lesser-quality water ought to be available.

3.

Potable water should not be used 8ince lesserquality water ought to be available.

1.

Use only wastewaters, seawater, or brackish water for constructing an electrical ground.

1.

Use only wastewaters1 seawater1 or brackish water for constructing an electrical ground.

2.

Locate field urinals where an electrical ground is to be constructed.

When larger grounds are required, a leaching field using perforated or unjoined pipe and installed at least 3 ft (1 m) below the surface may be appropriate.

2.

Locate field urinals where an electrical ground is to be constructed.

When larger grounds are required, a leaching field using perforated or unjoined pipe and installed at least 3 ft (1 in) below the surface may be appropriate.

## 5.4.24 Activity: Photo Processing 5.4.24 Activity: Photo Processing

Photographic activities in a theater of operations involve taking both ground tid aerial photographs and developing and printing black and white and color film.

Film processing is done largely at the Division and Corps levels where units performing this function employ specially equipped shelters designed for this purpose.

There are, however, a few units, such as engineer construction battalions, which are issued cameras and photoprocessing kits for just their limited needs.

Only the latter requires water to produce prints.

All other systems use a dry printing process.

New processes that would entirely eliminate the need for water are under investigation.

Photographic activities in a theater of operations involve taking both ground tid aerial photographs and developing and printing black and white and color film.

Film processing is done largely at the Division and Corps levels where units performing this function employ specially equipped Shelters designed for this purpose.

There are1 however a few units1 such as engineer construction battalions, which are issued cameras and photoproceasing kits for just their limited needs.

Only the latter requires water to produce prints.

All other systems use a dry printing process.

New processes that would entirely eliminate the need for water are under investigation.

Xray equipment is available at each field hospital facility.

That at the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals uses a dry process to produce the films. The equipment used by the Combat Support and Evacuation Hospitals, which usually operate in the Corps Rear Area or Communication Zone, employ a vet process.

Xray equipment is available at each field hospital facility.

That at the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals uses a dry process to produce the films. The equipment used by the Combat Support and Evacuation Hospitals, which uSually operate in the Corps Rear Area or Communication Zone employ a wet process.

Quality:
Water for both photo and Xray film processing has to be of potable quality and contain relatively small amounts of dissolved minerals.

Quality:
Water for both photo and Xray film processing has to be of potable quality and contain relatively small amounts of dissolved minerals.

552
The water te
.erature should not exceed 110F (43C) for black and white film amd 98F (37C) for color film.

The water te .erature should not exceed 110F (43C) for black and white film amd 98F (37C) for color film.

Quantity:
Approximately 3 gal (11 L) of water are needed to develop 20
rolls of black and white or color film used for still photographs.

Aerial and movie film are processed using automated equipment which requires about 10 gal per hr (38 L/hr).

Hospital Xray film processors require about 40 gal per hr Quantity:
Approximately 3 gal (11 L) of water are needed to develop 20
rolls of black and white or color film used for still photographs.

Aerial and movie film are processed using automated equipment which requires about 10 gal per hr (38 L/hr).

Hospital Xray film processors require about 40 gal per hr
(150 L/hr). (150 L/hr).

Water Sources  Potable:
Water Sources  Potable:
The primary source of potable water is the 400gal (1500L) water trailer.

Aerial photoprocessing units and hospitals are issued water trailers for film processing.

The primary Source of potable water is the 400gal (1500L) water trailer.

Aerial photoprocessing units and ho8pitals are issued water trailers for film processing.

Water Reuse:
Wastevater from film processing should not be reused for.

any purpose other than creating an electrical ground for equipment.

Water Reuse:
Wastewater from film processing should not be reused for.

any purpose other than creating an electrical ground for equipment.

New Processes:
The need for water could be eliminated if new film
developing processes under investigation prove satisfactory and could be adopted for field use.

New Processes:
The need for water could be eliminated if new film developing processes under investigation prove satisfactory and could be adopted for field use.

## 5.4.25 Activity: Fire Fighting 5.4.25 Activity: Fire Fighting

The capability to fight fire in base development cantonments is essential to 1ninimize loss of life and equipment.

Because water will be in short supply and fire trucks may not be available, reliance will be on the use of portable chemical extinguishers, sand buckets, and shovels, and water dispensed by the bucketful by those nearest the fire.

Even under the most austere living standards, planning for a fire emergency must begin early.

The capability to fight fire in base development cantoninents is essential to minimize loss of life and equipment.

Because water will be in short supply and fire trucks may not be available, reliance will be on the use of portable chemical extinguishers, sand buckets, and shovels, and water dispensed by the bucketful by those nearest the fire.

Even under the most au8tere living standards, planning for a fire emergency must begin early.

In the absence of mechanized fire equipment with integral chemical extinguishers or onboard water, fire fighting will be primarily a manual operation, relying on a nuniber of strategically located waterfilled
55gal (208L)
drums with dispensing buckets.

Drums should beplaced near structures, equip ment, and materials that require protection.

Additionally, manual chemical extinguishers and buckets of sand Bhould be located conveniently near areas where fires could originate in materials not extinguishable with water.

In the absence of mechanized fire equipment with integral chemical extinguishers or onboard water, fire fighting will be primarily a manual operation, relying on a number of strategically located waterfilled 55gal (208L)
drums with dispensing buckets.

Drums should bepla'ced near structures, equipment, and materials that require protection.

Additionally, manual chemical extinguishers and buckets of sand should be located conveniently near areas where fires could originate in materials not extinguishable with water.

Quality:
The lowestquality water available should be used.

Potable water should be used only when no other is conveniently available.

Quality:
The lowestquality water available should be used.

Potable water should be used only when no other is conveniently available.

Quantity:
Water quantities cannot be determined; however, about 50 gal
(190 L) should be available per general purpose (GP) tent and up to 100 gal
(380 L) per facility where the potential for fire is great  e.g., aircraft and veh.cle maintenance.

Quantity:
Water quantities cannot be determined; however, about 50 gal
(190 L) should be available per general purpose (GP) tent and up to 100 gal
(380 L) per facility where the potential for fire is great  e.g., aircraft and veh.cle maintenance.

Water Sources:
Any source of nonpotable water is acceptable.

The sourceB could be streams, seawater, brackish well water, and ROWPU
brine Water Sources:
Any source of nonpotable water is acceptable.

The sources could be streams, seawater, brackish well water, and ROWPU
brine water.

Even wastewaters from mess operations, showers, and laundries can be used if nececessary.

water.

Even wastewaters from mes8 operations, showers, and laundries can be used if nececessary.

1.
Keep 55gal (210L) water storage drums covered to minimize evapora-
1.
Keep 55gal (2l0L) water storage drums covered to minimize evaporation.
tion.

2.

Fill drums with water of such quality that others will not be tempted to take it for other purposes.

Salt and brackish waters are excellent candidates.

2.

Fill drums with water of such quality that others will not be tempted to take it for other purposes.

Salt and brackish waters are excellent candidates.

3.
Use sand buckets and shovels instead of water wherever possible.
3.
Use sand buckets and shovel8 instead of water wherever possible.

## 5.4.26 Activity: Pest Control 5.4.26 Activity: Pest Control

A variety of insects and rodents live in arid environments.

Among the more common pests that carry disease and damage military supplies are lice, fleas, flies, ants, scorpions, locusts, and a variety of rats.

A variety of insects and rodents live in arid environments.

Among the more common pests that carry disease and damage military supplies are lice, fleas, flies, ants, scorpions, locusts, and a variety of rats.

Insecticides and rodenticides adopted by the Army can be effectively employed in arid areas.

The common formulations of insecticides oe in powder form, premixed in oil, and emulsions that are mixed with water before Insecticides and rodenticides adopted by the Army can be effectively employed in arid areas.

The common formulations of insecticides come in powder form, premixed in oil, and emulsions that are mixed with water before use. use.

Quality:
Potable or fresh water is required for mixing emulsified insecticides.

Saltwater and brackish water degrade the effectiveness of peaticides and should not be used.

Quality:
Potable or fresh water is required for mixing emulsified insecticides.

Saltwater and brackish water degrade the effectiveness of pesticides and should not be used.

Quantity:
The amount of water required cannot be readily quantified.

Overall, it is relatively small and should place an insignificant demand on
- the water supply system.

Quantcy:
The amount of water required cannot be readily quantified.

Overall, it is relatively small and should place an insignificantdemand on
- the water supply system.

Water Sources: Water Sources:
1.

Use water from a municipal water system or surface fresh water, If available.

1.

Use water from a municipal water system or surface fresh water, 1f available.

2.

Potablequality water contaminated with sand or dust is suitable after filtering through cloth to remove particulates that could clog spraying equipment.

2.

Potablequality water contaminated with sand or dust is suitable after filtering through cloth to remove particulates that could clog spraying equipment.

5.4.26.2
Water Conservation Measures:
Relatively few benefits are to be derived from limiting the amount of water used to prepare insecticide solutions.

Army entomologists should examine types and formulations of pesticides to be used in hot, arid climates.

Perhaps those that have to be mixed with water should not be used.

5.4.26.2
Water Conservation Measures:
Relatively few benefits are to be derived from limiting the amount of water used to prepare insecticide solutions.

Army entomologists should examine types and formulations of pesticideB
to be used in hot, arid climates.

Perhaps those that have to be mixed with water should not be used.

## 5.4.27 Actty: Decontaninatirig Personnel And Equipment 5.4.27 Actty: Decontaninatirig Personnel And Equipment

Enemy troops might use NBC warfare.

Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to have the capability to decontaminate personnel and equipment that have been exposed to chemical and biological agents and radioactive fallout.

In doing this, water is the most critical item and the major problem.

Enemy troops might use NBC warfare.

Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to have the capability to decontaminate personnel and equipment that have been exposed to chemical and biological agents and radioactive fallout.

In doing this, water is the most critical item and the major problem.

Units, decontamination equipment, and operating procedures employed in decontamination procedures are discussed in the 3 series FMs and The.

In general, equipment is decontaminated by washing the items thoroughly with water.

When chemical agents are present, Sm or DS2 is applied after the initial wash and then rinsed of f.

Units, decontanination equipment, and operating procedures employed in decontamination procedures are discussed in the 3 series FMs and TMs.

In general, equipment is decontaminated by washing the items thoroughly with water.

When chemical agents are present, STh or DS2 is applied after the initial wash and then rinsed off.

Personnel are decontaminated by taking showers.

However, investigations at the U.S. Army Chemical Systems Laboratory indicate that showers may not be an absolute necessity for decontamination, but suggest the 'inorale' factor needs careful conBideration if Bhowerg are excluded.

Personnel are decontaminated by taking showers.

However, investigations at the U.S. Army Chemical Systems Laboratory indicate that showers may not be an absolute necessity for decontamination, but suggest the 'inorale' factor needs careful consideration if showers are excluded.

Quality:
Any available water source is suitable for decontaniination operation (i.e., seawater, brackish water, surface water, treated wa8te
waters).

Quality:
Any available water source is suitable for decontamination operation (i.e., seawater, brackish water, surface water, treated wa8te
waters).

Quantity:
The total amount of water required depends on the type and concentration of the agent involved, and the number of personnel and equipoent affected.

An average quantity for a mediumsize truck is about 200 gal
(760 L);
for a shower, the amount could be as much as 13 gal (49 L) per bather or more.

Quantity:
The total amount of water required depends on the type and concentration of the agent involved, and the number of personnel and equipment affected.

An average quantity for a mediumsize truck is about 200 gal
(760 L); for a shower, the amount could be as much as 13 gal (49 L) per bather or more.

Water Sources:
Because large quantities of water would be required, major sources such as rivers, lakes, high production wells, and seawater should be relied on.

If at all possible, uncontaminated potable water should not be used in order to conserve it for drinking and food preparation.

Water Sources:
Because large quantities of water would be required, major sources such as rivers, lakes, high production wells, and seawater should be relied on.

If at all possible, uncontaminated potable water should not be used in order to conserve It for drinking and food preparation.

5.4.27.2
Water Conservation Measures:
The demand to start decontamination operations quickly will probably override any thoughts of conerving. water...

Soldiers involved at the time of a chemical or biological attack will use freely water frocn any convenient source; usage probably will exceed the quantities stated above.

It would therefore be prudent to plan for large quantities of nonpotable water (seawater or brackish water from surface water sources or wells) to be available for immediate use.

One method of doing this would be to install pipelines from the most accessible sources to areaa of major troop/equipment concentrations.

At selected points waterdispensing facilities would be provided for use when needed.

Such a nonpotable water distribution system could also serve a a convenient source of water for fire
fighting, con8truction, and dust control.

5.4.27.2
Water Conservation Measures:
The demand to start decontamination operations quickly will probably override any thoughts of conserving, water., Soldiers involved at the time of a chemical or biological attack will use freely water from any convenient source; usage probably will exceed the quantities stated above.

It would therefore be prudent to plan for large quantities of nonpotable water (seawater or brackish water from surface water sources or veils) to be available for immediate use.

One method of doing this would be to install pipelines from the most accessible sources to areas of major troop/equipment concentrations.

At selected points, waterdispensing facilities would be provided for use when needed.

Such a nonpotable water distribution system could also serve as a convenient source of water for fire
fighting, construction, and dust control.

Recovery and treatment of wastewater from decontamination operations to produce potable water are not considered practical.

Radiological contaminants can accumulate duriig treatment in the purification equipment and the chlorine from Super Tropical Bleach (STB) used in decontamination of chemical and biological elements is extremely harmful to ROWP1J membrane elements.

Recovery and treatment of wastewater from decontamination operations to produce potable water are not considered practical.

Radiological contaminants can accumulate during treatment in the purification equipment and the chlorine from Super Tropical Bleach (STB) used in decontamination of chemical and biological elements is extremely harmful to ROWP1J membrane elements.

## 5.4.28 Activity: Pow/Refugee Camp Operation 5.4.28 Activity: Pow/Refugee Camp Operation

Combat operations often result in taking prisoners of war (POW) and displacement of civilians from their homes.

Prisoners are normally detained in prisonerofwar camps established within the theater of operations and provided certain facilities and accommodations.

Refugees are generally collected and put into temporary camps in rear areas to provide them some measure of safety and to prevent interference with military operations.

Among the amenities to be provided these individuals under the Geneva Convention is water for consumption, food preparation, and personal hygiene.

Combat operations often result in taking prisoners of war (POW) and displacement of civilians from their homes.

Prisonera are normally detained in prisonerofwar canps established within the theater of operations and provided certain facilities and accommodations.

Refugees are generally collected and put into temporary camps in rear areas to provide them some ieasure of
8afety and to prevent interference with military operationB.

Among the amenities to be provided these individuals under the Geneva Convention is water for con8wnption, food preparation, and personal hygiene.

Quality:
Water provided POWs and refugees should be of equivalent quality to what they are accustomed to using.

That used by U.S. forces will have undergQne extensive treatment and chlorination, and can cause digestive tract problems for ?eople not accustomed to drinking this type of water.

The need to cool their drinking .water is probably nt essential, but a means of shading water storage should be provided.

Quality:
Water provided POWs and refugees should be of equivalent quality to what they are accustomed to using.

That used by U.S. forces will have undergQne extensive treatment and chlorination, and can cause digestive tract problems for people not accustomed to drinking this type of water.

The need to cool their drinking water is probably nt essential, but a means of shading water storage should be provided.

Quantity:
The amount of water to be furnished each person per day will be less than for a soldier.

The following estimates are ba8ed on limited activity by camp inhabitants:
Quantity:
The amount of water to be furnished each person per day will be less than for a soldier.

The following estimates are based on limited activity by camp inhabitants:

Amount
(gal[L] /man/ day)
Amount
(gal[LJ/man/day)
Drinking
2.0
(7.6]
Food Preparation
1.0
[3.8)
Personel Hygiene
2.0
[7.6]
Medical Treatment
1.0
(3.8]
TOTAL
6.0 [22.7]
Drinking
2.0
[7.6]
Food Preparation
1.0
[3.8]
Personel Hygiene
2.0
[7.6]
Medical Treatment
1.0
[3.8]
TOTAL
6.0 [22.7]

Water Sources:
The optimum sources would be a municipal water supply system o freshwater wells.

If they are not available, potable water would have to be proviaed from Army resources.

Water Sources:
The optimum sources would be a municipal water supply system o freshwater wells.

If they are not available, potable water would have to be proviaed from Army resources.

1.

Adjust quantities of water supplied to be consistent with ethnic and religious customs on eating and personal hygiene.

1.

Adjust quantities of water supplied to be consistent with ethnic and religious customs on eating and personal hygiene.

2.

Establish a regime for the distribution and use of water in camps to insure water is not wasted.

2.

Establish a regime for the distribution and use of water in camps to inaure water is not wasted.

3.

Blend potable and moderately saline veil water to produce water of acceptable palatability for inhabitants of the region.

3.

Blend potable and moderately saline well water to produce water of acceptable palatability for inhabitants of the region.

## 5.4.29 Activity: Locomotive Enginer Water Makeup 5.4.29 Activity: Locomotive Enginer Water Makeup

Under certain circunstances, the Araiy could take over the operation of railroad aystem in SWA or operate trains over existing trackage.

Currently Under certain circumstances, the Army could take over the operation of railroad system in SWA or operate trains over existing trackage.

Currently
556
both narrow d standardgauge trackage are used by the nations in the area, but all are gradually converting to standard gauge.

Also, dieselelectric locomotives are replacing steam engines.

both narrow d standardgauge trackage are used by the nations in the area, but all are gradually converting to standard gauge.

Also, dieselelectric locomotives are replacing steam engines.

Although the dieselelectric locomotive would be more desirable, the Army might be required to rely on steam locomotives.

Under these circumstances, it would be necessary to provide water for the engines.

Although the dieselelectric locomotive would be more desirable, the Army might be required to rely on steam locomotives.

Under these circumstances, it would be necessary to provide water for the engines.

Quality:
Freshwater relatively low in mineral content would be required to prevent buildup of scale in boiler tubes.

Quality:
Freshwater relatively low in mineral content would be required to prevent buildup of scale in boiler tubes.

Quantity:
Between 18,000 and 25,000 gal (68 000 and 95 000 L) of water are carried by tenders on reciprocating steam locomotives and steam turbine
electric locomotives.

In desert areas, water consumption is about 50 gal
(190 L) per nd.*
Dieselelectric locomotives require up to 800 gal (3000 L) of water, but because the cooling systems are closed, little makeup water I,s needed.

Quantity:
Between 18,000 and 25,000 gal (68 000 and 95 000 L) of water are carried by tenders on reciprocating steam locomotives and steam turbine
electric locomotives.

In desert areas, water consumption is about 50 gal
(190 L) per nd.*
Dieselelectric locomotives require up to 800 gal (3000 L) of water, but because the cooling systems are closed, little makeup water 1,s needed.

Water Sources:
Municipal water supplies would be suitable for steam engines and should be available in most railroad yards.

If separate water service is required, the Aroiy could supply dater from potable supplies or from wells producing water of acceptable quality.

Water Sources:
Municipal water supplies would be suitable for steam engines and should be available in most railroad yards.

If separate water service is required, the Army could supply iater from potable supplies or from wells producing water of acceptable quality.

1.

Service engines in operating railroad yards with established water service.

1.

Service engines in operating railroad yards with established water service.

2.
Employ dieselelectric locomotives which require a small amount of
water for engine cooling.
2.
Employ dieselelectric locomotives which require a small amount of
water for engine cooling.

## 5.5 Water And Wastewater Use Opportunities And Priorities 5.5 Water And Wastewater Use Opportunities And Priorities

This section, In part, contains a tabular suiwnary of selected findings developed in this report.

It is essentially a guide to sources of water and wastewater that can be used for the various activities listed.

The numbers shown under each activity (Figure 5.15) indicate the water sources in an order of preference (1, 2, etc.) that minimizes the burden on the overall water production and distribution system.

In. addition, the lower portion of the figure indicates those activities, again in order of preference, that can use waste
water from selected major sources.

This section, in part, contains a tabular sunary of selected findings developed in this report.

It is essentially a guide to sources of water and wastewater that can be used for the various activities listed.

The numbers shown under each activity (Figure 5.15) indicate the water sources in an order of preference (1, 2, etc.) that miniiizes the burden on the overall water production and distribution system.

In. addition, the lower portion of the figure indicates those activities, again in order of preference, that can use waste
water from selected major sourceB.

The types and locations of water sources as well as the distribution of units or military activities within an area of operation will be different for each military operation.

Consequently, the optimum source of water and the use to be made of wastewater will ultimately be selected based on local and sitespcific conditions.

The types and locations of water sources as well as the distribution of units or military activities within an area of operation will be different for each military operation.

Consequently, the optimum source of water and the use to be made of wastewater will ultimately be selected based on local and sitespcific conditions.

* "The Military Water Problems in the Western Egyptian Desert, 19401943," COL
W. G.
Fryer, 0.B.E.
The Civil Engineer In War, Vol 3, 1948; The Institute
of Civil Engineers, London.
* The Military Water Problems in the Western Egyptian Desert, 19401943," COL
W. G.
Fryer, O.B.E.
The Civil Engineer in War, Vol 3, 1948; The Institute
of Civil Engineers, London.
557
.11
..

1
..

.

## 5.6 Membrane. Sheeting (Liners) 5.6 Membrane. Sheeting (Liners)

Description:
Membrane sheeting materials are commonly used today as watertight liners in excavated storage basins for various liquids, including potable water.

The expedient method is to form an earthen basin with conventional earthmoving equipment, compact the einbankmerits and berms, and then smooth the earth by removing exposed rocks and other sharp objects.

With the basin thus prepared1 the liner panels are placed in the basin and manually positioned with seam overlap for subsequent sealing.

The panels are long enough to extend over the embankment top and into a prepared ditch.

The seams are then sealed, the embankment ditch is backfilled to secure the liner in place, and then, depending upon liner or seam cure time, the basin is ready for use.

Description:
Membrane sheeting materials are commonly used today as watertight liners in excavated etorage basins for various liquids, including potable water.

The expedient method is to form an earthen basin with conventional earthmoving equipment, compact the einbankrnents and berms, and then smooth the earth by removing exposed rocks and other sharp objects.

With the basin thus prepared1 the liner panels are placed in the basin and manually positioned with Beam overlap for subsequent Bealing.

The panels are long enough to extend over the embankment top and into a prepared ditch.

The seams are then sealed1 the embankment ditch is backfilled to secure the liner in place, and then, depending upon liner or seam cure time, the basin is ready for use.

Certain membranes lend themselves to use as water storage covers, sealing out dust and other contaminants, reducing evaporation, and preventing algae growth.

Certain membranes lend themselves to use as water storage covers sealing out dust and other contaminants, reducing evaporation, and preventing algae growth.

One type of liner material can be sprayed, troweled, or applied'by squeegee.

One type of liner material can be sprayed, troweled, or applied'by squeegee.

Theory:
The construction of effective water storage facilities can be a lengthy, costly process, particularly if steel tanks or concrete are used. Equivalent and expedient water storage facilities can be built in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost with membrane linings.

Theory:
The construction of effective water storage facilities can be a lengthy, costly process, particularly if steel tanks or concrete are used.

Equivalent and expedient water storage facilities ean be built in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost with membrane linings.

Case History:
Membrane liner supplier/installer firms have many documented histories of unique and difficult water storage applications of their products.

Case History:
Membrane liner supplier/installer firms have many docu
nented histories of unique and difficult water storage applications of their products.

Cost:
Membrane liner material is currently not in the Federal Supply System.

Procurement from the manufacturer is for a specific project.

An average cost for 30 mu
(0.76 mm) reinforced Hypalon is $0.55 to 0.65 per sq ft ($5.92 to 7.00 per in2).

Cost:
)lembrane liner material is currently not in the Federal Supply System.

Procurement from the manufacturer is for a specific project.

An average cost for 30 mil (0.76 mni) reinforced Hypalon is $0.55 to 0.65 per sq ft ($5.92 to 7.00 per in2)
Reliability:
The membrane materials have been developed with such physical properties as tensile strength, tear resistance, temperature (hot/cold) resistance, and resistance to degradation from exposure to sunlight, submersion in water, and burial In soil.

Records of use to indicate durability under such conditions are claimed by the manufacturers.

In addition, ASTM
test standards are imposed on producers to insure the sheeting provides adequate service.

Reliability:
The membrane materials have been developed with such physical properties as tensile strength, tear resistance, temperature (hot/cold) resistance, and resistance to degradation from exposure to sunlight, submersion in water, and burial in soil.

Records of u8e to indicate durability under such conditions are claimed by the manufacturers.

In addition, ASTM
test standards are imposed on producers to insure the sheeting provides adequate service.

Applications:
Membrane liners have been used effectively in many areas of the world for water containment and for water/sewage treatment applications.

Reports from certain liner manufacturers and installers indicate that some satisfied customers are located in Middle East countries.

It is suggested that the time/cost factors are most attractive for using membrane sheeting in water containment basins for RDF deployment applications which involve potable water storage, water harvesting, and treatment.

In addition, the membranes could be used In covering vehicles and equipment as protection against dust, thereby reducing water usage in cleaning such items.

Applications:
Membrane liners have been used effectively in many areas of the world for water containment and for water/sewage treatment applications.

Reports from certain liner manufacturers and installers indicate that some satisfied customers are located in Middle East countries.

It is suggested that the time/cost factors are most attractive for using membrane sheeting in water containment basins for RDF deployment applications which involve potable water storage, water harvesting, and treatment.

In addition, the membranes could be used in covering vehicles and equipment as protection against dust, thereby reducing water usage in cleaning such items.

559
Safety Factors:
Membrane materials for water containment should not present significant safety problems except when used for a potable water storage basin.

Certain types of liner materials contain chemical components that can leach into the water and prove harmful if not removed.

Safety Factors:
Membrane materials for water containment should not present significant safety problems except when used for a potable water storage basin.

Certain types of liner materials contain chemical components that can leach into the water and prove harmful if not removed.

O&M Needed:
A torn liner would have to be repaired.

Also, after long
term use, it would be necessary to drain storage facilities to remove collected sediment.

O&M Needed:
A torn liner would have to be repaired.

Also, after longterm use, it would be necessary to drain storage facilities to remove col
lected sediment.

Instrumentation and Other Ancillary Considerations:
Not applicable.

Instrumentation and Other Ancillay Considerations:
Not applicable.

Ease of Implementation:
The size of the intended water containment basin, thickness (weight), and size of the membrane panels will determine ease of installation.

Membrane panels could weight up to 5000 lb 2.3 MT) and specific gravity ranges from 1. 24 to 1.50 for the various membranes.

Thickness may be selected between 10 mils (0.25 = to 1.52 mm), to 60 mils and panel widths up to 150 ft (48 m)are available.

Ease of Implementation:
The size of the intended water containment basin, thickness (weight), and size of the membrane panels will determine ease of installation.

Membrane panels could weight up to 5000 lb 2.3 MT) and specific gravity ranges from 1. 24 to 1.50 for the various membranes.

Thickness may be selected between 10 mils (0.25 = to 1.52 mm), to 60 mils and panel widths up to 150 Et (48 m)are available.

Cranes, forklifts, flat bed trucks, and frontend loaders can be used to place panel rolls upon the basin embankment from which the accc"rdian folds are unrolled manually and accurately positioned by the installation crew.

Panel sections overlap one another by 2 to 4 in. (51 to 102 unn)
to permit a sealable seam.

The solvent or adhesive can be manually applied or a seam welding dev
ice is used.

Cranes, forklifts, flat bed trucks, and frontend loaders can be used to place panel rolls upon the basin embankment from which the accc"rdian folds are unrolled manually and accurately positioned by the installation crew.

Panel sections overlap one another by 2 to 4 in. (51 to 102 mm) to permit a sealable seam.

The solvent or adhesive can be manually applied or a seam welding dev
ice is used.

A crew of four can install a 20,000 sq ft (1860 m2) liner in less than a day, and a crew of eight to ten can install 1 hectare (2.5 acres) of liner in one day.

All types of membrane sheeting of simlar size and weight have similar ease of installation.

A crew of four can install a 20,000 sq ft (1860 m2) liner in less than a day, and a crew of eight to ten can install 1 hectare (2.5 acres) of liner in one day.

All types of membrane sheeting of simlar size and weight have similar ease of installation.

## 5.7 Water Consumption Planning Factors For Construction 5,7 Water Consumption Planning Factors For Construction 5.7.1 Water Consumption Planning Factors 5.7.1 Water Consumption Planning Factors

Table 5.1 summarizes water consumption for various activites in a hot, arid climate.

Table 5.1 summarizes water consumption for various activites in a hot, arid climate.

## 5.7.2 Assumptions 5.7.2 Assumptions

The following assumptions were used in deriving the water consumption planning factors in Table 5.1.

The following assumptions were used in deriving the water consumption planning factors in Table 5.1.

1.
Road Construction:
1.
Road Construction:
a.
Compaction
a.
Compaction
(1)
Consumption on a 1mi (1.6kin) section of Class A road.
(1)
Consumption on a 1mi (1.6kin) section of Class A road.
(2)
Subbase will be compacted to 6 in. (152 nun).
(2)
Subbase will be compacted to 6 in. (152 mm).
(3)
Best moisture variance between desired and actual moisture content is 2 percent; worst case is 10 percent.

(3)
Best moisture variance between desired and actual moisture content is 2 percent; worst case is 10 percent.

(4)
MaxImum dry density is the desired dry density which is 120 lb/cu ft
(1920 kg/m3).

(4)
Maximum dry density is the desired dry density which is 120 lb/cu ft
(1920 kg/m3).

560

(5)
Construction is to be conducted over level terrain.
(5)
Construction is to be conducted over level terrain.
(6)
Amount listed is for one 6in. (153mm) compaction effort on a 1mi
(1.61cm) road.

(6)
Amount listed is for one 6in. (153mm) compaction effort on a 1mi
(1.61cm) road.

561
Table 5.1

Water ConBumption Activities for
Desert/Arid Cliiuate
Water ConBumption Activities for
Desert/Arid Climate
ACtIVITY
QUANTITY
REMARKS
CTIVIT!
QUANTITY
REMARKS
1.
Road Construction
1.
Road Construction
a.
Compaction
122245 k gal/mile
Nonpotable acceptable
of Class A Road
a.
Compaction
122245 k ga.J./aile
Nonpotable acceptable
of Class
A Road
b.
Soil Stabilization
100850 k gal/ails
Same as
Ia.
of Class A Road
b.
Soil Sabiliz.aUon
100850 k ga.J./ail.
Salie ae la.
of Clase A Road
c.
Bitinous Treatsnt
Baaed on aephalt plant
requirementa.
c.
Bttinous Treatment
Based on asphalt plant
requirements.
d.
Duit Control
845,000 gal/hr/
Same
as la.
.4.1. of Class A
Road
d.
Dust Control
845O00 gal/hr/
Sane as la.
.4.1. of Class A
Road
2.
Airfield Construction
a.
Compaction
151300 k gal/
Same as Ia.
Medium Ut t Support
Area Airfield
(MLSA)
2.
Airfield Construction
.
Compaction
151300 k gall
Saae as la.
M.di
Ut t Support
Area Airfield (MLSA)
b.
Soil Stabilization
140700 k gaII14LSA
Same as Ia.
b.
Soil Stabilization
140700 k gal/lfLSA
Same ae la.
c.
Bituminous Treatment
Same as -Ic.
c.
Bitu.inoue Trsaaent
Sage as -lc.
d.
Dust Control
l050000 gal/hr
Saie as la
MLSA A/F
d.
Dust Control
1,050,000 gal/hr
Same as Ia.
MLSA A/F

## 3. Quarry Operations

3.
Quarry 0p.rstion
a.
Washing/Screening Requirements
a.
Washing/Screen.iztg
Rquireients
(1)
75 TPH Cru8her
23,00047,000 gal/hr
Same as la;
subject to
(reusable)
design specificationa
for clean aggregate.
(1)
75 TPH Crusher
23,00047,000 gal/hr
Same as is; subject to
(reusable)
design specifications
for clean aggregate.
(2)
225 TPR Criaeher
105210 k gal/hr
Sate as 3a.
(reusable)
(2)
225 TPR Crusher
105210 k gal/hr
Same as 3a.
(reusable)
(3)
Dust Control
60 gal/hr
Same as 3a.
(3)
Dust Control
60 gal/hr
Sane as 3a.

Table 5.]. (Cont'd)

ACTIVITY
QUANTITY
REMAUS
ACTIVITY
QUANTITY
REMAUS
4.
Asphalt Plant Operations
4.
Asphalt Plant Oprationa
a.
Plant
1000 gal/hr
Potable
a.
Plant
1000 gal/hr
Potable
b.
3Car asat.r
200 gal/hr
Nonpotabla
b.
3Car Rsat.r
200 gal/hr
Nonpotabls
5
Wail Drilling R.quirsnts
5
Wail
Drilling R.quirsnts
a.
Rotary Drilling
3 ti... the vole
(hydranlic)
of th. bole b.ing
drU.lad.
Noapotable
a.
Rotary Drilling
3 ti... the vole
(hydranlic)
of the bol. being
drU.lad.
Noapo table
b.
CableTool Drilling
4 gal/ft of 6 in. hole
Saltwater may be used.
5
gal/ft of 8 in. hole
b.
CableTool Drilling
4 gal/ft of 6 in. hole
Saltwater aay be used.
5 gal/ft of 8 in. hole
6.
Concrete Construction
60 gal/cubic yard
Potable water preferred.
Nonpotable water uy be
used that i acid/
alkali free and has a
a.in.tau of organic
.at.rLals
Seawater
uy be used, but
strength ii decreased
by 20Z.
6.
Concrete Construction
60 gal/cubic yard
Potable water preferred.
Nonpotable water may be
used that i. acid,
alkali free and has a
ainia of organic
materials
Seawater
may be used, but
strength ii decreased
by 20Z.
7.
Pipeline Testing
7.
Pipeline Testing
a.
6tn. Pip.
16,000 gal/ails
Nonpotable acceptable.
Based on initial line
b.
B-in. Pipe
28,000 gal/mile
test and one complete
flushing of line..
Figure may be reduced
by half if no flushing
is required after testing.
Saltwater may be used,
but must be followed
by a fresh water flushing befor, the syst..
can be operational.
a.
6in. Pip.
16,000 gal/ails
Nonpotable acceptable.
Based on in.itial line
b.
B-in. Pip.
28,000 gal/ails
test and one coaplete
flushing of line..
Figure e.ay be reduced
by half if no flushing
is required after testing.
Saltwater aay be used,
but aust be followed
by a fresh water flushing befor, the yst
can be operational.

563

(7)
Dry compaction will not be performed.
(7)
Dry compaction will not be performed.
(8)
Soil is moisturefree or near moisturefree content.
(8)
Soil is moisturefree or near moisturefree content.
(9)
Range of required moiBture content is 10 to 20 percent.
(9)
Range of required moisture content is 10 to 20 percent.
b.
Soil Stabilization
b.
Soil Stabilization
(1)
When only water is uBed as a stabilizing agent apply factors out
lined in It, above.

(1)
When only water is used as a stabilizing agent apply factors outlined in II, above.

(2)
Bituminous stabilization is treated Beparately (see lc below).

(2)
Bituminous stabilization is treated separately (Bee ic below).

(3)
Amount of water required equals 1/2 percent for each 1 percent of etabilizing agent by weight.

(3)
Amount of water required equals 1/2 percent for each 1 percent of stabilizing agent by weight.

(4)
Consumption based on a 1-mi (l.6km) section of Class A road.
(4)
Consumption based on a 1-mi (1.6km) section of Class A road.
(5)
Amount of stabilizing agent (lie, cement) ranges from 2 percent
(best case) to 16 percent (wort case).

(5)
Amount of stabilizing agent (lime, cement) ranges from 2 percent
(best case) to 16 percent (worst case).

(6)
Density of soil equals 10 lb/cu ft (160 kg/rn3).
(6)
Den8ity of soil equals 10 lb/cu ft (160 kg/rn3).
(7)
Does not include factorB for compacting process.
(7)
Does not Include factors for compacting process.
(8)
Amount listed is for one 6in. (152mm) stabilization effort on a
1mi (1.6kin) road.

(8)
Amount listed is for one 6in. (152mm) stabilization effort on a
1mi (1.6kin) road.

## C. Bituminous Treatment Requirements C. Bituminous Treatment Requirements

(1)
No water required at placement site.
(1)
No water required at placement site.
(2)
Treated as part of the asphalt plant figure.
(2)
Treated as part of the asphalt plant figure.
d.
Dust Control
d.
Duet Control
(1)
Water will provide control for 1 hour.
(1)
Water will provide control for 1 hour.
(2)
Requires 1 gal/sq yd (4.5 1./rn2) (worst cage).
(2)
Requires 1 gal/sq yd (4.5 L/m2) (worst cage).
(3)
Consumption based on 1mi (l.6kiu) section of Claes A road.
(3)
Consumption based on 1mi. (1.6kiu)
section of Clags A road.
(4)
Requires 3 to 5 gal/sq yd (14 to 23 L/m2) due to heat and zero moisture content.

(4)
Requires 3 to 5 gal/sq yd (14 to 23 L/m2) due to heat and zero moisture content.

(5)
If coherex is used in lieu of water, application rate is approxi
ately .33 to .67 gal/sq yd (1.5 to 3.0 L/m2).

Mix one part coherex to one to Beven parts water.

(5)
If coherex is used in lieu of water, application rate is approximately .33 to .67 gal/sq yd (1.5 to 3.0 L/m2).

Mix one part coherex to one to seven parts water.

(6)
Other dust control agents can be used which decrease the amount of water required (penoprime, DCA 1295, etc.).

(6)
Other dust control agents can be used which decrease the amount of water required (penoprime, DCA 1295, etc.).

564
2.

Cons'-.ruction of Airfields:
2.

Conruction of Airfielda:
a.

Compaction:
A8auinption8 are the aame as Road Con8truction (LA) with the exception of width and length, which are based on the criteria for a Medium Lift Support Area Airfield.

Width
60 ft (18.3 m); length
3500 ft a.

Compaction:
Assumptions are the same as Road Construction (LA) with the exception of width and length, which are based on the criteria for a Medium Lift Support Area Airfield.

Width - 60 ft (18.3 m); length
3500 ft
(1070 in). (1070 En).

b.

Soil Stabilization:
A8sumptiona are the same as lb above, with the width and length changes noted In 2a, above.

b.

Soil Stabilization:
A88uption8 are the same a lb above, with the width and length change8 noted in 2a, above.

c.
Bituminous treatment requirements:
Same as Ic, above.
c.
Bituminous treatment requirements:
Same as ic, above.
d.

Dust Control:
Same as id, above, with width and length changes outlined in 2a above.

d.

Dust Control:
SaDie a ld, above, with width and length changes Outlined in 2a above.

## 3. Quarry Operations:

3.

Quarry Operations:

a.
Based on data in FM 101101 and TM 5331C.
a.
Based on data in FM 101101 and TM 5331C.
b.
For dust control, assume 1. gal/mm
(0.06 L/s).
b.
For dust control, assume 1 gal/mm
(0.06 L/s).
4.
Asphalt Plant Operations:
None.
4.
Asphalt Plant Operations:
None.

## S. Well Drilling Requirements: S. Well Drilling Requirement8:

a.

Rotary drilling (hydraulic) data obtained from Well Drilling Manual, National Water Well Association; Water Well Technology, McGrawHill; and Water Well tanual, Premier Pre8s.

Planning figure listed as three times the volume of the hole being drilled.

a.

Rotary drilling (hydraulic) data obtained from Well Drilling Manual, National Water Well Association; Water Well Technology, McGrawHill; and Water Well Manual, Premier Press.

Planning figure listed as three times the volume of the hole being drilled.

b.

Cable tool drilling data based on factors in Well Drilling Manual, National Water Well Association.

b.

Cable tool drilling data based on factora in Well Drilling Manual, National Water Well Association.

c.

Figures do not include loss of water due to seepage froth the settling pit into the soil.

(Settling pits are considered to be lined with a membrane or impervious clay.)
c.

Figure8 do not include loss of water due to seepage from the settling pit into the 8oil.

(Settling pits are con8idered to be lined with a membrane or imperviou8 clay.)
6.

Concrete Construction:
6.

Concrete Construction:
a.

The amount of water required per cubic yard of concrete is dependent on the size of aggregates used, the water cement ratio, type of cement, concrete slump, weather conditions, and curing requirements.

a.

The amount of water required per cubic yard of concrete is dependent on the 8ize of aggregates used, the water cement ratio, type of cement, concrete slump, weather coadition8, and curing requirements.

b.

Water figure include8 only requirements to mix and finish concrete.

Figures do not include cleanup of concrete mixing equipment.

b.

Water figure includes only requirements to mix and finish concrete.

Figures do not include cleanup of concrete mixing equipment.

c.

tncrea8e is due to higher requirements for curing and absorption by aggregates.

c.

Increase is due to higher requirements for curing and absorption by aggregates.

## 7. Pipeline Testing: 7. Pipeline Testing:

a.

Water teBting is required.

(It should be noted that in emergenciea fuel may be used to teat the Bystem.

Bowever, thiB is very dangerous and has many adverse effectB.)
a.

Water testing is required.

(It should be noted that in emergencies fuel may be used to test the system.

Bowever, this is very dangerous and has many adverse effects.)
b.

Planning figureB are baaed on complete filling of the pipeline with water for the test and one complete flushing.

b.

Planning figures are based on. complete filling of the pipeline with water for the test and one complete flushing.

c.

If fresh water is used to check pressure, flushing can be eliminated if necessary.

c.

If fresh water is used to check pressure, flushing can be eliminated if necessary.

d.

If saltwater is used to check pressures one complete flushing of freBh water must follow testing in order to purge saltwater from the line.

d.

If saltwater is u8ed to check pressure, one complete flushing of fresh water must follow testing in order to purge saltwater from the line.

566

## Chapter 6 - Vepjical Construction Chapter 6 - Vepjical Construction 6.1 Introduction 6.1 Introduction

The use of improper building materials, building systems, construction details, or construction techniques in SWA would not only create unnecessary problems for construction workers, but would also adversely affect the working effectiveness or living comfort of the occupants because of inferior or unsatisfactory environments.

This chapter considers climate, efficient use of indigenous materials for building, and appropriate methods of construction.

The use of improper building materials, building systems, construction details, or construction techniques in SWA would not only create unnecessary problems for con8truction workers, but would also adverBely affect the working effectiveness or living comfort of the occupant8 becauBe of inferior or unsa
ti8faCtory environments.

This chapter considers climate, efficient use of indigenous materials for building, and appropriate methods of con8truction.

The Middle East covers a wide variety of geographic, climatic, and cultural regions.

It is important to point out that within this region there are temperate and cool to cold areas, although the major emphasis of this report is on building in the hot climates of the Middle East.

The Middle East covers a wide variety of geographic, climatic, and cultural regions.

It is important to point out that within this region there are temperate and cool to cold areas, although the major emphasis of this report is on building in the hot climates of the Middle Eaat.

The scenario to which this chapter tesponds covers an operational time period of from 0 to 12 months.

This overlaps two military standards of construction:
JCS Publication 3 initial construction (0 to 6 months) and JCS
Publication 3 temporary construction (6 to 24 months).

Current planning doctrine specifies that during the initial 6 months of an operation, troops and equipment will be housed primarily in TOE tents (may be some wood frames). However, doctrine also states that the period exceeding the initial 6 months should provide more permanent structures which exploit the indigenous methods and materials wherever and whenever possible.

Therefore, this chapter will cover a period from 6 to 12 months, and will identify indigenous materials, materials growing or produced in a region or country, and the corresponding methods of construction in order to provide less expensive, habitable, and feasible building in an otherwise austere building environment.

The scenario to which this chapter tesponds covers an operational time period of from 0 to 12 months.

This overlaps two military standards of construction:
JCS Publication 3 initial construction (0 to 6 months) and JCS
Publication 3 temporary construction (6 to 24 months).

Current planning doctrine specifies that during the initial 6 months of an operation, troops and equipment will be housed primarily in TOE tents (may be some wood frames). However, doctrine also states that the period exceeding the initial 6 months should provide more permanent structures which exploit the indigenous methods and materials wherever and whenever possible.

Therefore, this chapter will cover a period from 6 to 12 months, and will identify indigenous materials, materials growing or produced in a region or country, and the corresponding methods of construction in order to provide less expensive, habitable, and feasible building in an otherwise austere building environment.

## 6.2 Improving Habitability 6.2 Improving Habitability 6.2.1 General 6.2.1 General

Because of the austere conditions. for constructing and operating a building in the desert, standard and exotic methods of heating and cooling are not possible.

Th18 means that any method requiring electricity viii not be seriously considered.

Evaporative cooling, which will be discussed, should only be used when there is a plentiful water supply that is easily transportable and does not present a health hazard.

Electricity or water should only be used when the buildings are normally unbearable to live in because of the heat.

Many steps can be taken to moderate the effects of the desert.

The guidelines discussed below should be expanded upon in the field by taking advantage of soldiers' own imaginative solutions to problems and by copying successful practices of the natives.

Because of the austere conditions. for
- constiucting and operating a building in the desert, standard and exotic methods of heating and cooling are not possible.

This means that any method requiring electricity will not be seriously considered.

Evaporative cooling, which will be discussed, shou1d only be used when there is a plentiful water supply that is easily transportable and does not present a health hazard.

Electricity or water should only be used when the buildings are normally unbearable to live in because of the heat.

Many steps can be taken to moderate the effects of the desert.

The guidelines discuceed below should be expanded upon in the field by taking advantage of soldiers' own imaginative solutions to problems and by copying successful practices of the natives.

In the desert, a building must provide protection from the sun for the people and equipment, shield them from blowing sand, and hopefully provide some rr.lief from the high temperatures.

Because the climate is so important, it will be discussed first.

The factors affecting whether a person is comfortable will be examined next to see how to take advantage of the desert's extreme conditions.

Techniques for passively cooling buildings will then be In the desert, a building mu8t provide protection from the sun for the people and equipment, shield them from blowing sand, and hopefully provide some rr.lief from the high temperatures.

Because the climate is so important, it will be discussed first.

The factors affecting whether a person is com
fortabJe will be examined next to see how to take advantage of the desert'8
extreme conditions.

Techniques for passively cooling buildings will then be di8cussed.

A brief description of nonaustere mechanical systems will be given next.

Finally, the main points will be summarized.

discussed.

A brief description of nonaustere mechanical systems will be given next.

Finally, the main points will be summarized.

## 6.2.2 Effect Of Climate 6.2.2 Effect Of Climate

Although the Middle East climate can range from cold, to very hot, only the hot regions will be considered.

Temperatures can rise above 109F (43C).

While the region is arid and generally hag low humidity, Borne coastal regions have high humidity levels.

A map of world climate zones, shown in Chapter 1, gives three climate categories covering the Middle East:
hot, dry desert;
intermediate hot dry desert; and humid, hot coastal desert.

Although the Middle East climate can range from cold, to very hot, only the hot regions will be considered.

Temperatures can rise above 109F (43C).

While the region is arid and generally has low humidity, some coastal regions have high humidity levels.

A map of world climate zones, shown in Chapter 1, gives three climate categories covering the Middle East:
hot, dry desert;
intermediate hot dry desert; and humid, hot coastal desert.

The amount of humidity has a large effect on night temperatures.*
In low humidity areas, the night temperatures can fall to 59F (15C).

This wide daytonight temperature swing helps offset the high temperatures during the day.

Areas with high humidity have much lower daytonight temperature swings.

Unfortunately, this limits the number of ways to moderate the day temperature.

The amount of humidity has a large effect on night temperatures.*
In low humidity areas, the night temperatures can fall to 59F (15C).

This wide dayto--night temperature swing helps offget the high temperatures during the day.

Areas with high humidity have much lower daytonight temperature swings.

Unfortunately, this limits the number of ways to moderate the day temperature.

The sun is at a very high angle because of the low latitudes.

Consequently, the roof of a structure will receive most of the solar radiation.

Also, a northsouth building axis receives more solar gaiQ than a istwest building axis (Figure 6.1).

The sun is at a very high angle because of the low latitudes.

Consequently, the roof of a structure will receive most of the solar radiation.

Also, a northsouth building axis receives more solar gain than a istwest building axis (Figure 6.1).

## 6.2.3 Thermal. Comfort 6.2.3 Thermal. Comfort

Many factors affect whether a person feels thermal comfort.

Air temperature is the most familiar; however, there are other factors:
air velocity, relative humidity, interaction by radiation heat transfer with the surround lags (from the sun, outdoors, or building walls), and the conditions one is used to.

To understand the goals of some of the passive building designs, it is necessary to know how each of these factors influences comfort.

Many factors affect whether a person feels thermal comfort.

Air tempera
ture is the most familiar; however, there are other factors:
air velocity, relative humidity, interaction by radiation heat transfer with the surroundings (from the sun, outdoors, or building walls), and the conditions one is used to.

To understand the goals of some of the passive building designs, it is necessary to know hoi each of these factors influences comfort.

Each factor's effect will be covered only briefly here since the subject is so complex.

The air temperature indicates how much heat will be transferred by convection from a human body to the air surrounding it.

The relative humidity is a measure of how much water. vapor the air holds tQ. how much it could possibly hold at the same temperature and pressure.

The lower the humidity, the easier it is for the body to cool itself by sweating.

Higher air velocities around the body Increase the heat transfer by convection between the air and body, and thus the cooling which occurs with sweating.

An often overlooked factor affecting comfort indoors is the wall temperature.

Our bodies exchange heat by radiation with the walls, floor, and ceiling.

If the walls are cool, a person may be significantly cooler in hot air than if the wall and air are hot.

Obviously, being in direct sunlight can greatly influence how hot one feels.

Conversely, a person who is outdoots on a hot clear night can feel the cooling effect of the cold night sky.

Finally, people can adjust to hot climates that they at first think almost unbearable.

The body can quickly (In a matter of days) acclimate itself to a hot environment.

(See Chapt.r 9.)
Each factor's effect will be covered only briefly here since the subject is so complex.

The air temperature indicates how much heat will be transferred by convection from a human body to the air surrounding it.

The relative humidity is a measure of how much water, vapor the air holds tQ. how much it could possibly hold at the same temperature and pressure.

The lower the humidity, the easier it is for the body to cool itself by sweating.

Higher air velocities around the body increase the heat transfer by convection between the air and body, and thus the cooling which occurs with sweating.

An often overlooked factor affecting comfort indoors is the wall temperature.

Our bodies exchange heat by radiation with the walls, floor, and ceiling.

If the walls are cool, a person may be significantly cooler in hot air than if the ial1 and air are hot.

Obviously, being in direct sunlight can greatly influence how hot one feels.

Conversely, a person who is outdoots on a hot clear night can feel the cooling effect of the cold night sky.

Finally, people can adjust to hot climates that they at first think almost unbearable.

The body can quickly (in a matter of days) acclimate itself to a hot environ
tnent.

(See Chapt.r 9.)

* B.
Givoni, Desert Housing and Energy Conservation (Ben Gurion, University of
the Negev).
* B.
Givoni, Desert Housing and Energy Conservation (Ben Gurion, University of
the Negev).
62
Ordinarily, a major goal of building design is to provide a comfortable environment for the inhabitants.

Under austere desert conditions, this may not be a realistic goal; instead, austere buildings must be designed to be at least livable.

Nevertheless) the more comfortable people are, the more efficIently they will wark and the less they will need to drink water because they are not sweating as much.

Each of the factors affecting comfort can be adjusted to provide a livable, if not comfortable, building.

Desert winds and dust storms create an unbearable living environment for building occupants and also may cause problems for some structural components unless precautionary steps are taken during construction.

In windy areas, the foundations must be built deep enough to prevent erosion around the corners of the foundation system.

Exterior doors and windows should be sealed as much a possible, although no attempt should be made under normal service conditions to erect a sandtight building.

Several methods for reducing dust infiltration are as follows:

1.
Use nonoperable window.
1.
Use nonoperable window.
2.
Use inertial dust separator.
2.
Use inertial dust separator.
3.
Use air filters.
3.
Use air filters.
4.
Use positive building interior pressure.
4.
Use positive building interior pressure.
5.
Use high air intake louvers.
5.
Use high air intake louvers.
Also, roofing material must be doubly faBtened and cooling systems attached securely to the supporting structure with additional fasteners.

Also, roofing material must be doubly fastened and cooling systems attached securely to the supporting structure with additional fasteners.

Electrical equipment's performance can be drastically reduced by excessively high temperature.

If the temperature is high enough, the machine may not work.

in general, the cooling principles that apply to humans can be applied to machines.

Electrical equipment's performance can be drastically reduced by exces
sively high temperature.

If the temperature is high enough, the machine may not work.

In general, the cooling principles that apply to humans can be applied to machines.

## 6.2.4 Coo'Ing &Ildings 6.2.4 Coo'Ing &Ildings

The purpose of any cooling system is to moderate the extreme desert heat so the inhabitants can be comfortable.

Conventional cooling sysLe:.s are not practical in austere desert conditions; however, other steps can be taken, as discussed below.

The purpose of any cooling system is to moderate the extreme desert heat so the inhabitants can be comfortable.

Conventional cooling sysLe:.s are not practical in austere desert conditions; however, other steps can be taken, as discussed below.

A person's primary shelter against the environment is his clothing.

For the desert., clothing should reflect the sunlight as much as possible and allow the body to cool by evaporating sweat.

A person's primary shelter against the environment is his clothing.

For the desert., clothing should reflect the sunlight as much as possible and allow the body to cool by evaporating sweat.

The heat sinks of electric equipment should be shielded from the sun, have a high emissivity to radiate heat1 and have an air flow over them to convect the heat away.

The heat sinks of electric equipment should be shielded from the sun, have a high emissivity to radiate heat, and have an air flow over them to convect the heat away.

The following passive cooling techniques take advantage of or neutralize the desert conditions:
The following passive cooling technique9 take advantage of or neutralize the desert conditions:
.1.

Reduce solar gain by using exterior paints that..are very.re.fle.c
tive  especially for the roof.

.1.

Reduce solar gain by using exterior paints that.are very reflective  especially for the roof.

2.

Orient the building 80 it has an eastwest axis (Figure 6.1) to minimize the solar gain.

In general1 only design windows when they are necessary for adequate ventilation or daylighting.

2.

Orient the building 80 it has an eastwest axis (Figure 6.1) to minimize the solar gain.

In general, only design windows when they are necessary for adequate ventilation or daylighting.

3.

Use overhangs or shutters to block sunlight from falling directly on the windows or the walls.

Shading separate from the building can be used for the same effect, but it should not hinder ventilation.

Movable shades and shutters may be used to maximize ventilation and minimize solar gain.

3.

Use overhangs or shutters to block sunlight from falling directly on the windows or the walls.

Shading separate from the building can be used for the same effect, but it should not hinder ventilation.

Movable shades and shutters may be used to maximize ventilation and minimize solar gain.

4.

In order to reduce convective heating, minimize the exterior surface area by having as square a building as possible.

4.

In order to reduce convective heating, minimize the exterior surface area by having as square a building as possible.

5.

Use thick, dense walls and roof to insulate against the hot exterior air and so that the interior surface temperature will be slow to rise
5.

Use thick, dense walls and roof to insulate against the hot exterior air and so that the interior surface temperature will be slow to rise
64
during the of the day.

ThiB will be a cooling effect Bince comfort i8
affected by idiant interchange with the surroundings.

during the h-. of the day.

ThIS will be a cooling effect since comfort 18
affected by idiant interchange with the surroundings.

6.

Place additional lightweight insulation on the exterior of the thick, dense walls so they will be even slower to heat up.

6.

Place additional lightweight insulation on the exterior of the thick, dense walls so they will be even slower to heat up.

7.

Bury the building partially or completely underground since the ground does not get as hot as the air and all that is exposed to the 8un is the roof.

7.

Bury the building partially or completely underground since the ground does not get as hot as the air and all that is exposed to the sun is the roof.

8.

Ventilate the building.

In a lowhumidity region with large swings between day and night air temperature, the ventilation should be as high as possible at night so the interior walls can be cooled down to keep everyone comfortable the next day.

During the day, the ventilation should be as low as possible (doors and windows closed and any air leaks blocked) so that the hot air will not get in and raise the temperature of the interior surfaces.

In highhumidity regions with little change between day and night air temperatures, the interior surface temperatures will not drop very much during the night, so there will be little relief from the heat during the day. Consequently, there should always be ventilation so that the effects of sweating can be enhanced by increased air speed around the body.

There is an optimum air speed for cooling by sweating; a higher speed will increase the convective heating, and a lower speed will reduce the effect of the sweating compared to the convective heating.

Orient openings to take advantage of the usual direction of the wind.

(Normally the wind is from the northwest or southeast.)
8.

Ventilate the building.

In a lowhwnidity region with large swings between day and night air temperature, the ventilation should be as high as possible at night so the interior walls can be cooled down to keep everyone comfortable the next day.

During the day, the ventilation should be as low as possible (doors and windows closed and any air leaks blocked) so that the hot air will not get in and raise the temperature of the interior surfaces.

In highhumidity regions with little change between day and night air temperatures, the interior surface temperatures will not drop very azuch during the night, so there will be little relief from the heat during the day.

Consequently, there should always be ventilation so that the effects of sweating can be enhanced by increased air speed around the body.

There is at optimum air speed for cooling by sweating; a higher speed will increase the convective heating, and a lower speed will reduce the effect of the 8weating compared to the convective heating.

Orient openings to take advantage of the usual direction of the wind.

(Normally the wind is from the northwest or southeast.)
9.

The most effective height of windows to ventilate for human comfort ranges from 18 to 60 in. (0.46 to 1.52 tn) above the floor.

In barracks, It is advisable to keep the sill at the height of the beds to insure an adequate airflow around this area.

When higher windows are required, they should be horizontally pivoted so that the window panel deflects the airflow down into the space.

9.

The most effective height of windows to ventilate for human comfort ranges from 18 to 60 in. (0.46 to 1.52 tn) above the floor.

In barracks, It is advisable to keep the sill at the height of the beds to insure an adequate airflow around this area.

When higher windows are required, they should be horizontally pivoted so that the window panel deflects the airflow down into the space.

10.

MInimize use of interior walls because they limit the air flow when windows are opened.

Where needed, Interior walls should be lightweight and light In color.

10.

Minimize use of interior walls because they limit the air flow when windows are opened.

Where needed, interior walls should be lightweight nd light In color.

11.

Whenever possible, use ongrade concrete slabs for a foundation to take advantage of the earth's insulating qualities.

11.

Whenever possible, use ongrade concrete slabs for a foundation to take advantage of the earth's insulating qualities.

12.

Avoid raised foundations, whether of the point or perimeter type.

Unless the floors are properly insulated, they will be exposed to the high diurnal temperature variations.

12.

Avoid raised foundations, whether of the point or perimeter type.

Unless the floors are properly insulated, they will be exposed to the high diurnal temperature variations.

13.

Use properly insulated lightweight wall and roof systems to prevent intolerable amounts of heat from being transmitted into the building.

13.

Use properly insulated lightweight wall and roof systems to prevent intolerable amounts of heat from being transmitted into the building.

14.

External wall surfaces should be a light, nonglaring reflective color or should be painted in light, nonglaring colors to reflect solar radiation.

14.

External wall surfaces should be a light, nonglaring reflective color or should be painted in light, nonglaring colors to reflect.solar radiation.

Some cooling techniques require manual labor.

These activities can usually be done before sunup and after sundown.

Sone cooling techniques require manual labor.

These activities can usually be done before sunup and after sundown.

1.

Brush clean the exterior surface of the walls and roof so that the sand film that may form on them does not change their solar reflective properties.

1.

Brush clean the exterior surface of the walls and roof so that the sand film that may form on them does not change their solar reflective properties.

2.

Add extra insulation to the building exterior during the day and remove it during the night.

2.

Add extra insulation to the building exterior during the day and remove it during the night.

3.

Ventilate the building by opening doors and windowB when the outside air temperature is lower than the temperature inside the building.

3.

Ventilate the building by opening doors and windows when the outside air temperature is lover than the temperature inside the building.

4.

Sleep outside if the building ia too hot (probably in humid regions), preferably under moaquito netting.

4.

Sleep outside if the building is too hot (probably in humid regions), preferably under mosquito netting.

5.

Observe the techniques natives use to stay cool.

5.

Observe the techniques natives use to stay cool.

## 6.2.5 Habitability Of Prefabricated Tenrporary Buildings Without Mechanical Cooling 6.2.5 Habitabiut Of Prefabricated Tenrporary Bw, Ldingb Without Meanica? Cooling

A study was made to deternine whether temporary trailerlike, lightweight buildings without air conditioning would be habitbie, or could be made habitable, during emergencies in hot desert environments.

The study was made using the Buildings Loads Analysis and System Thermodynamics (BLAST). program.*
The BLAST computer program is a detailed simulation procedure which calculates hourly heating or cooling loads, or hourly room temperatures in the absence of heating or cooling equipments based on a detailed description of the building and on actual climate data.

The climates simulated were a hotwet climate and a hotdry climate typical of the Middle East climate extremes.

An office and two different dormitory cotfigurations were simulated.

A study was made to determine whether temporary, trailerlike, lightweight buildings without air conditioning would be habitable, or could be made habitable, during emergencies in hot desert environments.

The study was made using the Buildings Loads Analysis and System Thermodynamics (BLAST). prograin.*
The BLAST computer program is a detailed simulation procedure which calculates hourly heating or cooling loads, or hourly room temperatures in the absence of heating or cooling equipment, based on a detailed description of the building and on actual climate data.

The climates simulated were a hotwet climate and a hotdry climate typical of the Middle East climate extremes.

An office and two different dormitory configurations were simulated.

The baseline buildings as well as retrofit options were simulated to determine if improvements in habitability and comfort could be achieved by such techniques as adding mass to roof and walls controlling ventilations adding shading, reducing window areas etc.

The results are summarized in Table 6.1.

The results indicated that with temperatures ranging from 111F
(44C) during the day to 87F (31C) at night for 1 percent design day (e.g.

in Dhahran) it proved impossible to maintain the mean air temperature in the buildings to within the limits of human physiological comfort as defined by he ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (Figure 6.2).**
The baseline buildings as well as retrofit options were simulated to determine if improvements in habitability and comfort could be achieved by such techniques as adding mass to roof and walls, controlling ventilation, adding shading, reducing window area, etc.

The results are summarized in Table 6.1.

The results indicated that with temperatures ranging from 111F
(44C) during the day to 87F (31C) at night for 1 percent design day (e.g., in Dhahran), it proved impossible to maintain the mean air temperature in the buildings to within the limits of human physiological comfort as defined by he ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (Figure 6.2).**
Even the fully retrofitted office (option from Table 6.1) modeled still reached 93F (34C) during the 5 percent design day in the hotdry desert regions.

This showed that the prefabricated buildings studied can be extremely uninhabitable if mechanical cooling cannot be provided.

Even the fully retrofitted office (option from Table 6.1) modeled still reached 93F (34C) during the 5 percent design day in the hotdry desert regions.

This showed that the prefabricated buildings studied can be extremely uninhabitable if mechanical cooling cannot be provided.

* 0.
C. Hittle, The Building Loads Analysis System Thermodynamics (BLAST)
gram, Version 2.0:
Users Manual, Volume I, Technical Report E153/ADA072272
(U.S. Army Construction Engineering Laboratory [CERL), 1979).
**AS}4pJ..E Handbook 1977 Fundamentals (American Society of Heating, Ref rigera
tion, and Air Conditioning Engineers [ASHRAE), 1977), pp 8.19.18.
* 0. C. Hittle The Building Loads Analysis System Thermodynamics (BLAST)
gram, Version 2.0:
Users Manual, Volume I, Technical Report E153/ADA072272
(U.S. Army Construction Engineering Laboratory [CERLJ 1979).
**A5Hp.E Handbook 1977 Fundamentals (Mnerican Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE) 1977), pp 8.19.18.
66

HotDry Region (Riyadh)
HotWet Rseii (Dhahr.n)
Low
Temp
lime
Low
Temp
Time
Time
Option
(OF)
(Hra)
Time
(Hrs)
High
Te.p
Relative
!!1 Hidity*s
High
Temp
Relative
!1
HumidityC*
05
37
15
79.0
1 percent design diy*
Outdoor
dry bulb temp
Os
01
38
16
83.7
49
17
80.7
3
52
17
80.4
07
05
05 05
4
111.0
t09 .6
100.9
99.4
97.9
03
05 05
24
15
78.0
23
16
82.7
32
17
79.7
33
17
79.5
36
17
79.7
110.0
108.6
100.0
99.0
96.8
55
17
80.8
5 percent design dayS Outdoor dry bulb temp
108.0
P
15
76.0
05
106.0
26
15
74.0
05
78.8
07
15.4
05
75.9
05
106.6
38
16
80.7
07
104.6
27
16
98.1
50
17
77.1
05
96.5
34
96.6
53
17
77.h
05
95.3
35
11
95.5
55
16
77.8
05
94.3
36
16

The high teIaperaLre of the design deyia only eaceeded! percent end

I percent and 5 percent design day:
5 percent of the year.

-
** The relative humidity La determined using a Peyhro.retric chart and issuming that the epeclflc humidity is the same indoors and outside.

The actual relt1ve humidity would probably be considerably higher due to the moleture added to the building from human perSpiration.

## All Surfaces Have A Reflective Ating

Ij

## 6.2.6 Cooling Systems

If base camps are built up enough that austere requirements aan be relaxed, several methods can cool effectively.

6.2.6
Cooling Systems If base camps are built up enough that austere requirements can be relaxed, several methods can cool effectively.

Evaporative cooling requires a plentiful supply of water and works well in lowhumidity regions.

The hot, dry aIr is cooled by vaporizing water.

To provide cooling, air must be moved through the building either by fans
(requires electricity) or naturally.

Evaporative cooling requires a plentifpl supply of water and works wellS
in lowhumidity regions.

The hot, dry air is cooled by vaporizing watEr.

To provide cooling, air must be moved through the building either by fans
(requires electricity) or naturally.

Since the water normally found in desert regions has high alkali content, the water that will be used for evaporative cooling should be treated if required.

An evaporative cooler must not be used where water is at a premium.

However, since evaporative cooling units are economical, they should be used as much as possible in hot, dry regions if water is available.

Since the water normally found in desert regions has high alkali content, the water that will be used for evaporative cooling should be treated if required.

An evaporative cooler must not be used where water is at a premium.

However, since evaporative cooling units are economical, they should be used s much as possible in hot, dry regions if water is available.

A traditional method of evaporative cooling can be used, as shown in Figure 6.3.

This is a chimneytype structure with an opening designed to catch the prevailing dry winds, which are funnelled down a shaft in which a large porous pot full of water is suspended.

The water in the porous pot slowly drips to a grid on which charcoal has been spread.

The air passing over the porous pot and the charcoal absorbs the water vapor, and cooling takes place by evaporation.

Both the air introduced into the interior spaces of the building and the water in the pot are cooled.

A traditional method of evaporative cooling can be used, as shown in Figure 6.3.

This is a chimneytype structure with an opening designed to catch the prevailing dry winds, which are funnelled down a shaft in which a large porous pot full of water is suspended.

The water in the porous pot slowly drips to a grid on which charcoal has been spread.

The air passing over the porous pot and the charcoal absorbs the water vapor, and cooling takes place by evaporation.

Both the air introduced into the interior spaces of the building and the water in the pot are cooled.

68
Roof water ponds require a plentiful supply of water and a very strong roof.

A pond of water on the roof is covered during the day to minimize heat gain and then uncovered at night to maximize cooling by the cold air, night sky, and vaporization of the water.

Conventional window air conditioners require electricity but are easily installed.

## .2.7 H'Eting

When the desert gets cold, personnel can wear warmer clothing.

The passive cooling techniques can be reversed to have passive heating (e.g., ventilate during the day and not at night to keep the interior surface temperatures at a comfortable level).

If fuel is not in short supply, fuelburning heaters can be used.

## 6.3 Indigenous Building Methods And Materials 6.3.1 General

The limited range of materials for building in the Middle East is conmion knowledge; the area is primarily desert and inaccessible mountain ranges; vegetation is sparse, and mineral resources are difficult and expensive to exploit.

Indigenous building technology is based largely on stone, clay soils, and a limited supply of wood.

National development, financed by oil and gas revenues, is forcing the growth of local building materials industries, but it will be years before steel, cement, and other primary structural materials will meet regional building needs.

Primary and secondary materials will need to be brought in for the foreseeable future, and thus will remain available mainly on a warehouse basis  in the ports and centers of trade, and at the sites of development.

and gas revenues, is forcing the growth of local building materials industries, but it will be years before steel, cement1, and other primary structural materials will meet regional building needa.

Primary and secondary materials will need to be brought in for the foreseeable future, and thus will remain available mainly on a warehouse basis  in the ports and centers of trade, and at the Bites of development.

Designers of buildings which utilize materials and methods indigenous to the region will be faced not only with a limited choice of materials, but also by the problem of limited lengths and sizes in specific categories.

In such cases, it may be necessary to overdesign in order to utilize available inateri
ale, or otherwise adapt to the local aupply situation.

Designers of buildings which utilize materials and methods indigenous to the region will be faced not only with a limited choice of materials, but also by the problem of limited lengths and izes in specific categories.

In such cases, it may be necessary to overdesign in order to utilize available inateri
als, or otherwise adapt to the local Bupply situation.

Climatic and environmental considerations will also affect design developnent.

Options for building design, for example1, include the possibility of burying below the ground surface  a traditional desert technique that has been used for centuries to combat heat gain through walls.

It can be demonstrated that burying a building will influence design of the superstructure in various ways:
walls can be reduced in height, or eliminated; traditional heavy mud roofs can be constructed more easily when the superstructure is lowered (thus increasing local material options); roof sizes can be reduced since wall shading requirements are reduced or eliminated, and opportunities for using short pieces of material are increased.

Climatic end environmental considerations will also affect design development.

Options for building design, for example, include the possibility of burying below the ground surface  a traditional desert technique that has been used for centuries to combat heat gain through walls.

It can be demonstrated that burying a building will influence design of the superstructure in various ways:
walls can be reduced in height or eliminated; traditional heavy mud roofs can be constructed more easily when the superstructure is lowered (thus increasing local material options); roof sizes can be reduced since wall shading requirements are reduced or eliminated, and opportunities for using short pieces of material are increased.

Corrosive soils containing sulfate and chloride are abundant in the region.

Do not use galvanized steel in contact with ground in a corrosive area.

Only zinccoated, vinylcovered steel should be used in such areas.

Also do not use uncoated galvanized steel or aluminum in exterior applications within 5 miles of seawater or it will quickly corrode.

Corrosive soils containing sulfate and chloride are abundant in the region.

Do not use galvanized steel in contact with ground in a corrosive area.

Only zinccoated, vinylcovered steel should be used in such areas.

Also do not use uncoated galvanized steel or aluminum in exterior applications within 5 miles of seawater or it will quickly corrode.

Conventional methods of using materials sich as wood and steel, which are common knowledge among Western designers and builders, have not been considered in this chapter.

Rather, this study has attempted to look for ways in which traditional local materials can be retained for their proveti merits, and for opportunities to improve methods and make them easier to use by applying principles of materials science and technology.

Conventional methods of using material8 such as wood and steel, which are common knowledge among Western designers and builders, have not been considered in this chapter.

Rather, this study has attempted to look, for ways in which traditional local materials can be retained for their proven merits, and for opportunities to improve methods and make them easier to use by applying principles of materials science and technology.

## 6.3.2 Concrete Systems 6.3.2 Concrete Systems 6.3.2.1 General: 6.3.2.1 General:

Concrete production in the Middle East has been difficult) at best, for many decades.

The four major problem areas are:
(1) inferior materials, (2)
lack of production capabilities, (3) environment1, and (4) unskilled and untrained labor forces.

Reports of rapid deterioration and, in some instances1, total failure of concrete structures built in the Middle East are appearing with greater frequency in engineering and construction journals.

Concrete production in the Middle East has been difficult, at best, for many decades.

The four major problem areas are:
(1) inferior materials, (2)
lack of production capabilities, (3) environment, and (4) unskilled and untrained labor forces.

Reports of rapid deterioration and, in some instances, total failure of concrete structures built in the Middle East are appearing with greater frequency in engineering and construction journals.

The principal villains are the poor construction materials and the harsh environment.

The general absence of both fine and coarse goodquality aggregates, which make up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable quantities of potable water for concreting operations will present a real challenge to troop construction.

The very high temperatures and strong prevailing winds associated with the area will compound the problem.

The principal villains are the poor construction materials and the harsh environment.

The general absence of both fine and coarse goodquality aggregates, which make up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable quantities of potable water for concreting operations will present a real challenge to troop construction.

The very high temperatures and strong prevailing winds associated with the area will compound the problem.

Nonetheless, concrete is made and used daily in the area; this indicates that with proper tr&ning and planning, troops also could produce it.

Nonetheless1, concrete is aiade and used daily in the area; this indicates that with proper traning and planning, troops also could produce it.

The Engineer support associated with the size of the operation being considered in this report will not have the production equipaient nor expertise needed to make anything more than occasional batche8 of concrete.

Once made1, transportation of the concrete will be difficult due to limited vehicular support and lack of suitable 8urfaces over which to transport it.

The Engineer support associated with the size of the operation being considered in this report will not have the production equipment nor expertise needed to make anything more than occasional batches of concrete.

Once made1, transportation of the concrete will be difficult due to limited vehicular support and lack of suitable surfaces over which to transport it.

The following paragraphs describe the anticipated problems or areas of need for most aBpects of concrete materials and concrete production.

The aggregate problem will be difficult to solve, and does vary depending on site location.

The following paragraphs describe the anticipated problems or areas of need for most aspects of concrete materials and concrete production.

The aggregate problem will be difficult to solve, and does vary depending on site location.

## 6.3.2.2 Portland Cement Concrete Production: 6.3.2.2 Portland Cement Concrete Production:

1.

Portland cement.

Although there is some local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Many countries ship cement into the region.

In general, there will be no control over what is received and its quality.

If possible, sulfateresistant (Type V) and lowheat cements
(Type IV) should be used.

1.

Portland cement.

Although there i8 8ome local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Many countries ship cement into the region.

In getieraL1, there will be no control over what is received and its quality.

If possible1, sulfateresistant (Type V) and lowheat cements
(Type IV) should be used.

2.

Aggregates.

Natural sands are usually abundant, but their gradings are generally poor, and they are frequently contaminated by deleterious salts.

Typical grading curves and bands of aggregate8 in de8ert areas are provided in Figures 7.2 through 7.6.

Rock outcrops may be friable and porous, and conta
mated with deleterious salts.

These problems, in combination with extreaiely hot weather, are of aiajor concern for concrete construction.

2.

Aggregates.

Natural sands are usually abundant, but their gradings are generally poor, and they are frequently contaminated by deleterious salts. Typical grading curves and bands of aggregates in desert areas are provided in Figures 7.2 through 7.6.

Rock outcrops may be friable and porous, and contaminated with deleterious salts.

These problems, in combination with extremely hot weather, are of major concern for concrete construction.

3.

Water.

The entire concrete operation uses large quantities of water1, beginning with the processing and washing of aggregates, through mixing1, curing1, and equipment cleanup.

In most steps, it is usually reconimended that the water be potable; however, exceptions can be made1, especially for the temporary construction.

Water to be used for aiixing mortar8 or concretes must not contain dissolved substances that affect the setting tiaie unduly or retard the hardening.

In general, the only iaipurities in natural water that are
1ik1y to be objectionable are dissolved salts; the permissible limits for are quite wide.

3.

Water.

The entire concrete operation uses large quantities of water, beginning with the processing and washing of aggregates, through mixing, curing, and equipment cleanup.

In most steps, it is usually recommended that the water be potable; however, exceptions can be made, especially for the temporary construction.

Water to be used for mixing mortars or concretes must not contain dissolved substances that affect the setting time unduly or retard the hardening.

In general, the only impurities in natural water that are likely to be objectionable are dissolved salts; the permissible limits for are quite wide.

Seawater or brackish water has been used for mixing concrete in many areas where potable water is difficult to obtain.

It haB been noted that seawater with a maximum concentration of salts on the order of 3.5 percent doe8
not appreciably reduce the strength of concrete, although it may lead to cor
ro8ion of reinforcement.

At salt concentrations beyond that1, a 8trength reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected.

This reduction in strength may be corrected by using somewhat leBs mixing water and somewhat more cement.

Mo8t engineers believe that seawater BhOuld not be used for mixing reinforced concrete; however1, after 4 years1, no problems were reported when coral aggregate and seawater were used in aiilitary base construction in Bermuda.

Therefore, seawater i5 acceptable for use in Portland cement concrete construction for temporary facilities.

Seawater or brackish water has been used for mixing concrete in many areas where potable water is difficult to obtain.

It has been noted that seawater with a maximum concentration of salts on the order of 3.5 percent does not appreciably reduce the strength of concrete, although it may lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

At salt concentrations beyond that, a strength reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected.

This reduction in strength may be corrected by using somewhat less mixing water and somewhat more cement.

Most engineers believe that seawater should not be used for mixing reinforced concrete; however, after 4 years, no problems were reported when coral aggregate and seawater were used in military base construction in Bermuda.

Therefore, seawater is acceptable for use in Portland cement concrete construction for temporary facilities.

If the quality and thickness of the concrete cover are inadequate, brack
ish water or seawater, when used as mixing water1, may create conditions that If the quality and thickness of the concrete cover are inadequate, brack
ish water or seawater, when used as mixing water, may create conditions that aggravate reinforcing steel corrosion.

Saline mixing water tends to cause dampness and surface efflorescence in the hardened concrete and should not be used where surface finish is important, or where the mortar or concrete is to be covered with plastic or any decorative finish.

It should also be noted that saline water must never be used for mixing high alumina cement since it baa an adverse effect on the strength.

aggravate reinforcing steel corrosion.

Saline mixing water tends to cause dampness and surface efflorescence in the hardened concrete, and should not be used where surface finish is important, or where the mortar or eoncrete is to be covered with plastic or any decorative finish.

It should also be noted that saline water must never be used for mixing high alumina cement since it has an adverse effect on the strength.

Organic impurities in water may retard setting and hardening of cement;
however, these impurities do not usually occur to an objectionable extent, except in artificially contaminated water8.

It is improbable that a water used for curing would attack concrete if it were the type suitable for mixing water.

Staining or discoloration of the concrete by curing waters should be the principal curing water problem.

Provisions should be made to retain and recycle all water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation (see Chapter 5).

Organic impurities in water may retard setting and hardening of cement;
however, these impurities do not usually occur to an objectionable extent, except in artificially contaminated waters.

It is improbable that a water used for curing would attack concrete if it were the type suitable for mixing water.

Staining or discoloration of the concrete by curing waters should be the principal curing water problem.

Provisions should be made to retain and recycle all water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation (see Chapter 5).

Facilities for water storage at the site of the aggregate and/or concrete product.ion must be provided.

The mixing water storage should also -include provisions for water cooling to help the problem of temperature developmentin fresh and new concrete.

Facilities for water storage at the site of the aggregate and/or concrete production must be provided.

The mixing water storage should also -include provisions for water cooling to help the problem of temperature development in fresh and new concrete.

4.

Admixtures.

There is a definite need for using water reducing, retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures for reduced water requirements, improved consistency, and extended working time.

These will all have to be brought into the area.

4.

Admixtures.

There is a definite need for using water reducing, retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures for reduced water requirements, improved consistency, and extended working time.

These will all have to be brought into the area.

5.

Mix proportions.

Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by the locally available materials which, for the problem at hand, a.re highly variable.

The existing technology for developing concrete mixture designs is not considered applicable for proper approaches to mixture designs with materials available in the Gulf area.

Suggested proportions for producing expedient concrete and mortar mix using locally available aggregates are provided in Chapter 7.

5.

Mix proportions.

Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by the locally available materials which, for the problem at hand, a.re highly variable.

The existing technology for developing concrete mixture designs is not considered applicable for proper approaches to mixture designs with naterials available in the Gulf area.

Suggested proportions for producing expedient concrete and mortar mix using locally available aggregates are provided in Chapter 7.

6.

Placing.

The very hot temperatures affect the consistency of the fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place.

High temperature, winds, and direct sunlIght should be avoided, when p1acing concrete.

.11 possible, the.

concrete should be placed with the temperature below 90F (33C).

Using ice water or cool water will help lower the concrete temperature.

If ice is used to chill water for mixing, the ice should be melted when it leaves the mixer.

Doing concreting work at night should also be considered.

The forms1, reinforcement, and ground surface should be sprinkled with goodquality water, if available1, just prior to placement.

6.

Placing.

The very hot temperatures affect the consistency of the fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place.

High temperature, winds, and direct sunlIght should be avoided, when p1acing concrete.

-If possible, the.

concrete should be placed with the temperature below 90F (33C).

Using ice water or cool water will help lower the concrete temperature.

If ice is used to chill water for mixing, the ice should be melted when it leaves the mixer.

Doing concreting work at night should also be considered.

The forms, reinforcement, and ground surface should be sprinkled with goodquality water) if available, just prior to placement.

7.

Finishing.

There will be short finishing times due to the hot temperatures and strong winds of the area.

Shading and windscreens are a necessity to prolong the finishing period and reduce evaporation from the concrete surface.

Concrete should be covered immediately after finishing with a temporary cover (e.g., burlap) whenever available.

The quality of finishing will be marginal because the labor can be considered unskilled.

7.

Finishing.

There will be short finishing times due to the hot temperatures and strong winds of the area.

Shading and windscreens are a necessity to prolong the finishing period and reduce evaporation from the concrete surface.

Concrete should be covered immediately after finishing with a temporary cover (e.g., burlap) whenever available.

The quality of finishing will be marginal because the labor can be considered unskilled.

8.

Curing.

Troops seldom cure concrete but must do so in this area to avoid excessive and severe plastic and drying shrinkage cracking.

The general lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing membranes be
8.

Curing.

Troops seldom cure concrete but must do so in this area to avoid excessive and severe plastic and drying shrinkage cracking.

The general lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing membranes be
612
used.

These would have to be brought in.

The concrete should be cured as soon as possible.

The concrete should be uncovered in small sections immediately prior t' applying the curing compound.

Any water suitable for mixing concrete can also be used to cure it.

As noted above, windsereens and shades would also be a great help.

used.

These would have to be brought in.

The concrete Bhould be cured as soon as possible.

The concrete should be uncovered in small sectionB immediately prior t.' applying the curing compound.

Any water suitable for mixing concrete can also be u9ed to cure it.

As noted above, windscreens and shades would also be a great help.

## 6.3.2.3 Concrete Block Production: 6.3.2.3 Concrete Block Production:

1.

Raw materials.

Basic materials required for concrete block production are:
1.

Raw materials.

Basic materials required for concrete block produc tion are:
a.

Portland cement:
sulfateresistant and lowheat cements, if available.

a.

Portland cement:
sulfateresistant and lowheat cements, if available.

b.

Aggregates:
fines and coarse aggregates such as coral cinders, expanded shale, sand, gravel, clay, slag, and others.

b.

Aggregates:
finea and coarse aggregates such as coral cinders, expanded shale sand, gravel, clay, slag, and others.

c.
Water.
c.
Water.
d.
Other agents which may or may not be added:
d.
Other agents which may or may not be added:
- Hydrated
lime
- Hydrated
lime
- Pozzolans
- Pozzolans

- Other constituents, such as airentraining agents, pigments, etc.
- Other constituents, such as airentraining agents, pigmer?tB, etc.
2.

Manufacturing process.

Concrete block may be manufactured with a variety of equipment.

Large complex stationary block production machines, simpler mobile "egg laying" block machines, and basic handoperated equipment may be used to produce block.

En each ease, relatively dry concrete is tamped in a mold which is immediately atripped off, and the procedure is repeated again and again.

The basic process, in each case, is similar and is as described below and shown in Figure 6.4.

2.

Manufacturing process.

Concrete block may be manufactured with a variety of equipment.

Large complex stationary block production machines, simpler mobile "egg laying" block machines, and basic handoperated equipment may be used to produce block.

In each case, relatively dry concrete is tamped in a mold which is immediately stripped off, and the procedure is repeated again and again.

The basic process, in each case, is similar end is as described below and shown in Figure 6.4.

a.

Prepare a wellgraded mix of fine and coarse aggregates.

A recommended ratio of aggregate to sand is 7 to 4 by weight.

Crushed aggregates are generally better than rounded particles.

a.

Prepare a wellgraded mix of fine and coarse aggregates.

A recommended ratio of aggregate to sand is 7
to 4 by weight.

Crushed aggregates are generally better than rounded particles.

b.
Make sure aggregate is clean.
Wash, if necessary.
b.
Make sure aggregate is clean.
Wash, if necessary.
c.

Mix the aggregate.

Add the cement, water, and any other necessary additives; complete mixing.

Mixtures for concrete block will vary with the purpose of the block.

However, a possible mix ratio by weight of cement to aggregate is 1:4 or 1:5.

A good water/cement ratio is about 0.3 for a 1:4 mix ratio and 0.38 for a 1:5 mix ratio.*
The primary objective is to achieve adequate strength with minimum density.

Depending on the type of aggregate, a 8tandard block (8 x 8 x 16 in. [200 x 200 x 400 inml) can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (11.4
to 22.8 kg).

c.

Mix the aggregate.

Add the cement, water, and any other necessary additives; complete mixing.

Mixtures for concrete block will vary with the purpose of the block.

However, a possible mix ratio by weight of cement to aggregate is 1:4 or 1:5.

A good water/cement ratio is about 0.3 for a 1:4 mix ratio and 0.38 for a 1:5 mix ratio.*
The primary objective is to achieve adequate strength with minimum density.

Depending on the type of aggregate, a standard block (8 x 8 x 16 in. [200 x 200 x 400 inml) can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (11.4
to 22.8 kg).

* Ronald terrel and Mushtag Ahmed, "Mortarless Block Construction for Developing Countries," Housing Science, Vol 3, No. 5 (1979), p 327.
* Ronald terrel and Mushtag Ahmed, "Mortarleas Block Construction for Developing Countries," Housing Science, Vol 3,
No. 5 (1979), p 327.
613
d.

Mold aid compact the concrete with a block machine or by hand with metal molds.

d.

Mold aid compact the concrete with a block machine or by hand with metal molds.

e.

Cure the block1, either naturally or in steam rooms.

Steam cure the block a 125F (52C) for a period of 15 hours or naturally by protecting from the Bun and keeping it damp for 7 days.

For indigenous sources, refer to the listing of some Middle East concrete block plants in Chapter 10.

e.

Cure the block, either naturally or in steam rooms.

Steam cure the block at 125F (52C) for a period of 15 hours or naturally by protecting from the sun and keeping it damp for 7 days.

For indigenous sources, refer to the listing of some Middle East concrete block plants in Chapter 10.

3.

Dimensions.

Blocks can vary greatly in size from region to region, but the most common size is the 8 in. x 8 in. x 16 in. (200 mm x 200 mm x
400 mm) hollow block.

However, block machines may be adjusted, by simply changing molds, to make almost any size block.

3.

Dimensions.

Blocks can vary greatly in size from region to region1, but the most common size is the 8 in. x 8 in. x 16 in. (200 mi x 200 mm x
400 ruin) hollow block.

However1, block machines may be adjusted1, by simply changing molds1, to make almost any size block.

4.

Labor requirement for manufacture.

The labor required to manufacture concrete blocks depends on the equipment available for production.

If a largescale concrete block production plant iB available1, as many as 60 blocks per minute1, depending on the equipment1, could be produced with little labor.

A smaller mobile "egg laying block machine might produce somewhere between 24
and 48 blocks per minute1, with several men required to operate the equipment.

Manual production will make less than the 'egg laying" equipment per unit manhour1, and will require many men to produce a significant number of blocks.

4.

Labor requirement for manufacture.

The labor required to manufacture concrete blocks depends on the equipment available for production.

If a largescale concrete block production plant is available, as many as 60 blocks per minute, depending on the equipment, could be produced with little labor.

A smaller mobile "egg laying" block machine might produce somewhere between 24 and 48 blocks per minute, with several men required to operate the equipment.

Manual production will make less than the 'egg laying' equipment per unit manhour, and will require many men to produce a significant number of blocks.

## 6.3.2.4 Binding Agents For Concrete Blocks: 6.3.2.4 Binding Agents For Concrete Blocks:

Typically1, cement mortar is used as a binding agent1, but severalother materials1, such as sulphur1, lime1, and cement coatings, may be used.

Extremely temporary shelters can be erected without a binding agent.

However1, most modern construction utilizes a portland cement mortar.

Each block is bonded to the foundation with a thin joint of mortar and each successive block is bonded to the wall with a layer of mortar1, until the wall is completed to the desired height1, usually no more than one story tall (approximately 8 to 12 ft
[2.4 to 3.6 m]).

A recommended range of cement mortar  mixes of cement to lime to sand in the proportion 1:1:61, 1:2:61, 1:3:12
by volume  will provide adequate bonding for most situations.

However1, in BituatiOfl8 wher,e tradi
tional block construction using cement mortar for bonding is not desirable, other types of bonding may be used.

Typically, cement mortar is used as a binding agent, but several other materials, such as sulphur, lime, and cement coatings, may be used.

Extremely temporary shelters can be erected without a binding agent.

However, moat modern construction utilizes a portland cement mortar.

Each block is bonded to the foundation with a thin joint of mortar and each successive block is bonded to the wall with a layer of mortar, until the wall is completed to the desired height, usually no more than one story tall (approximately 8 to 12 ft
[2.4 to 3.6 m]).

A recommended range of cement mortar  mixes of cement to lime to sand in the proportion 1:1:6, 1:2:6, 1:3:12
by volume  will provide adequate bonding for most situations.

However, in situations vher,e tradi
tional block construction using cement mortar for bonding is not desirable, other types of bonding may be used.

A concrete block wall can easily be bonded with a mixture of sulphur, fibers1, and plasticizer1, or with a cementbased coating.

First1, the bottom row of blocks is bonded to a concrete foundation by pouring the molten sulphur mix or cement coating into the cavities of the hollow blocks1, bonding each block to the foundation.

Next1, each following row of blocks is stacked up dry on top of the lower row until the desired wall height is reached.

If extra atrength is desired1, steel reinforcement way be added by placing steel rods vertically through the cavities of the hollow blocks.

Then the sulphur mix is either brushed or sprayed over the joints1, or sprayed over the entire surface.

The cementbased coating is sprayed over the entire surface of the wall.

The sulphur mix must be applied quickly to avoid unwanted hardening due to fast A concrete block wall can easily be bonded with a mixture of sulphur, fibers, and plasticizer, or with a cementbased coating.

First, the bottom row of blocks is bonded to a concrete foundation by pouring the molten sulphur mix or cement coating into the cavities of the hollow blocks, bonding each block to the foundation.

Next, each following row of blocks is stacked up dry on top of the lower row until the desired wall height is reached.

If extra strength is desired, steel reinforcement may be added by placing steel rods vertically through the cavities of the hollow blocks.

Then the sulphur mix is either brushed or sprayed over the joints, or sprayed over the entire surface.

The cementbased coating is sprayed over the entire surface of the wall.

The sulphur mix must be applied quickly to avoid unwanted hardening due to fast cooling.

Sulphursurface bonding and cementbased coating produce a wall which is as strong as, or stronger than, a standard masonry wall.

cooling.

Sulphursurface bonding and cementbased coating produce a wall which is as strong as1, or stronger than, a standard masonry wall.

Limebased mortars were the most prevalent before the introduction of modern cement mortars.

The limebased mortars are a combination of burnt lime1, water1, and possibly pozzolanas.

The pozzolana reacts with nonhydraulic Limebased mortars were the most prevalent before the introduction of modern cement mortars.

The limebased mortars are a combination of burnt lime, water, and possibly pozzolanas.

The pozzolana reacts with nonhydraulic
615
lime in a water medium at ordinary temperatures to form a cement.

In some areas of the Middle East this mortar is still used.

It is applied with a layer of mortar between each block, producing a strong steady wall.

lime in a water medium at ordinary temperatures to forni a cement.

In some areas of the Middle East this mortar is still used.

It is applied with a layer of mortar between each block, producing a strong steady wall.

Fast setting of concrete and greater initial shrinkage in desert regions make the location of construction joints in concrete masonry more critical than in cooler cliniates.

Thus to prevent any potential problems, the following steps should be taken:
provide vertical control joints in the walls, reinforce horizontal joints, and provide bond beams at appropriate locations. The following table gives the appropriate spacing for concrete masonry wall joints.

Fast setting of concrete and greater initial shrinkage in desert regions make the location of construction joints in concrete masonry more critical than in cooler climates.

Thus to prevent any potential problems, the following steps should be taken:
provide vertical control joints in the walls, reinforce horizontal joints, and provide bond beams at appropriate locations. The following table gives the appropriate spacing for concrete masonry wall joints.

## Concrete Masonry Will Joint Placement

Concrete Masonry Wall Joint Placement

Maximum Spacing of
16 ft (5.0 m)
20 ft (6.0 ni)
23 ft (7.0 m)
26 ft (8.0 in)
Control Joint*
or 2 H
or 2.4 H
or 2.6 H
or 3.2 H
Maximum Spacing of
16 ft (5.0 in)
20 ft (6.0 in)
23 ft (7.0 in)
26 ft (8.0 ci)
Control Joint*
or 2 H
or 2.4 H
or 2.6 H
or 3.2 H
Vertical Spacing of
No reinf.
24 in. (60 cm) 16 in. (40 cm)
8 In. (20 cm)
Horizontal Joint
required
c to c
c toc
c to c
Reiriforcement+
Vertical Spacing of
No reinf.
24 in. (60 cm) 16 in. (40 cm)
8 in. (20 cm)
Horizontal Joint
required
c to c
c toc
c to c
Relnforcement+

H
= Height of the wall
*
= Spacing shall not exceed the smaller of the dimensions shown.

+
= Joint reiforceLuent shall include two or more longitudinal steel wires, minimum total area
0.0346 sq in.

H
= Height of the wall
*
= Spacing shall not exceed the smaller of the dimensions shown.

+
= Joint reiforceLuent shall include two or more longitudinal steel wires, minimum total area
0.0346 sq in.

In the case of extremely temporary shelter, wide concrete blocks or slabs can be used as a foundation, and concrete blocks can be stacked on top of the foundation to form the walls.

It Is suggested that this type of shelter be used only In emergencies or in very temporary situations.

Also, it is suggested that the height of a stacked block wait be kept as low as acceptable.

In the case of extremely temporary shelter, wide concrete blocks or slabs can be used as a foundation, and concrete blocks can be stacked on top of the foundation to form the walls.

It is suggested that this type of shelter be used only in emergencies or in very temporary situations.

Also, it is suggested that the height of a stacked block wall be kept as low as acceptable.

## 6.3.2.5 Concrete Block Construction: 6.3.2.5 Concrete Block Construction: 1. Advantages: 1. Advantages:

a.

If blocks are available in large quantities, concrete block construction can be cheap, quick, and durable.

a.

If blocks are available in large quantities, concrete block construction can be cheap, quick, and durable.

b.

Sulphur, an efficient bonding niaterial for concrete blocks, iB
a byproduct in oil and natural gas refining, and is stockpiled in many refining areas of the Middle East.

b.

Sulphur, an efficient bonding material for concrete blocks, is a byproduct in oil and natural gas refining, and is stockpiled In many refining areas of the Middle East.

c.
Properly made concrete blocks have high compressive strength.
c.
Properly made concrete blocks have high compressive strength.
d.

Blocks may be produced by manual labor or by many different mechanical means.

In rural or field areas, It may be especially important to be able to produce construction material with no more than manual labor.

d.

Blocks may be produced by manual labor or by many different mechanical means.

In rural or field areas, it may be especially important to be able to produce construction material with no more than manual labor.

2.

Disadvnntages:
2.

Disad'ntages:
a.

Cement required for the productton of concrete block may not be available.

a.

Cement required for the production of concrete block may not be available.

b.

The time required to produce and cure concrete blocks may be prohibitive.

b.

The time required to produce and cure concrete blocks may be prohibitive.

c.

In earthquakeprone region8, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand strong lateral forces.

c.

In earthquakeprone regions, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand strong lateral forces.

d.
Proper aggregates may not be available.
d.
Proper aggregates may not be available.

## 6.3.3 Earth S,'Sterns 6.3.3 Earth Stepn6 6.3.3.1 General: 6.3.3.1 General:

The use of earth for building construction results partly from the scarcity of wood and other construction materials.

Also, earth construction is easy and has high insulation value against both heat and cold.

The use of earth for building construction results partly from the scarcity of wood and other con8truction materials.

Also, earth con8truction is easy and has high insulation value against both heat and cold.

Earth buildings are structurally sound and durable enough for many regions.

They are dry, fireproof, soundproof, cool in summer, and warm in winter.

The cost of building the wall is low, the principal expense being the labor force, primarily unskilled labor.

There are some kinds of mud that make stronger structures than others, and some construction techniques that apply better to some kinds of mud.

Thus the type of construction method will be affected by the type of soil available.

Earth buildings are structurally sound and durable enough for many regions.

They are dry, fireproof, soundproof, cool in summer, and warm in winter.

The cost of building the wall is low, the principal expense being the labor force, primarily unskilled labor.

There are some kinds of mud that make Stronger structures than others, and some con8truction techniques that apply better to some kinds of mud.

Thus the type of construction cethod will be affected by the type of soil available.

Organic soils are the least Buitable for earth construction; a combination of two typeB of soils is ideal:
sandy clays or clayey sands.

However, in very dry regions, clays are best.

There are several types of construction methods for earth building:
adobe, baked clay, sand shale, and stabilized
8oil bricks are common types.

MethodB of making adobe and stabilized Boil bricks, a well a conBtruction methods u8ing these materials, are described be low.

Organic soils are the least suitable for earth construction; a combination of two types of soils is ideal:
sandy clays or clayey sands.

However, in very dry regions, clays are best.

There are several types of construction methods for earth building:
adobe, baked clay, sand shale, and stabilized soil bricks are common types.

Methods of making adobe and stabilized soil bricks, as well as construction methods using these materials, are described below.

## 6.3.3.2 Adobe: 6.3.3.2 Adobe:

The raw materials for making adobe are:
The raw materials for making adobe are:
1.

Soils  mix of clay, sand, and very fine silts.

A recommended proportion of soils is approximately onethird each of clay, sand, and fines. However, this is only a guideline, and the proportion will vary with different types of soils.

The blocks made with high sand content soils will crumble and erode easily, whereas the blocks made with very high clay content soils will shrink and crack too much.

The best way to test soils is to make a test brick.

1.

Soils  mix of clay, sand, and very fine silts.

A recommended proportion of 8oi18 i8 approximately onethird each of clay, sand, and fine8. However, thi8 is only a guideline, and the proportion will vary with different types of soil8.

The blocks made with high sand content 8oils will crumble and erode easily, whereas the blocks made with very high clay content soils will shrink and crack too much.

The best way to test soil3 i8 to make a test brick.

2.

Agricultural materials  crop residues are sometimes used, ut are not reconunended.

2.

Agricultural materials  crop residues are sometime8 used, ut are not reconunended.

3.
Water.
3.
Water.
617
Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide area of the Middle East.

Adobe has been the chief construction material in SWA for centu
ries; thus, wherever there are populated regions, there should be a source of adobe nearby.

However, in 8oe remote regionB, such as deserts and salt playas, no adobe dirt can be found.

Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide area of the Middle East.

Adobe has been the chief construction material in SWA for centu ries; thus, wherever there are populated regions, there should be a source of adobe nearby.

However, in some remote regions, such as deserts and salt playas, no adobe dirt can be found.

The basic procedure for making adobe brick is as follows (see Figure The basic procedure for making adobe brick is as follows (see Figure
6.5): 6.5):
1.

Form a mixing pit or use a mechanical mixer such as plaster mixer or pug mill suitable to mix enough mud for the forms that will be used.

1.

Form a mixing pit or use a mechanical mixer such as plaster mixer or pug mill suitable to mix enough mud for the forms that will be used.

2.

Place adobe dirt in the pit and mix with water and, if desired, crop residues.

2.

Place adobe dirt in the pit and mix with water and, if desired crop residues.

3.
Mix the mud thoroughly by hand or by a oiechanical mixer.
3.
Mix the mud thoroughly by hand or by a mechanical mixer.
4.

Put the forms on level ground and place a fine layer of sand straw, or paper under the molds to facilitate removal of dried bricks.

4.
Put the forms on level ground and place a fine layer of sand, straw,
or paper under the molds to facilitate removal of dried bricks.
5.
Add the adobe mixture and smooth it level with the top of the form.
5.
Add the adobe mixture and smooth it level with the top of the form.
6.

The adobe mud should be stiff enough to keep the bricks fr'm slumping too much, yet plastic enough to conform easily to the mold shape.

6.

The adobe mud should be stiff enough to keep the bricks fr'm slumping too much, yet plastic enough to conform easily to the mold shape.

7.

Pull off the forms and let dry several days before standing them on edge to complete drying, approximately 1 to 2 weeks.

7.
Pull off the forns and let dry several days before standing them on
edge to complete drying, approximately 1 to 2 weeks.
8.

After the bricks are completely dry, they may be immediately used, or atacked and stored.

They should be stacked on edge, and no more than three or four high to minimize breakage.

If the bricks are going to be stored for a long time in the open, it may be desirable to cover the bricks with a waterproof sheet of plastic or tar paper.

8.

After the bricks are completely dry, they may be immediately used, or stacked and stored.

They should be stacked on edge, and no more than three or four high to minimize breakage.

If the bricks are going to be stored for a long time in the open, it may be desirable to cover the bricks with a waterproof sheet of plastic or tar paper.

Before proceeding with largescale production of bricks, several test bricks should be made to determine whether the mix proportions are satisfactory.

Test bricks made should be able to withstand dropping from a couple of feet after completely drying.

If the block is not satisfactory, the mixture must be adjusted by either adding alay, reducingsand content, addingcrop residue, or tempering (allowing the mixture to soak overnight, f or instance).

Before proceeding with largescale production of bricks, several test bricks should be made to determine whether the mix proportions are satisfactory.

Test bricks made should be able to withstand dropping from a couple of feet after completely drying.

If the block is not satisfactory, the mixture muet be adjusted by either adding alay, reducingsand content, addingcrop reeidue, or tempering (allowing the mixture to soak overnight, for instance).

There are no specific dimensions for adobe bricks.

Some suggested sizes are l4xlOx4in. (3SSxlSOxlO2mm),8x4x4in. (200xlOOxlOOinm), and 12 x 6 x 4 in. (300 x 150 x 100 mm).

Somewhere within this range, a block Size Bati8factory for most situations can be found.

There are no specific dimensions for adobe bricks.

Some suggested sizes are 14 x 10 x 4 in. (355 x 150 x 102 mm), 8 x 4 x 4 in.

(200 x 100 x 100 mm), and 12 x 6 x 4 in. (300 x 150 x 100 mm).

Somewhere within this range, a block size satisfactory for most situations can be found.

The properties of the block will depend on the type and amount of sand, eilt, clay, and crop residue in the mixture.

But mud bricks, in general, have low compressive 8trength, low weathering resistance, and high thermal insulation value.

The properties of the block will depend on the type and amount of sand, silt, clay, and crop residue in the mixture.

But mud bricks, In general, have low compressive strength, low weathering resistance, and high thermal insulation value.

Adobe brick production is a laborintensive process, when rapid produc
tion is desired.

It is an Imposing, timeconsuming task to manually mix enough mud for an entire building.

Although, if necessary, only a few people Adobe brick production is a laborintensive process, when rapid production is desired.

It is an imposing, timeconsuming task to manually mix enough mud for an entire building.

Although, if necessary, only a few people
618
could complete the job In an expanded time frame.

For Instance, according to.

Little in Demotstration of Stabilized Mud Brick in Egyptian Village HouBing, three people can manually produce eight bricks per minute.*
Thus, the more manpower, the more rapidly the blocks can be produced, provided adequate volumes of raw material are available. could complete the job in an expanded time frame.

For instance, according to Little in Demonstration of Stabilized Mud Brick in Egyptian Village Housing, three people can manually produce eight bricks per minute.*
Thus, the more manpower, the more rapidly the blocks can be produced, provided adequate volumes of raw material are available.

The chief use of adobe brick is as a loadbearing wall component.

Adobe brick has been the major building unit in the Middle East for centurieB.

In fact, most rural construction in the Middle East consists of adobe brick construction.

However adobe brick, as all other types of brick, may also be used in infill construction, which is covered later.

The chief use of adobe brick is as a loadbearing wall component.

Adobe brick has been the major building unit in the Middle East for centuries.

In fact, most rural construction in the Middle East consists of adobe brick construction.

However adobe brick, as all other types of brick, may also be used in infill construction, which is covered later.

Basic adobe construction starts with the foundation.

Refer to Figure
6.19 for details of the foundation, wall, and roof.

A complete poured concrete slab, concrete footing, heavy concrete block, or rock may be used as a foundation.

The complete poured slab will be the most stable, and the rock foundation the least stable.

Basic adobe constuction starts with the foundation.

Refer to Figure
6.19 for details of the foundation, wall, and roof.

A complete poured eon
crete glab, concrete footing, heavy concrete block, or rock may be used as a foundation.

The complete poured slab will be the most stable, and the rock foundation the least stable.

In region8 where freezing and thawin,g will occur, it is imperative to .get the footing below the fro8t line so that heaving and buckling of the foundation will not occur.

To help strengthen the foundation, steel reinforcing, if available, may be added.

But In reglon8 where there is little or no chance of freezing or thawing, such as hot desert climates, there is little need for a deep footing.

In regions where freezing and thawing will occur, it is imperative to get the footing below the frost line so that heaving and buckling of the foundation will not occur.

To help strengthen the foundation, steel reinforcing, if available, may be added.

But in regions where there is little or no chance of freezing or thawing, such as hot desert climates, there is little need for a deep footing.

Next, a stem to raise the wall above the footing must be added in all areas where water, either surface drainage or groundwater, will be a problem.

This is important since water viii destroy an adobe wall.

Poured concrete or concrete block filled with concrete or earth may be used to build a stem.

It should be high enough above ground level to keep the adobe away from water.

Next, a Stem to raise the wall above the footing must be added in all areas where water, either surface drainage or groundwater, will be a problem.

This is Important since water will destroy an adobe wall.

Poured concrete or concrete block filled with concrete or earth may be used to build a stem.

It should be high enough above ground level to keep the adobe away from water.

If concrete block filled with earth is used as a stem, a cap of concrete should be added to the top of the stem to prevent capillary action of groundwater up through the earth in the stem.

If deBired, reinforcement may be added to increase the strength of the stem.

If neceaBary, rock may be used as a gtem; most early adobe buildings did use thiB material.

If concrete block filled with earth is used as a stem, a cap of concrete should be added to the top of the stem to prevent capillary action of groundwater up through the earth in the stem.

If desired, reinforcement may be added to increase the strength of the stern.

If necessary, rock may be used as a stem; most early adobe buildings did use this material.

If rock is used as a stem and mud a a -mortar, the rocks should be flat to prevent settlement of the foundation and stem caused by the shifting of uneven rock3 when the mortar gets wet.

Concrete mortar will alleviate this problem if it is available.

If rock is used as a stem and mud as a -mottar, the rocks should be flat to prevent settlement of the foundation and stem caused by the shifting of uneven rock3 when the mortar gets wet.

Concrete mortar, will alleviate thiB
problem if it is available.

Finally, the adobe wall is added to the top of the stem.

Traditionally, mud mortar is used as a binding agent, but cement or lime mortar can also be used (Table 6.2).

Finally, the adobe wall is added to the top of the stem.

Traditionally, mud mortar is used as a binding agent, but cement or lime mortar can also be used (Table 6.2).

If desired, extra strength may be added to the wall by using steel, wood, or bamboo reinforcement when available.

However, standard adobe construction in regions that are not earthquake prone does not require any special reinforcement  unless, for some other reason, unusually high lateral loads are If desired, extra strength may be added to the wall by using steel, wood, or bamboo reinforcement when available.

However, standard adobe construction in regions that are not earthquake prone does not require any special reinforcement  unless, for some other reason, unusually high lateral loads are
620
Mortar a

Cement mortar...
1 cement, 21/2 to 3 sand (by volume), 11/2 gal
asphalt emulsion per sack of cement.
Cement mortar..
1 cement, 2-1/2 to 3 sand (by volume), 11/2 gal
asphalt emulsion per sack of cement.
Cementline mortar.... 1 cements
1 hydrated lime, 4 sand.
Cementline mortar.... 1 cement, 1 hydrated lime, 4 sand.
Cementsoil mortar.... 1 cement, 2 soil (use same soil that bricks are
made from), 3 eand, 11/2 gal asphalt emulsion
per sack of cement.
Cementsoil mortar.... 1 cement, 2 soil (use same soil that bricks are
made from), 3 sand, 11/2 gal asphalt emulsion
per sack of cement.
Adobe mortar........ The same mixture as the bricks are molded from.
(Slowcuring and requires working around the
building, laying no more than 2 or 3 courses
and allowing adequate drying time.)
Adobe mortar........ The same mixture as the bricks are molded from.
(Slowcuring and requtres working around the
building, laying no more than 2 or 3 Courses
and allowing adequate drying time.)
anticipated.

Wherever windows or openings in the walls are reqUired, plans should be made to provide support by using lintels (beams) over the top of the openings.

anticipated.

Wherever windows or openings in the walls are required, plans should be made to provide support by using lintels (beams) over the top of the openings.

When using mud as a mortar, do not lay more than about six layers of bricks on any one day in order to prevent the weight of the bricks from squeezing and Compressing the mud in the joints before it sets.

Adobe valla are not extremely stable, so tiebeams should be provided at the top of the walls to stabilize the structure.

The thickness of exterior walls should be
12 in. (300 unu), or no less than onetenth the wall height.

When using mud as a mortar, do not lay more than about six layers of bricks on any one day in order to prevent the weight of the bricks from squeezing and compressing the mud in the joints before it sets.

Adobe walls are not extremely stable, so tiebeams should be provided at the top of the walls to stabilize the structure.

The thickness of exterior walls should be
12 in. (300 mm), or no less than onetenth the wall height.

After the wall is complete, the roof must be added.

Usually, roof beams or joints are wooden; however,, steel, concrete, or other materials could be used if proper bearing plates are provided on the tops of the walls.

1any types of roofing materials may be used.

lightweight materials, such as woods, sheet metals, corrugated asbestos cement sheets, and synthetics (plastic, composites, etc.), are recommended due to the poor compressive strength of the adobe.

After the wall is complete, the roof must be added.

Usually, roof beaa or joints are wooden; however,, steel, concrete, or other materials could be used if proper bearing plates are provided on the tops of the walls.

Many types of roofing materials may be used.

lightweight materials, such as woods, sheet metals, corrugated asbestos cement sheets, and synthetics (plastic, composites, etc.), are recommended due to the poor compressive strength of the adobe.

The advantages of adobe are as follows: The advantages of adobe are as follows:

- It
is an indigenous material and is available over a wide range of
areas in the Middle East.
- It
is an indigenous material and is available over a wide range of
areas in the Middle East.
- It
is Cheap and has good thermal resistance.
- It is cheap and has good thermal resistance.
- It is a simple material with which to work.
Native labor would be familiar with and easily adapt to any construction project involving adobe.
- t is a simple material wtth which to work.
Native labor would be faa
iliar with and easily adapt to any construction project involving adobe.
621

- It
has simple production procedures.
- It
has simple production procedures.
The disadvantages are; The disadvantages are:
- It is not resistant to water.

Groundwater or excessive precipitation
- It is not resistant to water.

Groundwater or excessive precipitation
(>30 in/yr L762 aim/yr])
can easily damage it.

(>30 in./yr L762 aim/yr])
can easily damage it.

- It has poor earthquake resistance unless special reinforcement is added specifically to resist lateral forces.

- It has poor earthquake resistance unless apecial reinforcement is added specifically to resist lateral forces.

- Some areas of the Middle East  for instance, deserts and salt playas
- do not have Boil which could be used to manufacture adobe bricks.

- Some areas of the Middle East
 for instance, deserts and salt playas

do not have soil which could be used to manufacture adobe bricks.

- Adobe bricks have low compressive strength.

- Adobe bricks have low compressive strength.

## 6.3.3.3 Stabilized Soil Bricks: 6.3.3.3 Stabilized Soil Bricks:

Although untreated adobe bricks have been used with varying degrees of success, depending On the wether and environment Of a particular locality, adobe bricks treated with stabilizer such as asphalt (rapidcuring road oil or emulsion) have increased strength and durability, and will require very little maintenance and upkeep.*
The asphalt stabilizer treatment can be included in the existing methods of manufacturing sundried bricks with a minirm of special equipment or skill.

Although untreated adobe bricks have been used with varying degrees of success depending on the wether and environment of a particular locality, adobe brick8 treated with stabilizer Buch as asphalt (rapidcuring road oil or emulsion) have increased strength and durability, and will require very little maintenance and upkeep.*
The asphalt stabilizer treatment can be included in the exi8ting methods of manufacturing sundried bricks with a minirm of special equipment or skill.

Stabilized and unstabilized adobe bricks have eaBentially the same soil requirements and can be made from a wide variety of soils.

In general, soile containing a high percentage of loam silt, and organic matter are usually not wellsuited for adobe bricks.

The soluble Balts and organic material are detrimental to the quality of bricks and 8hOuld be avoided.

Soils which consist primarily of sand and clay are usually most satisfactory for adobe construction.

For stabilized brick, stabilizerB Buch as cement, asphalt emulsion, and lime are used.

Stabilized and unstabilized adobe bricks have essentially the same soil requirements and can be made from a wide variety of soils.

In general, soils containing a high percentage of loam, silt, and organic matter are usually not wellsuited for adobe bricks.

The soluble salts and organic material are detrimental to the quality of bricks and should be avoided.

Soils which consist primarily of sand and clay are usually most satisfactory for adobe construction.

For stabilized brick, stabilizers such as cement, asphalt emulsion, and lime are used.

Specifications for aoil to be used for stabilized adobe bricks usually eall for a range of 55 to 75 percent sand and 25 to 45 percent fines (silt and clay).

About 15 percent clay 8eems to be ideal.

Sands are normally defined as material particle8izes between a No. 4 and No. 200 sieve, and fineBare the material passing through a No. 200 sieve.

Specifications for soil to be used for stabilized adobe bricks usually eall for a range of 55 to 75 percent sand and 25 to 45 percent fines (silt and clay).

About 15 percent clay seems to be ideal.

Sands are normally defined as material particlesizes between a No. 4 and No. 200 sieve,and fthesare
the material passing through a No. 200 sieve.

Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide range of the Middle East.

Sources of adobe can usually be found wherever there are populated regions.

However, in some remote regions, such as deserts and 8alt playas,no Boil usable for adobe construction can be found.

Availability of stabilizers will depend on the locality; they may have to be imported.

Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide range of the Middle East.

Sources of adobe can uBually be found wherever there are populated regions.

However, in some remote regions, such as deserts and salt playas,no soil usable for adobe construction can be found.

Availability of stabilizers will depend on the locality; they may have to be imported.

The manufacturing of stabilized soil bricks is similar to the manufacturing of adobe brick.

The only difference is in the addition of the stabilizer
- asphalt emulsion, cement, or lime.

Additional information about producing etabilized bricks is provided below.

The manufacturing of stabilized soil bricks is similar to the manufacturing of adobe brick.

The only difference is in the addition of the stabilizer
- asphalt emulsion, cement, or lime.

Additional information about producing stabilized bricks is provided below.

* International
Institute of Housing Technology, The Manufacture of Asphalt
Emulsion Stabilized Soil Bricks (California State University, 1978), p 8.
* International Institute of Housing Technology, The Manufacture of Asphalt
Emulsion Stabilized Soil Bricks (California State University, 197B). p 8.
622

1.
Asphelt stablized brick.
a.

Road oil stabilizer.

Rapidcuring road oil (RC250) Ia preferred to mediumcuring road oil (MC70) because it permits a shorter drying period for the bricks.

b.

Determining the amount of stabilizer necessary.

The amount of stabilizer required for mixing can be determined by field tests.

It is suggested that one mixes several batches of soil with amounts of stabilizer varying from
1 percent to 3 percent for RC250, or 2 percent to 6 percent for emulsion. Three 2in.diameter x 2in.high (50.8 mm x 50.8 mm) and three 4In. x 8in.

x 16in. (101.6 mm x 203.2 mm x 406.4 mm) bricks should be made from each batch for compressive and modulus of rupture tests, which can be done by using the setup shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7.

If the amount of stabilizer required is greater than 3 percent for RC250
or S to 6 percent for emulsion, the soil probably will not be satisfactory for brick making because of excessive cracking.

c.

Mixing devices and facilities.

It is suggested that a power mixer
(such as a pug mill or plaster mixer) be used for making stabilized brick since it will assure a more uniform mixture consistency.

If a power mixer Is not available) hand tools such as hoes, rakes, and shovels may be used.

A
cement mixer is not suitable for mixing adobe brick mud.

A mixing device having a rotating shaft with paddles attached, which may be locally produced, is best for proper blending of adobe ingredients.

Adequate space must be provided for both mixing and drying.

The brick drying area must be level and provide enough room for the number of adobe bricks being produced.

The surface of the drying area should contain a layer of sand, straw, or paper (which is preferable) placed under the molds to facilitate removal of dried bricks.

d.

Basic mixing procedures using mechanical equipment.

Screened soil is placed in the mixer.

Water is then gradually added to the soil while the mix
lag shaft is turning.

While the soil is being thoroughly soaked with water, asphalt stabilizer is added to the mud and mixed until no dark streaks of asphalt are visible in the mixture.

More water is added and mixed into the mud until the thoroughly wet adobe has a thick plastic consistency.

To determine the proper molding consistency, a groove can be cut in the mixed mud (small test pats about 1/2in.

[12.7' mm)' thick) with8 Vshaped stick.

If the sides of the groove are not smooth, more water is required in the mixture.

If the groove closes, the mixture is too wet and more dry soil is required.

If the sides of the groove are smooth and bulge out, the mixture contains the proper amount of water and soil.

e.

Hand molding.

The mixed adobe mud is carefully dumped from the wheelbarrow into the compartments of the brick mold.

The mud is then worked into all portions of the compartments to formamooth brick surfaces.

Alter the top of the model has been smoothed and leveled by hand or with the straight edge of a piece of wood, the mold is carefully lifted from, the brick.

f.

Drying bricks.

A hot, dry climate over long periods of time is most favorable for curing stabilized adobe bricks.

However1 on very hot1, dry1 or windy days, when rapid surface drying occurs, bricks may crack.

Paper or Straw protective covering on the wet bricks will slow down the drying process.

After the bricks have dried for a few days, they will be strong enough to be turned on one edge to promote drying.

Normally, it will take about 30 days to dry bricks thorugh1y.

However, one can determine when bricks are ready for use by selecti., samples at random1 breaking the bricks in half, end examining their centers for dryness.

turned on one edge to proaiote drying.

Normally, it will take about 30 days to dry bricks thorughly.

however, one can determine when brl.ck8 are ready for use by 8electi. 8amples at random1 breaking the bricks in half, and examining their centers for dryness.

2.

Cement stabilized soil brick.

The mixing of the soils for celDent stabilized briek8 is 8omewhat similar to that for asphalt bricks, but the forming of the brick is quite different.

The mixing procedure begins with the selection of the proper soil, accordirg to Table 6.3.

2.

Cement stabilized soil brick.

The mixing of the soils for cement stabilized bricks is somewhat similar to that for asphalt bricks, but the forming of the brick is quite different.

The mixing procedure begins with the selection of the proper soil, according to Table 6.3.

Once the soil i8 selected, it should be crumbled up and sieved through a No. 4 (5mm) sieve.

It can be mixed either manually, or mechanically in plaster mixer8.

Four to eight percent cement should be added to the soil.

Also, enough water should be added to get the 8011 to about 12 percent moisture content.

After thorough combining, the mixture is ready.

Next, the bricks can be formed in blockmaking presses.

There are two basic types of presses:
constant pressure and constant volume.

With con8tant pressure machines, reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in the reduction of the size of the block produced.

However, with constant volume machines, reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in under
compacted blocks of low density.

Once the block is formed it should be allowed to cure for several weeks.

The resulting strength of the block is directly related to the pre88ure used to compact the block..

Typical 8trengths Once the soil is selected, it should be crumbled up and sieved through a No. 4 (5mm) sieve.

It can be mixed either manually, or mechanically in plaster mixers.

Four to eight percent cement should be added to the soil.

Also, enough water should be added to get the soil to about 12 percent moisture content.

After thorough combining, the mixture is ready.

Next, the bricks can be formed in blockmaking presses.

There are two basic types of presses:
constant pressure and constant volume.

With constant pressure machines, reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in the reduction of the size of the block produced.

However, with constant volume machines, reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in under
compacted blocks of low density.

Once the block is formed it should be allowed to cure for several weeks.

The resulting strength of the block is directly related to the pressure used to compact the block.

Typical strengths Table 6.3
Property Limits*

Areas of Rain Over
Area of Medium or
Properties
30 in./yr
Low Rain
Areas of Rain Over
Area of Medium or
Properties
30 in./yr
Low Rain
Distribution by weight:
Sand
Not less than 33%
Not less than 40%
Clay
520%
530%
Di8tribution by weight:
Sand
Not les8 than 33%
Not less than 40Z
Clay
520Z
53O
Ideal moisture
1014%
716%
content
Ideal moisture
1014%
716%
content
Grain size distribution:
Clay, loam
Not more than 3OZ
Grain size distribution:
Clay, loam
Not more than 30%
Sand, gravel
Not lesa than 70%
Sand, gravel
Not lees than 70%

*Aziz Girgis and M. ElHifnawi, Rural Low Cost Housing:
Bricks and Wall Units
Industry in Egypt (Cairo, General Organization for Housing Building and Planning Research), p. 43.
*Aziz Girgis and M. ElHifnawi, Rural Low Cost Houeing:
Bricks and Wall Units
Industry in Egypt (Cairo, General Organization for Housing Building and Planning Research), p. 43.
625
range from .15 ksi to 5.80 kai (1.0 MN/tn2 to 40 MN/rn) for stabilized soil blocks.*
Once cured, the blocks are ready for use.

range from .15 ksi to 5.80 kai (1.0 w/tn2 to 40 MN/rn) for stabilized soil blockg.*
Once cured, the blocks are ready for use.

3.

Limestabilized soil brick.

Limestabilized soil brick production is quite similar to that for cementstabilized soil bricks.

Once the soil has been selected according to specifications stated in the cementstabilized section, test bricks containing a range from 2 percent to 6 percent lime should be made.

Several moisture contents in the 12 percent to 20 percent range should also be tried.

Once the optimum percentages of lime and water are established, mass production should proceed with the same steps as in concrete stabilized soil bricks.

3.

Limestabilized soil brick.

Limestabilized soil brick production is quite similar to that for cementstabilized Boil bricks.

Once the soil has been aelected according to specificationB stated in the cementetabilized section, test bricks containing a range from 2 percent to 6 percent lime should be made.

Several moisture contents in the 12 percent to 20 percent range should also be tried.

Once the optinium percentage8 of lime and water are established1, ma8s production 8hould proceed with the eame etepe ae in concrete stabilized soil bricks.

The properties of stabilized soil bricks will depend on the type and amount of soils, stabilizers1, and water in the mix.

Aephaltstabilized bricks tend to be more waterresistant than cement or limestabilized bricke
unless high compaction presaureB, >2.32 ksi (>16
it/in2), are used in the production of stabilized soil bricks.

The properties of stabilized soil bricks will depend on the type and amount of soils, stabilizers, and water in the mix.

Asphaltstabilized bricks tend to be more waterresistant than cement or limestabilized bricke
unless high compaction pressures, >2.32 ksi (>16 MN/rn2)1 are used in the production of stabilized soil bricks.

The labor required to produce aphaltstabilized bricks is identical to that required for adobe brick production:
if large volume is desired, a lirge amount of labor will be required.

The labor required for production of cement or lime stabilized soil bricks will depend on the equipment available.

If many blockmaking presses and much labor were available, large volumes of block could be produced.

Approximately two to three people per blockmaking press would be required to optimize production.

The labor required to produce asphaltstabilized bricks is identical to that required for adobe brick production:
if large volume is desired, a large amount of labor will be required.

The labor required for production of cement or lime stabilized soil bricks will depend on the equipment available.

If many blockmaking presses and much labor were available, large volumes of block could be produced.

Approximately two to three people per blockaking press would be required to optimize production.

The primary use of stabilized soil brick is as a load bearing wall component and as a nonloadbearing component in inf ill construction.

The basic procedure for construction with stabilized soil brick Is the same as that used for adobe construction; refer to paragraph 6.3.3.2.

The primary use of stabilized soil brick is as a load bearing wall component and as a nonloadbearing component in inf ill construction.

The basic procedure for construction with stabilized Boil brick is the same as that used for adobe construction; refer to paragraph 6.3.3.2.

Stabilized soil brick is advantageous because:
Stabilized soil brick is advantageous because:

- Most of the uiaterial used is indigenou8
- Most of the material used is Indigenous
- It
is inexpensive
- It
is inexpensive
- It
is durable
- It
is durable
- It
is more waterproof than standard adobe
- It
is more waterproof than standard adobe
- It
provides good insulation.
- It
provides good insulation.
Stabilized soil bricks have several disadvantages:
Stabilized soil bricks have several di8advantages:

- They have poor earthquake resistance unless special reinforcement is
added specifically to resist lateral forces.
- They have poor earthquake resistance unless special reinforcetnent is
added specifically to resist lateral forces.
- Some areas of the Middle East, for instance deserts and salt playas, are totally deid of any soil which could be used to manufacture adobe bricks.

- Some areas of the Middle East, for instance deserts and salt playas, are totally deid of any soil which could be used to manufacture adobe bricks.

- The
time required to produce and cure stabilized bricks may be prohibitive.
- The
time required to produce and cure stabilized bricks may be prohibitive.
- Their properties vary due to variations in type8 of soils. - Their properties vary due to variations in types of soils.
Cementrequired for the production of cementstabilized brick ay not be available.

Cementrequired for the production of cementstabilized brick may not be available.

- In earthquakeprone regions, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand Btrong lateral forces.
- In earthquakeprone regions, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand strong lateral forces.

## 6.3.4 Suzphur Concrete 6.3.4 Suzphur Concrete

Instead of using Portland cement to bind sand& and aggregates to produce Portland cement concrete, sulphur can be used to produce sulphur concrete. Materials and methods for producing sulphur concrete are described below:.

Instead of using Portland cement to bind sanda and aggregates to produce Portland cement concrete, sulphur can be used to produce sulphur concrete. Materials and methods for producing sulphur concrete are described below:.

Elemental sulfur:
dark grade, standard bright grade, or
laboratory grade
Elemental sulfur:
dark grade, standard bright grade, or
laboratory grade
AggregateB:
Coarse
Fi n
Aggregates:
Coarse
Fink
Modifiers:
Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD)
Dipentene (DP)
Oligomers (heavier fractions from DCPD manufacturer)
Modifiers:
Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD)
Dipentene (1W)
Oligotoers (heavier fractions from DCPD manufacturer)

Traditionally, sulphur sources are located underground in regions of past or present volcanic activity.

However, today more and more sulphur is being produced as a byproduct of the desulphurization of oil, natural gas, and power plant emissionG.

It is estimated that by the year 2000, 85 to 90 percent of all sulphur production will come from secondary sources such as power plant scrubbers and refineries.*
Thus, the Middle East region is inadvertently becoming a large producer of sulphur.

Large volumes of sulphur are currently being produced and stockpiled near oil and natural gas refinery areas..

In addition, several areas of the Middle East are also large minedsulphur producers.

Traditionally, sulphur sources are located underground in regions of past or present volcanic activity.

However, today more and more sulphur is being produced as a byproduct of the desulphurization of oil, natural gas, and power plant emissions.

It is estimated that by the year 2000, 85 to 90 percent of all sulphur production will come from secondary sources such as power plant scrubbers and refineries.*
Thus, the Middle East region is inadvertently becoming a large producer of sulphur.

Large volumes of sulphur are currently being produced and stockpiled near oil and natural gas refinery areas..

En addition, several areas of the Middle East are also large minedsulphur producers.

The availability of aggregates varies from region to region of the Middle East.

In certain areas, such as salt -playas and sand dunes, many types of aggregates may be nonexistent.

However, sulphur concrete will allow the use of chloride and sulphatecontaining aggregates, which may be unsuitable for portland cement concrete.

It is generally suggested that each aggregate system considered should be evaluated for its compatibility with sulphur and modifiers.

Some aggregates may be unacceptable since they react chemically with sulphur.

Also, aggregates that contain swelling clays are not suggested.

The availability of aggregates varies from region to region of the Middle East.

In certain areas, such as salt -playas and sand dunes, many types of aggregates may be nonexistent.

However, sulphur concrete will allow the use of chloride and sulphatecontaining aggregates, which may be unsuitable for portland cement concrete.

It is generally suggested that each aggregate system considered should be evaluated for its coEnpatibility with sulphur and modifiers.

Some aggregates may be unacceptable since they react cheEnically with sulphur.

Also, aggregates that contain swelling clays are not suggested.

* "U.S.
Bureau of Mines Transfers Sulphur Concrete Technology to Industry," in
Sulphur Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
* "U.S. Bureau of Mines Transfers Sulphur Concrete Technology to Industry,
in
Sulphur Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
In general, liiiestone aggregates give higher strength and better freezethaw resistance, and quartz aggregates give better corrosion resistance. In general, limestone aggregates give higher strength and better freezethaw resistance, and quartz aggregates give better corrosion resistance.

Modifiers are used in sulphur concrete to correct two problems:
brittle-
Modifiers are used in sulphur concrete to correct two problems:
brittleness and combustibility.

A commonly used modifier, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), corrects both of these problems.

Other commonly used modifiers are dipentene
(DP) and oligoiners, which are heavier fractions from the manufacturing of ness and combustibility.

A commonly used modifier, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), corrects both of these problems.

Other commonly used modifiers are dipentene
(DP) and oligomers, which are heavier fractions from the manufacturing of DCPD.*
Since these are modern commercially produced chemicals, it may be assumed that any large quantity of modifier required in the Middle East will have to be shipped into the area.

DCPD.*
Since these are modern commercially produced chemicals, it may be assumed that any large quantity of modifier required in the Middle East will have to be shipped into the area.

During manufacturing, modifiers must be added to optimize the performance of sulphur concrete.

However, when considering construction for short durations, it might be conceivable to use unmodified sulphur to produce sulphur concrete.

According to research done by John M. Dale, elemental sulphur has reasonable structural properties of its own.

The following chart is a section of a test data chart produced by Dale.**
During manufacturing, modifiers must be added to optimize the performance of sulphur concrete.

However, when considering conatruetion for short durations, it might be conceivable to use unmodified sulphur to produce sulphur concrete.

According to research done by John M. Dale, elemental sulphur has reasonable structural properties of its own.

The following chart is a section of a test data chart produced by Dale.**

## La3Oratory Test Data (Specimen Age At Test Is 1 Day) La3Oratory Test Data (Specimen Age At Test Is 1 Day)

Grade
Tensile Strength
Compressive
Strenth
Modulus of Rupture
of Sulphur
(Avg) psi (KN/m)
(Avg) psi (KN/m )
(Avg)
psi (KN/m2)
Grade
Tensile Strength
Compressive
Strenth
Modulus of Rupture
of Sulphur
(Avg) psi (KN/m)
(Avg) psi (KN/m )
(Avg)
psi (KN/m2)
Dark
147 (1014)
3030 (20891)
275 (1896)
Standard Bright
178 (1227)
3010 (20753)
108 (745)
Laboratory
163 (1124)
3430 (23649)
113 (779)
Dark
147 (1014)
3030 (20891)
275 (1896)
Standard Bright
178 (1227)
3010 (20753)
108 (745)
Laboratory
163 (1124)
3430 (23649)
113 (779)

The strengths exhibited in the above tests show that reasonably good strength8 can be achieved with sulphur alone.

Thus even if only sulphur were available, sound structural materials could be developed.

However, unmodified sulphur does present some problems.

Elemental sulphur is not fireresistant, and it tends to be brittle.

In addition, when sulphur burns it produces harmful gases such as hydrogen sulfide and sulphur dioxide.

The strengths exhibited in the above tests show that reasonably good strengths can be achieved with sulphur alone.

Thus even if only sulphur were available, sound structural materials could be developed.

However, unmodified
8ulphur does present some problems.

Elemental sulphur is not fireresistant, and it tends to be brittle.

In addition, when sulphur burns it produces harin ful gases such as hydrogen sulfide and 8ulphur dioxide.

But if modifiers and modifying equipment are not available, unmodified sulphur concrete could be the only solution.

The first step -in using unmodi
fled sulphur is to acquire the raw materials.

Then, melting equipment is needed.

This typically consists of a standard concrete mixer with liquid or gas burners located around the drum.

Liquid propane (LP) gas, natural gas, or any other fuel source can be used to heat the drum.

The only problem that arises from using conventional concrete mixers is from the additional heat transferred from the hot drum to the grease in the bearings of the unit.

The bearings must be closely watched and lubricated liberally if the grease starts melting.

But if modifiers and modifying equipment are not available, unmodified sulphur concrete could be the only solution.

The first step -in: using -unmodi
fied sulphur is to acquire the raw materials.

Then, meltitg equipment is needed.

This typically consists of a standard concrete mixer with liquid or gas burners located around the drum.

Liquid propane (LP) gas, natural gas, or any other fuel source can be used to heat the drum.

The only problem that arises from using conventional concrete mixers is from the additional heat transferred from the hot drum to the grease in the bearings of the unit.

The bearings must be closely watched and lubricated liberally if the grease starts eltiug.

* "U.S. Bureau of Mines Transfers Sulphur Concrete Technology to Industry," in
Sulphur Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
**J. M. Dale, "Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Elemental Sulfur," Materials Research & Standards, Vol 1 (January 1961), p 25.
* "U.S.
Bureau of Mines Transfers Sulphur Concrete Technology to Industry," in
Sulphur Re8earch & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
**J. M. Dale, "Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Elemental Sulfur1" Materials Research & Standards1 Vol 1 (January 1961), p 25.
Onct the proper raw materials and equipment are located, the production of unmodified sulphur corcrete can proced.

The aggregate is added first to the mixer a'z is brought up to the desired mixing temperature range of 266 to
302F (1.30
1o
150C).

A mix of 25 percent sulphur and 75 percent aggregate can be used.*
However, the moGt effective method iou1d be to try several mixes with difffereiit sulphur and aggregate ratios.

Onct the proper raw materials and equipment are located, the production of unmodified sulphur concrete can proceed.

The aggregate Is added first to the mixer a'z is brought up to the desired mixing temperature range of 266 to
302F (1.30 to 150C).

A mix of 25 percent sulphur and 75 percent aggregate can be used.*
However, the most effective method would be to try several mixes with different sulphur and aggregate ratios.

The sulphur should be allowed to thoroughly melt and mix with the aggregates.

Then the mix Is ready to pour.

Either pouredinplace sulphur concrete or sulphur concrete block can be formed with the mix.

If sulphur con
crete blocks are desired, metal molds that can be separated must be acquired.

Molds that produce interlocking block or standard 8 x 8 x 16In. (200 x
200 x iOOmm) structural block may be used.

The insides of the mold should be lightly oiled before adding the sulphur concrete.

The sulphur concrete blocks wIll achieve full strength In about 1 hour; however, they can be relnoved from the molds in as few as 10 minutes after casting.**
Thus, with only a few molds, fairly rapid production can be achieved.

The sulphur should be allowed to thoroughly melt and mix with the aggregates.

Then the mix is ready to pour.

Either pouredinplace sulphur concrete or sulphur concrete block can be formed with the mix.

If sulphur con
crete blocks are desired, metal molds that can be separated must be acquired.

Molds that produce interlocking block or standard 8 x 8 x 16in. (200 x
200 x !.OOmm) structural block may be used.

The irLsides of the mold should be lightly oiled before adding the sulphur concrete.

The sulphur concrete blocks wLll achieve full strength in about 1 hour; however, they can be renoved from the motds in as fe a 10 ninutea after casting.**
Thus, with only a few molds, fair'y rapid production can be achieved.

Purdfrlplace sulphur concrete Is placed like ordinary concretes but due t'
the qutck hardening of the sulphur, the mixture must be quickly worked Pouredfriplace sulphur concrete is placed like ordinary concrete, but due to the quick hardening of the sulphur, the mixture must be quickly worked into place.

In apjroximately 1 hour the sulphur concrete will reach full strength.

Pouredinplace sulphur concrete is excellent for foundations, footings, slabs, and other structural materials.

into place.

In aproximately 1 hour the sulphur concrete will reach full
.ctrngt1.

Pouredinplace sulphur concrete is excellent for foundations, footings, slabs, and other structural materials.

If modifiers such as DCPD are available, it would be extremely beneficial to incorporate them Into the sulphur concrete mix.

When modifiers such as DCPD are added in adequate quantities, the sulphur concrete becomes fire
resistant and flexible.

The addition of 2 percent to 5 percent DCPD modifier is a reasonably complex chemical reaction which requires that the temperature not exceed 284F (140C).

If the temperature exceeds 284F (140C), the mix may become stiff and rubbery.

The advantages of using modified sulphur cement are exeniplified in the properties given in the chart below.+
If modifiers such as DCPD are available, it would be extremely beneficial to incorporate them into the sulphur concrete mix.

When iodifiere 8uch as DCPD ar added in adequate quantities, the sulphur concrete becomes fire
resistant and flexible.

The addition of 2 percent to 5 percent DCPD modifier is a re.isonably coiiiplex chemical reaction which requires that the temperature not exceed 284F (140C).

If the temperature exceeds 284F (140C), the mix my bcoue stiff and rubbery.

The advantages of using modified sulphur cement are exeiplified in the properties given in the chart below.+
Sulphur concrete can be poured In place like ordinary portland concrete, SuJphur concrete can be poured in place like ordinary portland concrete, or any '1e block can be formed if the proper mold is available.

Labor rquird to pour sulphur concrete would be similar to that for portland cement concrt.

If mixing equipment i available, men will be needed to load and operate the equipment and to transfer the sulphur cement to the work ate.

Also, men will be needed to work the cement Into place.

If sulphur cement blocks are going to be produced, the labor requited will vary depending on the production volume desired.

or ally size block can be formed if the proper mold is available.

Labor required to pour sulphur concrete would be similar to that for portland cement concrete.

If mixing equipment is available, men will be needed to load and operate the equipment and to transfer the sulphur cement to the work aite. Also, men will be needed to work the cement Lnto place.

If sulphur cement blocks are going to be produced, the labor requited will vary depending on the production volume desirea.

* Alvaro
Ortega, "Sulphur Concretes in the Arabian Desert," in Sulphur
Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 14.
**Alvaro Ortega, "Sulphur Concretes In the Arabian Desert," in Sul?hur
Research & Development, ed. 3.
S.
Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The Sulphur In-
* Alvaro Ortega, "Sulphur CoElcretes in the Arabian Desert," in Sulphur
Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 14.
**Alvaro Ortega, "Sulphur Concretes in the Arabian Desert," in Sul?hur
Reeacch & DeveLpment, ed. 1.
S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
The Sulphur InstItute, 1979),
p 14.
+ Frun William C.
McBee and Thomas A. Sullivan, Development of Specialized
Sulfur Concretes, Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 8346 (Washington,
stItute, 1979), p 14.
+ Frun William C. 1Be and Thomas A.
Sullivan, Development of pialied
Sulfur Concretes, Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 8346
(Washington,
D.C., U.S.
Departrent of the Interior, 1979), p 12.
D.C., U.S. Departrent
of the Interiors 1979), p 12.
629

## Properties Of Sulphur Concrete Materials Properties Of Sulphur Concrete Materials

Aggregate
Sulphur
(pct)
Stretgth)
psi
Tensile
Specific
Gravity
Compressive
Flexural
Aggregate
Sulphur
(pct)
Strength,
psi
Tensile
Specific Gravity
Compressive
Flexural
26
22Ml*
24M1
26
22&*
24M1
Silica
24
5075
845
730
2.3409
Silica
Silica Silica
7280
5310
6120
Silica
24
5075
845
730
2.3409
Silica
Silica Silica
830
775
760
830
775
760
905
1220
1335
905
1220
1335
7280
5310
6120
2.40t2
2.2132 2.2306
Limestone
22
6740
700
795
2.4762
Limestone
Litneetone
Limestone
810
1235 1330
2.4974
2.4364
2.4281
6855 7990
9020
24
21M1
23M
760
815 895
2.4012
2.2132 2.2306
Limestone
22
6740
700
795
2.4762
Limestone
24
6855
810
760
2.4974
Limestone Limestone
21M1 23M1
7990 9020
1235 1330
815
895
2.4364
2.4281

de9ignatee aulphur that hae been reacted with 5 percent dicyclopntadiene. designates sulphur that has been reacted with 5 percent dicyc1opntadiene.

Sulphur concrete can be used to form block or pouredinplace structures.

Sulphur concrete block may be used as a load bearing wall component or as a non-load bearing component in inf ill construction.

Sulphur concrete can be used to form block or pouredinplace structures.

Sulphur concrete block may be used as a load bearing wall component or as a nonload bearing component in inf Ill construction.

The basic procedure for construction with hollow 8 x 8 x 16in. (200 x
200 x 400nim) 8ulphur concrete block iB the 9ame procedure used in concrete block construction.

Cement mortar, lime mortar, or sulphur bonding may be used to join the block.

If interlocking block is used, little or no bonding may be required.

The basic procedure for construction with hollow 8 x 8 x 16in. (200 x
200 x 400nim) sulphur concrete block is the same procedure used in concrete block construction.

Cement mortar, lime mortar, or sulphur bonding may be used to join the block.

If interlocking block is used, little or no bonding may be required.

The procedure for sulphur concrete pouredinplace construction is identical to the procedure for portland cement construction, except quick cooling of the sulphur concrete will create 9olneproblems.. Therefore, special consideration will have to be given since Bulphur concrete will cool quickly and thus set up before being worked into place.

The procedure for sulphur concrete pouredinplace construction is identical to the procedure for portland cement construction, except quick cooling of the sulphur concrete will create soineproblems.. Therefore, special consideration will have to be given since sulphur concrete will cool quickly and thus set up before being worked Into place.

The advantage8 of sulphur concrete are as follow8: The advantages of sulphur concrete are as follows:

- Sources of sulphur are plentiful in the Middle East
- Sources of sulphur are plentiful in the Middle East
- The blocks have good compressive strength
- The blocks have good compressive strength
- Only sulphur and aggregate are needed to produce blocks
- Only sulphur and aggregate are needed to produce blocks

- The
blocks are waterproof
- The blocks are waterproof
- Sulphur can be stored outdoor8 with no loss of value
- Sulphur can be stored outdoors with no loss of value
- Sulphur concrete can easily be recycled by simply reheating.

- Sulphur concrete can easily be recycled by simply reheating.

The disadatages of sulphur concrete are as follows: The disadatages of sulphur concrete are as follows:
- UnmodifLed sulphur concrete can burn and produce noxious gases
- UnmodiHed sulphur concrete can burn and produce noxious gases
- Modified sulphur concrete can melt and therefore i8 unsatisfactory for any structure which would normally experience temperatures above approximately
234F (113C)
- Modified sulphur concrete can melt and therefore is unsatisfactory for any structure which would normally experience temperatures above approximately
234F (113C)
- Conventional cement and asphalt equipment can be used but must be adapted to sulphur concrete
- Conventional cement and asphalt equipment can be used but must be adapted to sulphur concrete

- Separable
ceramic or metal molds are required to produce blocks
- Separable
ceramic or metal molds are required to produce blocks
- Modifiers
are required to produce a sulphur concrete which will not
burn or fail in a brittle manner
- Modifiers
are required to produce a sulphur concrete which will not
burn or fail In a brittle manner
- Modifiers will probably not be available unless they are shipped and brought to the area where they will be used.

- Modifiers will probably not be available unless they are shipped and brought to the area where they will be used.

## 6.3.5 Other Local Construction Materiala 6.3.5 Other Local Construction Materials 6.3.5.1 SandLime Brick: 6.3.5.1 SandLime Brick:

Sandlime brick can be found in some parts of the Middle East, such as Kuwait and Qatar.

It is made of silica sand, quick lime, and water.

Blocks vary greatly in size from region to region, but several common sizes are 222 x
108 x 66.7 mm, 250 x 130 x 60 mm, and 222 x 108 x 139 mm.

The chief uses of sandlime (calcium silicate) brick in the Middle East are as both nonload
bearing and loadbearing wall components.

However, in loadbearing applications, the structure is usually not over one story tall.

Sandlime brick may also be used in infill construction.

Sandlime brick can be found in Bome parts of the Middle East, such as Kuwait and Qatar.

It is made of silica sand, quick lime, and water.

Blocks vary greatly in size from region to region, but several common sizes are 222 x
108 x 66.7 mm, 250 x 130 x 60 mm, and 222 x 108 x 139 mm.

The chief uses of sandlime (calcium silicate) brick in the Middle East are as both nonload
bearing and loadbearing wall components.

However, in loadbearing applications, the structure is usually not over one 8tory tall.

Sandlime brick may also be used In infill construction.

## 6.3.5.2 Stone Block: 6.3.5.2 Stone Block:

Many different types of stone can be found throughout the Middle East.

Limestones are common in Israel and Egypt.

Sandstones also are common in Israel.

Many types of stones, such as limestone, sandstone,. dolomite, and marble, are presently mined in many areas.

Thus, in addition to untapped natural stone sources, there are operating quarries throughout the area.

Stone block may be used for many purposes, but mainly stone blocks are used as loadbearing wall components.

Stone blocks may also be used in infill construction as wall fillers.

The basic procedure for constructing a stone block building is similar to the procedure used in adobe construction.

Many different types of stone can be found throughout the Middle East.

Limestones are common in Israel and Egypt.

Sandstones also are common in Israel.

Many types of stones, such as limestone, sandatone,. dolomite, and marble, are presently mined in many areas.

Thus, in addition to untapped natural stone sources, there are operating quarries throughout the area.

Stone bl.ock may be used for many purposes, but mainly stone blocks are u8ed as loadbearing wall components.

Stone blocks may also be used in infill construction as wall fillers.

The basic procedure for constructing a atone block building is similar to the procedure used in adobe construction.

## 6.3.5.3 Wood: 6.3.5.3 Wood:

In general, it is safe to assume that no wood will be available for major construction projects in the Middle East.

In fact, however, some woods may be available in some parts of the Middle East.

The natural habitats of deciduous In general, it is safe to assume that no wood will be available for major construction projects in the Middle East.

In fact, however, some woods may be available in some parts of the Middle East.

The natural habitats of deciduous
631
and coniferous trees suitable for 8awa timber are located in the mountains and highland plains of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey.

International trade statistics* and individual country surveys** show that forestry and wood conversion industries exist in these countries, although it cannot be assumed that supplies of sawn timber are necessarily available.

Pakistan is attempting reforestation, although some earlier plantations have been destroyed for firewood.

and coniferou8 trees suitable for 8awn tiakber are located in the mountains and highland plains of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey.

International trade stati8tic8* and individual country surveya** show that forestry and wood conversion industries exist in theee countries, although it cannot be asgutned that supplies of sawn timber are necessarily available.

Pakistan is attempting reforeatation, although some earlier plantations have been destroyed for firewood.

The coastal and lowlying areas of the region are sources of roundwood from palm trees of various species.

These areas support the growth of coconut, oil, and especially date palms  the basis of a diversifying agricultural industry.

Although unsuitable for sawn timber, palm tree trunks have always been a traditional building material, used for columns and as floor and roof beams.

The coabtal and lowlying areas of the region are sourcea of roundwood from palm treea of various species.

These areas support the growth of coconut, oil, and especially date palms  the baBiB of a diversifying agricultural industry.

Although unsuitable for sawn timber, palm tree trunks have always been a traditional building material, ueed for columns and as floor atd roof beams.

Small roundwooda, called "bally poles" in Iran, varying in diameter from about 2 to 6 in. (51 to 152 imu), are u8ed traditionally for raftera, purlins, and po8ts.

They come from a local poplarlike tree, and thus are generally straight and euitable for these purposes.

Small roundwooda, called "bally poles" in Iran, varying in diameter from about 2 to 6 in. (51 to 152 imu), are used traditionally for rafters, purline, and posts.

They come from a local poplarlike tree, and thus are generally straight and euitable for these purposes.

Wood is not normally recommended in hot, dry regions of .SWA because it is unavailable locally and much would be wasted due to the combination of high solar radiation and low humidity.

However, if lumber is imported for constructing some of the required buildings, such as AFCS facilities, certain steps may be taken to minimize the problem.

These steps are given below:
Wood ia not normally recommended in hots dry region8 of
.SWA because it is unavailable locally and much would be wa8ted due to the combination of high Bolar radiation and low humidity.

However, if lumber is imported for constructing gome of the required buildittgs, such as AFCS facilitie9, certain steps may be taken to minimize the problem.

These ateps are given below:
1.

Utmost care must be taken to limit waste due to cutting, etc.

For ittatance, a centralized cutting yard may be used.

1.

Utmost care must be taken to limit waste due to cutting, etc.

For instance, a centralized cutting yard may be used.

2.

If wood is used, the studs must be used as soon as the bands around the stud package are broken to reduce wood stud loss caused by warping.

(Do not untie the bands until the studs are ready to be used.)
2.

If wood is used the stud8 must be used a soon a the bands around the stud package are broken to reduce wood stud losa caused by warping.

(Do not untie the banda until the studa are ready to be used.)
3.

The frame must be wrapped immediately with some material to shield it from the suas direct rays to prevent warping and cracking.

3.

The rame must be wrapped immediately with some material to ahield it from the suns direct raya to prevent warping and cracking.

4.
Sidings should be installed as soon as wall framings are completed.
4.
Sidings should be inatalled as soon aa wall framinga are completed.
5.
A raised foundation which requires wood norially is not recommended.
5.
A raised foundation which requires wood normally is not recommended.
6.3.5.4
Pole Construction:
Figure 6.8 illustratea the construction of the main frame of a building utilizing roundwood poles embedded in the ground. The advantage of pole construction is that the cantilevered poles reduce the need for bracing, which is important when the building contains no internal walls.

Spacing of the poles will be determined by the enclosing wall system selected.

6.3.5,4
Pole Construction:
Figure 6.8 illustrates the construction of the main frame of a building utilizing roundwood poles embedded in the ground. The advantage of pole construction is that the cantilevered poles reduce the need for bracing, which is important when the building contains no internal walls.

Spacing of the poles will be determined by the enclosing wall system selected.

6.3.5.5
Roundwood Roof Timbers:
The use of tree trunks and large poles is a traditional form of floor and roof support in the Middle East.

Figure 6.9
illustrates a cantilevered timber floor in an urban house in Iraq.

Roof
6.3.5.5
Roundwood Roof Timbers:
The use of tree trunks and large poles is a traditional form of floor and roof support in the Middle East.

Figure 6.9
illustrates a cantilevered timber floor in an urban house in Iraq.

Roof construction by this method will require heavy external supporting walls, particularly if the traditional method is carried out to the extent of using packed earth, on bearers, for the roof itself.

This method can be used with masonry or thick adobe wall materials, or if the building is buried to some extent.

## 6.3.5.6 CementAsbestos Panels:

These can be used In conventional ways and as roof coverings.

They are more suitable than metal panels in the desert since there is leBs heat gain in the material itself, and because they do not corrode.

If used, they should be insulated or shaded, depending on the application.

Figure 6.10 shows an application of cementasbestos panels in which they are buried about 3 ft
(1 m) in the ground to form cantilevered walls.

## 6.4 Prefabricated Structural Systems

Prefabrication is production of buildings or parts of buildings before their installation on the site.

Prefabrication may be used for expediency, efficiency, or convenience when applicable.

Prefabrication can take place in highly mechanized factories but also at temporary locations with minimal equipment and protection, as circumstances dictate.

In Borne countries of the Middle East, there is considerable experience with prefabrication, including Israel, Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia; new prefabricating plants are constantly being established at industrial centers and construction sites throughout the region as the market demands.

Prefabrication in certain Middle East locations is as common as onsite or "conventional" construction.

Therefore, locally produced prefabricated buildings should be investigated for possible use in a base development.

In Borne countries of the Middle East, there is considerable experience with prefabrication, including Israel, Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia; new prefabricating plants are constantly being established at industrial centers and construction sites throughout the region as the market demands.

Prefabrication in certain Middle East locations is as common as onsite or "conventional" construction.

Therefore, locally produced prefabricated buildings should be investigated for possible use in a base development.

Another problem common to lightweight structures is the desert wind which can reach almost hurricane force in some regions.

It is essential to anchor buildings securely to the ground with cables and ground anchors.

Another problem common to lightweight structures is the desert wind which can reach almost hurricane force in some regions.

It is essential to anchor buildings securely to the ground with cables and ground anchors.

Caution must be used, however.

Although prefabricated relocatable buildings used for offices or barracks generally are lightweight, and their walls, roof, and floor systems are adequately insulated, they will function well and provide comfortable working or living quarters only if they are cooled mechanically.

Without mechanical cooling, the interior temperatures will rise above the outside air temperature and' become intolerable during some parts of the day due to high solar radiation and heat generated by the occupants (see paragraph 6.2.5).

Caution must be used, however.

Although prefabricated relocatable buildings used for offices or barracks generally are lightweights and their walls, roof, and floor systems are adequately insulated, they will function well and provide comfortable working or living quarters only if they are cooled mechanically.

Without mechanical cooling, the interior temperatures will rise above the outside air temperature and' become intolerable daring some parts of the day due to high solar radiation and heat generated by the occupants (See paragraph 6.2.5).

## 6.5 Tents 6.5 Tents

6.5.1
GenraZ.
6.5.1
GnraZ.
Tent, GeneralPurpose, Medium, and Tent, GeneralPurpose, Large are two of the tents procured and available from depots for rapid issue.

Tent, Extendable, Modular, Personnel (TEMPER tent) is being developed and ultimately will replace the medium and large generalpurpose tents.

Although the TEMPER
tent has greater flexibility for use in different environments, the information detailed here covers expedient modifications to improve the use and habitability of the generalpurpose tents in a desert environment.

Information on the TEMPER tent is also provided.

Tent, GeneralPurpose, Medium, and Tent, GeneralPurpose, Large are two of the tents procured and available from depots for rapid issue.

Tent, Extendable, Modular, Personnel (TEMPER tent) is being developed and ultimately will replace the medium and large generalpurpose tents.

Although the TEMPER
tent has greater flexibility for use in different environments, the information detailed here covers expedient modifications to iniprove the use and habitability of the generalpurpose tents in a desert environment.

Information on the TEMPER tent is also provided.

Tents can be very undesirable quarters In the desert because of high
.olar radiation, desert winds, and insects.

However, tents ie required for th initial stage of military operations.

To maketents more habitable, double roofs should be used, and the outer roof should be painted in light color, such as sand color when possible.

Concrete floors under the tents can also make them more comfortable.

Tents can be very undesirable quarters In the desert because of high oir radiation, desert winds, and insects.

However, tents ae required for th initial stage of military operations.

To make tents more habitable, double roofs should be used, and the outer roof should be painted in light color, such as sand color when possible.

Concrete floors under the tents can also make them more comfortable.

## 6.5.2 Expedient Modification8 Of GenerczlPurpos Tents 6.5.2 Expedient Modification8 Of GeneralPurpose Tents

The modifications detailed here can be procured and stocked as a kit, and can be applied to the tent issued from depot stocks.

The kit will consist of a multicolored fly, 14 extenders, and a lightweight ground cloth or floor.

A
liner must be used with the proposed kit to produce a more effective tent, end must be requisitioned on a onetoone basis for the tent.

Figure 6.11 shows the basic tent with the liner, extenders, and fly in position.

The modifications detailed here can be procured and stocked as a kit, and can be applied to the tent issued from depot atocks.

The kit will consist of a multicolored fly, 14 extenders, and a lightweight ground cloth or floor.

A
liner must be used with the propoaed kit to produce a more effective tent, and mu8t be requisitioned on a onetoone basis for the tent.

Figure 6.11 shows the basic tent with the liner, extenders, and fly in position.

1.

Multicolored fly.

The fly must be made of a lightweight, vinyl
coated fabric.

One side is to be sandcolored for use when the temperatures
1.

Multicolored fly.

The fly must be made of a lightweight, vinyl
coated fabric.

One side is to be sandcolored for use when the temperatures will be in the normal desert range.

The other side must be white to be used in desert extremes.

The configuration of the fly is shown in Figure 6.12.

will be in the normal desert range.

The other side must be white to be used in desert extremes.

The configuration of the fly is shown in Figure 6.12.

2.

Extender.

The kit includes 14 extenders, which are to be used with the fly to form an insulating air space between the fly and the tent roof top.

The extenders are used with the eave and door poles, as shown in Figure 6.11. The basic concept of the extender is shown in Figure 6.13.

2.

Extender.

The kit includes 14 extenders, which are to be used with the fly to form an insulating air space between the fly and the tent roof top.

The extenders are used with the eave and door poles, as shown in Figure 6.11. The basic concept of the extender is shown in Figure 6.13.

3.

Ground cloth or floor.

The kit includes a ground cloth which is to be used primarily for protection against crawling insects and small animals. The item must be made of a 12oz (0.34kg) forestgreen, coated fabric.

The dimensions and configuration of the ground cloth or floor must fit the interior of the tent.

Instead of using ground cloth, a concrete floor under the tents can make the occupants more comfortable.

3.

Ground cloth or floor.

The kit includes a ground cloth which is to be used primarily for protection against crawling insects and small animals. The item must be made of a 12oz (0.34kg) forestgreen, coated fabric.

The dimensions and configuration of the ground cloth or floor mu8t fit the interior of the tent.

Instead of using ground cloth, a concrete floor under the tents can make the occupants more comfortable.

4
Use in desert environment.

The tent, to be effective in a desert environments must: make maximum use of the screens in the liner and in the doors at each end.

The fabric on each of the sidewalls must be separated at the ends, rolled back,and tied in place at the eaves with the-ties provided.

The screens ia each of the ends must be unrolled and positioned over Lhe door openings.

The screens and fly will lower the temperature of the a!r jr the tent.

See Figure 6.14 for an exatnple of tents used by the EgypL. Ar.y ir a desert environnent.

4.

Use in desert environment.

The tent, to be effective in a desert environment, must: make maximum use of the screens in the liner and in the doors at each end.

The fabric on each of the sidewalls must be separated at the ends, rolled back,and tied in place at the eaves with the-ties provided.

The screens Ia each of the ends must be unrolled and positioned over Lhe door openings.

The screens and fly will lower the temperature of the a!r jr the tent.

See Figure 6.14 for an example of tents used by the EgypL. Ar.y in a desert environment.

5.

Onsite fabrication of kit.

The fly, ground cloths or floor, and extender can be made onsite by aiaintenance personnel if the requfred basic materials tnd equipment are provided.

This may be a little difficult for the fly, since the multicolored, vinylcoated fabric must be rolled and stitched to fc.rni the detailed shape and size.

Grominets can be used at designated locations and tie ropes added.

A machine shop is necessary to fabricate the extenders.

The tube must be cut to the proper length and the ends drilled to accept the rod at one end and the pins on the poles at the other end.

Welding equipmi'L is required to weld the pin to one end of the tube.

5.

Onsite fabrication of kit.

The fly, ground cloth, or floor, and extender can he made onsite by maintenance personnel if the required basic materials tnd equipment are provided, This may be a little difficult for the fly, since the multicolored, vinylcoated fabric must be rolled and stitched to form the detailed shape and size.

Grominets can be used at designated locations and tie ropes added.

A machine shop is necessary to fabricate the extenders.

The tube must be cut to the proper length and the ends drilled to accept the rod at one end and the pins on the poles at the other end.

Welding equipmerl is required to weld the pin to one end of the tube.

6.5.3
Tv, ciendble, Modular, Personnel
6.5.3
Tv, Eendble, Modular, Prsonwl The TEMPER
tent can be used witho.ut. .modificatio.n In a desert environment.

This tent h:-s o types of covers.

The tropical/desert type has windows and screens i c}i s.tde and on both sides of the roof.

For exaraple, a 24ft--long
(7.32rn) tent 1-s 12 side and roof openings.

Sidewall windows are complete with screens, glass and blackout flaps.

Roof openings are provided with rollup weather flaps.

Each end of the tent has two windows with screens and glass, plus a door with a screen.

A fly is also available in a basic 16ft
(4.88in) length; additional fly sections are each 8 ft (2.4 m) long.

Extenders are available for positioning the fly over the tent roof top.

A
ground cloth or floor is available in either a single layer or an insulated floor with a foam encased between two sheets of coated fabric.

A liner with door or window openings is available.

Another feature of the TE{PER tent is the transition section.

This makes it possible to develop a complete shelter which does ijot require personnel to go outside.

A singlelayer ground cloth or floor, plus the insulated floor and a framesupported system are available for the transitton section.

Also included is a flexible door for the open end of the transflion section when it
[s not used for connecting two tents.

The TE1FER tent can be used wIthaut. .modificatio.n in a desert environment.

This tent h:-s o types of covers.

The tropical/desert type has windows and screens c}i side and on both sides of the roof.

For example, a 24ftlong
(7.32rn) tent has 12 side and roof openings.

Sidewall windows are complete with screens, glass, and blackout flaps.

Roof openings are provided with rollup weather flaps.

Each end of the tent has two windows with screens and glass, plus a door with a screen.

A fly is also available in a basic 16ft
(4.88m) length; additional fly sections are each 8 ft (2.4 m) long.

Extenders are available for positioning the fly over the tent roof top.

A
ground cloth or floor is available in either a single layer or an insulated floor with a foam encased between two sheets of coated fabric.

A liner with door or window openings is available.

Another feature of the TE{PER tent is the transition section.

This makes it possible to develop a complete shelter which does not require personnel to go outside.

A singlelayer ground cloth or floor, plus the insulated floor and a framesupported system are available for the transitton section.

Also included is a flexible door for the open end of the transition section when it Is not used for connecting two tents.

638

## For Captivating Holder Assembly Through Hole Hitch Pin And Through Hole For Captivating Hitch Pin Nd Holder Assembly

Figure 6.15 shows the TEMPER tent conplete with a transition section.

Figure
6.16 shows this tent configured for a complete field feeding system.

Figure 6.15 shows the TEMPER tent complete with a transition section.

Figure
6.16 shows this tent configured for a complete field feeding system.

## 6.5.4 G'Ow Rchors For Tents 6.5.4 G'Ow Rchors For Tents

Sandy and rocky ground combined with high winds in the desert can cause problems with pitching tents.

Possible solutions to the problem are Sandy and rocky ground combined with high wind8 in the desert can cause prob1es with pitching tents.

Possible solutions to the problem are:
1.

Use of the deadman anchor for cohesionless soil such as sand or loose, silty soils.

A deadman anchor consists of a steel rod or cable attached to a mass such as steel plates, steel Ibeam, pipe, concrete blocks, etc., burled in the ground (Figure 6.17).

1.

Use of the deadman anchor for cohesionless soil such as sand or loose, silty soils.

A deadman anchor consists of a steel rod or cable attached to a mass such as steel plates, steel Ibeam, pipe, concrete blocks, etc., burled in the ground (Figure 6.17).

2.

Use of corkscrew anchors if the required resistance force is not large (the corkscrew anchor is more suitable for claylike soil).

2.

Use of corkscrew anchors if the required resistance force is not large (the corkscrew anchor is more suitable for claylike soil).

3.

To provide anchorage in rock or rocklike soil, it is necessary to bore holes in the rock and grout in anchor bolts.

3.

To provide anchorage in rock or rocklike soil, it is necessary to bore holes in the rock and grout in anchor bolts.

4.

Explosive charges can also be used to break up the rocks or hard o1ls to install anchoring devices.

4.

Explosive charges can also be used to break up the rocks or hard soils to install anchoring devices.

5.

A wedge anchor embedded in an augered hole can also be used for rocky conditions.

5.

A wedge anchor embedded in an augered hole can also be used for rocky conditions.

## 6.6 Facility Design Drawings

Plans, elevations, sections, and selected details of a typical 24ft
(7.3rn) building are provided as an example for the block system construction (Figures 6.18 through 6.20).

concrete roof system.

## Chapter 7 - Horizontal Construction Chapter 7 - Horizontal Construction 7.1 General 7.1 General

Historically, TO construction has played a paramount role in providing the logistical support needed by U.S. combat units.

Movement of these units and support units within a theater depends on lines of communications (LOC).

Because of the limited number of existing roads and the difficulty of offroad niobility in some desert areas, considerable effort may be required to Con struct and maintain roads forward to maneuver units (FM 903, p 421).

New or rehabilitated roada and airfields are key element8 in the mobility system (see TM 5330 and TM 5337 [Cl]).

In addition, engineer capabilittes in horizontal construction will be employed in excavation and construction of revetments for ammunition and petroleumoillubricants (POL) storage, and in the repair of bonibdamaged or sabotaged airfields.

Historically, TO construction has played a paramount role in providing the logistical support needed by U.S. combat units.

Movement of these units and 8upport units within a theater depends on lines of communications (LOC).

Because of the limited number of existing roads and the difficulty of offroad mobility in some desert areas, considerable effort may be required to con struct and maintain roads forward to maneuver units (FM 903, p 421).

New or rehabilitated roads and airfields are key elements in the mobility system (see TM 5330 and TM 5337 [Cl]).

In addition, engineer capabilities In horizontal construction will be employed in excavation and construction of revetments for ammunition and petroleumoillubricants (POL) storage, and in the repair of bombdamaged or sabotaged airfields.

The harsh MidEast environment present8 critical horizontal construction problems related to lack of water, temperature extremes, dust, lack of con
8truction materials, and soil conditions.

Fine aggregate is generally abundant; however, natural coarse aggregate is characteristic of the alluvial fan and watercourse (wadi) areag.

A positive note is that very little bridging, culvert, and roadway drainage con8truction is required for LOC.

Emphasis is on getting the maximum use out of existing facilities.

The harsh MidEast environment presents critical horizontal construction problems related to lack of water, temperature extremes, dust, lack of construction materials, and soil conditions.

Fine aggregate. is generally abundant; however, natural coarse aggregate is characteristic of the alluvial fan and watercourse (wadi) areas.

A positive note is that very little bridging, culvert, and roadway drainage construction is required for LOC.

Emphasis is on getting the maximum use out of existing facilities.

To do this, it is necessary to have the capabilities to (1) repair bomb
damaged or sabotaged runways, (2) build or rebuild adequate allweather traffic surfaces without bringing in large amounts of construction materials,
(3) control dust, (4) estimate the future effects of heavy and sustained military traffic on road networks, (5) provide C130 airstrips and heliports with minimum essential construction efforts, and (6) build a limited number of bridges (in some scenarios, perhaps none at all).

In general, horizontal construction requires mat and membrane (see Table 7.1) as well as asphalt products, water (seawater will suffice for most requirements), and construction equipment in quantity.

A total base developnient would be extremely difficult using only indigenous materials.

To do this, it is necessary to have the capabilities to (1) repair bomb
damaged or sabotaged runways, (2) build or rebuild adequate allweather traffic surfaces without bringing in large amounts of construction materials, (3) control dust, (4) estimate the future effects of heavy and sustained military traffic on road networks, (5) provide C130 airstrips and heliports with minimum essential construction efforts, and (6) build a limited number of bridges (in some scenarios, perhaps none at all).

In general, horizontal construction requires mat and membrane (see Table 7.1) as well as asphalt products, water (seawater will suffice for most requirements), and construction equipment in quantity.

A total base development would be extremely difficult using only indigenous materials.

## 7.2 Existing Construction 7.2 Existing Construction

Existing paved roads in developed areas will generally be structured for wheeledvehicle traffic.

The dominant characteristic of the area affecting horizontal construction is the absence of existing roadways.

Because some areas are sparsely populated, few roads exist.

This factor, coupled with poor offroad mobility in sand areas, increases the size of the road construction workload.

Population centers (cities and large towns) are usually connected by paved roads that are fairly modern and adequate for heavy traffic.

In undeveloped areas, roads will be narrow (16 ft [5 mJ wide or less) and have thin pavements that will not stand up under use by tracked or heavy wheeled vehicles.

Consideration should be given to widening the shoulders of such roads Rnd using the shoulders for tracked-vehicle operations.

Existing paved roads in developed areas will generally be structured for wheeledvehicle traffic.

The dominant characteristic of the area affecting horizontal construction is the absence of existing roadways.

Because some areas are sparsely populated, few roads exist.

This factor, coupled with poor offroad mobility in sand areas, increases the size of the road construction workload.

Population centers (cities and large towns) are usually connected by paved roads that are fairly modern and adequate for heavy traffic.

In undeveloped areas, roads will be narrow (16 ft [5 mJ wide or less) and have thin pavements that will not stand up under use by tracked or heavy wheeled vehicles.

Consideration should be given to widening the shoulders of such roads Rnd using the shoulders for tracked-vehicle operations.

71
Table 7.1

Engineer Materials for Horizontal Construction
(Available from Depot Sources.)
Engineer Materials for Horizontal Construction
(Available from Depot Sources.)
Lsagth .ftd
Unit
Unit
Weight
Width
Depth
of
o
Item
Ibu/ug ft)
(Iftche.)
(Ziche.)
PSN
lusue
Iseue
L.agth nd
Unit
unit
Weight
Width
Depth
of
of
Item
(lbu/.g it)
(Inches)
(Inches)
P5K
Issue
Issue
M19 edium duty
landing mat
4.3
50.2, 49.5
1.5
5680009301524
*19
Bundle
M19 .ediu duty
landing
at
4.3
50.2, 49.5
1.5
5680009301524
*19
Bundle
32 panels
32 penels
]0418 ediua duty
lundle
landing .at
4.9
144, 12
1.5
5680000897661
418
18 panels
]0418 medium duty
Bundle
landing mat
4.9
144, 12
1.5
5680-000897661
114IS
18 panels
148A1 light duty
Bundle
lending net
7.3
141.75, 19.5
1.1
5680-007823577
148A1
14 panels
MSA1 light duty
Bundle
lending at
7.5
141.75, 19.5
1.1
5680-007825577
M8A1
14 panels
AM2 ediu duty
Bud1e
lending at
6.3
144, 12
1.5
5680NAEL613370-1
*142
18 panelB
AM2 medium duty
Bundle
lending mat
6.3
144, 12
1.3
5680NAEL6133701
A142
18 panels
T17 membrane
0.31
100 it, 66
ft
0.08
5680-009215809
717
Roll
or
100 it, 36 ft
5680009215810
Roll
Ti? .e.brane
0.31
100 ft,
66 ft
0.08
5680009215809
T17
Roll
or
100 ft, 36 ft
5680009215810
Roll

## 7.3 Soils And Aggregates 7.3 Soils And Aggregates

Fookes* concisely describes engineering properties of various geographic units found in desert areas in Figure 7.1 and Table 7.2.

Figure 7.1 shows the four geographic zones into which most desert regions can be subdivided:
Zone I, mountain slopes; Zones II the apron fan or bajada; Zones III the alluvial plain; and Zone IV the base plain, which includes sabkhas playas salt playas salinas and sanddune areas.

Table 7.2 shows percentages of various types of terrain in several desert regions.

Fookes* concisely describes engineering properties of various geographic units found in desert areas in Figure 7.1 and Table 7.2.

Figure 7.1 shows the four geographic zones into which most desert regions can be subdivided:
Zone I, mountain slopes; Zones U, the apron fan or bajada; Zones III, the alluvial plain; and Zone IV, the base plain, which includes sabkhas, playas, salt playas, salinas, and sanddune areas.

Table 7.2 shows percentages of various types of terrain in several desert regions.

The playas which usually have a deep water tables have cemented surfaces that are structurally satisfactory for most vehicle and aircraft loads.

Because the soils are primarily silts, dust problems are severe.

The sabkhas
(coastal flats that are inundated by seawater at very high. tide) and salinas usually have cenented surface crusts and water at shallow depths.

While each
has a cenented crusts its usefulness under heavy loads depends on the depth to water because the naterial below the water table is usually quite weak.

The playas, which usually have a deep water table, have cemented surfaces that are structurally satisfactory for most vehicle and aircraft loads.

Because the soils are primarily silts, dust problems are severe.

The sabkhas
(coastal flats that are inundated by seawater at very high. tide) and salinas usually have cemented surface crusts and water at shallow depths.

While each has a cemented crust, its usefulness under heavy loads depends on the depth to water because the material below the water table is usually quite weak.

The sandy areas consist of socalled desert flats and sand dunes.

Together they account for 20 to 40 percent of desert regions.

Windblown sand
(0.06 to 0.6mm grain size) can present a significant maintenance problem on roadways and airfields, and in base areas.

It also impedes offroad mobility of wheeled vehicles.

The sandy areas consist of socalled desert flats and sand dunes.

Together they account for 20 to 40 percent of desert regions.

Windblown sand
(0.06 to 0.6mm grain size) can present a significant maintenance problen on roadways and airfields and in base areas.

It also impedes offroad mobility of wheeled vehicles.

Based on these geographic zones, the aggregates in the MidEast have been classified into eight major categories:
beach sand, dune sand, sand Zone II, Based on these geographic zones, the aggregates in the MidEast have been classified into eight major categories:
beach sand, dune sand, sand Zone II,

* P. G. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The Highway Engineer,
nal of the Institution of Highway Engineers, Vol XXIII, No. 10 (October
1976), pp 1123.
* P.
G. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The Highway Engineers
nal of the Institution of Highway Engineers, Vol XXIII, No.
10 (October
l976) pp 1123.
72
desert fill Zone IV, silty stone Zone III, fan gravel Zone It, sandy stone Zone III, and stone pavement Zone IV.

Typical gradations of various sands and aggregates found in these areas are shown in Figures 7.2 through 7.6.

These soil gradation data are provided for general guidance and are not Intended as a substitute for onsite investigations.

Since laboratory equipment probably will not be available, field classification will be required.

It is also important to be alert to sources of manmade and other materials to serve as aggregate for horizontal construction.

These include cinder block, baked and adobe bricks, and tailing from quarry operations.

Such materials may be crushed into smaller sizes by trafficking with heavy tracked vehicles such as tanks and dozers.

## 7.4 Horizontal Construction Techniques

Certain techniques and guidance on design mixes for asphalt and portland cement materials that are peculiar to expedient construction In arid regions are described as follows.

These general guidelines are not intended to take the place of field experimentation and application of engineering judgment in individual situations, but are mainly presented to provide general information.

In situations where suitable materials, aggregate, binder) and water are available and time and equipment permit, then conventional construction procedures should be followed and the appropriate field manual or technical manual consulted.

For situations involving expedient construction, It may be advantageous to observe and evaluate local construction methods in the operational area.

In some of the more undeveloped areas, what may appear to be somewhat. crude construction techniques compared to conventional advanced methodology may serve well in expedient situations.

Thus, it may be possible to duplicate what appears to be the standard practice in the local area to I
I
GRAiN SIZE IN MLLINLTERS
.

0'
I0
70
I,.

N.

\\
-
a
.

-
20
to
.

I
Table 7.2
Comparison of Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
(Reprinted from P. C. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts,"
The Highway Engineer, Journal of the Institution of Highway Engineer, Vol XXIII, No.

10 [October 1976], pp 1123.

Reproduced by permission of the Institution of Highway Engineers.)
Comparison of Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
(Reprinted from P. C. Pookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts,"
The Highway Engineer, Journal of the Institution of Highway Engineer, Vol XXIII, No.

10 [October 1976], pp 1123.

Reproduced by permission of the Institution of Highway Engineers.)

Likely Occurrence
Coonest in
Libyan
Saudi
Southweetern
Geographical Zone
Engineering Zone
Sahara
Desert
Arabia
U.S.
Likely Occurrence
Coone8t in
Ltbyan
Saudi
Southweitern
Gographica1 Zone
Engfneerfng Zone
S*hara
Degert
Aribta
U.S.
DeBert Pbuntatn
I
43X
39Z
47X
38.1Z
Desert Pbuntatns
I
43X
391
471
38.11
Volcanic Cones and
I
3
1
2
0.2
Fields
Volc8nic ConeB and
I
3
1
2
0.2
Fields
Badlands and
Subdued
1/lI
2
8
1
2.6
Ba d Ia nd a
Badland8 and Subdued
1/11
2
8
1
2.6
Bad lande
Wadis
IIii/Iii
1
1
1
3.6
Wadis
I/II/iiI
1
1
1
3.6
11
1
1
4
31.4
Fan
11
1
1
4
31.4
Bedrock Paveent8
Il/Ill
10
6
1
0.7
Bedrock Pavements
U/Ill
10
6
1
0.7
Regions Bordering
1I/1II/Iv
1
3
1
1.2
Throughf lowing Rivera
RegonB Bordertng
II/iil/iv
1
3
1
1.2
Throughf lowing Rivers
Desert Flats
hIlly
10
18
16
20.5
DeBert Flat8
III/IV
10
18
16
20.5
P1aya and SBlin&8
IV
1
1
1
1.1
Playas and Salin&s
IV
1
1
1
1.1
Sand Dunes
IV
28
22
26
0.6
100
100
100
100.0
Sand Dunes
IV
28
22
26
0.6
100
100
100
100.0

advantage since such practices are often dictated by availability of engineering materials.

advantage since such practices are often dictated by availability of engineering materials.

## 7.4.1 Compaction Of Dry Soils 7.4.1 Compaction Of Dry Soils

Compaction of dry soils is generally best accomplished by vibratory methods.

Soils most suitable for vibratory compaction are sands and gravels which are Busceptible to consolidation under vibratory motion.

Very fine sands and silty and clayey sands may be compacted to some degree but not as successfully as the more granular materials.

The mo8t desirable equipment for compaction is a vibratory roller, either driven or selfpropelled.

Tracked vehicles such as tanks and crawler tractors may also be used for compacting dry granular materials since such vehicles are heavy and impact vibratory motion to the underlying soil.

Although vibratory compaction is most desirable, dry materials may also be densified using heavy pneumatictired equipment having low tire inflation pressure.

This method relies primarily on weight alone to force the soil grainB into a closer configuration while the lower tire contact pressure prevents surface rutting.

Although fairly high soil strengths may be obtained in some soils that are compacted dry, maintenance of unsurfaced roads and parking areas may be a problem.

Since dry sands depend on confinement to maintain strength, unsurfaced roads, airfields, and Compaction of dry soils is generally best accomplished by vibratory methods.

Soils most suitable for vibratory compaction are sands and gravels which are susceptible to consolidation under vibratory motion.

Very fine sands and silty and clayey sands may be compacted to some degree but not as successfully as the more granular materials.

The most desirable equipment for compaction is a vibratory roller, either driven or selfpropelled.

Tracked vehicles such as tanks and crawler tractors may also be used for compacting dry granular materials since such vehicles are heavy and impact vibratory motion to the underlying soil.

Although vibratory compaction is most desirable, dry materials may also be densified using heavy pneumatictired equipment having low tire inflation pressure.

This method relies primarily on weight alone to force the soil grains into a closer configuration while the lower tire contact pressure prevents surface rutting.

Although fairly high soil strengths may be obtained in some soils that are compacted dry, maintenance of unsurfaced roads and parking areas may be a problem.

Since dry sands depend on confinement to maintain strength, unsurfaced roads, airfields, and
79
parking areas subject to traffic with highpresBure tires will tendto deteriorate and will require close attention to maintenance.

In areas used frequently by heavy tracked vehicleB, the Boil will generally remain compacted to some depth as a reBult of traffic; however, tank traffic will also tend o deteriorate Burface conditionB.

Therefore, maintenance of the Burface layer will be required.

parking areas subject to traffic with highpressure tires will tend to deteriorate and will require close attention to maintenance.

In areas used frequently by heavy tracked vehicles, the soil will generally remain compacted to some depth as a result of traffic; however, tank traffic will also tend to deteriorate surface conditions.

Therefore, maintenance of the surface layer will be required.

## 7.4.1.1 Soil Types: 7.4.1.1 Soil Types:

The primary soil types that can be compacted auccessfully at or near zero water content are the gravelB, BandB, and gravelly and Bandy materials.

These materials include the following Boils claBBified according to the Unified Soil ClasBification System:
GW, GP, GM, GC, GMGC, SW, SP, SM, SC, and SMSC.

Generally, the fines content Bhould not exceed about 40 percent of the total soil weight.

Eictremely dry, powdery and pulverized Boils that are easily windblown and that are characterized by the formation of trails of dust clouds when exposed to vehicular traffic are extremely difficult to densify from a practical standpoint.

Generally, these soils are characterized as Burface material with the underlying Boil being depended on to offer structural support.

These materials generally classify as the silts and clays:
CL., CH, ML, The primary soil types that can be compacted successfully at or near zero water content are the gravels, sands, and gravelly and sandy materials.

These materials include the following soils classified according to the Unified Soil Classification System:
GW, GP, GM, GC, GMGC, SW, SP, SM, SC, and SMSC.

Generally, the fines content should not exceed about 40 percent of the total soil weight.

Extremely dry, powdery, and pulverized soils that are easily windblown and that are characterized by the formation of trails of dust clouds when exposed to vehicular traffic are extremely difficult to densify from a practical standpoint.

Generally, these soils are characterized as surface material with the underlying soil being depended on to offer structural support.

These materials generally classify as the silts and clays:
CL., CH, ML, MU, and MLCL.

P111, and MLCL..

## 7.4.1.2 Equipment: 7.4.1.2 Equipment:

Vibratory rollers:
Vibratory rollers are best suited for compaction of dry soils.

Examples of typical equipment usedin vibratory compaction are the singledrum, 5ton (4.5 tonnes) towed vibratory roller and the singledrum,
10ton (9.1 tonnes) Belfpropelled vibratory roller.

Vibratory rollers:
Vibratory rollers are best suited for compaction of dry soils.

Examples of typical equipment usedin vibratory compaction are the singledrum, 5ton (4.5 tonnes) towed vibratory roller and the singledrum,
10ton (9.1 tonnes) selfpropelled vibratory roller.

Tracked vehicles:
Heavy tracked equipment such as crawler tractors, dozers, and tanks can also be used to compact dry soils since Buch equipment naturally induces vibratory motion into the underlying soils during normal operations.

Tracked vehicles:
Heavy tracked equipment such as crawler tractors, dozers, and tanks can also be used to compact dry soils since such equipment naturally induces vibratory motion into the underlying soils during normal operations.

Pneumatictired rollers:
Heavily loaded pneumatictired rollers may also be used to compact dry soils although generally not as successfully as vibratory equipment.

The most suitable pneumatictired roller is the drawn four
tired roller ballasted to a weight of 25 tons (22.7 tonnes) and with the tire pressure lowered to about 45 psi (310.3 KN/m2).

It is doubtful that any largescale compaction can be accomplished with smaller paeumat1.ctire rollers, although they may be used for smaller compaction projects.

Pneumatic
tired rollers such as the 9ton (8.2 tonnes) selfpropelled or towed rollers should be loaded to maximum capacity with tire inflation pressure of about 40
psi (275.6 KN/in2).

Pneumatictired rollers:
Heavily loaded pneumatictired rollers may also be used to compact dry soils although generally not as successfully a vibratory equipment.

The most suitable pneumatictired roller is the drawn four
tired roller ballasted to a weight of 25 tons (22.7 tonnes) and with the tire pressure lowered to about .45 psi (310.3 KN/tn2).

It is doubtful that any largescale compaction can be accomplished with smaller paeumat1.ctire rollers, although they may be used for smaller compaction projects.

Pneumatic
tired rollers such as the 9ton (8.2 tonnes) self-propelled or towed rollerB should be loaded to maximum capacity with tire inflation pressure of about 40
psi (275.6 KN/m2).

Trucks and construction equipment:
Heavy trucks and conBtruction equipment such as frontend loaders may also be used to a limited extent for compaction of dry materials uBing principles similar to those for standard pneumatictired compaction equipment.

Such vehicles Bhould be loaded as heavily a possible and have tire inflation pressures in the raage of 25 to 30
psi (172.3 to 206.7 KN/m2).

Care should be taken to prevent tire damage.

Trucks and construction equipment:
Heavy trucks and construction equipment such as frontend loaders may also be used to a limited extent for compaction of dry materials using principles similar to those for standard pneumatictired compaction equipment.

Such vehicles should be loaded as heavily as possible and have tire inflation pressures in the range of 25 to 30
psi (172.3 to 206.7 KN/m2).

Care should be taken to prevent tire damage.

## 7.4.1.3 Construction Procedures: 7.4.1.3 Construction Procedures:

Construct'on procedures for compaction of dry soils differ in one significant aspect norKnal coKnpaction techniques.

In dry compaction and in the expedient construction situation, the assumption is made that the soil is at or near zero water content condition and that no adjustuent in water content can be made.

Also, in expedient conatruction, equipKnent may not be available to check soil water content or inplace density; therefore, the engineer ay have to rely on judgKnent to determine whether acceptable densification has been achieved.

An airfield penetrometer or standard cone penetroeter may be useful in evaluating the effectiveneas of coKnpaction procedures.

Construct'on procedures for compaction of dry soils differ in one significant aspect rom normal compaction techniques.

In dry compaction and in the expedient construction situation, the assumption is made that the soil is at or near zero water content condition and that no adjustment in water content can be made.

Also, in expedient construction, equipment may not be available to check soil water content or inplace density; therefore, the engineer may have to rely on judgment to determine whether acceptable densification has been achieved.

An airfield penetrometer or standard cone penetrometer may be useful in evaluating the effectiveness of compaction procedures.

When vibratory equipment or tracked vehicles are used, dry sands may be compacted in lifts up to 12 in. (304.8 mm) thick, while lift thickness for finegralned soils should be kept to about 9 in. (228.6 mm) in thickness.

In any event, it will probably be necessary to construct small test sections of various lift thicknesses to determine the optimum lift thickness.

Vehicle or roller speed should range from 1 to 3 mph (1.6 to 4.8 km/br).

The number of passes required to develop adequate thickness will depend on soil type and should be determined in the field on test sections.

When vibratory equipment or tracked vehicles are used, dry sands may be coKnpacted in lifts up to 12 in. (304.8 nun) thick, while lift thickness for finegrained soils should be kept to about 9 in. (228.6 ) in thickness.

In any event, it will probably be necessary to construct sKnall test sections of various lift thicknesses to determine the optimuKn lift thickness.

Vehicle or roller speed should range froKn 1 to 3 Knph (1.6 to 4.8 kKn/hr).

The number of passes required to develop adequate thickness will depend on soil type and ahould be determined in the field on test sections.

Compaction of dry soils with pneumatictired rollers generally requires thinner lift thickness of about 4 to 6 in. (101.6 to 152.4 mm), depending on the roller or vehicle weight and soil type.

Again, experimentation in the field using test sections of varioul3 thicknesses will be required to determine optimum thickness and number of vehicle passes.

Vehicle or roller speed will generally be determined by the resistance the soil being compacted offers to the vehicle.

CoKnpaction of dry soils wit.h pnewnatictired rollers generally requires thinner lift thickness of about 4 to 6 in. (101.6 to 152.4 KnKn), depending on the roller or vehicle weight and soil type.

Again, experimentation in the field using test sections of varioul3 thicknesses will be required to determine optiKnum thickness and nwnber of vehicle passes.

Vehicle or roller speed will generally be determined by the resistance the soil being compacted offers to the vehicle.

## 7.4.1.4 Maintenance: 7.4.1.4 Maintenance:

Unsurfaced compacted dry soils will tend to deteriorate under traffic of vehicles or aircraft having highpressure pneumatic tires.

In order to Knain
Unsurfaced compacted dry soils will tend to deteriorate under traffic of vehicles or aircraft having highpressure pneumatic tire8.

In order to maintain or restore stability to the soil, it will be necessary to apply repeated passes of a compactor or, preferably, a tracked vehicle.

Timely maintenance is required to prevent progressively deepening deterioration.

If subject to considerable tracked vehicle traffic, surface deterioration will not be as severe; however, channelized traffic or traffic in the same track paths will tend to cause rutting.

Therefore, continual recompaction of the surface will be necessary.

Dust palliatives may be used to alleviate dust problems, but they will provide little or no structural stabilization.

tam or restore stability to the soil, it will be necessary to apply repeated passes of a compactor or, preferably, a tracked vehicle.

Timely Knaintenance is required to prevent progressively deepening deterioration.

If subject to considerable tracked vehicle traffic, surface deterioration will not be as severe; however, channelized traffic or traffic in the same track paths will tend to cause rutting.

Therefore, continual recompaction of the surface will be necessary.

Dust palliatives may be used to alleviate duet problems, but they will provide little or no structural stabilization.

## 7.4.2 Expedient Aaplialt Mix 7.4.2 Expedient A.Splialt Mix

A number of naturally occurring aggregates are available in the MidEast region, some of which can be used for construction of bituminous pavements.

The following guidelines for use and expected performance of each of the eight aggregate types likely to be found in the MidEast are useful for planning purposes.

Further analysis such as mixture design is needed before using A number of naturally occurring aggregates are available in the MidEast region, some of which can be used for construction of bituKninous pavements. The following guidelines for use and expected perforKnance of each of the eight aggregate types likely to be found in the MidEast are useful for planning purposes.

Further analysis such as mixture design is needed before using these aggregates in pavement mixtures.

these aggregates in pavement mixtures.

## 7.4.2.1. Asphelts: 7.4.2.1 Asphalts:

Three types of asphalt materials are generally available for pavement construction:
asphalt cement, aaphalt emulsinr, and cutback asphalt.

Although all three of these materials can be used in the production of asphalt mixes, asphalt emulsions and cutback asphalts are primarily used when the materials are mixed in place; asphalt cements are primarily used when materials ar mixed at a central point.

Since water is in short supply in the Mid-
East, it is doubtful that a signiftcant amount of asphalt emulsions will be used.

Hence, it is anticipated that the two types of asphalt materials available for construction will be asphalt cement and cutback asphalt.

Three types of asphalt materials are generally available for pavement construction:
asphalt cement) asphalt emulsinr, and cutback asphalt.

Although all three of these materials can be used in the production of asphalt mixes, asphalt emulsions and cutback asphalts are primarily used when the materials are mixed in place; asphalt cements are primarily used when materials ar mixed at a central point.

Since water is in short supply in the Mid-
East, it is doubtful that a signiftcant amount of asphalt emulsions will be used.

Hence, it is anticipated that the two types of asphalt materials available for construction will be asphalt cement and cutback asphalt.

## 7.4.2.2 Aggregate: 7.4.2.2 Aggregate:

Since aggregate makes up over 90 percent of the asphalt concrete mixture, the performance of the mixture depends a great deal on the quality and gradation of the aggregate.

It is desirable to use crushed aggregates, wellgraded from coarse to fine, for best performance of bituminous mixtures.

Generally, it is desirable that the bituminous mixture consist of 30 to 40 percent coarse aggregate (+ No. 4 material), 55 to 65 percent fine aggregate (No. 4 to No.

200 material), and approximately 5 percent filler (material passing the No.

200 sieve).

Uncrushed aggregates can be used for pavement constrvcton ata reduced cost and for expediency, but the performance anticipated is less than that for bituminous pavements composed of crushed aggregates.

Since aggregate makes up over 90 percent of the asphalt concrete mixture the performance of the mixture depends a great deal on the quality and gradation of the aggregate.

It is desirable to use crushed aggregates, wellgraded from coarse to fine) for best performance of bituminous mixtures.

Generally, it is desirable that the bituminous mixture consist of 30 to 40 percent coarse aggregate (+ No. 4 material), 55 to
65 percent fine aggregate (No. 4 to No.

200 material), and approximately 5 percent filler (material passing the No.

200 sieve).

Uncrushed aggregates can be used for pavement constrvcton ata reduced cost and for expediency, but the performance anticipated is less than that for bituminous pavements composed of crushed aggregates.

## 7.4.2.3 Bituminous Mixtures: 7.4.2.3 Bituminous Mixtures:

The bituminous mixture should be designed and constructed so that a stable, durable pavement is obtained.

The pavement surface must possess satisfactory friction properties to carry the intended traffic safely at the anticipated speeds.

All of these items muSt be considered in the design and conetructton of a bituminous mixture.

Densegraded bituminous mixtures are normally u8ed to provide a tight, stable, durable surface.

Often uniformly graded (one size) aggregates are used in the production of porous friction courses or bituminous surface treatments to improve surface friction properties.

Dense and uniformly graded aggregates have applications in the construction of bituminous pavements in the MidEast.

Densegraded bituminous mixtures are designed to have 3 to 5 percent air voids in the laboratory
compacted mixture8, resulting in 3 to 7 percent air voids in the field
compacted mixture.

The low voids (3 to 7 percent) and high density (98 to 100
percent of laboratory density) result in a durable, stable pavement with tight surface texture.

The quality of the aggregate is important for densegraded mixtures; crushed aggregate, veilgraded from coarse to fine, is desired.

Because asphalt binder tends to bond better to crushed than uncrushed aggregate, less raveling occurs in mixtures with crushed aggregate.

In a well
graded mixture, particle interlock is greater with crushed aggregate, than with uncrushed aggregate resultiug in a more stable mixture.

The quality of densegraded mixture is sensitive to a change in the amount of 200 material.

Adding or reducing the amount of 200 material generally changes optimum asphalt content and stability.

An increase in the amount of 200 material normally decreases the optimum asphalt content and increases the stability. This is because the 200 material fills the voids in the mineral aggregates, resulting in fewer voids to be filled with asphalt and a stiffer asphalt
filler matrix.

In a wellgraded mixture, stability and optimum asphalt The bituminous mixture should be designed and constructed so that a stable, durable pavement is obtained.

The pavement surface must possess satisfactory friction properties to carry the intended traffic safely at the anticipated speeds.

All of these items must be considered in the design and construction of a bituminous mixture.

Densegraded bituminous mixtures are normally u8ed to provide a tight, stable, durable surface.

Often uniformly graded (one size) aggregates are used in the production of porous friction Courses or bituminous surface treatments to improve surface friction properties.

Dense and uniformly graded aggregates have applications in the construction of bituminous pavements in the MidEast.

Densegraded bituminous mixtures are designed to have to 5 percent air voids in the laboratory
compacted mixture8, resulting in 3 to 7 percent air voids in the field
compacted mixture.

The low voids (3 to 7 percent) and high density (98 to 100
percent of laboratory density) result in a durable, stable pavement with tight surface texture.

The quality of the aggregate is important for densegraded mixtures; crushed aggregate, wellgraded from coarse to fine, is desired.

Because asphalt binder tends to bond better to crushed than unCrushed aggregate, less raveling occurs in mixtures with crushed aggregate.

In a well
graded mixture, particle interlock is greater with crushed aggregate, than with uncrushed aggregate resultiug in a more stable mixture.

The quality of densegraded mixture is senaitive to a change in the amount of 200 material.

Adding or reducing the anount of 200 material generally changes optimum asphalt content and stability.

An increase in the amount of 200 material normally decreases the optimum asphalt content and increases the stability.

This is because the 200 material fills the voids in the mineral aggregates, resulting in fewer voids to be filled with asphalt and a stiffer asphalt
filler matrix.

In a wellgraded mixture, stability and optimum asphalt content are also functions of the maximum aggregate size.

Generally, mixtures with larger e'regate sizes result in higher stabilities at lower optimum asphalt cont .s.

The asphalt type plays an important part in the performance of a bituminous mixture.

The higher viscosity asphai.ts (lower-penetration)
produce mixes having higher stability but more susceptibility to cracking at lower temperatures.

The lower viBcosity asphalts (higher penetration) produce mixes having low stability at higher temperatures but less susceptibility to cracking at lower temperatures.

content are also functions of the maximum aggregate size.

Generally, mixtures with larger e'regate sizes result in higher stabilities at lower optimum asphalt cont .s.

The asphalt type plays an important part in the performance of a bituminous mixture.

The higher viscosity asphalts (lowerpenetration)
produce mixes having higher stability but more susceptibility to cracking at lower temperatures.

The lower viscosity asphalts (higher penetration) produce mixes having low stability at higher temperatures but less susceptibility to cracking at lower temperatures.

## 7.4.2.4 Gradation8 And Recommended Uses Of Aggregates Found In The MidEabt: 7.4.2.4 Gradations And Recommended Uses Of Aggregates Found In The MidEast:

Based on the eight major categories of aggregates found in the MidEast, asphalt mix designs have been developed.

The predicted stability, asphalt content, and performance for each of these gradations is shown in Table 7.3. In addition, design mixes for midband gradings are also presented for beach sand, fan gravel (Zone II), and Bandy stone (Zone III).

These values are for guidance only and should not be substituted for further analysis when needed. For this report, poor performance describe8 mixtures which will perform satisfactorily less than 1 year, fair performance describes mixtures which will perform satisfactorily for at least 1 year, and good per.formance describes mixtures that should provide satisfactory performance for 2 or more years.

Based on the eight major categories of aggregates found in the Mid'-EaBt, asphalt mix designs have been developed.

The predicted stability, asphalt content, and performance for each of these gradations is shown in Table 7.3. In addition, design mixes for midband gradings are also presented for beach sand, fan gravel (Zone II), and sandy stone (Zone III).

These value8 are for guidance only and 8hould not be substituted for further analysis when needed. For this report, poor performance describes mixtures which will perform satisfactorily less than 1 year, fair performance describes mixtures which will perform satisfactorily for at least 1 year, and good per.formance describes mixtures that should provide satisfactory performance for 2 or more years.

Beach sand:
A wide range of gradations may be found for beach sand;
therefore, this aggregate type was evaluated for the upperbound gradation, lowerbound gradation, and tuidband gradation (Figure 7.2).

Sand mixtures usually provide tight surfaces but are often unstable under traffic and may not be suitable for tracked vehicles.

These mixtures can be expected to perform satisfactorily in cooler weather, but traffic during the hot summer months may cause excessive rutting, resulting In shear failure and subsequent deterioration of the pavement.

When sand mixtures are to be subjected to traffic during summer, a higher viscosity (lower penetration) asphalt cement may be selected to provide some additional stability however, this may result in an increase in deterioration in the winter months.

Blending of aggregates is desirable to optimize the aggregate gradation to improve mixture properties. For instance, coarse aggregate can be blended with the beach sand to improve the overall aggregate gradation, resulting in better mixture properties.

The beach sand mixture requires a large amount of asphalt to properly coat the.

aggregate particles.

The stability of mixtures prepared with aggregate meeting the lowerbound, midbartd, and upperbound gradations will generally be between 100 and 500 lb (45.4 to 226.8 kg).

The upperbound gradation requires the most asphalt (9 to 11 percent) while the lowerbound gradation requires the least asphalt (6 to 8 percent).

The midband gradation will probably result tn the best mixture, with probable poor to fair performance.

The lowerbound and upperbound gradations would probably result in poor performance.

Sand mixes that have a small amount of 200 material, such as beach sand, are easy to mix, place, and compact.

Beach sand can be readily mixed in place or at a central plant.

The upperbound gradation may present some mixing problems since the gradation is very fine (100 percent of the material passes the No. 50 sieve).

Beach sand:
A wide range of gradations may be found for beach 8and;
therefore, this aggregate type was evaluated for the upperbound gradation, lowerbound gradation, and midband gradation (Figure 7.2).

Sand mixtures usually provide tight surfaces but are often unstable under traffic and may not be suitable for tracked vehicles.

These mixtures can be expected to perform satisfactorily in cooler weather, but traffic during the hot summer months may cause excessive rutting, resulting in shear failure and subsequent deterioration of the pavement.

When sand mixtures are to be subjected to traffic during summer, a higher viscosity (lower penetration) asphalt cement may be selected to provide some additional stability however, this may result in an increase in deterioration in the winter months.

Blending of aggregates is desirable to optimize the aggregate gradation to improve mixture properties.

For instance, coarse aggregate can be blended with the beach sand to itnprove the overall aggregate gradation, resulting in better mixture properties.

The beach sand mixture requires a large amount of asphalt to properly coat the.

aggregate particles.

The stability of aixtures prepared with aggregate meeting the lowerbound, rnidband, and upperbound gradations will generally be between 100 and 500 lb (45.4 to 226.8 kg).

The upperbound gradation requires the most asphalt (9 to 11 percent) while the lowerbound gradation requires the least asphalt (6 to 8 percent).

The midband gradation will probably result tn the best mixture, with probable poor to fair performance.

The lowerbound and upperbound gradations would probably result in poor performance.

Sand mixes that have a small amount of 200 material, such a beach Band, are easy to mix, place, and compact.

Beach sand can be readily mixed in place or at a central plant.

The upperbound gradation may present some mixing problems since the gradation is very fine (100 percent of the material passes the No. 50 sieve).

Dune sand:
Mixtures prepared with dune sand (Figure 7.2) should perform similarly to mixtures prepared with beach sand.

Dune sand:
Mixtures prepared with dune sand (Figure 7.2) should perform similarly to mixtures prepared with beach sand.

713
Table 7.3

Prepared Prom Aggregates Found in the Mideast

## Expected Performance Of Bituminous Mixtures Prepared Prom Aggregates Found In The MidEast

| Approximate            |
|------------------------|
| Expected               |
| Material               |
| Mphalt Content) %      |
| Stability, lb          |
| Performance            |
| Approximate            |
| Approximate            |
| Expected               |
| Material               |
| Aaphalt Content) %     |
| Stability, lb          |
| Performance            |
| Beach Sand             |
| Upper Bound            |
| 911                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Hid Band               |
| 79                    |
| 100500                |
| PoorFair              |
| Lower                  |
| Bound                  |
| 68                    |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Beach Sand             |
| Upper Bound            |
| 911                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Mid Band               |
| 79                    |
| 100500                |
| PoorFair              |
| Lower                  |
| Bound                  |
| 68                    |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Dune Sand              |
| Upper Bound            |
| 911                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Lower Bound            |
| 810                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Dune                   |
| Sand                   |
| Upper Bound            |
| 911                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Lower Bound            |
| 810                   |
| 100500                |
| Poor                   |
| Sand Zone II           |
| 79                    |
| 100500                |
| PoorFair              |
| Sand Zone II           |
| 79                    |
| 100500                |
| PoorFair              |
| Desert Fill Zone Iv    |
| 68                    |
| 10001500              |
| Cood                   |
| Desert Fill Zone IV    |
| 68                    |
| 10001500              |
| Good                   |
| Silty Stone Zone III   |
| UpperBound             |
| UNSATISFACTORY         |
| Lower Bound            |
| 79                    |
| 10001500              |
| Fair                   |
| Silty Stone Zone III   |
| UpperBound             |
| UNSATISFACTORY         |
| Lower Bound            |
| 79                    |
| 10001500              |
| Fair                   |
| Fan Cravel Zone II     |
| Upper Bound            |
| 57                    |
| 5001000               |
| Fair                   |
| Mid Band               |
| 57                    |
| 10001500              |
| Cood                   |
| Lover Bound            |
| 57                    |
| Not Applicable         |
| Fair                   |
| Fan Gravel Zone II     |
| Upper Bound            |
| 57                    |
| 5001000               |
| Fair                   |
| Mid Band               |
| 57                    |
| 10001500              |
| Good                   |
| Lover Bound            |
| 57                    |
| Not Applicable         |
| Fair                   |
| Sandy Stone Zone III   |
| ijpperBound            |
| UNSATISFACTORY         |
| Mid Band               |
| 57                    |
| 10001500              |
| Cood                   |
| Lover Bound            |
| 57                    |
| 5001000               |
| Fair                   |
| Sandy Stone Zone III   |
| .UpperBound            |
| UNSATISFACTORY         |
| Mid Band               |
| 57                    |
| 10001500              |
| Good                   |
| Lower Bound            |
| 57                    |
| 5001000               |
| Fair                   |
| Stone Pavement Zone IV |
| 57                    |
| Not Applicable         |
| Fair                   |
| Stone Pavement Zone IV |
| 57                    |
| Not Applicable         |
| Fair                   |

Sand Zone II:
Mixtures prepared with Sand Zone It (Figure 7.3) should perform similarly to mixtures prepared vith the beach sand of midband gradation.

Sand Zone II:
Mixtures prepared with Sand Zone IL (Figure 7.3) should perform similarly to mixtures prepared with the beach sand of midband gradation.

Desert Fill Zone IV.

Mixtures prepared vith aggregate having a gradation similar to that of desert fill Zone IV (Figure 7.3) should provide very tough, tight sufaces.

These mixtures should support traffic during the hot summer morths with a minimum of distress.

The asphalt required for this mixture is 6
to 8 percent, and the resulting stability should be 100 to 1500 pounds (45.4
to 680.4 kg).

The performance of this mixture should be good with ravelirg Desert Fill Zone IV.

Mixtures prepared with aggregate having a gradation similar to that of desert fill Zone IV (Figure 7.3) should provide very tough, tight sufaces.

These mixtures should support traffic during the hot summer months with a minimum of distress.

The asphalt required for this mixture is 6
to 8 percent, and the resulting stability should be 100 to 1500 pounds (45.4
to 680.4 kg).

The performance of this mixture should be good, with raveling
714
and cracking the most likely problems.

These problems should occur over a period of t':, however, and thus not cause early failure.

It will be difficult to obtain a wellcoated mixture because the amount of 200 material is high (22 percent).

It is recommended that this type of mixture be nixed in a central plant so that mixing can be better controlled.

Placing and compacting this mixture may also present problems.

When lifts 2 in. (50.8 mm) or less are placed, the coarse aggregate will tend to tear the mat, resulting In an uneven surface that iB difficult to compact.

To insure good performance with this mixture, steps must be taken to make sure mixing, placing, and compacting are done properly.

and cracking the most likely problems.

These problems should occur over a period of t':, however, and thus not cause early failure.

It will be difficult to obtain a wellcoated mixture because the amount of 200 material is high (22 percent).

It is recommended that this type of mixture be mixed in a central plant so that mixing can be better controlled.

Placing and compacting this mixture may also present problems.

When lifts 2 in. (50.8 mm) or less are placed, the coarse aggregate will tend to tear the mat, resulting in an uneven surface that is difficult to compact.

To insure good performance with this mixture, steps must be taken to make sure mixing, placing, and compacting are done properly.

Silty Stone Zone III:
The silty stone material has a large amount of
200 material (Figure 7.4) and is generally not acceptable in asphalt mixtures.

The material represented by the upperbound curve can be used as a mineral filler in asphalt mixtures but is not acceptable as the only aggregate in an asphalt mixture.

The material represented by the lowerbound curve can be used satisfactorily; however, the amount of 200 material is on the upper limit of that which can be properly mixed and compacted.

When the amount of
200 material exceeds 30 percent In the blend of aggregate to be used in a bituminous mixture, the aggregate should be considered unsatisfactory.

When the amount of 200 material is high, additional mixing time will be necessary.

Mixtures prepared with the aggregate represented by the lowerbound curve should require 7
to 9 percent asphalt atd hav'e stability values in the range of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg).

The performance of such a mixture is no better than fair  even though the stability is high  because the amount of 200 material is high and very little of the aggregate is larger than a No. 4 sieve.

This mixture will be difficult to mix sufficiently to obtain a honogeneous mixture.

Since there is little coarse aggregate, little difficulty in placement of the mixture would be expected.

Compaction of lifts up to 11/2 in. (38.1 mm) should not be difficult, but thicker layers may present compaction problems such as lateral movement of the mixture during rolling and ruts that cannot be removed with the finish roller.

Silty Stone Zone III:
The silty stone material has a large amount of
200 material (Figure 7.4) and is generally not acceptable in asphalt mixtures.

The material represented by the upperbound curve can be used as a mineral filler in asphalt mixtures but is not acceptable ae the only aggregate in en asphalt mixture.

The material represented by the lowerbound curve can be used satisfactorily; however, the amount of 200 material is on the upper limit of that which can be properly mixed and compacted.

When the amount of
200 material exceeds 30 percent In the blend of aggregate to be used in a bituminous mixture, the aggregate should be considered unsatisfactory.

When the amount of 200 material is high, additional mixing time will be necessary.

Mixtures prepared with the aggregate represented by the lowerbound curve should require 7 to 9 percent asphalt and hav'e stability values in the range of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg).

The performance of such a mixture is no better than fair  even though the stability is high  because the amount of 200 material is high and very little of the aggregate is larger than a No. 4 sieve.

This mixture will be difficult to mix sufficiently to obtain a homogeneous mixture.

Since there is little coarse aggregate, little difficulty in placement of the mixture would be expected.

Compaction of lifts up to 11/2 in. (38.1 mm) should not be difficult, but thicker layers may present compaction problems such as lateral movement of the mixture during rolling and ruts that cannot be removed with the finish roller.

Fan Gravel Zone II:
The gradation of the aggregate found in fan gravel deposits varies considerably.

The aggregate represented by the upperbound and mldband gradation curves (Figure 7.5) can produce fair to good dense
graded bituminous mixtures.

However, the aggregate represented by the lower
bound curve should be used to produce, an opengraded mixture since very few fines are available, or it should be crushed to produce a densegraded mixture.

The upperbound material should require 5
to 7 percent asphalt and produce a stability of 500 to 1000 pounds (226.8 to 453.6 kg).

It should be mixed, placed, and compacted with standard procedures, and should provide fair performance.

The most likely problem with this mixture is rutting during hot weather.

Fan Gravel Zone II:
The gradation of the aggregate found irt fan gravel deposits varies considerably.

The aggregate represented by the upperbound and midband gradation curves (Figure 7.5) can produce fair to good dense
graded bituminous mixtures.

However, the aggregate represented by the lower
bound curve should be used to produce. an opengraded mixture since very few fines are available, or it should be crushed to produce a densegraded mixture.

The upperbound material should require 5
to 7 percent asphalt and produce a stability of 500 to 1000 pounds
(226.8 to 453.6 kg).

It should be mixed, placed, and compacted with standard procedures, and should provide fair performance.

The most likely problem with thiB mixture is rutting during hot weather.

The aggregate represented by the midband gradation is very similar in size to that used for densegraded mixtures for airfields.

It is wellgraded and should produce a tight, stable mixture.

The estimated asphalt Content for this mixture is 5 to 7 percent, which should result in an estimated stability of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg).

The estimated performance is good.

No major problems are anticipated in mixing, placing, and conpacting.

The aggregate represented by the midband gradation is very similar in size to that used for densegraded mixtures for airfields.

It is wellgraded and should produce a tight, stable mixture.

The estimated asphalt content for this mixture is 5 to 7 percent, which should result in an estimated stability of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg).

The estimated performance is good.

No major problems are anticipated in mixing, placing, and compacting.

The aggregate represented by the lowerbound gradation curve is not generally recommended for use In bituminous mixtures.

Ideally, this aggregate The aggregate represented by the lowerbound gradation curve is not generally recommended for use in bituminous mixtures.

Ideally, this aggregate
715
should be crushed to produce an aggregate that could be used to produce a bituminous mixture that would provide excellent performance.

If this aggregate is not crushed and 19 u9ed to produce a bituminous mixture, 5 to 7 percent aaphalt should generally be used.

The mixture should be eagy to mix but difficult to place and compact.

Compaction for this mixture would primarily be to seat the aggregate so that it bonds to the layer underneath and to the adjacent aggregates.

The stability test i9 not applicable to mixtures having aggregate thi8 large.

Performance should be fair with raveling being the most likely problem.

should be crushed to produce an aggregate that could be used to produce a bituminous mixture that would provide excellent performance.

If this aggregate is not crushed and is used to produce a bituminous mixture, 5 to 7 percent asphalt should generally be used.

The mixture should be easy to mix but difficult to place and compact.

Compaction for this mixture would primarily be to seat the aggregate so that it bonds to the layer underneath and to the adjacent aggregates.

The stability test is not applicable to mixtures having aggregate this large.

Performance should be fair with raveling being the most likely problem.

Sandy Stone Zone III:
The aggregate represented by the upperbound gradation (Figure 7.6) is not acceptable for bituminoue m.txtures.

The amount of
200 material should not exceed 30 percent.

Material with gradation similar to the upper bound can be u8ed as a filler in bituminous mixturee but muet be blended with other aggregates to produce an acceptable gradation.

The midband gradation is the upper limit of aggregate8 that should be ueed in bituminous mixtures.

This gradation will produce a tight, stable mixture requiring a 5
to 7 percent asphalt binder and having a stability of 1000 to 1500 pounds
(453.6 to 680.4 kg).

bituminous mixtures produced with this type of aggregate should provide good performance (Figure 7.6).

Mixing and compaction may be difficult because of the large amount of 200 material, but spreading should preseit no major problem.

Sandy Stone Zone III:
The aggregate represented by the upperbound gradation (Figure 7.6) is not acceptable for bituminous m.txtures.

The amount of
200 material should not exceed 30 percent.

Material with gradation similar to the upper bound can be used as a filler in bituminous mixtures but must be blended with other aggregates to produce an acceptable gradation.

The midband gradation is the upper limit of aggregates that should be used in bituminous mixtures.

This gradation will produce a tight, stable mixture requiring a 5
to 7 percent asphalt binder and having a stability of 1000 to 1500 pounds
(453.6 to 680.4 kg).

Bituminous mixtures produced with this type of aggregate should provide good performance (Figure 7.6).

Mixing and compaction may be difficult because of the large amount of 200 material, but spreading should present no major problem.

Aggregate represented by the lowerbound gradation curve should produce a stable mixture.

The estimated asphalt content for tiis mixture is 5 to 7 percent, which ehould produce a stability of 500 to 1000 pounds (226.8 to 453.6
kg).

Bituminous mixtures produced with this aggregate should provide fair perforoiane.

There should be no problem in mixing this ixture but spreading and compaction may be difficult because of the coaree aggregate.

Aggregate represented by the lowerbound gradation curve should produce a stable mixture.

The estimated asphalt content for this mixture is 5 to 7 percent, which should produce a stability of 500 to 1000 pounds (226.8 to 453.6
kg).

Bituminous mixtures produced with this aggregate should provide fair performance.

There should be no problem in mixing this mixture, but spreading and compaction may be difficult because of the coarse aggregate.

Stone Pavement Zone IV:
The performance of this aggregate (Figure 7.6)
in bituminous mixtures should be eimilar to that for the loverbound gradation of the fan gravel Zone II aggregate.

Stone Pavement Zone IV:
The performance of this aggregate (Figure 7.6)
in bituminous mixtures should be similar to that for the lowerbound gradation of the fan gravel Zone II aggregate.

## 7.4.3 Expedient Concrete And Mortar Mix 7.4.3 Expedient Concrete And Mortar Mix

An arid climate is one where evaporation exceeds precipitation, as in the hot, arid areas ofthe Middle East.

Exttenre temperaturespresent peciai problems in concrete production.

High temperatures increase the hardening of concrete.

The length of time within which the concrete is handled is more critical, making it more difficult to place.

High range water reducers, commonly known as "super plasticizers," have proven beneficial in improving the handling characteristics of concrete without using additional water.

The climate also increases mixing water demand that promotes bleeding.

The time in which protective measures are applied is critical because difficulties in retaining uniform temperature conditions adversely affect concrete strength.

An arid climate is one where evaporation exceeds precipitation, a th the hot, arid areas ofthe Middle East.

Exttenre temperaturespresent peciai problems in concrete production.

High temperatures increase the hardening of concrete.

The length of time within which the concrete is handled is more critical, making it more difficult to place.

High range water reducers, commonly known ae "super plasticizers," have proven beneficial in improving the handling characteristics of concrete without ueing additional water.

The climate also increases mixing water demand that promotes bleeding.

The time in which protective measures are applied is critical because difficulties in retaining uniform temperature conditions adversely affect concrete strength.

The harmful effects of hot weather on concrete may be minimized by a number of practical procedures.

The degree to which their application is justified depends on circumstances.

One or more of the ingredients may be cooled to keep the temperature of the concrete from being excessive at the time of placement.

Storing aggregate in the shade may help maintain lower temperature.

Because o the heat of hydration cement content should be maintained at the minimum permitted.

Concrete in place may be protected to minimize The harmful effects of hot weather on concrete may be minimized by a number of practical procedures.

The degree to which their application is jue
tified depends on circumstances.

One or more of the ingredients may be cooled to keep the temperature of the concrete from being excessive at the time of placement.

Storing aggregate in the shade may help maintain lower temperature.

Because o. the heat of hydration cement content should be maintained at the minimum permitted.

Concrete in place may be protected to minimize
716
drying and absorption of heat.

Difficulties resulting frow high temperatures, such as p1astc shrinkage cracking, can only be controlled by lastminute improvisations.

Night construction may alleviate some of the heat and temperature problems encountered during daytime construction.

drying and absorption of heat.

Difficulties resulting frow high temperatures, such as plastc shrinkage cracking, can only be controlled by lastminute improvisations.

Night construction may alleviate some of the heat and tein
perature problems encountered during daytime construction.

Portland cement:
Although there is some local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Numerous countries ship cement into the region, and it varies in quality from bad to good.

In general, there will be no control over what is received and its quality.

If possible, sulfateresistant (Type V) and lowheat (Type IV) cements should be used.

These are the main types being imported.

Unless bulk handling capabilities are available locally, the troops will not be able to handle and transport large quantities of cement with their equipment.

Bag handling of cement is very slow, labor intensive, and not recommended except as a last resort.

If none exists locally, airtight storage will have to be provided for the cement in all coastal areas.

This is best accomplished by rubberized bulk bags.

Any prolonged storage of cement at the high temperatures of the region will result in a degradation of the cement.

Portland cement:
Although there is some local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Numetous countries ship cement into the region, and it varies in quality froiu bad to good.

In general, there will be no control over what is received and its quality.

If possible, sulfateresistant (Type V) and lowheat (Type IV) cenents should be used.

These are the main types being imported.

Unless bulk handling capabilities are available locally, the troops will not be able to handle and transport large quantities of cement 4'ith their equipment.

Bag handling of cement is very slow, labor intensive, and not recommended except as a last resort.

If none exists locally, airtight storage will have to be provided for the cement in all coastal areas.

This is best accomplished by rubberized bulk bags.

Any prolonged storage of cement at the high temperatures of the region will result in a degradation of the cement.

Aggregates:
Typical grading curves aid bands for desert areas are illustrated in Figures 7.2 to 7.6.

Natural sands are usually abundant, but their gradings are generally poor and they are frequently contaminated by deleterious salts.

Rock outcrops may be of a friable and porous nature and may also be contaminated with deleterious salts.

These problens and the climatic condition are of major concern in horizontal ard vertical construction.

Aggregates:
Typical grading curves and bands for desert areas are illustrated in Figures 7.2 to 7.6.

Natural sands are usually abundant, but their gradings are generally poor and they are frequently contaminated by deleterious salts.

Rock outcrops may be of a friable and porous nature and may also be contaminated with deleterious salts.

These problems and the climatic condition are of major concern In horizontal ar'id vertical construction.

Mix proportions:
Mixture proportions are given in Table 7.4 for each of the sand and composite material gradation curves given in Figures 7.2 through
7.6.

When only sand is available in a given location, it is assumed that
11/2In. (38 mm) maximumsize aggregate available from other sources will be added in the quantities noted to produce the concrete.

When the indigenous niatertal is already a composite material of sand and rock, it can be used in its alreadycombined condition.

Adjustments in the amount of fine material
(sand) and water may be necessary to achieve the workability needed to place the material.

Mix proportions:
Mixture proportions are given in Table 7.4 for each of the sand and composite material gradation curves given in Figures 7.2 through
7.6.

When only sand is available in a given location, it is assumed that
11/2In. (38 mm) maximumsize aggregate available from other sources will be added in the quantities noted to produce the concrete.

When the indigenous niaterlal Is already a composite material of sand and rock, it can be used in its alreadycombined condition.

Adjustments in the amount of fine material
(sand) and water may be necessary to achieve the workability needed to place the material.

## 7.4.4 Miscellaneou8 Construction Techniques 7.4.4 Miscellaneozw Construction Techniques

Horizontal construction on bases or between bases will require innovative construction techniques to offset the additional time required by harsh environment.

Horizontal construction on bases or between bases will require innovative construction techniques to offset the additional time required by harsh environment.

1.

Use seawater (see Section 5.7, pp 560 to 567), crude oil, or waste oil for compaction and stabilization.

Portland cement may also be used if avilable.

1.

Use seawater (see Section 5.7, pp 560 to 567), crude oil, or waste oil for compaction and stabilization.

Portland cement may also be used if available.

2.
Blend available onsite soils for roadbase materials.
2
Blend available onsite soils for roadbase materials.
3.
Increase priority on transportation of replacement and repair parts
due to irtcreased maintenance.
3.

Increase priority on transportation of replacement and repair parts due to increased maintenance.

4.

Shoulders of existing roadways, or expedient roadways constructed parallel to the existing pavement, may be used for tank traffic, thereby extending the life of the existing pavement.

4.

Shoulders of existing roadways, or expedient roadways constructed parallel to the existing pavement, may be used for tank traffic, thereby extending the life of the existing pavement.

Table 7.4

## Proportioning Guidelines And Expected Performance For Concrete Made With Aggregates Found In The MidEast Proportioning Guidelines And Expected Performance For Concrete Made With Aggregate8 Found In The MidEast Part A. Naturally Occurring Sands To Which Coaree Aggregate (Rock) Must Be Added Part A. Naturally Occurring Sands To Which Coarse Aggregate (Rock) Must Be Added

Approximate Weights in
Approx.
28day
Pounds per Cubic Yard
Batch
Estimated
Strength
of Concrete
Water
Slump
of
Cement
Sand
Rock
(gallons)
(inches)
Concrete
Beach Sand
Upper Bound
700750
13501450
16501750
3339
1
Good
Midband
550600
13001400
18501950
33-39
2
Good
Lower Bound
400450
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Approximate Weights in
Approx.
28day
Pounds per Cubic Yard
Batch
Estimated
Strength
of Concrete
Water
Slump
of
Cement
Sand
Rock
(gallons)
(inches)
Concrete
Beach Sand
Upper Bound
700750
13501450
16501750
3339
1
Good
Midband
550600
13001400
18501950
33-39
2
Good
Lower Bound
400450
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Dune Sand
Upper Bound
440490
12301300
20302130
3238
3
Fair
Lower Bound
400450
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Dune Sand
Upper Bound
440490
12301300
20302130
3238
3
Fair
Lower Bound
400450
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Sand, Zone II
550600
13001400
18501950
3339
2
Good
Sand, Zone II
550600
13001400
18501950
3339
2
Good
Silty Stone,
Zone III
Upper Bound
Unsatisfactor
Lower Bound
440490
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Silty Stone,
Zone III
Upper Bound
Unsatisfactor
Lower Bound
440490
12301300
20302130
3339
3
Fair
Fan Gravel
Lover Bound
5.50600
13001400
18501950
3339
2
Good
Fan Gravel
Lover Bound
5.50600
13001400
18501950
3339
2
Good

## Part B. Naturally Occurring Blends (Composites) Of Sand And Rock Part B. Naturally Occurring Blends (Composites) Of Sand And Rock

Approximate Weighte in
pounds per cubIc yard
Approx.
28day
of Concrete
Batch
Estimated
Strength
Composite
Water
Slump
of
Cement
Materials
(gallons)
(inches)
Concrete
Desert Fill,
Zone IV
700750
30003200
Approximate Weights in
pounds per cubic yard
Approx.
28day
of Concrete
Batch
Estimated
Strength
Composite
Water
Slump
of
Cement
Materials
(gallons)
(inches)
Concrete
Desert Fill,
Zone IV
700750
30003200
.
3541
2
Fair
.
3541
2
Fair
Fan Gravel,
Mid Bound
450500
32003400
3339
3
Good
Upper Bound
550600
31503350
3339
2
Good
Fan Gravel,
Mid Bound
450500
32003400
3339
3
Good
Upper Bound
550600
31503350
3339
2
Good
Sandy Stone,
Zone III
Upper Bound
Unsatisfactor
Nidband
550600
31503350
3541
2
Fair
Lower Bound
700750
30003200
3541
2
Fair
Sandy Stone,
Zone III
Upper Bound

Unsatisfactor
Nidband
550600
31503350
3541
2
Fair
Lover Bound
700750
30003200
3541
2
FaIr
Stone Pavement,
9001000
23302550
5460
2
Good
Zone IV
(No Sand)
Stone Pavement,
9001000
23302550
5460
2
Good
Zone IV
(No
Sand)

5.

Clays may be blended with sands in low rainfall areas to provide a riding surface.

5.

Clays may be blended with sands in low rainfall areas to provide a riding surface.

6.

Uar crusty sections may require no con8truction effort if left undisturbed.

6.

Uar crusty sections may require no construction effort if left undisturbed.

7.

A generalpurpose, lightweight, lowcost matting could be developed for road and other uses over sands.

7.

A generalpurpose, lightweight, lowcost matting could be developed for road and other uses over sands.

8.

Membrane encapsulated soil layer8, sand grids, and soil reinforcement would enhance road construction by conventional methods.

8.

Membrane encapsulated soil layers, sand grids, and soil reinforcement would enhance road construction by conventional methods.

9.

Increase use of locally available cutback and emulsified petroleum products.

9.

Increase use of locally available cutback and emulsified petroleum products.

10.

Do not expect road construction equipment to be used without modifications (i.e., cooling fans may have to be sidemounted instead of front mounted to prevent abrasive action of sand).

10.

Do not expect road construction equipment to be used without modifications (i.e., cooling fans may have to be sidemounted instead of front mounted to prevent abrasive action of sand).

11.
Do not expect timber to be available for culverts and trusses.
11.
Do not expect timber to be available for culverts and trusses.
12.
Rippers may be required on large tractors for removal of hardpan.
12.
Rippers may be required on large tractors for removal of hardpan.
13.
Tires will deteriorate more quickly due to extreme heat.
13.
Tires will deteriorate more quickly due to extreme heat.
14.

Equipment life and performance may be severely hampered in harsh environmen ts.

14.

Equipment life and performance may be severely hampered in harsh environments.

## 7.5 Roads Over Loose Sand 7.5 Roads Over Loose Sand

Overtheshore transportation of supplies in loose sand is very difficult without treatment of the sand.

Supply roads and storage areas over loose sand will be required.

Overtheshore transportation of supplies in loose sand is very difficult without treatment of the sand.

Supply roads and storage areas over loose sand will be required.

## 7.5.1 Possible Solztions 7.5.1 Possible Solztions

1.

Use lighter traffic loads and reduce tire pressures.

A general rule of thumb is to lower tire pressure so that tire deflection is increased by 50
percent.

1.

Use lighter traffic loads and reduce tire pressures.

A general rule of thumb is to lower tire pressure so that tire deflection is increased by 50
percent.

2.

Sand stabilization using portland cement is a wellestablished method for constructing pavement base layers.

See TM 5330, "Portland Cement Stabil-
2.

Sand stabilization using portland cement is a wellestablished method for constructing pavement base layers.

See TM 5330, "Portland Cement Stabilization .'
ization.'
3.

Mix available local gravel or soils with the sand to improve trafficability.

3.

Mix available local gravel or soils with the sand to improve traffi
cability.

4.

If a firmer material lies at shallow depths, keep blading loose sands off the roadway.

4.

If a firmer material lies at shallow depths, keep blading loose sands off the roadway.

5.

Bury membrane (T17) filter fabric, netting, or other materials 3 to
5.

Bury membrane (T17) filter fabric, netting, or other materials 3
to
4 in. (76 to 102 miii) in the sand.

Tests have shown best performance over buried membrane occurs when traffic stays in the same ruts.

4 in. (76 to 102 miii) in the sand.

Tests have shown best performance over buried membrane occurs when traffic stays in the same ruts.

719
6.

Any of the airfield landing mats in inventory can be used on a smoothed surface to provide a roadway for overthebeach truck traffic (see Table 7.1).

6.

Any of the airfield landing mats in inventory can be used on a smoothed surface to provide a roadway for overthebeach truck traffic (see Table 7.1).

7.
Place building rubble in the ruts.
7.
Place building rubble in the ruts.
8.
Use crude oil, if available, for stabilizing the sand.
8.
Use crude oil, if available, for stabilizing the sand.

## 7.5.2 Don'T 7.5.2 Don'T

Do not place membranes, even if anchored, on the surface of the loose sands for improving trafficability.

Tests have shown that best performance results when the membrane Is buried 3. to 4 in. (76 to 102 mm).

Do not place membranes, even if anchored, on the surface of the loose sands for improving trafficability.

Tests have shown that best performance results when the membrane is buried 3. to 4 in. (76 to 102 mm).

## 7.5.3 Special Considerationa 7.5.3 Special Considerationb

Blowing sands may cause operation problems with the construction equipment and high maintenance for the roadway or storage facility.

Almost anything mixed with a loose sand will improve its trafficability.

Blowing sands may cause operation problems with the construction equip
sent and high maintenance for the roadway or storage facility.

Almost anything mixed with a loose sand will improve its trafficability.

## 7.6 Intermittent Stream Crossing 7.6 Intermittent Stream Crossing

Build a ford instead of a bridge to make the roadway unusable during and for a few hours after an unusual storm.

If such a storm does occur, a bulldozer, a frontend loader, and some dump trucks should be able to restore operation In a few hours after the water subsides by removing boulders washed onto the roadway and filling areas eroded by the stream.

Concrete fords are very successful and allow almost immediate return to operation after rainfall.

Build a ford instead of a bridge to niake the roadway unusable during and for a few hours after an unusual storm.

If such a storm does occur, a bulldozer, a frontend loader, and some dump trucks should be able to restore operation in a few hours after the water subsides by removing boulders washed onto the roadway and filling areas eroded by the stream.

Concrete fords are very successful and allow almost immediate return to operation after rainfall.

## 7.7 Control Of Drifting Sand 7.7 Control Of Drifting Sand

Obviously loose sand and dune areas are best avoided.

However, if small dunes must be crossed, several methods are available for controlling them or at least minimizing their effects.

Obviously loose sand and dune areas are best avoided.

However, if small dunes must be crossed, several methods are available for controlling them or at least minimizing their effects.

1.

Align routes or airfields upwind from existing dune, areas or sand
source areas.

1.

Align routes or airfields upwind from existing dune areas or sand
Source areas.

2.

011 the surface of windblown sands with highgravity crude oil for temporary dust control.

2.

Oil the surface of windblown sands with highgravity crude oil for temporary dust control.

3.
Erect porous barriers (i.e., snowtype fences or spaced nonporous
barriers).
3.
Erect porous barriers (i.e., snowtype fences or spaced nonporous
barriers).
4.
Build roadways on an embankment above normal surface elevation.
4.
Build roadways on an embankment above normal surface elevation.
5.

Dig trenches to destroy the symmetry of a dune and thus accelerate its destruction by wind.

Trenching on the windward side of the works to be protected and using the excavated material as a second barrier orniound between the trench and the item to be protected can control sand temporarily.

5.

Dig trenches to destroy the symmetry of a dune and thus accelerate its destruction by wind.

Trenching on the windward side of the works to be protected and using the excavated material as a second barrier or mound between the trench and the item to be protected can control sand temporarily.

7-20
Further guidance provided by Fookes* way also be useful:
Further guidance provided by Fookes* way also be useful:
level road will receive a layer of sand over the leeward side during normal wind conditions.

The layer will be thin and will probably not impede vehicles even if they are equipped with high pressure tyres.

When wind of the opposite direction occurs, the thin layer of sand will shift to the other side of the road.

A
crown to the road will aggravate the downwind side accumulations, and for this reason the crown should be kept to a minimum.

Ideally for dune areas flat roads are to be preferred, but the embankment should be greatly rounded at the shoulder break point.

level road will receive a layer of sand over the leeward side during nornial wind conditions.

The layer will be thin and will probably not impede vehic1es even if they are equipped with high pressure tyres.

When wind of the opposite direction occurs, the thin layer of sand will shift to the other side of the road.

A
crown to the road will aggravate the downwind side accumulations, and for this reason the crown should be kept to a minimum..

Ideally for dune areas flat roads are to be preferred, but the embankment should be greatly rounded at the shoulder break point.

Unbanked, singleline roads on elevated grades are generally selfcleaning and do not usually present a serious problem by drifting sand.

They are, however, vulnerable to migrating dune masses.

Banked horizontal curves are troublesome and vulnerable to drifting sand, if the wind first Impinges on the high side of the bank.

The high windward side will remain exposed, but the lower leeward side will receive a deposit of sand, the depth of which depends on the amount of super elevation of the windward side.

Curves should, therefore, have as long a radius as possible and banking should be held to a minimum.

Unbanked, singleline roads on elevated grades are generally selfcleaning and do not usually present a serious problem by drifting sand.

They are, however)
vulnerable to migrating dune masses.

Banked horizontal curves are troublesome and vulnerable to drifting sand, if the wind first impinges on the high side of the bank.

The high windward side will remain exposed, but the lower leeward side will receive a deposit of sand, the depth of which depends on the amount of super
elevation of the windward aide.

Curves should, therefore, have as long a radius as possible and banking should be held to a minimum.

Cut8 can be serious problems and probably the best remedy is to build Impounding fences upwind from the cut, stabilize the sand between the cut and the fence...and then increase the height of the fence when-S
ever it loses its trapping efficiency.

Cut8 can be serious problems and probably the best remedy is to build impounding fences upwind from the cut, stabilize the sand between the cut and the fence...and then increase the height of the fence whenever it loses its trapping efficiency.

It is important to remove all obstructions upwind from the road.

Any obstruction will cause a drift stream to develop downwind.

It is not uncommon for these drifts to be 20 times the height of the obstruction.

A large bush a metre high may send out a streamer 35 metres long-
A hummock of earth or a rock a few centimetres high at the edge of the road can send a drift across the entire road.

The upwind aide of the road should therefore be cleaned off and smoothed with a drag for a width of at least 20 metres or even wider if large bushes or hummocks are present.

It is important to remove all obstructions upwind from the road.

Any obstruction will cause a drift stream to develop downwind.

It is not uncommon for these drifts to be 20 times the height of the obstruc
tion.

A large bush a metre high may send out a streamer 35 metres long.

A hummock of earth or a rock a few centimetres high at the edge of the road can send a drift across the entire road.

The upwind side of the road should therefore be cleaned off and smoothed with a drag for a width of at least 20 metrea or even wider if large bushes or hummocks are present..

Migrating dunes that are approaching the road are another serious hazard.

Destruction or immobilization of the dunes can be accomplished if it is carried out while the dune is over 20 times its height away from the road.

tf the dune is allowed to approach closer Migrating dunes that are approaching the road are another serious hazard.

Destruction or immobilization of the dunes can be accomplished if it is carried out while the dune is over 20 times its height away from the road.

If the dune is allowed to approach closer

* P.
G. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The Highway Engineers
nal of the Institution of Highway Engineers, Vol xxttt,
No.
10 (October
1976), p 1123.
* P.
G. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The Highway Engineer,
nal of the Institution of Highway Engineers, Vol xxitt,
No. 10 (October
1976), p 1123.
721
than this distance, it will probably have to be immo bilised by oil stabilisation and then restricted against further growth by building an impounding fence upwind from it.

This would cut off new supplies of sand that would otherwise cause it to become elongated downwind.

than this distance, it will probably have to be immo bilised by oil stabilisation and then restricted against further growth by building an impounding fence upwind from it.

This would cut off new supplies of sand that would otherwise cause it to become elongated downwind.

To prevent erosion of embankments built with dune sand choose low slope angles (1:4) and protect the slope with a stabilising material.

To prevent erosion of embankments built with dune sand choose low slope angles (1:4) and protect the slope with a stabilising material.

During construction vehicles should be discouraged from running wild over the existing desert surface upwind of the road as it could destory an existing natural thin crust or sparse binding vegetation which in turn could lead to sand near the road being mobil
ised by the wind.

During construction vehicles should be discouraged from running wild over the existing desert surface upwind of the road as it could destory an existing natural thin crust or sparse binding vegetation which in torn could lead to sand near the road being mobil
ised by the wind.

## 1.8 Dust Control 1.8 Dust Control

Dust control will be necessary to prevent increased engine maintenance and reduced propellerblade life, and to lessen battlefield sicntire location.

Dust control will be necessary to prevent increased engine maintenance and reduced propellerblade life, and to lessen battlefield s1nure location.

## 7.8.1 Possjbl Solutions 1.8.1 Possible Solutions

1.

Define technology currently being used by contractors operating in the area.

1.

Define technology currently being used by contractors operating in the area.

2.

Use an asphalt distributor for application of dustcontrol agents.

Recommended materials for dust control include peneprime types, DCA 1295, crude oil, and saltwater.

2.

Use an asphalt distributor for application of dustcontrol agents.

Recommended materials for dust control include peneprime types, DCA 1295, crude oil, and saltwater.

3.

Install grease fittings on the asphalt distributor pump to allow manual lubrication when spraying DCA 1295, a lowviscosity dustcontrol agent.

3.

Install grease fittings on the asphalt distributor pump to allow manual lubrication when spraying DCA 1295, a lowviscosity dustcontrQl agent.

Li.

Use a fiberglass scrim with DCA 1295 reinforcement, especially for trafficked areas.

4.

Use a fiberglass scrim with DCA 1295 reinforcement, especially for trafficked areas.

5.

Mechanical means of dust control, such as plywood or membranes, may be used temporarily.

5.

Mechanical means of dust control, such as plywood or membranes, may be used temporarily.

6.
Use asphaltbased crude oil(will require heating before spraying).
6.
Use asphaltbased crude oil'(will require heating before spraying).
7.

If available, other dust palliativ-es such as resin emulsions (e.g., Coherox), magnesium chloride, liquid products, etc., may be used.

7.

If available, other dust palliatives such as resin emulsions (e.g., Coherox), magnesium chloride, liquid products, etc., may be used.

## 7.8.2 Don'Ts 7.8.2 Don'Ts

1.
Do not use experimental or unproven chemicals for dust control.
1.
Do not use experimental or unproven chemicals for dust control.
2.

Do not expect water or light oil applications to control dust for a long time.

2.

Do not expect water or light oil applications to control dust for a long time.

722

## 7.8.3 Special Considerations 7.8.3 Special Considerations

1.
Higi.y porous materials require dust control.
1.
Higiy porous materials require dust control.
2.
In trafficked areas1, sand will ruts causing deterioration of dust
control preparations.
2.
En trafficked areas, sand will rut, causing deterioration of dust
control preparations.
3.
Seawater may be used for the prewetting recommended in DA PAN 5255.
3.
Seawater may be used for the prewetting recommended in DA PAN 5255.
4.

The minimum flash point of peneprime and cutback asphalt is about
80F (26.6C).

4.

The minimum flash point of penepriine and cutback asphalt is about
80F (26.6C).

5.
Asphalt products will have a tacky aurface above 100F (37.8C).
5.
Asphalt products will have a tacky surface above 100F (37.8C).

## 7.9 Construction Of C130 Airstrips 7.9 Construction Of C130 Airstrips

Many areas in the arid flat regions such as the playas and desert pavements may allow operation of C130 aircraft with minimal construction effort, while areas of large active sand dunes may present considerable problems in constructing and maintaining a suitable airstrip surface.

Some Important considerations that must be addressed in constructing C130 airstrips include soil strength, runway length, surface roughness and obstacles, and lateral and approach zone clearances.

The expedient runway must have enough strength to maintain the desired number of aircraft operations.

It must also meet certain criteria of length and grade, have safe lateral and approach zone clearances, and be reasonably free of surface obstacles and unsafe ground irregularities.

Detailed Information on construction of expedient C130 runways is in TM 5
330/AIM 863, Vol II, "Planning and Design of Roads, Airbases, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations.'
Many areas in the arid flat regions 8uch as the playas and desert pavements may allow operation of C130 aircraft with minimal construction effort, while areas of large active sand dunes may present considerable problems in constructing and maintaining a suitable airstrip surface.

Some important considerations that must be addressed in constructing C130 airstrips include soil strengths runway length, surface roughness and obstacle8, and lateral and approach zone clearances.

The expedient runway must have enough strength to maintain the desired number of aircraft operations.

It must also meet certain criteria of length and grade1, have safe lateral and approach zone clearances, and be reasonably free of surface obstacles and un8afe ground irregularities. Detailed Information on construction of expedient C130 runways is in TM 5
330/AIM
8631, Vol 111,
"Planning and Design of Roads, Airbases, and Hellports in the Theater of Operations."

## 7.9.1 Strengti Requirinents 7.9.1 Strengti Requirements

Strength requirements for C130 air8trips without surfacing and with membrane and light and mediumduty laidthg mat surfacing are shownin Figure
7.7.

These criteria indicate the number of cycles of aircraft traffic allowed for different gross aircraft weights in kips and different soil strengths In terms of airfield index (A.I.).

One cycle is equal to one takeoff and one landing.

Strength requirements for C130 airstrips without surfacing and with membrane and light and mediumduty landing mat surfacing are shownin Figure
7.7.

These criteria indicate the number of cycles of aircraft traffic allowed for different gross aircraft weights in kips and different soil strengths in terms of airfield index (A.l.).

One cycle is equal to one takeoff and one landing.

## 7.9.1.1 Airfield Index: 7.9.1.1 Airfield Index:

Airfield index is a soil strength measurement normally obtained using an airfield penetrometer.

Therefore, the engineer 8hOuld ensure that an airfield penetrometer is included as part of his equipment for initial engineer reconnaissance.

Airfield index is a soil strength measurement normally obtained using an airfield perletrometer.

Therefore, the engineer should ensure that an airfield penetrometer is included as part of his equipment for initial engineer reconnaissance.

If no airfield penetrometer ia available, the standard trafficability cone penetrometer may be used and the readings converted to A.I.

Two types of cones are used with the trafficability penetrometer:
one having a base area of 0.2 cq in. and another having a base area of 0.5 sq in.

To determine values of A.I. readings taken with the 0.2 sq in. and 0.5 sq in. must be divided by 20 and 50, respectively.

These converted readings may then be used with Figure 77.

If no airfield penetrometer is available, the standard trafficability cone penetrometer may be used arid the readings converted to A.I.

Two types of cones are used with the trafficability perletrometer;
one having a base area of 0.2 cq in. and another having a base area of 0.5 sq in.

To determine values of A.I., readings taken with the 02 sq in. and 0.5 sq In. must be divided by 20 and 50, respectively.

These converted readings may then be used with Figure 77.

723
0z C
S

## 7.9.1.2 Use Of Penetrometers: 7.9.1.2 Use Of Penetrometers:

PenetroneLera are crude fieldexpedient methods of evaluating soil strength.

Their use must be tempered with an understanding of soil behavior.

If a site consists of dry, clean sands (sands with no fines or material passing the No. 200 sieve), the confining effect of the large C130 tire generally will allow the aircraft to operate regardless of the measured or converted airfield index.

Windblown beach and desert sands are examples of this type of material.

The airfield index is a fairly reliable indicator of the strength of many clays, but there are exceptions.

Certain clay soils can lose over 90
percent of their strength when reniolded and turn into thick, viscous liquids.

Some residual, clay soils formed in tropical and subtropical areas and known as laterites have good bearing capacity when they are undisturbed, but if reworked with heavy equipment In the present of moisture, they become a plastic, lowstrength material.

It is impossible to predict behavior of such soils on the basis of in situ penetrometer readings alone.

The engineer must also consider the effects of moisture on soils when evaluating a site.

Some soils (clays and silts) can have large reductions In strength when they become wet.

Consequently, rain can make these soils unusable, and they should be avoided if an unsurfaced soil is needed for operations in wet weather.

Aircraft will behave differently in different types of soil.

If an aircraft is braking or turning in a cohesionless soil (particularly clean sand), the soil will rut very easily and the aircraft may bog down.

However, simplyshoveling the sand from in front of the wheels will often allow the C130 to taxi out of the rut without assistance.

The pilot can also help prevent delay of takeoff by cyclic braking.

Plastic soils, particularly CH clays, will allow braking and turning with less rutting when dry, but a light rain will make their surfaces very slick and hazardous.

PenetromeLers are crude fieldexpedient methods of evaluating soil strength.

Their use must be tempered with an understanding of soil behavior.

If a site consists of dry, clean sands (sands with no fines or material passing the No. 200 sieve), the confining effect of the large C130 tire generally will allow the aircraft to operate regardless of the measured or converted airfield index.

Windblown beach and desert eands are examples of this type of material.

The airfield index is a fairly reliable indicator of the strength of many clays, but there are exceptions.

Certain clay soils can lose over 90
percent of their strength when remolded and turn into thick, viscous liquids.

Some residual. clay soils formed in tropical and subtropical areas and known as laterites have good bearing capacity when they are undisturbed, but if reworked with heavy equipment in the present of moisture, they become a plastic, lowstrength material.

It is impossible to predict behavior of such soils on the basis of in situ penetrometer readings alone.

The engineer must also consider the effects of moisture on soils when evaluating a site.

Some soils (clays and silts) can have large reductions in strength when they become wet.

Consequently, rain can make these soils unusable, and they should be avoided if an unsurfaced soil is needed for operations in wet weather.

Aircraft will behave differently in different types of soil.

If an aircraft is braking or turning in a cohesionless soil (particularly clean sand), the soil will rut very easily and the aircraft may bog down.

However, simplyshoveling the sand from in front of the wheels will often allow the C130 to taxi out of the rut without assistance.

The pilot can also help prevent delay of takeoff by cyclic braking.

Plastic soils, particularly CH clays, will allow braking and turning with less rutting when dry, but a light rain will make their surfaces very slick and hazardous.

## 7.9.2 Clearance Requirennts 7.9.2 Clearance Requirennts

Min1riuai runway and clearance criteria for the C130 are given in TM 5330
(Departuient of the Army, 1968); these criteria are summarized in Figure 7.8.

However, the actual clearance criteria and runway length used in the mission must be established by the aircraft commander to reflect factors such as load, altitude, temperature, and aircraft model.

Operation on runways meeting these criteria will still be hazardous, inefficient, and limited to good weather. Close cooperdtion between the engineers and aircraft commanders is vitally important in selecting a usable expedient runway and aannot be overemphasized.

Minimum runway and clearance criteria for the C130 are given in TM 5330
(Department of the Army, 1968); these criteria are summarized in Figure 7.8.

However, the actual clearance criteria and runway length used in th.e mission must be established by the aircraft commander to reflect factors such as load, altitude, temperature, and atrcraft model.

Operation on runways meeting these criteria will still be hazardous, inefficient, and limited to good weather. Close cooperation between the engineers and aircraft commanders Is vitally important in selecting a usable expedient runway and cannot be overemphasized.

## 7.9.3 Surface Rouqhness And Ob8Tacls 7.9.3 Srface Rouqhness And Obstacles

TM 5330 provides allowable limits for runway roughness and obstacles.

These are summarized in Table 7.5.

If the landing strip is used by more than one aircraft at a time, the engineer must plan and build parking areas adjacent to the strip.

TM 5330 provides guidance on parking requirements for forward area fields, which would be applicable under these conditions.

If only one aircraft will use the landing strip at a time, the engineer must plan adequate space for the aircraft to turn around at the end of the strip.

Normally, a C130 can turn around within the 60ft (18rn) wide strip with 10ft (3rn) shoulders, but requirements for the turnaround area should be planned ahead of time with the aircraft commander.

TM 5330 provides allowable limits for runway roughness and obstacles.

These are summarized in Table 7.5.

If the landing strip is used by more than one aircraft at a time, the engineer must plan and build parking areas adjacent to the strip.

TM 5330 provides guidance on parking requiremente for forward area fields, which would be applicable under these conditions.

If only one aircraft will use the landing strip at a time, the engineer must plan adequate space for the aircraft to turn around at the end of the strip.

Normally, a C130 can turn around within the 60ft (18rn) wide strip with 10ft
(3m) shoulders, but requirements for the turnaround area should be planned ahead of time with the aircraft commander.

725
ZONE
RUNWAY LONGITUDINAL SECTION
RUNWAY TRANSVERSE SECTION
2000'
PLAN VIEW
hiz0N
85
S
0'
Table 7.5
Minimum Runway Requirements for C130

a.
Anticipated life........
3 days
a.
Anticipated life........
3 days
b.
Runways;
b.
Runways:
(1)
Length
2000 ft*
(1)
Length...
..
...
........
2000
ft*
(2)
Width.......
........
se........
60 ft
(2)
Width........
60 ft
(3)
Gradients:
(3)
Gradients:
(a)
Longitudinal.
0+ 3 percent
(a)
Longitudinal.
........
........
04
3 percent
( b)
Changes/IOU ft........
0+ 2 percent
(b)
Changes/lOOft........
O+2percent
(c)
Transverse
0.53 percent
Cc)
Transverse.
........
........
0.53
percent
(4)
Shoulders:
(4)
Shoulders:
(a)
Width.....
10 ft
(a)
Width......
........
10
ft
(b)
Transversegrade........
1.55 percent
(b)
Transverse grade. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
1.55 percent
(5)
Clear areas:
(5)
Clear areas:
(a)
Width
35
ft
(a)
Width........
35 ft
(b)
Maximum transversegrade........
5 percent
(b)
Maximum transverse grade........
5 percent
(6)
Overruns;
(6)
Overruns:
(a)
Length........
........
100 ft
(a)
Length.......
.
........
100 ft
( b)
Width........
60 ft
C b)
Width....
........4*....
60 ft
(7)
Lateral safety zones:
(7)
Lateral safety zones:
(a)
Slope
......
...
...
7:1
(a)
Slope
........
........-...
7:1
( b)
Width
........
75 ft
( b)
Width
.....
........
75
ft
c.
Runway end clear zone:
C.
Runway end clear zone:
(1)
Length
........
b...*.....
500 ft
(1)
Length....
.
.....
...
.
500
ft
(2)
Width:
(2)
Width:
(a)
Inner
...
........
150 ft
(a)
Inner
150
ft
( b)
O.iter
..
..
300 ft
( b)
Outer........
........
300
ft
(3)
Grade, maximum....
5 percent
(3)
Grade, maximum........
........
5
percent

d.
Runway approach zones:
d.
Runway approach zones:

(1)
Length......
10,500 ft
(1)
Length.......
........
10,500
ft
(2)
Width:
(2)
Width:
(a)
Inner........
.
300
ft
(a)
Inner
.
.
. . . .
. .
.
. .
.
300 ft
( b)
Outer.
........
2000 ft
( b)
Outer........
2000 ft
(3)
Glide slope......
........
....
35:1
(3)
Glide slope........
........
....
35:1

*Runway length is computed for conditions of sea level and 59F.

Increase In elevation and temperature will require adjustments in runway lengths and/or aircraft load.

Such determination should be made In coordination with the aircraft commander.

Metric conversion factor:
1
ft
0.3048 rn.

*Runway length is computed for conditions of sea level and 59F.
Increase in
elevation and temperature will require adjustments in runway lengths and/or
aircraft load.
Such determination should be made in coordination with the
aircraft commander.
Metric co'iversion factor:
1
ft
0.3048 m.
727

## 7.9.4 Use Of Existing Roads 7.9.4 Use Of Existing Roads

Operating aircraft from an existing road is an attractive concept since paved roads are widely available, and the problems associated with repairing a badly damaged runway can be avoided.

However, the runway length and the width requirements and the nece9sary clear areas around the landing strip are so te8trictive that only a fourlane highway with shoulders and without a median would come close to meeting the landing 8trip width requirements.

In addition to widening the road to 8upport C130 aircraft, the engineers will also have to clear trees) buildings, and power lines around the road to provide required lateral and approach clearanceB.

Figure 7.9 shows the requirements for widening a typical twolane road having a width of 22 ft (6.7 in).

Depending on the natural ground contours) cut or fill may be required.

Drainage ditcheB on either side of the road must be filled.

If the drainage ditch cross sections from TM 5330 are considered typical) 2000 cu yd (1529.1 m3) of fill will be required to fill these ditche9 for a 2000ft (610in) long landing strip.

Even
under favorable condition8, filling the ditches will require about 6 hr for a light dozer (D6).

Additional time will be needed for grading and compacting.

If the surrounding topography requires much cut and fill, widening of the road may become a massive earthmoving operation; therefore, site selection is an extremely important aspect of this type of operation.

Operating aircraft from an existing road is an attractive concept since paved roads are widely avatlable, and the problems associated with repairing a badly damaged runway can be avoided.

However, the runway length and the width requirements and the necessary clear areas around the landing strip are so re8trictive that only a fourlane highway with shoulders and without a median would come close to meeting the landing strip width requirements.

In addition to widening the road to support C130 aircraft, the engineers will also have to clear trees, buildings, and power lines around the road to provide required lateral and approach clearances.

Figure 7.9 shows the requirements for widening a typical twolane road having a width of 22 ft (6.7 in).

Depending on the natural ground contours, cut or fill may be required.

Drainage ditches on either side of the road must be filled.

If the drainage ditch cross sections from TM 5330 are considered typical, 2000 Cu yd (1529.1 in3) of fill will be required to fill these ditches for a 2000ft (610rn) long landing strip.

Even under favorable conditions, filling the ditches will require about 6 hr for a light dozer (D6).

Additional time will be needed for grading and compacting.

If the surrounding topography requires much cut and fill, widening of the road may become a massive earthmoving operation; therefore, site selection is an extremely important aspect of this type of operation.

## 7.10 Runway Bomb Damage Repair 7.10 Runway Bomb Damage Repair

Existing runway pavements cratered as a result of bomb damage and rocket and cannon fire must be repaired quickly toallow operations of cargo, fighter, or other aircraft.

The effort required to repair a crater.wi].1
depend on the extent of damage and crater size.

Pavement damage will range from spalls and scabs less than 5
ft (1.5 m) in diameter to large craters over
15 ft (4.6 in)
in diameter.

In repairing craters, consideration must be given to the structural adequacy of the repair to carry aircraft loadings, surface roughness of the finished repair with impacts on aircraft performance, and cleanup of surface debris to minimize foreign object damage (FOD) potential.

Existing runway pavements cratered as a result of bomb damage and rocket and cannon fire must be repaired quickly toallow operations of cargo, fighter, or other airrraft.

The effort required to repair a crater.will depend on the extent of damage and crater size.

Pavement damage will range from spalls and scabs less than 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter to large craters over
15 ft (4.6 m) in diameter.

In repairing craters, consideration must be given to the structural adequacy of the repair to carry aircraft loadings, surface roughness of the finished repair with impacts on aircraft performance, and cleanup of surface debris o minimize Coreign object damage (FOD) potential.

## 7.10.1 Clearing And Backfilling 7.10.1 Clearing And Bczckfilling

The area around the crater should be cleared of surface debris as soon as possible.

Broken pieces of pavement around the edge of the crater should be removed to provide a level surface depending on the desired quality of repair. Some of the ejected debris and broken pavement pieces may be pushed into the bottom of the crater to provide fill material.

The remainder should be cleared from the runway.

The fill should. be compacted as much as possible.

If the fill material and crater bottom are saturated from rain water or ground water, compaction may not be possible.

It may be necessary to place large aggregate, 3 to 5 in. (76 to 127 mm) in diauieter, in the crater bottom to provide stability.

The crater may be backfilled with compacted debris or large aggregate to within 24 in. (610 mm) of the surface.

Above this fill) well
graded crushed aggregate should be used.

If crushed aggregate is not available, it may be necessary to use aggregate or gravel obtaitted from natural depositE; however, the stability of such fill material will depend on its natural gradation and the angularity of the aggregate particles.

Placement of a membrane layer, such as T17, between the upper and lower fill materials willalso add stability.

The aggregate fill must be well compacted.

A
The area around the crater should be cleared of surface debris as soon as possible.

Broken pieces of pavement around the edge of the crater should be removed to provide a level surface depending on the desired quality of repair.

Some of the ejected debris and broken pavement pieces may be pushed into the bottom of the crater to provide fill material.

The remainder should be cleared from the runway.

The fill should. be compacted as much as possible.

If the fill material and crater bottom are saturated from rain water or ground water, compaction may not be possible.

It may be necessary to place large aggregate, 3 to 5 in. (76 to 127 mm) in diameter, in the crater bottom to provide stability.

The crater may be backfilled with compacted debris or large aggregate to within 24 in. (610 mm) of the surface.

Above this fill, well
graded crushed aggregate should be used.

If crushed aggregate is not available, it may be necessary to use aggregate or gravel obtained from natural depositE; however, the stability of such fill material will depend on its natural gradation and the angularity of the aggregate particles.

Placement of a membrane layer, such as T17, between the upper and lower fill materials willalso add stability.

The aggregate fill must be well compacted.

A
vibratory roller will normally be required; however, a heavy tracked vehicle such as a crawler tractor or tank may also be used.

As indicated, a minimum depth of 24 in. (610 cnn) of crushed aggregate below the crater surface is required.

Thus, for small craters having a total depth of backfill only slightly over 54 in. (1372 mm), it may be more convenient to fill the entire crater with crushed aggregate.

vibratory roller will normally be required; however, a heavy tracked vehicle such as a crawler tractor or tank may also be used.

As indicated, a minimum depth of 24 in. (610 mm) of crushed aggregate below the crater surface is required.

Thus, for small craters having a total depth of backfill only slightly over 54 in. (1372 mm), it may be more convenient to fill the entire crater with crushed aggregate.

## 7.10.2 Crater Repair Szrface 7.10.2 Crater Repair Surface

The use of A112 landing mat as a surface cap haa been the standard procedure, as outlined in AF Regulation 932 and Army Field Reference Document Airfield Damage Repair, Office, Chief of Engineers.

This solution requires prepositioning of the mat kit or having the kit8 air dropped.

Use of the AM2
kits requires additional logistical support.

Ideally, the surface of the finished repair should be flush with the surface of the surrounding pavement.

If tithe and materials are available, a portland cement concrete cap may be placed to cover and fill the top surface of the crater.

Such a cap should have a minimum thickness of 6 in. (152 mm).

The cap material may be batched using portlatd cement aggregate, sand, and water.

To accelerate the aetting time, calcium chloride may be added to. the grout at a rate of 1 percent by weight of cement.

The concrete should have sufficient Slump to facilitate screeding of th repair surface flush with the surrounding pavement.

A concrete cap with accelerated curing will require 10 to 15 hours to achieve adequate strength.

Another surfacing alternative which has been satisfactorily tested by the Navy is the use of a fiberglass reinforced polyester (FRP) cover.

The FRP cover offers little structural support but is intended primarily for protection against FOD.

Fabrication and placement instructions are given in "Rapid Runway Repair Interim Planning Cuide (RRRLPG)."
The finished surface profile requirements will, depend on the type aircraft u9ing the facility.

Criteria The use of A112 landing mat as a surface cap has been the standard procedure, as outlined in Al' Regulation 932 and Army Field Reference Document Airfield Damage Repair, Office, Chief of Engineers.

This solution requires prepositioning of the mat kit or having the kits air dropped.

Use of the AM2
kits requires additional logistical support.

Ideally, the surface of the finished repair should be flush with the surface of the surrounding pavement.

If time and materials are available, a portland cement concrete cap may be placed to cover and fill the top surface of the crater.

Such a cap should have a minimum thickness of 6 in. (152 mm).

The cap material may be batched using portland cement aggregate, sand, and water.

To accelerate the setting time, calcium chloride may be added to. the grout at a rate of
1 percent by weight of cement.

The concrete should have sufficient slump to facilitate screeding of the repair surface flu8h with the surrounding pavement.

A concrete cap with accelerated curing will require 10 to 15 hours to achieve adequate strength.

Another surfacing alternative which has been satisfactorily tested by the Navy is the use of a fiberglass reinforced polyester (FRP) cover.

The FRP cover offers little structural support but is intended primarily for protection against FOD.

Fabrication and placement instructions are given in "Rapid Runway Repair Interim Planning Guide (RRRIFG)."
The finished surface profile requirements will depend on the type aircraft using the facility.

Criteria are, specified in the RRRIPC and AFR
932 in terms of surface roughness criteria.

Surface roughness is critical to both cargo and fighter aircraft.

are, specified in the RRRIPC and AIR 932 in terms of surface roughness criteria.

Surface roughness is critical to both cargo and fighter aircraft.

7.10.3
FOP Prrction
7.10.3
FOP Pr3r.ction
As indicated, the FRP cover is used primarily to provide FOP protection at the crater repair site.

Hard surfacing materials such as AM2 or a grout cap also minimize FOD potential from the underlying fill material.

All loose material generally should be cleared from the runway site; however, in special cases it may be necessary to operate aircraft with no FOD protection on the crater surfdce.

Thus, there will be FOD potential from the exposed aggregate fill material.

In such cases, the decision to operate aircraft without FOP
protection on the crater repair will be at the discretion of the aircraft, Squadron, or wing coaimander as appropriate.

As indicated, the FRP cover is used primarily to provide FOD protection at the crater repair site.

Hard surfacing materials such as AM2 or a grout cap also minimize FOD potential from the underlying fill material.

All loose material generally should be cleared from the runway site; however, in special cases it may be necessary to operate aircraft with no FOD protection on the crater surface.

Thus, there will be FOD potential from the exposed aggregate fill material.

In such cases, the decision to operate aircraft without FOP
protection on the crater repair will be at the discretion of the aircraft, squadron, or wing commander as appropriate.

## 7.11 Foundation Pads 7.11 Foundation Pads

In areas where drifting sand and dry dusty soil present a problem, stabilized pads may be constructed to provide firm foundations for small foot traic areas, placement of equipment, and possibly tent foundations.

Thickness requirements for cement stabilized pads and asphalt stabilized pads are presented In Tables 7.6 and 7.7, respectively.

Pad designs are divided into In areas where drifting sand and dry dusty soil present a problem, sta bilized pads may be constructed to provide firm foundations for small foot traftc areas, placement of equipment, and possibly tent foundations.

Thickness requirements for cement stabilized pads and asphalt stabilized pads are presented In Tables 7.6 and 7.7, respectively.

Pad designs are divided frito Table 7.6

Weight
Thickness (in.) for
Weight
Thickness (in.) for
Classification,
CBR Indicated
Category
lb
4
8
15*
Classification,
CBR Indicated
Category
lb
4
8
15*
Light duty
1000
3.0
2.5
2.5
Light duty
1000
3.0
2.5
2.5
2500
3.0
2.5
2.5
2500
3.0
2.5
2.5
5000
4.5
3.0
2.5
5000
4.5
3.0
2.5
Medium duty
10,000
6.0
4.5
3.0
Medium duty
10,000
6.0
4.5
3.0
15,000
8.0
5.0
3.0
15,000
8.0
5.0
3.0
20,000
9.0
6.0
3.5
20,000
9.0
6.0
3.5
25,000
10.0
7.0
4.5
25,000
10.0
7.0
4.5
Heavy duty
35,000
12.5
9.0
6.0
Heavy duty
35,000
12.5
9.0
6.0
45,000
14.0
10.0
7.0
45,000
14.0
10.0
7.0
55,000
16.0
10.5
7.5
55,000
16.0
10.5
7.5
65,000
17.0
11.5
8.0
65,000
17.0
11.5
8.0
75,000
18.0
12.5
9.0
75,000
18.0
12.5
9.0

*Use this column for sandy soils and silty soils for which no appreciable set
tleoient is anticipated.

Metric convertion factors:
*Use this column for sandy soils and silty soils for which no appreciable set
tiesient is anticipated.

Metric convertion factors:
1 lb
0.373 kg
1
lb = 0.373 kg
1
in. = 25.4 mm
1
in. = 25.4 mm three general categories:
light, medium, and heavy duty.

Within each category, pads are further classified according to specific weight limits.

Light duty pads include those to be used for foot traffic or foot loadings, light vehicles or equipment, and small storage areas; medium duty pads are those to be used for passenger vehicles, light to mediumweight trucks, storage areas for heavy stock items, and small shop equipment.

Heavy duty pads approach the structural characteristics of pavements and include foundations for heavy equipment storage areas, placement areas for large shop equipment, and possibly parking areas for some large construction equipment.

In each class of pads, thickness designs are given based on the strength of the underlying soil in terms of CBR.

If natural soil strengths are not adequate, the soil should be compacted to increase the strength to the desired level.

three general categories:
light, medium, and heavy duty.

Within each category, pads are further classified according to specific weight limits. Light duty pads include those to be used for foot traffic or foot loadings, light vehicles or equipment, and small storage areas; medium duty pads are those to be used for passenger vehicles, light to mediumweight trucks, storage areas for heavy stock items, and small shop equipment.

Heavy duty pads approach the structural characteristics of pavements and include foundations for heavy equipment storage areas, placement areas for large shop equip
went, and possibly parking areas for some large construction equipment.

In each class of pads, thickness designs are given based on the strength of the underlying soil in terms of CBR.

If natural soil strengths are not adequate the soil should be compacted to increase the strength to the desired level.

731
Table 7.7

Thickness Requirements for Asphalt Stabilized Foundation Pads

Thickness Requirements for Asphalt Stabilized Foundation Pads

Weight
Thickness (in.) for
Classification
CBR Indicated
Category
lb
4
8
15*
Weight
Thickness (in.) for
Classification
CBR Indicated
Category
lb
4
8
15*
Light duty
1000
2.0
2.0
2.0
Light duty
1000
2.0
2.0
2.0
2500
2.5
2.0
2.0
2500
2.5
2.0
2.0
5000
4.0
2.5
2.0
5000
4.0
2.5
2.0
Medium duty
10,000
5.0
4.0
2.5
Medium duty
10,000
5.0
4.0
2.5
15,000
7.0
4.5
2.5
15,000
7.0
4.5
2.5
20,000
8.0
5.0
3.0
20,000
8.0
5.0
3.0
25,000
9.0
6.0
4.0
25,000
9.0
6.0
4.0
Heavy duty
35000
11.0
8.0
5.0
Heavy duty
35,000
11.0
8.0
5.0
45,000
12.0
8.5
6.0
45,000
12.0
8.5
6.0
55,000
14.0
9.0
6.5
55,000
14.0
9.0
6.5
65,000
15.0
10.0
7.0
65,000
15.0
10.0
7.0
75,000
16.0
10.0
8.0

75,000
16.0
10.0
8.0
1is column for sandy soils and silty Boils for which no appreciable set
tiement is anticipated.

Metric conversion factors:
1
lb = 0.373
kg column for sandy soils and silty Boils for which no appreciable set
tiement is anticipated.

Metric conversion factors:
1 lb = 0.373
kg
1
in.

35.4 mm
1
in.

35.4 mm For pads resting on cohesionless soils, e.g., primary sandy soils, as on silty soils on which no appreciable settlement is anticipated, thickness criteria indicated under the columns for 15 CBR should be used.

For pads resting on cohesionless soils, e.g., primary sandy soils, as on silty soils on which no appreciable settlement is anticipated, thickness criteria indicated under the columns for 15 CBR should be used.

732

## 7.12 Field Identification Of Soils 7.12 Field Identification Of Soils 7.12.1 Intrauction 7.12.1 Intrczuction

Lack of time and facilities often make laboratory soil testing impossible in military construction.

Even where laboratory tests are to follow, field identification tests must be made during the soil exploration to distinguish between the different soil types encountered so that duplication of samples for laboratory testing will be held to a minimum.

Several simple tests that can be used in field identification are described in this report.

Each test can be performed with a minimum of time arid equipment, although seldom will all of them be required to identify any given sample.

The number of tests employed will depend on the type of soil, and on the experience of the individual performing them.

Using these tests, the soil properties can be estimated and the materials classified.

Such classification should be recognized as an approximation, since even experienced personnel have difficulty estimating detailed soil properties with a high degree of accuracy.

The material which follows is intended to aid in the identification and classification of soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System.

Lack of time and facilities often make laboratory soil testing impossible In military construction.

Even where laboratory tests are to follow, field identification tests must be made during the soil exploration to distinguish between the different soil types encountered so that duplication of samples for laboratory testing will be held to a minimum.

Several simple tests that can be used in field identification are described in this report.

Each test can be performed with a minimum of time arid equipment, although seldom will all of them be required to identify any given sample.

The number of tests employed will depend on the type of soil, and on the experience of the individual performing them.

Using these tests, the soil properties can be estimated and the materials classified.

Such classification should be recognized as an approximation, since even experienced personnel have difficulty estimating detailed soil properties with a high degree of accuracy.

The material which follows is intended to aid in the identification and classification of soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System.

## 7.12.2 General Procedures 7.12.2 General Procedures 7.12.2.1 CoarseGrained Soils: 7.12.2.1 CoarseCrained Soils:

An approximate identification of a coarsegrained soil can be made by spreading a dry sample on a flat surface and examining it, paying particular attention to grain size, gradation, grain shape, and hardness of particles.

All lumps in the sample must be thoroughly pulverized to expose the individual grains and to obtain a uniform mixture when water is added to the finegrained portion.

The use of a rubberfaced or wooden pestle and a mixing bowl is recommended for this purpose.

The material also may be pulverized by placing a portion of the sample on a finn, smooth surface and mashing it with the feet.

The use of an iron pestle for pulverizing will break up the mineral grains and change the character of the soil.

An approximate identification of a coarsegrained soil can be made by spreading a dry sample on a flat surface and examining it, paying particular attention to grain size, gradation, grain shape, and hardness of particles.

All lumps in the sample must be thoroughly pulverized to expose the individual grains and to obtain a uniform mixture when water is added to the finegrained portion.

The use of a rubberfaced or wooden pestle and a mixing bowl is recommended for this purpose.

The material also may be pulverized by placing a portion of the sample on a firm, smooth surface and mashing it with the feet.

The use of an iron pestle for pulverizing will break up the mineral grains and change the character of the soil.

## 7.12.2.2 FineGrained Soils: 7.12.2.2 FineGrained Soils:

Tests for identification of the finegrained portion of any soil are performed on the portion of the material which passes i No. 40 sieve.

This is the same soil fraction used in the laboratory for Atterberg limits tests, such as plasticity.

If this sieve is not available, a rough separation can be made by spreading the material on a flat surface and removing the gravel and larger sand particles.

Finegrained soils are examined primarily for characteristics related to plasticity.

Tests for identification of the finegrained portion of any soil are performed on the portion of the material which passes a No. 40 sieve.

This Is the same soil fraction used in the laboratory for Atterberg limits tests, such as plasticity.

If this sieve is not available, a rough separation can be made by spreading the material on a flat surface and removing the gravel and larger sand particles.

Finegrained soils are examined primarily for characteristics related to plasticity.

## 7.12.3 Equipment Required 7.12.3 Equipment Required

Practically all the tests described can be performed with no equipment or accessories other than a small amount of water.

However, the accuracy and uniformity of results will be greatly Increased by the proper use of certain Items of equipment.

The following items of equipment, which will meet most Practically all the tests described can be performed with no equipment or accessories other than a small amount of water.

However, the accuracy and uniformity of results will be greatly increased by the proper use of certain items of equipment.

The following items of equipment, which will meet most requirements, are available in nearly all engineer units or may be improvised, and are easily transported:
requirements, are available in nearly all engineer units or may be improvised, and are easily transported:

## 7.12.3.1 Sieves: 7.12.3.1 Sieves:

A No. 40 U.s. standard sieve is perhaps the most useful item of equipment.

Any screen with about 40 openings per lineal inch could be used, or an approximate separation may be made by sorting the materials by hand.

No. 4
and No. 200 sieves are useful for separating gravel, sand, and fines.

A No. 40 U.s. standard sieve is perhaps the most useful item of equipment.

Any screen with about 40 openings per lineal inch could be used, or an approximate separation may be made by 8Orting the materials by hand.

No. 4
and No. 200 sieves are useful for separating gravel, 8and, and fine8.

## 7.12.3.2 Pioneer Tools: 7.12.3.2 Pioneer Tools:

A pick and shovel or a set of entrenching tools is used in obtaining sam
ples.

A hand earth auger i8 useful if samples are desired from depths more than a few feet below the surface.

A pick and shovel or a set of entrenching tools is used in obtaining sam
plea.

A hand earth auger is useful if samples are desired from depths more than a few feet below the surface.

## 7.12.3.3 Stirrer: 7.12.3.3 Stirrer:

The spoon issued as part of mess equipment serves in mixing materials with water to desired consistency.

It also will aid in obtaining samples.

The spoon issued as part of mess equipment serves in mixing materials with water to desired consistency.

It also will aid in obtaining samples.

## 7.12.3.4 Knife: 7.12.3.4 Knife:

A combat knife, or engineer pocket knife, is useful in obtaining samples and trimming them to the desired size.

A combat knife, or engineer pocket knife, is useful in obtaining samples and trimming them to the desired size.

## 7.12.3.5 Mixing Bowl: 7.12.3.5 Mixing Bowl:

A small bowl with a rubber faced pestle is used in pulverizing the fine
grained portion of the soil.

Both may be improvised, such as by using canteen cup and wood pestle.

A small bowl with a rubber faced pestle is used in pulverizing the fine
grained portion of the soil.

Both may be improvised, such as by using canteen cup and wood pestle.

7.12.3.6
Paper:
7.12.3.6
Paper:
Several sheets of heavy paper are needed for rolling samples.

Several sheets of heavy paper are needed for rolling samples.

7.12.3.7
Heating Samples:
7.12.3.7
Heating Samples:
A pan and heating element are used for drying Bamples. A pan and heating element are used for drying samples.

7.12.3.8
Scales:
7.12.3.8
Scales:
Balances or scales are used in weighing samples. Balances or scales are used in weighing samples.

## 7.12.4 Factor8 Considered In Identification Of Soils 7.12.4 Factors Considered In Identification Of Soils

The soil properties which form the basis for the Unified Soil Classification System are:
the percentages of gravel, sand, and fines; shape of the grainsize distribution curve; and plasticity.

These same properties are, therefore, the primary ones to be considered in field identification, but other claracteristice observed should be included in describing the soil., whether the identification is made by field or laboratory methods.

The soil properties which form the basis for the Unified Soil Classification systecn are:
the percentages of gravel, sand, and fines; shape of the grainsize distribution curve; and plasticity.

These same properties are, therefore) the primary ones to be considered in field identification, but other c1-aracteristics observed should be included in describing the soil, whether the identification is made by field or laboratory cnethods.

## 7.12.4.1 Soil Description; 7.12.4.1 Soil Description:

Properties normally included in a description of a soil are as follows: Properties normally included in a description of a soil are as follows:

1.
Color.
1.
Color.
2.
Grain size.
2.
GraIn size.
a.
Estimated maximum grain size.
a.
Estimated maximum grain size.
b.
Estimated percent by weight of fines (material passing No. 200
b.
Estimated percent by weight of fines (material passing No. 200
sieve).
sieve).

3.
Gradation.
3.
Gradation.
4.
Grain shape.
4.
Grain shape.
5.
Plasticity.
5.
Plasticity.
6.
Predominant soil type.
6.
Predominant soil type.
7.
Secondary components of soil.
7.
Secondary components of soil.
8.
Classification symbol.
8.
Classification symbol.
9.
Other remarks such as
9.
Other remarks such as
a.
Organic, chemical, or metallic content.
a.
Organic, chemical, or metallic content.
b.
Compactness.
b.
Compactness.
c.
Consistency.
c.
Consistency.
d.
Cohesiveness near plastic limit.
d.
Cohesiveness near plastic limit.
e.
Dry strength.
e.
Dry strength.
f.

Source  residual)
or transported (aeolian, waterborcie, .glacial deposit, etc.).

f.

Source  residual, or transported (aeolian, waterborne, .glacial deposit, etc.).

## 7.12.4.2 Example Of Soil Description: 7.12.4.2 Example Of Soil Description:

An example of a soil description using the sequence and considering the properties referred to above, might be as follows:
An example of a soil description using the sequence and considering the properties referred to above, might be as follows:

1.
Dark brown to white.
1.
Dark brown to white.
2.

Coarsegrained soil, maximum particle size 23/4 in. (69.9 mm), estimated 60 percent gravel, 36 percent sand, and 4 percent passing No. 200
sieve.

2.

Coarsegrained soil, maximum particle size 23/4 in. (69.9 mm), estimated 60 percent gravel, 36 percent sand, and 4 percent passing No. 200
sieve.

3.
Poorly graded (insufficient fine gravel, gapgraded).
3.
Poorly graded (insufficient fine gravel, gapgraded).
4.
Gravel particles subrounded to rounded.
4.
Gravel particles subrounded to rounded.
5.
Nonplastic.
5.
Nonpiastic.
6.
PredomInantly gravel.
6.
Predom1nntly gravel.
7.
With considerable sand and small, amount of noriplastic fines (silt).
7.
With considerable sand and small amount of nonplastic fines (silt).
8.
GP.
8.
GP.
9.
Slightly calcareous, no dry strength, dense in the undisturbed state.
9.
Slightly calcareous, no dry strength, den8e in the undisturbed state.

## 7.12.4.3 Importance Of Descriptions: 7.12.4.3 Importance Of Descriptions:

A complete description with the proper classification symbol obviously conveys much more to the reader than the symbol or any other portion of the description used alone.

A complete description with the proper classification symbol obviously conveys much more to the reader than the symbol or any other portion of the description used alone.

## 7.12.5 Visual Ex.Ijnination

7.12.5
Visual Ex.ynination
By visual xarntnatfon, it is possible to determine the color, grain size, and grain shape of the coarsegrained portion of a soil, and estLnte the grainsize distribution.

To observe these properties, a sample of the material is first dried and then spread on a fiat surface.

By visual examination, it is possible to determine the color, grain size, and grain shape of the coarsegrained portion of a soil, and estLnte the grainsize distribution.

To observe these properties, a sample of the material is first dried and then spread on a fiat surface.

## 7.12.5.1 Color: 7.12.5.1 Color:

In field soil surveys, color is often helpful in distinguishing between various soil strata, and with enough preliminary experience with local soils, cclcr also may be useful for identifying soil types.

Since the color of a soil often varies with its moisture content, the condition of the soil when color is deteriined must always be recorded.

There is generally more contrast in these colors when the soil is moist, with all the colors becoming lighter as the moisture contents are reduced.

In finegraded soils, certain dark or drab shades of gray or brown, including almost black colors, indicate organic colloidal matter (OL, OH).

In contract, clean and bright looking colors, including medium and light gray, olive greeQ, brown, red, yellowa and white generally are associated with inorganic soils.

Soil color also may indicate the presence of certain cheiicals.

Red, yellow, and yellowish brown soil colors may result from the presence of iron oxides.

White to pinkish colors may indicate considerable silica, calcium carbonate, or aluminum compounds in
8ome cases.

Grayish blue, and gray and yellow mottled colors frequently indicate poor drainage.

In field soil surveys, color is often helpful in distinguishing between various soil strata, and with enough preliminary experience with local soils, color also may be useful for identifying soil types.

Since the color of a soil often varies with its moisture content, the condition of the soil when color is determined must always be recorded.

There is generally more contrast in these colors when the soil is moist, with all the colors becoming lighter as the moisture contents are reduced.

In finegraded soils, certain dark or drab shades of gray or brown, including almost black colors, indicate organic colloidal matter (OL, OH).

In contract, clean and bright looking colors, including medium and light gray, olive green, brown, red, yellow, and white generally are associated with inorganic soils.

Soil color also may indicate the presence of certain chemicals.

Red, yellow, and yellowish brown soil colors may result from the presence of iron oxides.

White to pinkish colors may Indicate considerable silica, calcium carbonate, or aluminum compounds in some cases.

Grayish blue, and gray and yellow mottled colors frequently indicate poor drainage.

## 7.12.5.2 Grain Size: 7.12.5.2 Grain Size:

The maximum particle size should always be estimated for each sample considered, thereby establishing the upper limit of the grainsize distribution curve for that sample.

To help determine the lower limit of the grain size distribution, It is useful to know the naked eye can normally distinguish the individual grains of soil down to about 0.07 mm.

This means that all of the particles in the gravel and sand ranges are visible to the naked eye.

All of the silt particles and all of the clay particles are smaller than this size The maximum particle size should always be estimated for each sample considered, thereby establishing the upper limit of the grainsize distribution curve for that sample.

To help determine the lower limit of the grain size distribution, it Is useful to know the naked eye can normally distinguish the individual grains of soil down to about 0.07 mm.

This means that all of the particles in the gravel and sand ranges are visible to the naked eye.

All of the silt particles and all of the clay particles are smaller than this size and are therefore invisible to the naked eye.

Material smaller than 0.07 mui will pass the N. 200 sieve.

and are therefore invisible to the naked eye.

Material smaller than 0.07 mm will pass the N. 200 sieve.

## 7.12.5.3 Approximate GrainSize Distribution: 7.12.5.3 Approximate GrainSize Distribution:

The laboratory mechanical analysis must be performed whenever the grain
size distribution of a soil sample must be determined accurately.

However, the grainsize distribution can be approximated by visual inspection.

The best method of observing a material for such a determination without using laboratory equipment is to spread a portion of the dry sample on a flat surface; then, using the hands or a piece of paper, attempt to separate the material into its various grainsize components.

By this method, the gravel particles and some of the sand particles can be separated from the remainder. This will at least give the observer an opportunity to estimate whether the total sample is to be considered coarsegrained or finegrained, depending on whether or not more than 50 percent of the material would pass the No. 200
sieve.

Percentage values refer to the dry weight of the soil fractions indicated as compared to the dry weight of the original sample.

The laboratory mechanical analysis must be performed whenever the grain
size distribution of a soil sample must be determined accurately.

However, the grainsize distribution can be approximated by visual inspection.

The best method of observing a material for Buch a determination without using laboratory equipment is to spread a portion of the dry sample on a flat surface; then, using the hands or a piece of paper, attempt to separate the material into its various grainsize components.

By this method, the gravel particles and some of the sand particles can be separated from the remainder. This will at least give the observer an opportunity to estimate whether the total sample is to be considered coarsegrained or finegrained, depending on whether or not more than 50 percent of the material would pass the No. 200
sieve.

Percentage values refer to the dry weight of the soil fractions indicated as compared to the dry weight of the original sample.

CoarseGrained Soil:
If the material is believed to be coarsegralned, then there are two other criteria to consider.

First, is less than 5 percent passing the No. 200 sieve; and second, are the fines nonplastic?

If both these criteria can be satisfied and there appears to be a good representation of all grain sizes from largest to smallest, without an excessive amount or a deficiency of any one size, the material may be said to be well graded (GW or CoarseGrained Soil:
If the material is believed to be coarsegrained, then there are two other criteria to consider.

First, is less than 5 percent passing the No. 200 sieve; and second, are the fines nonplastic?

If both these criteria can be satisfied and there appears to be a good representation of all grain sizes from largest to smallest, without an excessive amount or a deficiency of any one size, the material may be said to be well graded (GW or SW).

If any intermediate sizes appear to be missing, or if there is too much of any one size, then the material is poorly graded (GF or SF).

In some ca8es, it may be possible to take a few of the standard sieves into the field.

When such is the case, the No. 4, No. 40, and No. 200 sieves should be included.

Using the No. 4 and No. 200 sieves, the sample may be separated into the three main fractions  gravel, sand, and fines.

However, if there is a considerable quantity of fines, particularly clay particles, the fines can only be readily separated by washing them through the No. 200 sieve.

In such cases, a determination of the percentage of fines is made by comparing the dry weight of the original sample with that retained on the No. 200 sieve after washing.

The difference between these two is the weght of the fines lost in the washing process.

For determination of plasticity, only that portion of the soil which viii pass through a No. 40 sieve should be used.

SW).

If any intermediate sizes appear to be missing, or if there is too much of any one size, then the material is poorly graded (GP or SF).

In some cases, it may be possible to take a few of the standard sieves into the field.

When such is the case, the No. 4, No. 40, and No. 200 sieves should be included.

Using the No. 4 and No. 200 sieves, the sample may be separated into the three main fractions  gravel, Band, and fines.

However, if there is a considerable quantity of fines, particularly clay particles, the fines can only be readily separated by washing them through the No. 200 sieve.

In such cases, a determination of the percentage of fines is made by comparing the dry weight of the original sample with that retained on the No. 200 sieve after washing.

The difference between these two is the weight of the fines lost in the washing process.

For determination of plasticity, only that portion of the soil which will pass through a No. 40 sieve should be used.

FineGrained Soil:
Estimating the grainsize distribution of a sample using no equipment at all is probably the most difficult part of field identification and obviously places great importance on the experience of the individual making the estimate.

A better approximation of the relative proportions of the components of the finer soil fraction may sometimes be obtained by shaking a portion of this sample into a jar of water and then allowing the material to settle to the bottom.

The material will settle in layers, with the gravel and coarse sand particles settling Out almost immediately, the fine sand particles within a minute, the silt particles requiring as much as an hour, and the clay particles remaining in suspension indef in
itely, or until the water is clear.

In using this method, it should be kept in mind that the gravel and sand will settle into a much more dense formation than will either the silt or clay.

FineGrained Soil:
Estimating the grainsize distribution of a sample using no equipment at all is probably the most difficult part of field identification and obviously places great importance on the experience of the individual making the estimate.

A better approximation of the relative proportions of the components of the finer soil fraction may sometimes be obtained by shaking a portion of this sample into a jar of water and then allowit,g the material to settle to the bottom.

The material will settle in layers, with the gravel and coarse sand particles settling out aloiost immediately, the fine sand particles within a minute, the ailt particles requiring as much ae an hour, and the clay particles remaining in suspension indef in
itely, or until, the water is clear.

In using this niethod, it should be kept in mind that the gravel and sand will settle into a nuch more dense formation than will either the silt or clay.

## 7.12.5.4 Grain Shape: 7.12.5.4 Grain Shape:

The grain shape of the sand and gravel particles can be deternined by close examination of the individual grains.

The grain shape affects the stability of the soil because of the increased resistance to displacement that is found in the more irregular particles.

A material whose grains are rounded has only the friction between the surfaces of the particles to help hold them in place.

An angular material has this same friction, which is increased by the roughness of the surface and the area of contact.

In action, an inter
locking action is developed between the angular particles; this gives a much greater stability than friction alone.

The grain shape of the sand and gravel particles can be determined by close examination of the individual grains.

The grain shape affects the stability of the soil because of the increased resistance to displacement that is found in the more irregular particles.

A material whose grains are rounded has only the friction between the surfaces of the particles to help hold them in place.

An angular material has this same friction, which is increased by the roughness of the surface and the area of contact.

In action, an interlocking action is developed between the angular particles; thi8 gives a much greater stability than friction alone.

## 7.12.5.5 Undisturbed Soil Properties: 7.12.5.5 Undisturbed Soil Properties:

A complete description of a soil should include prominent characteristics of the undisturbed materials.

The aggregate properties of sand and gravel are described qualitatively by the terms "loose," 'medium)" and "dense" while those of clays are described by "hard," "Buff," "medium," and "soft."
These characteristics usually are evaluated on the basis of several factors, including the relative ease or difficulty of advancing the drilling and sampling tools and the consistency of the samples.

In soils that are described as
"soft," it should also be Indicated whether the material is loose 'nd compressible, as in an area under cultivation, or spongy or elastic, as in highly organic soils.

(Moisture conditions will influence these characterist.ics and should be included In the report.)
A complete description of a soil should include prominent characteristics of the undisturbed materials.

The aggregate properties of sand and gravel are described qualitatively by the terms "loose' 'medium," and "dense," while those of clays are described by "hard," "Btiff," "mediuni," and "soft."
These characteristics usually are evaluated on the basis of several factors, including the relative ease or difficulty of advancing the drilling and sampling tools and the consistency of the samples.

In soils that are described as
"soft," it should also be indicated whether the material is loose 'nd copres
sible, as in an area under cultivation, or spongy or elastic, as in highly organic soi1s.

(Moisture conditions will influence these characterist.ics and should be included in the report.)

## 7.12.6 Breaking Or Dry Strength Test 7.12.6 Breaking Or Dry Strength Test 7.12.6.1 Preparation Of Sample: 7.12.6.1 Preparation Of Sample:

The breaking test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
sieve.

This test, as well as the roll test and the ribbon test, is used to measure the cohesive and plastic characteristics of the soil.

The test normally is made on a small pat of soil about 1/2 in. thick and about 11/2 in.

in diameter.

The pat is prepared by molding a portion of the soil in the vet plastic state into the size and shape desired and then allowing the pat to dry completely.

Samples may be tested for dry st.rength ir their natural condition as they are found in the field, but too much reliance must not be given to such tests because of the variations that exist in the drying conditions under field circumstances.

Such a test may be used in an approximation, however, and verified later by a carefully prepared sample.

The breaking test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
sieve.

This test, as well as the roll test and the ribbon test, is used to measure the cohesive and plastic characteristics of the soil.

The test normally is made on a small pat of soil about 1/2 in. thick and about 11/2 in.

in diameter.

The pat is prepared by molding a portion of the soil in the wet plastic state into the size and shape desired and then allowing the pat to dry completely.

Samples may be tested for 4ry strength it) their natural condition as they are found in the field, but too much reliance must not be given to such tests because of the variations that exist in the drying conditions under field circumstances.

Such a test may be used in an approximation, however, and verified later by a carefully prepared sample.

## 7.12.6.2 Breaking The Sample: 7.12.6.2 Breaking The Sample:

After the prepared sample is thoroughly dry, attempt to break it using the thumb and forefingers of both hands (Figure 7.10).

If it can be broken, try to powder It by rubbing it with the thumb and fingers of one hand.

After the prepared gample is thoroughly dry, attempt to break it using the thumb and forefingers of both hands (Figure 7.10).

If it can be broken, try to powder it by rubbing it with the thumb and fingers of one hand.

## 7.12.6.3 Typical Reactions: 7.12.6.3 Typical Reactions:

Typical reactions obtained in this test for various type8 of soil are described below.

Typical reactions obtained in this test for various types of soil are described below.

738
Very Highly Plastic Soils (CH):
Very high dry strength.

Samples canno.t be broken or powdered by use of finger pressure.

Very Highly Plastic Soils (CH):
Very high dry strength.

Samples canno.t be broken or powdered by use of finger pressure.

Highly Plastic Soils (CH):
High dry strength.

Samples can be broken with great effort, but cannot be powdered.

Highly Plastic Soils (CH):
High dry strength.

Satnples can be broken with great effort, but cannot be powdered.

Medium Plastic Soils (CL):
Medium dry strength.

Samples can be broken and powdered with sotne effort.

Medium Plastic Soils (CL):
Medium dry strength.

Samples can be broken and powdered with some effort.

Slightly Plastic Soils (ML, MH, or CL):
Low dry strength.

Samples can be broken quite easily and powdered readily.

Slightly Plastic Soils (ML,MH, or CL):
Low dry strength.

Samples can be broken quite easily and powdered readily.

Nonplastl.c Soils (ML or MU):
Very little or no dry strength.

Samples crumble and powder on being picked up in the hands.

Nonplasttc Soils (ML or MU):
Very little or no dry strength.

Samples crumble and powder on being picked up in the hands.

## 7.12.6.4 Precautions: 7.12.6.4 Precautions:

The te8t described above is one of the best for distinguishing between plastic clays and nonplastic silts or fine sands.

However, a word of caution The test described above is one of the best for distinguishing between plastic clays and nonpiastic silts or fine sands.

However, a word of caution
739
is appropriate.

Dry pats of highly plastic clays quite often display shrinkage cracks.

To break the sample along such a crack will indicate only a very small part of the true dry strength of the soil.

It is important to distinguish between a break along such a crack, and a clean, fresh break that indicates the true dry strength of the soil.

is appropriate.

Dry pats of highly plastic clays quite often display shrinkage cracks.

To break the sample along such a crack will indicate only a very small part of the true dry strength of the soil.

It is important to distinguIsh between a break along such a crack, and a clean, fresh break that indicates the true dry strength of the soil.

## 7.12.7 Roll Or Thread Teat 7.12.7 Roll Or Thread Tebt 7.12.7.1 Sample: 7.12.7.1 Sample:

The roll or thread test is done only on the material passing the No. 4
sieve.

The soil sample used in this test is prepared by adding water until the moisture content is such that the sample may be easily remolded without sticking to the fingers.

This is sometimes referred to as being just below The roll or thread test is done only on the material passing the No. 4
sieve.

The soil sample used in this test is prepared by adding water until the moisture content is such that the sample may be easily remolded without sticking to the fingers.

This is sometimes referred to as being just below the sticky limit."
Using a nonabsorbent surface, such as glass, this sample is rolled rather rapidly into a thread approximately 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) in diameter (Figure 7.11).

the sticky limit."
Using a nonabsorbent surface, such as glass, this sample is rolled rather rapidly into a thread approximately 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) in diameter (Figure 7.11).

## 7.12.7.2 Rolling: 7.12.7.2 Rolling:

If a moist soil can be rolled into such a thread at some moisture content, it is said to have some plasticity.

Materials which cannot bc rolled in this manner are nonpiastic, or have very low plasticity.

If a moist soil can be rolled into such a thread at some moisture content, it is said to have some plasticity.

Materials which cannot b rolled in this manner are nonplastic, or have very low plasticity.

740

## 7.12.7.3 Pica1 Reactions: 7.12.7.3 Pical_Reactions:

After reaching the plastic limit, the degree of plasticity may be described as follows:
After reaching the plastic limit, the degree of plasticity may be described as follows:
High Plasticity (CH):
The soil may be remolded into a ball and the ball deformed under extreme pressure by the fingers without cracking or crumbling.

High Plasticity (CH):
The soil may be remolded into a ball and the ball deformed under extreme pressure by the fingers without cracking or crumbling.

Medium Plasticity (CL):
The soil may be remolded into a ball, but the ball will crack and easily crumble under pressure of the fingers.

Medium Plasticity (CL):
The soil may be remolded into a ball, but the ball will crack and easily crumble under pressure of the fingers.

Low Plasticity (CL, ML, or NH):
The soil cannot be lumped into a ball without completely breaking up.

Low Plasticity (CL, ML, or MI!):
The soil cannot be lumped into a ball without completely breaking up.

Organic Materials (OL or HO):
Soils containing organic materials on mica particles will form soft spongy threads or balls when remolded.

Organic Materials (OL or HO):
Soils containing organic materials on mica particles will form soft spongy threads or balls when remolded.

Nonplastic Soils (ML or MU):
These cannot be rolled into a thread at any moisture content.

Nonpiastic Soils (ML or MH):
These cannot be rolled Into a thread, at any moisture content.

## 7.12.7.4 Description Of Cohesiveness: 7.12.7.4 Description Of Cohesiveness:

From this test, the cohesiveness of the material near the plastic limit may also be described as weak, firm, or toigh.

The higher the poaition of a soil on the plasticity chart, the stiffer are the threads as they dry out and the tougher are the lumps if the soil is remolded after rolling.

From this test, the cohesiveness of the material near the plastic limit may also be described as weak, finn, or totigh.

The higher the position of a soil on the plasticity chart, the stiffer are the threads as they dry out and the tougher are the lumps if the soil is remolded after rolling.

## 7.12.8 Ribbon Test 7.12.8 Ribbon Test

The ribbon test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
sieve.

The sample prepared for use in this test should have a moisture content that is slightly below the "sticky limit."
The "sticky limit" is the lowest water content at which the soil will adhere to a metal tool.

Using this material, form a roll of soil about 1/2 to 3/4 in. (12.7 to' 19.05 mm)
diameter and about 3 to 5 in. (76.2 to 127 mm) long.

Place the material in the palm of the hand and, starting with one end, flatten the roll, forming a ribbon 1/8 to 1/4 in. (3.18 to 6.35 mm) thick by squeezing it betweenthe thumb and forefinger (Figure 7.12).

The sample should be handled carefully to form the maximum length of ribbon that can be supported by the cohesive properties of the material.

If the soil sample holds together for a length of 8
to 10 in. (203 to 254 mm) without breaking, the material is then considered to be both highly plastic and highly compressive (CH).

If the soil cannot be ribboned, it is nonpiastic (ML or MH).

If it can be ribboned only with difficulty into short lengths, the soil is considered to have low plasticity (CL). The roll test and the ribbon test complement each other in giving a clearer picture of the degree of plasticity of soil.

The ribbon test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
sieve.

The sample prepared for use In this test should have a moisture content that is slightly below the "sticky limit."
The "sticky limit" is the lowest water content at which the soil will adhere to a metal tool.

Using this material, form a roll of soil about 1/2 to 3/4 in. (12.7 to 19.05 mm)
diameter and about 3 to 5 in. (76.2 to 127 mm) long.

Place the material in the palm of the hand and, starting with one end, flatten the roll, forming a ribbon 1/8 to 1/4 in. (3.18 to 6.35 mm) thick by squeezing Lt between the thumb and forefinger (Figure 7.12).

The sample should be handled carefully to form the maximum length of ribbon that can be supported by the cohesive properties of the material.

If the soil sample holds together for a length of 8
to 10 in. (203 to 254 mm) without breaking, the material is then considered to be both highly plastic and highly compressive (CH).

If the soil cannot be ribboned, it is nonplastic (ML or MU).

If it can be ribboned only with difficulty into short lengths, the soil is considered to have low plasticity (CL).

The roll test and the ribbon test complement each other in giving a clearer picture of the degree of plasticity of soil.

## 7.12.9 Wet Shaking Test 7.12.9 Wet Shakzng Test 7.12.9.1 Sample Preparation: 7.12.9.1 Sample Preparation:

The wet shaking test is performed only on the material passing the No, 40
sieve.

For this test, enough material to form a ball about 3/4 in. (19.05 mm)
in diameter is moistened with water.

This sample should be just wet enough The wet shaking test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
sieve.

For this test, enough material to form a ball about 3/4 In. (19.05 mm)
in diameter is moistened with water.

This sample should be just wet enough that the soil will not stick to the fingers upon remolding or just below the
"sticky limit."
that the soil will not stick to the fingers upon remolding or just below the
"sticky limit.

## 7.12.9.2 Testing: 7.12.9.2 Testing:

The sample is then placed in the palm of the hand and shaken vigorously.

This is usually done by jarring the hand on the table or some other firm object, or by jarring it against the other hand.

The soil is said to have given a reaction to this test when, on shaking, water comes to the surface of the sample producing a smooth, shiny appearance.

This appearance is frequently described as "livery" (Figures 7.13a and 7.13b).

Then, upon sqeezing the sample between the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, this surface water will quickly disappear; the surface will become dull (Figure 7.13c); the material will become firm, resisting deformation; and cracks will occur as pressure is continued, with the sample finally crumbling like a brittle The sample is then placed in the palm of the hand and shaken vigorously.

This is usually done by jarring the hand on the table or some other firm object, or by jarring it against the other hand.

The soil is said to have given a reaction to this test when, on shaking, water comes to the surface of the sample producing a smooth, shiny appearance.

This appearance is frequently described as "livery" (Figures 7.13a and 7.13b).

Then, upon sqeezing the sample between the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, this surface water will quickly disappear; the surface will become dull (Figure 7.13c); the material will become firm, resisting deformation; and cracks will occur as pressure is continued, with the sample finally crumbling like a brittle
742
material (Figure 7.13d).

The vibration caused by the shaking of the soil sample tends to reorient the soil grains, decrease the voids, and force water, which had been within these voids, to the surface.

Pressing the sample between the fingers tends to disarrange the soil grains and increase the voids space; and the water is drawn into the soil.

If the water content is still adequate, shaking the broken pieces will cause them to liquefy again and flow together, and the complete cycle may be repeated.

This process can occur only when the soil grains are bulky in shape and noncohesive in character.

material (Figure 7.13d).

The vibration caused by the shaking of the soil sample tends to reorient the soil grains, decrease the voids, and force water, which had been within these voids, to the surface.

Pressing the sample between the fingers tends to disarrange the soil grains and increase the voids space; and the water is drawn into the soil.

If the water content is still adequate, shaking the broken pieces will cause them to liquefy again and flow together, and the complete cycle may be repeated.

This process can occur only vhen the soil grains are bulky in shape and noncohesive in character.

## 7.12.9.3 Typical Reactions: 7.12.9.3 Typical Reactions:

Very fine sands and silts fall into this category and are readily identified by the vet shaking test.

Since it is rare that sands and silts occur without some clay mixed with them, there are varying degrees of reaction to this test.

Even a small amount of clay will tend to greatly retard this reaction.

Some of the descriptive terms applied to the different rates of reaction to this test are as follows:
Very fine sands and silts fall into this category and are readily identified by the wet shaking test.

Since it is rare that sands and silts occur without some clay mixed with them, there are varying degrees of reaction to this test.

Even a 8mall amount of clay will tend to greatly retard this reaction.

Some of the descriptive terms applied to the different rates of reaction to this test are as follows:
Sudden or Rapid:
A rapid reaction to the shaking test is typical of non
plastic, fine sands and silts (Figure 7.13b).

Sudden or Rapid:
A rapid reaction to the 8haking test is typical of non
plastic, fine sands and silts (Figure 7.13b).

Sluggish or Slow:
A sluggish reaction indicates slight plasticity such as might be found from a test of some organic silts, or silts containing a small amount of clay.

Sluggish or Slow:
A sluggish reaction indicates slight plasticity such as might be found from a test of some organic silts, or silts containing a small amount of clay.

No Reaction:
Obtaining no reaction at all to this test does not indicate a complete absence of silt or fine sand.

No Reaction:
Obtaining no reaction at all to this test does not indicate a complete absence of silt or fine sand.

## 7.12.10 Odor Test 7.12.10 Odor Test

Organic soils of the OL and OH groups usually have a distinctive, musty, slightly offensive odor which, with experience, can be used to aid their identification.

This odor is especially apparent from fresh samples.

It is gradually reduced by exposure to air, but can again to made more pronounced by heating a wet sample.

Organic soils are undesirable as foundation or base course material and usually are removed from the construction site and wasted.

Organic soils of the OL and OH groups usually have a distinctive, musty, slightly offensive odor vhich, vith experience, can be used to aid their identification.

This odor is especially apparent from fresh samples.

It is gradually reduced by exposure to air, but can again to made more pronounced by heating a wet sample.

Organic soils are undesirable as foundation or base course material and usually are removed from the construction site and wasted.

## 7.12.11 Bite Or Grit Test 7.12.11 Bite Or Grit Test

The bite and grit test is a quick and useful method of identifying sand, silt, or clay.

In this test, a small pinch of the soil material is ground lightly between the teeth and the soils are identified as follows:
The bite and grit test is a quick and useful method of identifying sand, silt, or clay.

In this test, a small pinch of the soil material is ground lightly between the teeth and the soils are identified as follows:

## 7.12.11.1 Sandy Soils: 7.12.11.1 Sandy Soils:

The sharp, hard particles of sand will grate very harshly between the teeth and will be highly objectionable.

This is true even of the fine 8and.

The sharp, hard particles of sand will grate very harshly between the teeth and will be highly objectionable.

This is true even of the fine sand.

## 7.12.11.2 Silty Soils: 7.12.11.2 Silty Soils:

The silt grains are so much smaller than sand grains that they do not feel nearly so harsh between the teeth, and are not particularly gritty although their presence is still easily detected.

The silt grains are so much smaller than sand grains that they do not feel nearly so harsh between the teeth, and are not particularly gritty although their presence is still easily detected.

743

7.12.11.3
Clayey Soils:
7.12.11.3
Clayey Soils:
The clay grains are not at all gritty, but feel smooth and powdery like flour between the teeth.

Dry lumps on clayey soils will stick when lightly touched with the tongue.

The clay grains are not at all gritty, but feel smooth and powdery like flour between the teeth.

Dry lumps on clayey soils will stick when lightly touched with the tongue.

7.12.12
Slaking T68t
7.12.12
Slaking Test
The slaking.test is used to assist in determining the quality of certain soft shales and other soft "rocklike" materials.

The test is performed by placing the soil in the sun or in an oven to dry, and then allowing it to soak in water for at least 24 hours.

The strength of the soil is then examined.

Certain types of shale will completely disintegrate, losing all strength.

The slaking.test is used to assist in determining the quality of certain soft shales and other soft "rocklike" materials.

The test is performed by placing the soil in the sun or in an oven to dry, and then allowing it to soak in water for at least 24 hours.

The strength of the soil is then examined.

Certain types of shale will completely disintegrate, losing all strength.

7.12.13
Acid Test

## 7.12.13 Acid Test

The acid test is used to determine the presence of calcium carbonate and is done by placing .a few drops of hydrochloric acid on a piece of the soil.

A
fixing reaction (effervescence) to this test indicates the presence of calciuxn carbonate, and the degree of reaction gives an indication of the concentration.

Calcium carbonate normally is desirable in a soil because of the cementing action it provides to add to the stability.

(In some very dry non
calcareous soils, the absorption of the acid creates the illusion of effervescence.

This effect can be eliminated in all dry soils by moistening the soil before applying the acid.)
Since this cementation normally is developed only after a considerable curing period, it cannot be counted upon for strength in most military construction.

The primary use for this test is, therefore, to permit better understanding of what appear to be abnormally high strength values on finegrained soils which are tested In place, where this property may exert considerable influence.

The acid test is used to determine the presence of calcium carbonate and is done by placing .a few drops of hydrochloric acid on a piece of the soil.

A
fixing reaction (effervescence) to this test indicates the presence of calcium carbonate, and the degree of reaction gives an indication of the concentration.

Calcium carbonate normally Is desirable in a soil because of the cementing action it provides to add to the stability.

(In some very dry non
calcareous soils, the absorption of the acid creates the Illusion of effervescence.

This effect can be eliminated in all dry soils by moistening the soil.

before applying the acid.)
Since this cementation normally is developed only after a considerable curing period, it cannot be counted upon for strength in most military construction.

The primary use for this test is, therefore, to permit better understanding of what appear to be abnormally high strength values on finegrained soils which are tested In place, where this property may exert considerable influence.

## 7.12.14 Shine Test 7.12.14 Shine Test

The shine test is another means of measuring the plasticity characteristics of clays.

A slightly moist or dry piece of highly plastic clay will give a definite shine when rubbed with a fingernail, a pocket knife blade, or any smooth metal surface.

A piece of lean clay- w1ll -remain dull..

The shine test is another means of measuring the plasticity characteristics of clays.

A slightly moist or dry piece of highly plastic clay will give a definite shine when rubbed with a fingernail, a pocket knife blade, or any smooth metal surface.

A piece of lean clay will -remain dull..

## 7.12.15 Fe.L Test 7.12.15 Fee7 Test

The feel is a general purpose test that requires considerable experience and practice to obtain reliable results.

The extent of its use will grow with Increasing familiarity with soils.

Some of the following characteristics can be readily estimated by proper use of this test.

The feel is a general purpose test that requires considerable experience and practice to obtain reliable results.

The extent of its use will grow with increasing familiarity with soils.

Some of the following characteristics can be readily estimated by proper use of this test.

## 7.12.15.1 Moisture Content: 7.12.15.1 Moisture Content:

The natural moisture content of a soil is of value as an indicator of the drainage characteristics, nearness to water table, or other factors, which may affect this property.

A piece of undisturbed soil is tested by squeezing it between the thumb and forefinger to determine its consistency.

The consistency is described by such terms as "hard, stiff," 'brittle," "friable,"
"sticky," "plastic, or "soft."
The soil is then remolded by working it in the hands, and changes are observed.

This test indicates the natural water The natural moisture content of a soil is of value as an indicator of the drainage characteristics, nearness to water table, or other factors, which may affect this property.

A piece of undisturbed soil is tested by squeezing it between the thumb and forefinger to determine its consistency.

The consistency is described by such terms as
"hard,'
"stiff," 'brittle," "friable,"
"sticky," "plastic," or "soft."
The soil Is then remolded by working it In the hands, and changes are observed.

This test indicates the natural water content relative to the liquid or plastic limit of the soil.

Clays which turn almost liquid on remolding are probably near or above the liquid limit.

If the clay rem".ns stiff, and crumbles upon being remolded, the natural water content is below the plastic limit.

content relative to the liquid or plastic limit o the soil.

Clays which turn almost liquid on remolding are probably near or above the liquid limit.

If the clay re!E".ns stiff, and crumbles upon being remolded, the natural water content is below the plastic limit.

## 7.12.15.2 Texture: 7.12.15.2 Texture:

"Texture, as applied to the finegrained portion of a soil, refers to the degree of fineness and uniformity.

It is described by such expressions as floury," "smooth," "gritty, or "sharp," depending on the sensation produced by rubbing the soil between the fingers.

Sensitivity to this sensation may be increased by rubbing some of the material on a more tender skin area such as the wrist.

Fine sand will feel gritty.

Typical dry silts will dust readily and feel relatively soft and silky to the touch.

Clay soils are powdered only with difficulty but become smooth and gritless like flour.

"Texture," as applied to the finegrained portion of a soil, refers to the degree of fineness and uniformity.

It is described by such expressions as
"floury," "smooth," 'gritty," or "sharp," depending on the sensation produced by rubbing the soil between the fingers.

Sensitivity to this sensation may be increased by rubbing some of the material on a more tender skin area such as the wrist.

Fine sand will feel gritty.

Typical dry silts will dust readily, and feel relatively soft and silky to the touch.

Clay soils are powdered only with difficulty but become smooth and gritless like flour.

## 7.12.16 Hasty Method 7.12.16 Hasty Method

With the standard methods of field identification supplemented with a few simplified field tests, an approximate and hasty classification can be obtained for almost any soil.

The three simple or hasty tests outlined below will, for the most part, eliminate the need for specialized equipment such as sieves.

The results of these tests, when used or supplemented with the results of the tests described in the previous paragraphs, will give at least a tentative classification to almost any soil.

The schematic diagram (Figure
7.14) may be used as a guide to the testing sequence in the process of assigning a symbol to a sample of soil.

With the standard methods of field identification supplemented with a few simplified field tests, an approximate and hasty classification can be obtained for almost any soil.

The three simple or hasty tests outlined below will, for the most part, eliminate the need for specialized equipment such as sieves.

The results of these tests, when used or supplemented with the results of the tests described in the previous paragraphs, will give at least a tentative classification to almost any soil.

The schematic diagram (Figure
7.14) may be used as a guide to the testing sequence in the process of assigning a symbol to a sample of soil.

## 7.12.16.1 Sedimentation Test; 7.12.16.1 Sedimentation Test:

From the visual observation test described above, it is relatively simple to approximate the comparative proportions of sand and gravel in a sample of soil by spreading a dry sample Out on a flat surface, and separating the gravel particles by hand.

Separating the fines from the sand particles is more difftcult although just as important.

Small particles will. settle through water at a slower rate than large particles.

By placing a small, representative amount of soil (such as a heaping tablespoon measure) in a transparent cup or jar, covering with about 5 in. (127 mn) of water, and agitating by stirring or shaking the soil willbe' compLetelysuspended in the water.

With most cohesive soil it will be necessary to break up the lumps of soil before adding the water.

This can be done by grinding the soil in a canteen cup with an improvised wood pestle.

After the soil particles have been thoroughly dispersed in the water and then left, they will start to settle Outs beginning with the larger size particles in time periods approximately as indicated in Table 7.8.

From the visual observation test described above, it is relatively simple to approximate the comparative proportions of sand and gravel in a sample of soil by spreading a dry sample out on a flat surface, and separating the gravel particles by hand.

Separating the fines from the sand particles is more difficult although just as important.

Small particles will, settle through water at a slower rate than large particles.

By placing a small, representative amOunt of soil (such as a heaping tablespoon measure) in a transparent cup or jar, covering with about 5 in. (127 mm) of water, and agitating by stirring or shaking, the' soil wilibe' c'ompletelysuspended in the water.

With most cohesive soil it will be necessary to break up the lumps of soil before adding the water.

This can be done by grinding the soil in a canteen cup with an improvised wood pestle.

After the soil particles have been thoroughly dispersed in the water and then left, they will start to settle out, beginning with the larger size particles, In time periods approximately as indicated in Table 7.8.

1.

The most important use of the sedimentation test is to differentiate the coarse (0.072 mm) fraction fror the fine fraction of a soil.

Since all of the particles of soil larger than 0.072 mm will have settled to the bottom of the cup or jar 30 seconds after the mixture has been agitated, it follows that the particles remaining in suspension are fines.

If the water containing the suspended fines is carefully poured into another container 30 seconds after agitation, if more water is added to the cup or jar containing the coarse fraction, and if the procedure is repeated until the watersoil mixture
1.

The most important use of the sedimentation test is to differentiate the coarse (0.072 mm) fraction from the fine fraction of a soil.

Since all of the particles of soil larger than 0.072 mm will have settled to the bottom of the cup or jar 30 seconds after the mixture has been agitated, it follows that the particles remaining in suspension are fines.

If the water containing the suspended fines is carefully poured into another container 30 seconds after agitation, if more water is added to the cup or jar containing the coarse fraction, and if the procedure is repeated until the watersoil mixture
74 7

## Settling Times For Small Particles STcling Times For Small Particles

Grain Diameter
Differentiates
e of
ugh
Water
Grain Diameter
Differentiates
Approximate Time of
Set1ement Through
51r.(127_mc
Water
Approximate Tim
Set1eruent Thro
51r.(127_m
2 seconds
2 seconds
Coarse 8andfine
sand
0.4 mm
30 seconds
0.072
Sandfines
10 minutes
0.03
Coarse siltfine
silt
1 hour
0.01
Siltclay
Coarse sandfine
sand
0.4 mm
30 seconds
0.072
Sandfines
10 minutes
0.03
Coarse siltfine
8ilt
1 hour
0.01
Siltclay

becomes ciear 30 seconds after mixing, then the cup or jar will contain the coarse fraction of soil and the pan concaining the suspension will hold the fines.

if the water can be wicked or evaporated off, the relative amounts of ti.ies d sand can he detertnined fairly accurately.

Otherwise a direct mean
urcmnt 3f the settled Out fines can be obcained as a guide.

Thus, in a becomes ciear 30 seconds after mixing, then the cup or jar will contain the coarse fraction of soil and the pan containing the suspension viii hold the fines.

if the water can be wicked or evaporated off, the relative amounts of ti.ies crd sand can he determined fairly accurately.

Otherwise a direct meas
;rcineat of the settled out fines can be obtained as a guide.

Thus, in a sense, th.. test acts like a No. 200 sieve.

sense3
test acts like a No. 200 sieve.

2.

Most field identification tests are done on the No. 40 sieve soil fraction (fines and fine sand portion).

This fraction can be separated by using a procedure similar to that outlined above, except that the wateris poured cit within 1
to 2 seconds after completion of agitation.

The suspended portion will then include the particles of the fine sand range.

..

Most field identification tests are done on the No. 40 sieve soil fraction (fines and fine sand portion).

This fraction can be separated by using a procedure similar to that outlined above, except that the water is poured cit within 1 to 2 seconds after completion of agitation.

The suspended portion will then include the particles of the fine sand range.

3.

i difficulty encountered with many clay soils is that the clay particles wifl often form small lumps (flocculate) that will not break up in water.

Tsua1iy condition can be detected by examining the coarse fraction of the
8011 atr several repetitions of the teat.

If substantial amounts of clay are tii present, the sand will have a 8Omewhat slippery feel, and further mixing ari grthding with a wood stick will be necessary to help break up theBe
1unp.

## 7.12.15.I Cast Test:

3.

i difficulty encountered with many clay soils is that the clay particles will often form small lumps (flocculate) that will not break up in water.

Tsua1ly .t condition can be detected by examining the coarse fraction of the soil acer several repetitions of the teat.

If substantial amounts of clay are ti1 present, the sand will have a somewhat slippery feel, and further mixing ar.i grthding with a wood stick will be necessary to help break up these lunp.

7.l2.1.i'
Cast Test:
The cast test refers to the strength of a moist soil sample when squeezed in t nji.d.

It is used to indicate the approximate type and quantity of fines tr cne sample.

The correct amount of water to add to the soil must be estimated by trial and error, although maximum cohesion or attraction between the lndijidual soil particles generally will occur when the soil is damp but not sticky.

The test consists of compressing a handful of the moist soil into a ball cigarshaped cast and observing its capability to withstand handling without crumbling.

While experience is desirable in making predictions based upon thi. test, Table 7.9 may serve as a general guide of the behavior of dif
ferent soil types when formed into a cast and tested.

The cast test refers to the strength of a moist soil sample when squeezed in t n4i.d.

It is used to indicate the approximate type and quant.tty of fines tr cie sample.

The correct amount of water to add to the soil must be estimated by trial and error, although maximum cohesion or attraction between the kLdiJ1dual soil particles generally will occur when the soil is damp but not sticky.

The test consists of compressing a handful of the moist soil into a ball cigarshaped cast and observing its capability to withstand har.dllng without crumbling.

While experience is desirable in making predictions based upon thi, test, Table 7.9 may serve as a general guide of the behavior of dif
ferent soil types when formed into a cast and tested.

## 7.12.16.3 Wash, Dust, And Smear Teats: 7.12.L6.3 Wash Dust And Smear Tests;

A small amount of silt (less than 5 percent), when Intermixed with a coarsegrained soil, normally will not lessen the value of the Boll as a con
structiort material.

However, increasing quantities of silt will sharply A small amount of silt (less than 5 percent), when intermixed with a coarsgrained soil, normally will not lessen the value of the Boll as a con
struct1or material.

However, increasing quantities of silt will sharply
749

Soil
Type
Reaction to Handling
Soil
Type
Reaction to Handling
GP,
SP,
SW,
GW
Cast crumbles when touched
Cast
crunibles when touched
GF,
SF,
SW,
GW
SM,
SC
Cast withstands careful handling
ML,
MH
Cast can be handled freely
SM,
SC
Cast withstands careful handling
i
Cast
can be handled freely
CL,
CH
Cast withstands rough handling
CL,
CH
Cast withstands rough handling

reduce the strength and interfere with the free drainage haracteristics of the coarsegrained soil, thus making it lees desirable as a road or airfield construction material.

To decide what COfl8titutes a harmful concentration of silt by the field identification methods generally requires extensive field experience.

If the dust, wash, and smear tests are first practiced on soils of known silt contents, they can be used to produce a fairly accurate result.

In the dust test, when a completely dry sample of soil (with the gravel portion removed) is dropped from a height of I or 2 ft (0.3 or 0.6 m) onto a solid surface, a silt content higher than 10 percent will generally cause a fairly large amount of dust to be produced.

In the iiash test, an Identical soil sample, as above, is placed in the palm of a hand, and covered with about
1/8 in. (3.18 mm) of water.

If the water becomes completely discolored and hides the sand grains, this indicates that the soil sample contains a silt content higher than 5 percent.

In the smear test, a sample of soil, again with the gravel portion removed, is moistened to just below the "sticky limit," and then smeared between the thumb and forefinger.

When it produces a gritty, harsh feel, this Indicates that it contains a silt content of less than 10 percent.

A rough, less harsh feel, however, Indicates that the sample contains more than 10 percent silt.

It should be emphasized that all of the above tests require the testing engineer to have sorne expez'ience in their use before they can be considered reliable indicators of the silt contents.

reduce the strength and interfere with the free drainage haracteristics of the coarsegrained soil, thus making it leas desirable as a road or airfield construction material.

To decide what con8titutes a harmful concentration of silt by the field identification methods generally requires extensive field experience.

If the dust, wash, and smear tests are first practiceci on soils of known silt contents, they can be used to produce a fairly accurate result.

In the dust test, when a completely dry sample of soil (with the gravel portion removed) is dropped from a height of 1 or 2 ft (0.3 or 0.6 m) onto a solid surface, a silt content higher than 10 percent will generally cause a fairly large amount of dust to be produced.

In the iiash test, an identical soil sample, as above, is placed in the palm of a hand, and covered with about
1/8 in. (3.18 mm) of water.

If the water becomes completely discolored and hides the sand grains, this indicates that the soil sample contains a silt content higher than 5 percent.

In the smear test, a sample of soil, again with the gravel portion removed, is moistened to just beloii the "sticky limit," and then smeared between the thumb and forefinger.

When it produces a gritty, harsh feel, this indicates that it contains a silt content of less than 10 percent.

A rough, less harsh feel, however, Indicates that the sample contains more than 10 percent silt.

It should be emphasized that all of the above tests require the testing engineer to have sorne exper'ience in their use before they can be considered reliable indicators of the silt contents.

7 0

## Chapter 8 - Port Construction Chapter 8 - Port Construction 8.1 Introduction 8.1 Introduction

Certain geographic areas of operation nay require use of beach sites for extended periods of time beasue there are few--or nofacilities for handling containers in most ports in the Middle East at present, and container terminals are only in the planning stage.

Wooden and concrete jetties are used throughout for shipping crude and refined oil for local consumption and for exporting oil products.

It appears that currently designated U.S.

Army Port Construction Companies (one regular Army, two reserves) require new equipment and training to become familiar with the best methods of performing container port construction.

Because of construction limitations caused by the equipment presently authorized the Engineer Combat Battalion Heavy, time restrictions preclude any extensive repairs on heavily damaged ports.

Characteristics of selected "major" ports in the Middle East reveal two common problems:
Certain geographic areas of operation nay require use of beach sites for extended periods of time beasue there are few--or nofacilities for handling containers in most ports in the Middle East at present, and container terminals are only in the planning stage.

Wooden and concrete jetties are used throughout for shipping crude and refined oil for local consumption and for exporting oil products.

It appears that currently designated U.S. Army Port Construction Companies (one regular Army, two reserves) require new equipment and training to become familiar with the best methods of performing container port construction.

Because of construction limitations caused by the equipment presently authorized the Engineer Combat Battalion Heavy, time restrictions preclude any extensive repairs on heavily damaged ports.

Characteristics of selected "major" ports in the Middle East reveal two common problems:
(1)
most ports in the region are not equipped to handle heavy cargo or container lifts, and (2)
some have less than 40ft (12in) draft available in the channel or at dockside.

A typical small port involved in coastal trade iS
shown in Figure 8.1.

(1)
most ports in the region are not equipped to handle heavy cargo or container lifts, and (2)
some have less than 40ft (l2m) draft available in the channel or at dockside.

A typical small port involved in coastal trade is shown in Figure 8.1,

## 8.2 Dredging Of Channels 8.2 Dredging Of Channels

Rapid dredging of channels with depths of a least 40 ft (12 m) is needed to accommodate container ships.

There are no expedient solutions to this problem.

Hopper dredges and sidecasting dredges are the only ones that are seagoing.

The cutterhead dredge is the most functional of all dredges because it can operate in materials up to a consistency of soft rock.

The dredge works most efficiently when making a deep cut in relatively calm waters.

Its use is very limited in waters subject to waves over 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m).

It takes a significant amount of time to move equipment such as dredges from secured areas to occupied areas.

In fact, the equipment would not arrive for more than 48 hours unless it were pre-positioned so that it could be sent at a morriont's notice.

Identifying items that are 4lfficuit to move is imperative for the completion of largescale mis&ions such as port rehabilitation.

Rapid dredging of channels with depths of a least 40 ft (12 m) is needed to accommodate container ships.

There are no expedient solutions to this problem.

Hopper dredges and sidecasting dredges are the only ones that are seagoing.

The cutterhead dredge is the most functional of all dredges because it can operate in materials up to a consistency of soft rock.

The dredge works most efficiently when making a deep cut In relatively calm waters.

Its use is very limited in waters subject to waves over 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to (1.9 m).

It takes a significant amount of time to move equipment such as dredges from secured areas to occupied areas.

In fact, the equipment would not arrive for inore than 48 hours unless it were pre-positioneci so that it could be sent at a moment's notice.

Identifying items thafl are 4ffficuit, to move is imperative for the completion of largescale missions such as port rehabilitation.

## 8.3 'Lraininlof Personnel In Operation And Maintenance Of Local Materials 8.3 '1Rainuwof Personnel In Operation And Maintenance Of Local Materials Lln.&Slu.Ma!P!

Personnel who will operate a port may be unfamiliar with the operation and maintenance of civilian materialhandling equipment left in an operational status by departed host nation personnel.

One solution may be familiarization schooling for personnel assigned to rapid deployment forces.

Other approaches could be the importation of allied civilian workers skilled in operation of such equipment or onthejob orientation for untrained military personnel.

Personnel who will operate a port may be unfamiliar with the operation and maintenance of civilian materialhandling equipment left in an operational status by departed host nation personnel.

One solution may be familiarization schooling for personnel assigned to rapid deployment forces.

Other approaches could be the importation of allied civilian workers skilled in operation of such equipment or onthejob orientation for untrained military personnel.

81
To enhance operation capabilities, detailed information should be gathered concerning the type and quantity of equipment available at the Persian Gulf ports so that familiarization schoolingcatt be done.

Onthejob training is not recommended as the best solution learning accidents can he costly in a operation for which time is minimal.

To enhance operation capabilities, detailed information should be gathered concerning the type and quantity of equipment available at the Persian Gulf ports so that familiarization schoolingcafl be done.

Onthejob training is not recommended as the best solution learning accidents can be costly in a operation for which time is minimal.

## 8.4 Pol Terminal Facilities 8.4 Pol Terminal Facilities

Construction, rehabilitation, and/or improvement of POL terminal facilities are needed to achieve an early capability for unloading POL tankers.

Tactical marine terminals consisting of two functional portions, an offshore and an onshore portion, will bring ashore, store, and issue bulk petroleum products where no facilities exist for doing so.

The storage capacity of the terminal should accommodate large oceangoing tankers.

Holds of ships not being used for other purposes can provide a temporary oil reservoir.

If the ship is floating, it can be towed to larger tankers, have the hold filled, Construction, rehabilitation, and/or improvement of POL terminal facilities are needed to achieve an early capability for unloading POL tankers.

Tactical marine terminals consisting of two functional portions, an offshore and an onshore portion, will bring ashore, store, and issue bulk petroleum products where no facilities exist for doing so.

The storage capacity of the terminal should accommodate large oceangoing tankers.

Holds of ships not being used for other purposes can provide a temporary oil reservoir.

If the ship is floating, it can be towed to larger tankers, have the hold filled,
82
and then be t..ed to a storage site.

Collapsible tanks are vulnerable to puncture from standard materialshandling equipment and, due to their weight and bulk, require considerable manpower for positioning.

This solution is susceptible to enemy attack since any ship must be exposed in the water.

Also, disabled ships or unpowered barges require powered vessels to get to and from tankers.

Collapsible POL tanks can be inserted in below-ground pits or underwater to reduce vulnerability and exposure to weapons fire.

and then be t.ed to a storage site.

Collapsible tanks are vulnerable to puncture from standard materialshandling equipment and, due to their weight and bulk, require considerable manpower for positioning.

This solution is susceptible to enemy attack since any ship must be exposed in the water.

Also, disabled ships or unpowered barges require powered vessels to get to and from tankers.

Collapsible POL tanks can be inserted in below-ground pits or underwater to reduce vulnerability and exposure to weapons fire.

## 8.5 Lack Of ContainerHandling Facilities 8.5 Lack Of ContainerHandling Facilities

Capability is required for the rapid construction of expedient container ports to meet rapid deployment force requirements.

However, there are no quick and easy solutions to this problem.

It should be recognized that plans for future uses of expedient military ports must be especially adaptable for containerhandling operations and must employ the latest innovative commercial applications for reducing offloading and turnaround times of container ships. Prepositioning of critical equipment for offloading operations may provide flexibility to reaet in undeveloped port areas.

Capability is required for the rapid construction of expedient container ports to meet rapid deployment force requirements.

However, there are no quick and easy solutions to this problem.

It should be recognized that plans for future uses of expedient military ports must be especially adaptable for containerhandling operations and must employ the latest innovative conmercial applications for reducing offloading and turnaround times of container ships. Prepositioning of critical equipment for offloading operations may provide flexibility to react in undeveloped port areas.

## 8.6 Rapid Removal Of Debris 8.6 Rapid Removal Of Debris

Removal of horizontal and vertical structures that are damaged beyond repair and are interfering with completion f the port operation mission may be required.

Material that has been reduced to rubble, such as broken concrete, can be turned into fill material within the port area to act as foundation for extensions of piers breakwaters, and construction of new piers, or to fill craters.

Blasting techniques have been effective in reducing structures to rubble.

However, blasting and the handling of explosives should be done only by trained personnel.

To facilitate debris removal the addition of adding a dump truck company could make it easier to handle large quantities of earth, rubble, or damaged construction material.

Also, subassemblies salvaged from a destoryed structure could serve as structural membranes in other facilities; e.g., salvageable wood could be used for expedient roadway surfacing in areas of weak soil.

Removal of horizontal and vertical structures that are damaged beyond repair and are interfering with completion ef the port operation mission may be required.

Material that has been reduced to rubble, such as brokdn concrete, can be turned into fill material within the port area to act as foundation for extensions of piers breakwaters, and construction of new piers, or to fill craters.

Blasting techniques have been effective in reducing structures to rubble.

However, blasting and the handling of explosives should be done only by trained personnel.

To facilitate debris removal the addition of adding a dump truck company could make it easier to handle large quantities of earth, rubble, or damaged construction material.

Also, subassemblies salvaged from a destoryed structure could serve as structural membranes in other facilities; e.g., salvageable wood could be used for expedient roadway surfacing in areas of weak soil.

## 8.7 Lack Of Adequate Road Networks 8.7 Lack Of Adequate Road Networks

Lack of adequate road networks from port to inland areas may hinder transportation.

Expedient construction techniques may be used with minimum quantities of hauledin materials to provide binder for inplace, sandy materials.

Use seawater to obtain compaction with heavy construction equipment and dump trucks.

The minimum length and width of oneway roads should be constructed until semipermanent and/or permanent inland road nets are reached. If proper consolidation and compaction of sandy soils cannot be completed in the allotted time, reoutfitting trucks with tires that perform well in loose sand may prevent having to extract vehicles that have become trapped Lack of adequate road networks from port to inland areas may hinder transportation.

Expedient construction techniques may be used with minimum quantities of hauledin materials to provide binder for Inplace, sandy materials.

Use seawater to obtain compaction with heavy construction equipment and dump trucks.

The minimum length and width of oneway roads should be constructed until semipermanent and/or permanent inland road nets are reached.

If proper consolidation and compaction of sandy soils cannot be completed in the allotted time, reoutfitting trucks with tires that perform well in loose sand may prevent having to extract vehicles that have become trapped in the sand.

A minimum standby force of water trucks and dozers is required to smooth the road surface as ruts occur from vehicle traffice.

in the sand.

A minimum standby force of water trucks and dozers is required to smooth the road surface as ruts occur from vehicle traffice.

83

## 8.8 Temporary Methods Of ThroughPut Operations 8.8 Temporary Methods Of ThroughPut Operations

During the rehabilitation of ports, the offloading of supply ships viii be hindered until wharves and quays can be reconstructed.

On possible solution is iighterage operations from ships anchored within the harbor to barges for transfer to shore.

Other solutions could include; lighterage from lighter aboard ship (LASH) or SEABEE ships for overthebeach discharge of cargo; use of heavylift helicopters to offload breakbulk or container cargoes or use of causeway barges to ferry containers from ship to shore (in calm seas). There are certain considerations to be observed.

For example:
During the rehabilitation of ports, the offloading of supply ships will be hindered until wharves and quays can be reconstructed.

On possible solution is lighterage operations from ships anchored within the harbor to barges for transfer to shore.

Other solutions could include; lighterage from lighter aboard ship (LASH) or SEABEE ships for overthebeach discharge of cargo; use of heavylift helicopters to offload breakbulk or container cargoes; or use of causeway barges to ferry containers from ship to shore (in calm seas). There are certain considerations to be observed.

For example:


Ligherage
from ships that do not have selfsustaining capability would
require the use of a floating crane or use of helicopters.

Ligherage
from ships that do not have selfsustaining capability would
require the use of a floating crane or use of helicopters.

Lighterage operations cannot be conducted in heavy seas.

Lighterage operations cannot be conducted in heavy seas.

Discharge or rollon/rolloff (RO/RO) ships is only possible through
the Army's Beach Discharg Light (EbL), of which there is only one.

Discharge or rollon/rolloff (RO/RO) ships is only possible through
the Army's Beach Discharge Light (BDL), of which there is only one.

Use of helicopters restricts cargo weight to useful limits of the
helicopter.
Nominal loads of up ot 18,200 lb (16 380 tnt) can be carried by
CH47C helicopters.

Use of helicopters restricts cargo weight to useful limits of the
helicopter.
Nominal loads of up ot 18,200 lb (16 380 int) can be caried by
dH47C helicopters.
-
It should noted that all of the foregoing methods are time consuming and should only be used until docking facilities are available.

In addition, movement of barges will require powered vessels.

-
It should noted that all of the foregoing methods are time consuming and should only be used until docking facilities are available.

In addition, movement of barges will require powered vessels.

## 8.9 Lack Of Materials For Construction And Repair Of Port Facilities 8.9 Lack Of Materials For Construction And Repair Of Port Facilities

Local timber is generally not available for piling or wharf superstructures.

During 1)orld War II port development In the Persian Gulf, timber for piling was imported from India.

TN 5258, Pile Construction, describes a number of species of trees in that area which make excellent piling.

Salvaged materials, such as structural steel or telephone poles, can be used for expedient piling.

During demolition and debris removal, the normal tendency is to cut such members Into short, easily handled pieces.

If general cargo pier reconstruction Is required, a premium hould be placed on salvaging large pieces intact.

Since timing of the operations makes fabrication of piling unrealistic
, materials must either be scavenged or imported.

Local timber is generally not available for piling or wharf superstructures.

During Uorld War II port development in the Persian Gulf, timber for piling was imported from India.

TN 5258, Pile Construction, describes a number of species of trees in that area which make excellent piling.

Salvaged materials, such as structural steel or telephone poles, can be used for expedient piling.

During demolition and debris removal, the normal tendency is to cut such members Into short, easily handled pieces.

If general cargo pier reconstruction is required, a premiUm ihoutd be placed on salvaging large pieces intact.

Since timing of the operations makes fabrication of piling unrealistic
, materials must either be scavenged or imported.

8-4

## Chapter 9 - Factors Affetting Encineer Wfl Irce Chapter 9 - Factors Affetting Encineer Wfl Vt)Rce 9.1 Introduction 9.1 Introduction

Working corditiors ir the desert call be extremely harsh.

High bolar radiation, temperature, lack of water 8uppiy, and sand storms all contribute to the difficult environment.

This chapter describes how the envirormert affects personnel ard equipment, and how thQ impacts can be inir1mized.

Ger
erally, all movemelts should be as deliberate and unhurried as pos1b1e; this reduces the body's heat production and use of erergy aid waters Working conditions in the desert cait he extremely harsh.

High solar radiation, temperature, lack of water supply1, and sand storms all contribute to the difficult environment.

This chapter describes how the environment affects personnel and equipment, and how che impacts can be minimized.

Generally, all movements should be as deliberate and unhurried as possible; this reduces the body's heat production and use of energy and water.

## 9.2 Health Aid Opecatioial Effectiveness 9.2 Health And Operational Effectiveness 9.2.1 Effect Of Heat O Efficiency 9.2.1 Effect Of Heat O Efficiency

Desert is characterized by high solar radiation and temperature.

Solar radiation beats down on desert regions with great intenslty.

The air temperature in the summer can range up to 131F (559C).

Without precautionary measures, the heat not only viii reduce the efficiency of workers, but also will create health problems.

Desert is characterized by high solar radiatEoi and temperature0
Solar radiation beats dowr or desert regions with great irtensity.

The air temperature ii the summer can raIge up to 131F (559C).

Without precautiqiary meaa
ures, the heat iot oily will reduce the efficieicy of workers, but also will create health problems.

The ceductioi in the efficiency of workers caused by high da,time temperatures cart be considerable.

Therefore, ore needs to consider 1ettirg personnel work at right to take advantage of the cooler temperatures.

However, the problem with this is that workers must sleep in excessive daytirue temperatures.

The reduction In the efficiency of workers caused by high da,time temperatures can be considerable.

Therefore, one needs to consider letting personnel work at night to take advantage of the cooler temperatures.

However, the problem with this is that workers must sleep in excessive daytime temperatures.

High solar radiatior ard temperature may cause heat cramps and heat exhaustioi.

The followiig preventive measures should be taken:
High solar radiation and temperature may cause heat cramps and heat exhaustion.

The following preventive measures should be taken:
1.

Water aid salt intake by indiv1dials must be adequate.

However excess thtake of salt should be avoided since it may cause thcreased thirst aid iicpacitati.ng nausea.

Unless workers are sweatthg coatiiuoitsly or repeatedly, they do not ieed saline fluids or salt tublets.

Exta salt in food ard on the table, coupled with sourd trairing, will meet most requirements.

When water supplies are resticted.,.sa1t In xcessof thtiorrna11y preaeIt in food should riot be taken.

Consilt TB MED 507 for tnfrwation on salt tablets.

1.

Water and salt intake by individuals must be adequate.

However, excess intake of salt should be avoided since it may cause increased thirst and incpacitating nausea.

Unless workers are sweating continuously or repeatedly, they do not need saline fluids or salt tablets.

Exta salt in food and on the table, coupled with sound training, will meet most requirements.

When water supplies are resrricted.,.sait i,n xcessof thtnoruially present in food should not be taken.

Consult TB MED 507 for infrmation on salt tablets.

2.

Whenever practical, work should be performed in the shade or ii the early morning, everirg, or night.

If shade over a work are is not possible, some sort of shady shelter should be provided it th jc1 se.

2.

Whenever practical, work should be performed in the shade or in the early morning, evening, or night.

If shade over a work ares is not possible, some sort of shady shelter should be provided ut the jo1 se.

3.
When it is very hot, the men should work ii
aid strenuous
labor
should be reduced.
3.
When it is very hot, the men should work in sh1cs, and strenuous
labor
should be reduced.
4.
Clothing must be loose enough to permit ventihitton of the body.
4.
Clothing must be loose eiough to permit veitLLition of the body.
5.
Dress as the natives do.
Wear light colored clotiing.
5.
Dress as the natives du.
Weir light colored clotithg.
6.

The body, especially the head, should not be untiecessarily exposed to the sun.

6.

The body, especially the head, should iot be untiecessarily exposed to the sur.

91
It is well understood that a sudden onset of hot weather impairs ability of personnel to perform work that is easily done in cool environments.

However, one can get acclimated if the heat wave lasts several days.

Nevertheless, it should be pointed Out that the ability to perform as much work as possible in the heat must be attained by progressively increasing the daily workload.

Strenuous exertion on first exposure may result in disability that will impair performance for several days.*
Therefore, gradual workload increases are suggested so that fresh troops perform lighter work for a short time before being assigned heavier workloads.

Personnel can become acclimated with short1, intermittent work periods of 2 to 4 hours daily for 4 to 7 days.**
Drinking water must not be restricted during this time since inadequate water and salt replacement can delay acclimatization.

Nevertheless, salt intakes should not be excessive1, as noted earlier.

A suggested schedule of work during acclimatizing period is given in Table 9.1.

It is well understood that a sudden onset of hot weather impairs ability of personnel to perform work that Is easily done in cool environments.

However, one can get acclimated if the heat wave lasts several days.

Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that the ability to perform as much work as possible in the heat must be attained by progressively increasing the daily workload.

Strenuous exertion on first exposure may result in disability that will impair performance for several days.*
Therefore, gradual workload increases are suggested so that fresh troops perform lighter work for a short time before being assigned heavier workloads.

Personnel can become acclimated with short, intermittent work periods of 2 to 4 hours daily for 4 to 7 days.**
Drinking water must not be re8tricted during this time since inadequate water and salt replacement can delay acclimatization.

Nevertheless, salt intakes should not be excessive, as noted earlier.

A suggested schedule of work during acclimatizing period is given in Table 9.1.

## 9.2.2 Protective Equipment 9.2.2 Protective Equipment

In desert regions, the night vision of personnel may be Impaired by prolonged exposure of the eyes to Intense sunlight and reflected light from the earth.

These problems can be correc ted by taking the following steps:
In desert regions, the night vision of personnel may be impaired by prolonged exposure of the eyes to intense sunlight and reflected light from the earth.

These problems can be corrected by taking the following steps:

1.
Providing caps or hats with wide brims or bills to shade the eyes.
1.
Providing caps or hats with wide brims or bills to shade th eyes.
2.
Prohibiting personnel from working in the direct sunhIg'.t .'Iiout
having their heads covered and eyes shaded.
2.
Prohibiting personnel from working in the direct sunlig.t iiout
having their heads covered and eyes shaded.
3.

Providing sunglasses to all personnel and requiring that they wear them when they are outside in the daytime.

If sunglasses are not available, under extreme conditions personnel can take a piece of cardboard or paper and Cut small slits or holes in it that will align with each eye.

The paper or cardboard can be kept In place with rubber bands, tape, or wire positioning a hole or slit directly in front of each eye.

This will reduce the amount of light entering the pupil of the eye, but will still provide limited vision.

3.

Providing sunglasses to all personnel and requiring that they wear them when they are outside in the daytime.

If sunglasses are not available1, under extreme conditions personnel can take a piece of cardboard or paper and cut saiall slits or holes in it that will align with each eye.

The paper or cardboard can be kept In place with rubber bands, tape, or wire positioning a hole or slit directly in front of each eye.

This will reduce the amount of light entering the pupil of the eye) but will still provide limited vision.

Any metallic object, such as a tool or equipment, will become too hot for handling if left in the sun.

Therefore, workers need gloves for protection against burns.

To prevent tools from becoming too hot, they must be stored in the shade whenever possible.

Soft, "spongy" handle covers would also make tools easier to use In the heat.

Any metallic object1, such as a tool or equipment, will become too hot for handling if left in the sun.

Therefore) workers need gloves for protection against burns.

To prevent tools from becoming too hot, they must be stored in the shade whenever possible.

Soft, spongy" handle covers would also make tools easier to use in the heat.

In addition to the problems caused by intense sunlight, dust or sand storm will also cause considerable difficulty for workers.

All personnel will need goggles, chapsticks, and skin and eye ointments.

Sometimes it is better to just stop working than to try to keep going when there are bad dust storms.

In addition to the problems caused by intense sunlight, dust or sand storm will also cause considerable difficulty for workers.

All personnel will need goggles1, chapsticks, and skin and eye ointments.

Sometimes it is better to just stop working than to try to keep going when there are bad dust storms.

* D. E. Bass, "Thermoregulatory and Circulatory Adjustments during Aclimatization to Heat in Man," in James P. Hardy, ed., Temperature:
Its
ment and Control in Science and Industry, Vol 3, part 3, Biology aid
cine
(Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1963),
pp 299305.

**Ibjd.
* D. E. Bass, "Thermoregulatory and Circulatory Adjustments during Acliiatization to Heat in Man," in James P. Hardy, ed, Temperature:
Its
ment and Control in Science and Industry, Vol 3, part 3, Biology ad Mdi
cine (Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1963), pp 299305.

- **Ibid
92

## 9.2.3 Water Intake Requirements 9.2.3 Water Intak Requirements

Table 9.2 may be used as a guide to estimate the drivLi,.

water requirements for per:('anel exposed to heat.*
Table 9.2 may be used as a guide to estimate the drinki,. water requirements for per:('nnel exposed to heat.*
Occasionally drinking water must be restricted.

The restricted drinking water supply will reduce operational effectiveness and increase health hazards.

Therefore the number of working hours should be reduced, the work should be made less strenuous, and the men should not be allowed to work in the sun.

Never reduce the amount of drinking water as a "hardening" measure or "toughening" process for personnel.

This is a dangerous practice  it only produces dehydration.

When water is in short supply, significant water economy can be achieved only be reducing physical activity or limiting it to early morning or night hours when there is less heat and workers do not sweat as much.

Any attempt at water economy by restricting water intake must be paid for in reduced work capability reduced efficiency, and increased risk of heat innjury.

Occasionally1, drinking water must be restricted.

The restricted drinking water supply will reduce operational effectiveness and increase health hazards.

Therefore, the number of working hours should be reduced, the work should be made less strenuous, and the men should not be allowed to work in the sun.

Never reduce the amount of drinking water as a "hardening" measure or "toughening process for personnel.

This is a dangerous practice  it only produces dehydration.

When water is in short supply, significant water economy can be achieved only be reducing physical activity or limiting it to early morning or night hours when there is less heat and workers do not sweat as much.

Any attempt at water economy by restricting water intake must be paid for in reduced work capability, reduced efficiency, and increased risk of heat innjury.

It is common for chemical diarrhea to be caused just by changing sources of water supply, Often, even treated water contains certain laxatives to which one must become acclimated.

If one is forced to constantly drink water from different sources, onets systerr does not have an opportunity t adjust to the new supply.

This problem will be more common with freshwater sources which have been treated with an ERDLater rather than a desalination unit; ERDLatertype devices are not designed to remove from water substances which act as laxatives.

Local water may also contain relatively high levels of magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate (500 ppn).

It may also have h.gh pH
(above 9).

Therefore, local water supplies must be avoided unless qualities personnel have tested and approved the water.

In addition, the unit commander must try to keep changes in sources of water supply to a minimum.

It is common for chemical diarrhea" to be caused just by changing sources of water supply.

Often, even treated water contains certain laxatives to which one must become acclimated.

If one is forced to constantly drink water from different sources, one's system does not have an opportunity t adjust to the new supply.

This problem will be more common with freshwater sources which have been treated with an ERDLater rather than a desalination unit; ERDLatertype devices are not designed to remove from water substances which act as laxatives.

Local water may also contain relatively high levels of magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate (500 ppm).

It may also have h.gh pH
(above 9).

Therefore, local water supplies must be avoided unless qualities personnel have tested and approved the water.

In addition, the unit commander must try to keep changes in sources of water supply to a minimum.

## 9.2.4 Sanitation Considerations 9.2.4 Sanitation Considerations

Many species of flies are annoyances in all countries of SWA.

Many other types of insects  such as mosquitoes and fleas  are also found in the region.

Insecticides provided by the Quartermaster Corps may be used.

How
ever it probably will be more effective to use screens in the work areas to stop the flies and mosquitoes.

Deodorants hair spray, and cologne should not be used since they will attract insects.

Many species of flies are annoyances in all countries of SWA.

Many other types of insects  such as mosquitoes and fleas  are also found in the region.

Insecticides provided by the Quartermaster Corps may be used.

However, it probably will be more effective to use screens in the work areas to stop the flies and mosquitoes.

Deodorant, hair spray, and cologne should not be used since they will attract insects.

## 9.2.5 Use Of Local Labor Fc'Rce 9.2.5 Use Of Local Labcr Fc'Rce

Every effort should be made to use native personnel whenever practical since they know the country in many instances have considerable practical knowledge of construction problems in the immediate area, and furnish a ready labor force which can be called upon.

It should be cautioned, however that native laborers are more efficient when working with familiar iuaterials and tools.

For instances local or native workmen are far more experielced in masonry than in carpentry.

Local laborers should not be forced to use modrn tools unless the training can be done easily.

Every effort should be made to use native personnel whenever practical since they know the country, in many instances have considerable practical knowledge of construction problems in the Immediate area, and furnish a ready labor force which can be called upon.

It should be cautioned, however, that native laborers are more efficient when working with familiar muaterials and tools.

For instance, local or native workmen are far more experienced in masonry than in carpentry.

Local laborers should not be forced to use modrn tools unless the training can be done easily.

93
Schedules of Work, If Necessiry, During Acclimatizing Perio
(This table is ba8ed on TBMEI)5Ul, Occupational and Environta1
Health Headquarters [Departnients of the Army, Navy, and Air For.e July 1980].)
Schedules of Work, If Necessiry, During Acclimatizing Perio
(This table is based on TBMEI)5U1, Occupational and Environcta1
Health Headquarters [Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air For.e, July 1980].)

Moderate Conditions, WBGT or WD
Severe Conditions, WBGT or Wi)
Less Than 800*
Greater Than 800
Moderate Conditions, WBGT or WD
Severe Conditions, WBGT or Wi)
Less Than 800*
Greater Than 800
Hours of Work**
Hours of Work**
Morning
Afternoon
Morning
Aftenon
First
day
1
1
First day
1
1
Second day
11/2
11/2
Second day
11/2
1-1/2
Third day
2
2
Third day
2
2
Fourth day
3
3
Fourth day
21/2
21/2
Fifth day
Regular duty
Fifth doy
3
3
Sixth day
Regular dy
flours of Work**
Hours of Work**
Morning
Afternoon
Morning
AfteLnon
First
day
1
1
First day
1
1
Second day
11/2
11/2
Second day
11/2
1-1/2
Third day
2
2
Third day
2
2
Fourth day
3
3
Fourth day
21/2
21/2
Fifth day
Rgiilar duty
Fifth doy
3
3
Sixth day
Regular y

*800 wetbulbglobetemperature (WBCT) or WD index, is approximately
equivalent to a dry bulb (DB) temperature of 85 In a jungle or 105 in
desert enviroiuneit (WO = 0.85 WB + 0.15 DB).
**Reconended
for men in fair or worse physical condition; with some
very fit individuals should do double this schedule and be able to perfi .
regular duty on third or fourth day.
*800 wetbulbglobetemperature (WBGT) or WD index, is approximately
equivalent to a dry bulb (DB) temperature of 850 In a jungle or 105 in
desert enviroiunent (WO = 0.85 WB + 0.15
DB).
**Recoended for men in fair or worse physical condition; with Som&
very fit individuals should do double this schedule and be able to perfi .
regular duty on third or fourth day.
Water Requirements

Quarts per Man per b
for Drinking Purposes (
Guide for Planning Only)
WBGT or WD Indext
Quarts per Man per ba
for Drinking Purposes (
Guide for Planning Only)
WBGT or WD tndex*
Less than
Greater th
Activity
Less than
Greater than
Activity
. Illustrative DutIes
800
t.han D9
. Illustrative DutIes
800
than D9
Light
Desk work
5
6
Moderate
Route march
7
9
Heavy
Forced marches;
9
13
stevedoring; entrenching; or route
marches with heavy
loads or in CBR
protective clothing.
Light
Desk work
5
6
Moderate
Route march
7
9
Heavy
Forced marches;
9
13
stevedoring; entrenching; or route
marches with heavy
loads or in CBR
protective clothing.

*800 wetbulbglobetemperature (WBGT) or WD index Is approximately eq.ILva1ut
to a dry bulb terriperarure of 85 In a jungle or
1050 in a desert env1roirtIL
(W'D = 0.85
WB + 0.15 D8).
*800 wetbulbglobe-eniperature (WBGT) or WD index Is approximately eq.lLva1ut
to
a dry bulb terDperarure of 85 In a jungle or 1050 in a desert env1roirfIL
(w'D
= 0.85
WB + 0.15 D8).
9-4
Dealing with local laborera may create problems becauae of the language barrier and the customs of natives.

The following approaches are Buggested.

Dealing with local laborers may create problems because of the language barrier and the customs of natives.

The following approaches are suggested.

1.

of native labor leaders ie the most satisfactory oethod of deal--
ing with native labor.

1.

U
of native labor leaders is the most satisfactory oethod of dealing with native labor.

2.

Discussions with local authorities should always precede any use of native labor.

2.

Discussions with local authorities should always precede any use of native labor.

3.
Existing rules and local customs should be carefully observed.
3.
Existing rules and local customs should be carefully observed.
The experience of the Persian Gulf Command during World War II indicated that American Engineer units got the best available labor without upsetting the local wage scales by issuing ration coupons.*
To make efficient use of the local workers, foremen were drawn from the workers and given proper training.

Supervisors onsite then directed foremen, who in turn directed the laborers.

Proper security must be provided in the storage areas to keep local residents from stealing construction materials.

The experience of the Perbian Gulf Command during World War II indicated that American Engineer units got the best available labor without upsetting the local wage scales by issuing ration coupons.*
To make efficient use of the local workers, foremen were drawn from the workers and given proper training.

Supervisors onsite then directed foremen, who in turn directed the laborers.

Proper security must be provided in the storage areas to keep local residetts from stealing construction materials.

## 9.3 Construction And Engineering Equipment Maintenance 9.3 Construction And Engineering Equipment Maintenance 9.3.1 Naintnanc F'Acilitis And Oprationa 9.3.1 Maintenance F'Acilities And Operations

Working areas must be on bare ground or concrete, if possible; sand must be swept from the location.

The repair area must not be established beside a road.

If there is a patch of fine) loose sand, the work space should be located so that it will not be dusted by every breeze.

Working areas must be on bare ground or concrete, if possible; sand must be swept from the location.

The repair area must not be established beside a road.

If there is a patch of fine, loose sand, the work space should be located so that it will not be dusted by every breeze.

When machinery must be opened up for servicing, workers should try to get a canvas leanto or a half tent.

The whole working area must be kept cleared of dust.

If water is available, workers could dampen the sand, or better still, sprinkle it with used engine oil and cover it with rock to bind it down.

Tools must b kept clean at all times.

When there are bad sand or dust storms, work should be stopped.

When machinery must be opened up for servicing, workers should try to get a canvas leanto or a half tent.

The whole working area must be kept cleared of dust.

If water is available, workers could dampen the sand, or better still, sprinkle it with used engine oil and cover it with rock to bind it down.

Tools must b kept clean at all times.

When there are bad sand or dust storms, work should be stopped.

Parking spaces should be arranged so that vehicles can leave without hay
ing to circle around others.

Although it is not practical to have equipment so widely separated that there isno danger frqm dust, care s.houd be taken to park the machines so that turning and travel are done outside the area and on the side away from prevailing winds.

Parking spaces should be arranged so that vehicles can leave without hay
ing to circle around other8.

Although it is not practical to have equipment so widely separated that there isno danger frqm dust, care s.houd be taken o park the machines so that turning and travel are done outside the area and on the side away from prevailing winds.

## 9.3.2 Fuel And Refueling Operations 9.3.2 Fuei And Refueling Operations

A serious problem that has occurred in Saudi Arabia and other desert areas is clogging of fuel lines due to sand and dust in the fuel tank.

The fuel filters usually prevent sand and dust from getting into the carburetor, but the fuel pump, fuel lines, or tank screens can become clogged.

The problem results from careless refueling operations and refueling during sand or dust storms.

The following solutions are suggested:
A serious problem that has occurred in Saudi Arabia and other desert areas is clogging of fuel lines due to sand and dust in the fuel tank.

The fuel filters ueually prevent sand and dust from getting into the carburetor, but the fuel pump, fuel lines, or tank screens can become clogged.

The problem results from careless refueling operations and refueling during sand or dust storms.

The following solutions are suggested:

* T.
H. Vail Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, Office of the Chief of Military History, 1952), p 103.
* T.
H. Vail Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, Office of the Chief oTilitary History, 1952), p 103.
9s
1.

The first, most obvious1 solution is to avoid refueling during storms if possible.

1.

The first, most obvious, solution is to avoid refueling during storms if possible.

2.

Before the fuel tank cap is taken off1 care should be taken to make sure that sand or dust which might enter the tank has been removed.

2.

Before the fuel tank cap is taken off1 care should be taken to make sure that sand or dust which might enter the tank has been removed.

3.

If it is necessary to refuel during a storm, then certain precautions should be taken:
3.

If it is necessary to refuel during a storm1 then certain precautions should be taken:
a.

If a funnel is to be used1 then it should be a filtered funnel and should fit tightly into the fuel tank opening.

If possible, the funnel should screw on the opening or fit the tank opening snugly.

If necessary, solder a small vent pipe down the inside of the funnel to allow air to escape while pouring the fuel.

a.

If a funnel is to be used, then it should be a filtered funnel and should fit tightly into the fuel tank opening.

If possible, the funnel should screw on the opening or fit the tank opening snugly.

If necessary, solder a small vent pipe down the inside of the funnel to allow air to escape while pouring the fuel.

b.

If a "screwon" funnel is not available, then a rag should be wrapped around the funnel base and fuel tank opening to prevent sand/dust entry.

b.

If a "screwon" funnel is not available1 then a rag should be wrapped around the funnel base and fuel tank opening to prevent sand/dust entry.

- -
c.

The "rag wrep procedure may be used with hose/nozzle filling approaches also.

c.

The "rag wrap procedure may be used with hose/nozzle filling approacheG also.

d.
Be sure to wipe the tank clean fr several inches around the opening
before taking off the filler cap.
Remember, a few grains of sharp, cutting
sand can completely ruin a diesel fuel engine or pump.
d.
Be sure to wipe the tank clean fr several inches around the opening
before taking off the filler cap.
Remember, a few grains of 9harp, cutting
sand can completely ruin a diesel fuel engine or pump.
e.
Fuel filters must be cleaned more frequently.
e.
Fuel filters muBt be cleaned more frequently.
The high diurnal temperature is another problem for fueling operations In hot desert region.

If fuel tanks are filled to the brim at night, they will overflow at midday.

Therefore, fuel tanks must be filled to theIr correct capacity.

The high diurnal temperature is another problem for fueling operations in hot desert region.

If fuel tanks are filled to the brim at night, they will overflow at midday.

Therefore, fuel tanks must be filled to theIr correct capacity.

## 9.3.3 Lubrication 9.3.3 Lubrication

Lubricant must be the correct viscosity for the temperature, and must be kept to the absolute minimum on exposed or semiexposed moving parts.

Lube fittings must be checked frequently.

If they are missing1 sand will enter the housing and cause bearing failure.

Teflon bearings require constant inspection to ensure that the coating is not being' removed.

Lubricant must be the correct viscosity for the temperature, and must be kept to the absolute minimum on exposed or semiexposed moving parts.

Lub.

fittings must be checked frequently.

If they are missing, sand will enter the housing and cause bearing failure.

Teflon bearings require Constant inspection to ensure that the coating is not being renoved.

Lightweight oils are not suitable In hot climates.

Their use can reduce engine life; therefore, oil of the proper weight must be used.

Engine oil must be changed more often than In temperate climates, and oil filters have to be replaced more frequently than usual.

Lightweight oils are not suitable in hot climates.

Their use can rethice engine life; therefore1 oil of the proper weight must be used.

Engine oil must be changed more often than in temperate climates, and oil filters have to be replaced more frequently than usual.

## 9.3.4 Air Filters 9.3.4 Air Filters

Improper servicing  such as cleaning an air filter by beatingit to remove dust particles  can damage the element.

In addition, filters are sometimes installed slightly ajar, and punctured elements are occasionally put back on the engine because there is no replacement fiLter.

Other improper maintenance includes servicing air filters at incorrect intervals.

If sand/dust leaks through damaged elements, the engine's life span will be cut significantly.

Improper servicing  such as cleaning an air filter by beatingit to remove dust particles  can damage the element.

In addition, filters are sometimes installed alightly ajar, and punctured elements are occasionally put back on the engine because there is no replacement fiLter.

Other iiproper maintenance includes servicing air filters at incorrect intervals.

If sand/dust leaks through damaged elements, the engine's life span will be cut significantly.

96
Air cleaners of every type must be inspected at least daily, or more frequently if operating conditions require.

Use compressed air for cleaning.

A
redundant air filtering system with two elements in series may be used.

A
proper quantity of replacement elements must be provided.

Air cleaners of every type must be inspected at least daily, or more frequently if operating conditions require.

Use compressed air for cleaning.

A
redundant air filtering 8y8te with two elements in series may be used.

A
proper quantity of replacement elements must be provided.

## 9.3.5 Engine Overheating 9.3.5 Engine Overheating

All types of engines are apt to overheat to some degree.

Thi8 will hap
pen more frequently in the hightemperature desert region1, and will lead to excessive wear and ultimately to leaking oil seals in the power packs.

The following solutions are suggested:
All types of engines are apt to overheat to some degree.

This will happen more frequently in the hightemperature desert region, and will lead to excessive wear and ultimately to leaking oil seals in the power packs.

The following solutions are suggested:
1.

Be aware of which vehicle types tend to overheat often, and ensure that they are maintained with extra care.

1.

Be aware of which vehicle types tend to overheat often, and ensure that they are maintained with extra care.

2.
Check oil level frequently.
2.
Check oil level frequently.
3.

Check seals frequently to make sure they are not leaking and that oil consumption is not higher than. normal.

3.

Check seals frequently to make sure they are not leaking and that oil consumption is not higher than. normal.

4.

Radiators and airflow areas around engines must be kept clean and free of debris and other obstructions.

4.

Radiators and airflow areas around engines muat be kept clean and free of debris and other ob8tructiona.

5.

Watercooled engine8 should be fitted with condensors to avoid waste as steam through the overflow pipe.

5.

Watercooled engines should be fitted with condensors to avoid waste as 8team through the overflow pipe.

6.
Cooling hoses must be kept tight.
6.
Cooling hoses 'ust be kept tight.
7.

Operators should not remove hood side panels from engine compartments while the engine is running because this will cau8e turbulence, leading to ineffective cooling.

7.

Operators should not remove hood side panels from engine compartments while the engine is running because this will cause turbulence, leading to ineffective cooling.

## 9.3.6 Battery Maintenance 9.3.6 Battery Maintenance

Batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat.

To minimize the prdbleins, the following solutions are .8uggested:
Batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat.

To minimize the pr6bleins, the following solutions are suggested:
1.

Change the battery's specific gravity to adjust to desert environment; adjust the battery's electrolyte to 1.200 to 1.225 specific gravity or obtain sulfuric acid, electrolyte FSN 9049372 with a specific gravity of
1.2085 to 1.2185.

1.

Change the battery's specific gravity to adjust to desert environ
sent; adjust the battery's electrolyte to 1.200 to 1.225 specific gravity or obtain sulfuric acid, electrolyte FSN 9049372 with a specific gravity of
1.2085 to 1.2185.

2.

It may also be necessary to adjust the battery's specific gravity to compensate for cold nights (see TM 9614010012).

2.

It may also be necessary to adjust the battery's specific gravity to compensate for cold nights (see TM 9614010012).

3.

Batteries 'ust be kept full, but not overfilled, and a reserve of distilled water should be carried.

3.

Batteries must be kept full, but not overfilled, and a reserve of distilled water should be carried.

4.

Air vents 'ust be kept clean or vapors may build up pressures and cause the battery to explode.

4.

Air vents must be kept clean or vapors may build up pressures and cause the battery to explode.

5.
Voltage regulators should be set as low as practical.
5.
voltage regulators should be set as low as practical.
97
6.

Dry battery supplies must be increased to offset high attrition rates caused by heat exposure.

6.

Dry battery supplies must be increased to offset high attrition rates caused by heat exposure.

## 9.3.7 Tire Pressures 9.3.7 Tire Pressures

High diurnal temperatures may cause problems for tires.

For instance, if tires are inflated to the correct pressure during the cool night, they may burst during the heat of the day.

Therefore, one must try to find the proper air pressure when the equipment is operating at efficient working temperature and maintain it.

Service of these items during heat of the day will result in underpressures and overheating of tires.

High diurnal temperatures may cause problems for tires.

For instance, if tires are inflated to the correct pressure during the cool night, they may burst during the heat of the day.

Therefore, one must try to find the proper air pressure when the equipment is operating at efficient working temperature and maintain it.

Service of these items during heat of the day will result in underpressures and overheating of tires.

## 9.3.8 Critical Fuel And Equipment Temperatures 9.3.8 Critical Fuel And Equipment Ternperczture8

Gasolines deteriorate largely through formation of gum, which causes filter clogging and lowering of octane number.

Although the initial gum content and the rate of gum formation differ widely, the effect of varying teixi
perature on this rate is quite similar for all gasolines.

The rate approximately quadruples for each 20F (11C) rise in temperature.

Gasolines deteriorate largely through formation of gum, which causes filter clogging and lowering of octane number.

Although the initial gum content and the rate of gum formation differ widely, the effect of varying temperature on this rate is quite similar for all gasolines.

The rate approximately quadruples for each 20F (11C) rise in temperature.

A map can be prepared from effective gasoline Btorage temperatures weighted so that they represent  in gumdegradation effect  the whole series of cycling temperatures during a field etorage Beason for 'soline in
55gal (208L) drums at various places on the map.

Figure 9.1 is such a map;
effecUve gasoline storage telperature8 have b.een coverted to storage life.

A map can be prepared from effective gasoline storage temperatures weighted so that they represent  in gumdegradation effect  the whole series of cycling temperatures during a field storage season for nsoline in
55gal (208L) drums at various places on the map.

Figure 9.1 is such a map;
effective gasoline storage temperatures have b.een coverted to storage life.

For a typical gasoline with inhibitors added, 5 mg of gum per 100 nil of gasoline might form in 12 months at 100F (38C) gasoline temperature.

Since this is enough gum to cause rejection (if some gum were already present), 12
months becomes the storage life for this particular gasoline.

For a typical gasoline with inhibitors added, 5 mg of gum per 100 ml of gasoline might form in 12 months at 100F (38C) gasoline temperature.

Since this is enough gum to cause rejection (if some gum were already present), 12
months becomes the storage life for this particular gasoline.

Figure 9.1 (computed from data for the six hottest months) shows compari
tive gasoline storage life at various points in SWA assuTning that the gasoline would be acceptable for 12 months at 100F (38C).

It should be emphasized that other gasolines with other inhibitors might differ in basic gumforming rates but that proportionality between rates at various places on
the map will be the sa'e for almost all gasolineB.

Figure 9.1 (computed from data for the six hottest months) shows compari
tive gasoline storage life at various points in SWA, assuming that the gasoline would be acceptable for 12 months at 100F (38C).

It should be emphasized that other gasolines with other inhibitors might differ in basic gumforming rates, but that proportionality between rates at various places on the map will be the same for almost all gasolines.

For example, if a sensitive gasoline were acceptable for -only 4 months- at
100F (38C), storage times for this gasoline could be obtained from the map by dividing the plotted storage time by three.

Conversely, predictions for a gasoline stable for 2 years at 100F (38C) could be obtained by multiplying by two the time shown.

For example, if a sensitive gasoline were acceptal,le for only 4 months- at
100F (38C), storage times for this gasoline could be obtained from the map by dividing the plotted storage time by three.

Conversely, predictions for a gasoline stable for 2 years at 100F (38C) could be obtained by multiplying by two the time shown.

Some equipment may fail when it operates above a critical temperatures but may be completely effective when the temperature drops to acceptable levels.

For such equipment, a map showing frequency of occurrence of critical temperatures becomes an indicator of the probability of equipment difficulty. For examples the rough terrain fork lift truck is designed for temperatures below 110F (43C) and becomes les8 effective above that temperature.

Some equipment may fail when it operates above a critical temperature, but may be completely effective when the temperature drops to acceptable levels.

For such equipment, a map showing frequency of occurrence of critical temperatures becomes an indicator of the probability of equipment difficulty.

For example, the rough terrain fork lift truck is designed for temperatures below 110F (43C) and becomes less effective above that temperature.

Figure 9.2 shows where temperatures above 110F (43C)
are common in July and, thefore, where the equipment mentioned above may give difficulty.

Although the map is based on percentage of total hours above 110F (43C) (and Figure 9.2 shows where temperatures above 110F (43C) are commor ir July and, thErefore, where the equipment mentioned above may give difficulty.

Although the map is based on percentage of total hours above 110F (43C)
(and
99
This map shows the percentage of July hours during which the mobile bakery;
refrigerator,
25 Cu ft.; and rough terrain fork lift truck may be ineffective.

These three items begin to fail at temperatures This map shows the percentage of July hours during which the mobile bakery;
refrigerator,
25 cu ft.; and rough terrain fork lift truck may be ineffective.

These three items begin to fail at temperatures of about 11.0F.

of about 110F.

gives information about the number of days of occurrence), it may be assumed that such temperatures will not last more than 4 to 6 hours on any given day.

gives information about the number of days of occurrence), it may be assumed that such temperatures will not last more than 4 to 6 hours on any given day.

## 9.3.9 Vehicle Operation 9.3.9 Vehicle Operation

Trucks may have difficulty moving on certain types of desert roads.

The following possible solutions are provided:
Trucks may have difficulty moving on certain types of desert roads.

The following possible solutions are provided:
1.

In sandy areas, operate with standard tires at lower pressure.

The tire pressure will depend on the loading, the sand conditions, and the desired tire life.

1.

In sandy areas, operate with standard tires at lower pressure.

The tire pressure will depend on the loading, the sand conditions, and the desired tire life.

2.

All transportation equipment should have lowpressure single tires.

Dual tires should never be used because they tend to break up the bearing surface and embed themselves much more than do single tires.*
2.

All transportation equipment should have lowpressure single tires.

Dual tires should never be used because they tend to break up the bearing surface and embed themselves much more than do single tirea.*
3.

A pair of cleated canvas tracks can be easily rolled up and carried for each light piece of motor equipment.

In excessively fine and deep sand, these tracks under the wheels will usually permit passage; this might not oth
erwi8e be possible.*
3.

A pair of cleated canvas tracks can be easily rolled up and carried for each light piece of motor equipment.

In excessively fine and deep sand, these tracks under the wheels will usually permit passage; this might not otherwise be possible.*
4.

Lengths of chain link fence can frequently be used as semipermanent roads in construction areas.

This material can be salvaged and used again on another job.

The only maintenance required for such tread roads is lifting the mesh when it begins to become covered ith sand, and turning it over periodically as it bows from the passage of traffic.

4.

Lengths of chain link fence can frequently be used as semipermanent roads in construction areas.

This material can be salvaged and used again on another job.

The only maintenance required for such tread roads is lifting the mesh when it begins to become covered ith sand, and turning it over periodically as it bows from the passage of traffic.

5.

When passing through sandy areas, each vehicle should remain in the tracksof the vehicle ahead.

Any attempt to form new tracks or to swing out of line will generally re9ult in a stuck truck and a delay to free it.*
5.

When passing through sandy areas, each vehicle should remain in the tracksof the vehicle ahead.

Any attempt to form new tracks or to swing out of line will generally result in a stuck truck and a delay to free it.*
6.

Frequent stops should not be neces8ary, but each vehicle should be inspected at every stop to make sure it is not overheating and to see whether the tires are over or underinflated.

Tires with loweredpressures, and particularly tires designed for higher pressureB, generate considerable heat as they grind through deep sand; thus, the pressures will increase and may have to be lowered during stops.

The same precaution applies if the convoy has been traveling at fairly high speed over smooth, hard ground where desert temperatures heat the tires enough that internal pressures-become dangerous..

Tires and cooling systems should be inspected at every stop.

Personnel should lubricate their vehicles regularly during travel and promptly repair all minor breakdowns.

6.

Frequent stops should not be necessary, but each vehicle should be inspected at every stop to make sure it is not overheating and to see whether the tires are over or underinflated.

Tires with loweredpressures, and particularly tires designed for higher pressureB, generate considerable heat as they grind through deep sand; thus, the pressures will increase and may have to be lowered during stops.

The same precaution applies if the convoy has been traveling at fairly high speed over smooth, hard ground where desert temperatures heat the tires enough that internal pressures-become dangerous..

Tires and cooling systems should be inspected at every stop.

Personnel should lubricate their vehicles regularly during travel and promptly repair all minor breakdowns. 9.3.10
Operation of Earthmoving Equipment in High Temperature De8ert Environment
9.3.10
Operation of Eartvnoving Equipment in High Temperature De8ert Environment The following discussion furnishes information and guidance to personnel responsible for using and supervising the operation of engineer construction equipment, primarily earthooving types.

The characteristics, capabilities, and application of equipment for typical construction tasks are discussed, and guides or estimating the output of various items of equipment are, provided.

The following discussion furnishes information and guidance to personnel responsible for using and supervising the operation of engineer construction equipment, primarily earthmoving types.

The characteristics1 capabilities, and application of equipment for typical construction tasks are discussed, and guides or estimating the output of variou8 items of equipment are, provided.

* Tropical Engineering (U.S. Navy Civil Engineer Corps, Bureau of Yards and
Docks, Department of the Navy, 195051), p 72.
* Tropical Engineering (U.S. Navy Civil Engineer Corps, Bureau of Yards and
Docks, Department of the Navy, 195051), p 72.
In addition, maintenance considerations and equipment modifications which improve operation in a desert environment are discussed.

In addition, maintenance considerations and equipment modifications which improve operation in a desert environment are discussed.

Factors which must be considered in desert operations are soils, high temperatures and solar radiation, and increased maintenance and preparation of equipment for the hightemperature environment.

Factor8 which must be considered in desert operation8 are soils, high temperatureB and solar radiation, and increased maintenance and preparation of equipment for the hightemperature environment.

Desert Boils are similar to thoBe found throughout the world.

However, in the desert they are found in a more geographically defined area.

These soils include zones of large boulderB and poorly sorted medium angular gravel; sand and gravel with some larger stone; Bilty, stoney, and sandy desert; and Aeolian (windblown) deposits which may include evaporite salts.

Thus, operational constraints resulting from any peculiarities associated with unique soil conditions in a desert environment are minimal.

High temperature factors relating to the equipment and its operation are thub the primary features to be considered.

Desert Boils are similar to those found throughout the world.

However, in the desert they are found in a more geographically defined area.

These soils include zones of large boulders and poorly sotted medium angular gravel;
sand and gravel with some larger stone; silty, stoney, and sandy desert; and Aeolian (windblown) deposits which may include evaporite salts.

Thus, operational constraints resulting from any peculiarities associated with unique soil conditions in a desert environment are minimal.

High temperature factors relating to the equipment and its operation are thub the primary features to be considered.

High temperature affects both the equipment and the operator and must be considered when operating in the desert.

Some equipment consideration8 are associated with the engine/transmission cooling Bystem, low 'radiant energy absorbing paints, increased or improved engine air filtering systems, fuel contamination due to windblown debris, increased undercarriage wear due to sandy soils, and the need for enclosures or environmentally controlled cabs for operating personnel.

High temperature affects both the equipment and the operator and must be considered when operating in the desert.

Some equipment considerations are associated with the engine/transmission cooling system, low 'radiant energy absorbing paints, increased or improved engine air filtering systems, fuel contamination due to windblown debris, increased undercarriage wear due to Bandy soils, and the need for enclosures or environmentally controlled cabs for operating personnel.

Major equipment manufacturers presently incorporate high temperature design capability into the cooling BystemB of their equipment so that the equipment can be used worldwide without Berious degradation of performance due to high temperature.

However, if the existing cooling system is inadequate, it can be modified through approved modification work orders.

Major equipment manufacturers presently incorporate high temperature design capability into the cooling systems of their equipment so that the equipment can be used worldwide without serious degradation of performance due to high temperature.

However, if the existing cooling system is inadequate, it can be modified through approved modification work orders.

The use of light color paints which absorb less radiant energy than dark paints reduces surface metal temperatures.

This contributes to a greater efficiency in heat transfer, which results in lower temperatures in'fluid reservoirs exposed to direct solar energy.

In addition, the lower metal temperatures provide for safer manmachine interfaces such as operation, service, and maintenance in exposed areas.

The use of light color paints which absorb less radiant energy than dark paint8 reduces surface metal temperatures.

This contributes to a greater efficiency in heat transfer, which results in lower temperatures influid reservoirs exposed to direct solar energy.

In addition, the lower metal temperatures provide for 8afer ian-inachine interfaces such as operation, service, and maintenance in exposed areas.

Increased maintenance in air filtering 8ystems, tracks, and fuel.handling systems usually results from operation in the desert environment.

This is due to blowing sand, which rapidly chokes air filters, causes rapid track wear, and contaminates fuel handling systems and equipment.

Increased maintenance in air filtering systems, tracks, and fuel handling systems usually results from operation in the desert environment.

This is due to blowing sand, which rapidly chokes air filters, causes rapid track wear, and contaminates fuel handling systems and equipment.

Provisions to reduce operator fatigue due to high temperatures are es8en
tial in the desert environment.

Canopies to prevent direct exposure to the sun and environmentally controlled cabs can be provided to protect the operator from the solar energy and blowing sand.

Provisions to reduce operator fatigue due to high temperatures are essential in the desert environment.

Canopies to prevent direct exposure to the sun and environmentally controlled cabs can be provided to protect the operator from the solar energy and blowing sand.

Preparation of the equipment for operation in the desert environment is essential.

The cooling systems should be clean and functional; equipment surfaces should be free of dirt and grease, and painted with a light color to improve heat transfer from heat sinks to the environment.

In addition, the increased service and maintenance increase the logistic requirements for repair parts, maintenance personnel, and facilities.

Preparation of the equipment for operation in the desert environment is essential.

The cooling systems should be clean and functional; equipment surfaces should be free of dirt and grease, and painted with a light color to improve heat transfer from heat sinks to the enviroucnent.

In addition, the increased service and maintenance increase the logistic requirements for repair parts, maintenance personnel, and facilities.

## Chapter 10 - Indigenous Construction Flaterials Chapter 10 - Indigenous Construction Flaterials 10.1 Introduction 10.1 Introduction

Both vertical and horizontal structures In specific regions can be constructed with materials available in the region or the adoption of feasible imported construction materials.

Certain factors will determine the type of structure to be built as veil as the material to be used.

Among these factors are climate, labor force, availability of construction equipment, and feasible local and adopted construction materials.

The following paragraphs describe construction materials that can be used in the Middle East, their general properties and characteristics, and their applicability to different construction methods.

Advantages and disadvantages of each constructed method are discussed.

Both vertical and horizontal structures in specific regions can be constructed with materials available in the region or the adoption of feasible imported construction materials.

Certain factors will determine the type of structure to be built as well a the material to be used.

Among these factors are climate, labor force, availability of construction equipment, and feasible local and adopted construction materials.

The following paragraphs describe construction materials that can be used in the Middle East, their general properties and characteristics, and their applicability to different construction methods.

Advantage8 and disadvantages of each constructed method are discussed.

## 10.2 Construction Materials And Applicability To Construction Methods 10.2 Construction Materials And Applicability To Construction Methods 10.2.1 Earth 10.2.1 Earth

The use of earth for building construction results partly from the scarcity of wood and other construction materials, from the ease of such construction, and from its insulation values against both heat and cold.

Some kinds of mud make stronger structures than others, and some construction techniques apply better to some kinds of mud.

The type of construction method is determined by the type of soil available.

There are five main construction methods for earth building:
adbobe, rammed earth, pressed blocks, wattle and daub, and cob.

Adobe and rammed earth are the most practical.

To select the appropriate construction method, the soil must be generally classified into gravels, sands, silts, clays and organic soils.

Organic soils are the least suitable for earth construction, and the ideal will be a combination of two types of soils, i.e., sandy clays or clayey sands.

However, in very dry regions, clays will work best, if available.

Some testing on the strength of earth material has been done.

The values range from about 300 to 600 psi
(2069 to 4137 KPa) In compression to 60 psi (414 KPa) In tension.

The use of earth for building construction results partly from the scarcity of wood and other construction materials, from the ease of such construction, and from its insulation values against both heat and cold.

Some kinds of mud make stronger structures than otherB, and some construction techniques apply better to some kinds of mud.

The type of construction method is determined by the type of soil available.

There are five main construction methods for earth building:
adbobe, rammed earth, pressed blocks, wattle and daub, and cob.

Adobe and rammed earth are the most practical.

To select the appropriate construction method, the soil must be generally classified into gravels, sands, silts, clays and organic soils.

Organic soils are the least suitable for earth construction, and the ideal will be a combination of two types of soils, i.e., sandy clays or clayey sands.

However, in very dry regions, clays will work best, if available.

Some testing on the strength of earth material has been done.

The values range from about 300 to 600 psi
(2069 to 4137 KPa) in compression to 60 psi (414 KPa) in tension.

To compensate for the low structural strength of the earth material, walls are built dense and thick.

The minimuin thickness of et.eri.or load
bearing walls of singlestory buildings Is usually onetenth of the height;
interior nonloadbearing partition walls are made threequarters of the thickness adopted for the exterior wall of similar heights.

Weighing various factors, including theoretical factors that are not discussed here, it is judged that a normal wall about 10 ft (3 in)
high and 12 in. (305 mm) thick should have no greater free length than 30 ft (9 m) without some form of buttressing, by cross walls, engaged piers, or pilasters.

The following tabulation indicates more generally what would appear to be reasonable limitations In wall length for singlestory walls 9 to 12 ft (2.7 to 3.6) high and 12 in. (305 mm)
thick, where there may be window or door openings through the wall:
To compensate for the low structural strength of the earth material, walls are built dense and thick.

The mintmwn thickness of et.eri.or load
bearing walls of singlestory buildings is usually onetenth of the height;
interior nonloadbearing partition walls are made threequarters of the thickness adopted for the exterior wall of similar heights.

Weighing various factors, including theoretical factors that are not discussed here, it is judged that a normal wall about 10 ft (3 m) high and 12 in. (305 mm) thick should have no greater free length than 30 ft (9 m) without some form of buttressing, by cross walls, engaged piers, or pilasters.

The following tabulation indicates more generally what would appear to be reasonable limitations in wall length for singlestory walls 9 to 12 ft (2.7 to 3.6) high and 12 in. (305 mm)
thick, where there may be window or door openings through the wall:

Maximum Length of Wall
Between Supporting Cross
Condition of SingleStory Wall 9 to 12 ft High
Walls)
from Top of Footing, and 12 in. Thick
ft
Maximum Length of Wall
Between Supporting Cross
Condition of SingleStory Wall 9 to 12 ft High
Walls,
from Top of Footing, and 12 in. Thick
ft
Wall without openings
30
Wall without openings
30
Wall with an opening or openings of any size
24
not extending more than 4 ft 6 in. either
way from the center of the length of the
wall between 8upporting cross walls
Wall with an opening or openings of any size
24
not extending more than 4 ft 6 in. either
way from the center of the length of the
wall between 8upportiflg cross walls
Wall with att opening or openings near one end
21
only, and not extending beyond the center of
the length noted above
Wall with an opening or openings near one end
21
only, and not extending beyond the center of
the length noted above
Wall with any other grouping of openings, or a
18
single opening up to 12 t wide
Wall with any other grouping of openings, or a
18
single opening up to 12 h wide

For wall8 14 in. (356 nm) thick and from 9 ft, 6 in. (2.9 m) to 14 ft (4.2 m) high, all the lengthe and distances tabulated may be increased by onesixth; fot walls 16 in. (406 mm) thick and fron 10 to 16 ft (3 to 4.8 m) high, they may be increased by onethird; and for walls 18 in. (457 mm) thick and from 10
to 18 ft (3 to 5.4 m) high, they may be increased by onehalf.

For ttostory walls, all the heights may be increased by 6 ft (18 m) without affecting the lengths as given for singlestory walls.

For walls 14 in. (356 mm) thick and from 9 ft, 6 in. (2.9 m) to 14 ft (4.2 m) high) all the lengths and distances tabulated may be increased by onesixth;
for walls 16 in. (406 mm) thick and from 10 to 16 ft (3 to 4.8 m) high, they may be increased by onethird; and for walls 18 in. (457 mm) thick and from 10
to 18 ft (3 to 5.4 ni) high, they may be increased by onehalf.

For ttostory walls, all the heights may be increased by 6 ft (1.8 m) without affecting the lengths as given for singlestory walls.

The moBt practical conatructioi methods) as previoualy mentioned, are adobe blocks and rammed earth.

The most practical construction methods, as previously mentioned, are adobe blocks and rammed earth.

1.

Adobe blocks:
These blocks are made by placing wet mud in forms.

The forms are removed a short time after the blocks are made and then allowed to dry for about 1 month.

The blocks are held together In the wall with a mortar that can be the same mud used for making the block.

The advantages are that unskilled labor can be used, and construction is fast after prefabricat
ing the blocks.

The disadvantages are that 20 to 30 days are needed to cure the blocks, it can only be used in limited regions (rain <30 in. [762 cnml per year).

1.

Adobe blocks:
These blocks are made by placing wet mud in forms.

The forms are removed a short time after the blocks are made and then allowed to dry for about 1 month.

The blocks are held together in the wall with a mortar that can be the same mud used for making the block.

The advantages are that unskilled labor can be used, and construction is fast after prefabricat
ing the blocks.

The disadvantages are that 20 to 30 days are needed to cure the blocks, it can only be used in limited regions (rain <30 in. [762 cnml per year).

2.

Rammed earth:
With this method, continuous walls arebuilt byram
ining moist soil into position between heavy wooden forms.

When a short section of wall is finished, the forms are moved upwards or sideways, and the process is repeated until the walls are completed.

Ramming of the soil may be done with light hand or pneumatic tampers; soil should be rammed until it becomes dense and firm.

Disadvantages of this method are that it is difficult to do, forms require some skill to build, and it requires the most careful selection of the soil type.

2.

Rammed earth:
With this method, continuoue walls areiit by'ram
ining moist soil into position between heavy wooden forms.

When a short section of wall is finished, the forms are moved upwards or sideways, and the process is repeated until the walls are completed.

Ramming of the soil may be done with light hand or pneumatic tampers; soil should be rammed until it becomes dense and firm.

Disadvantages of this method are that it is difficult to do, forms require some skill to build, and It requires the most careful selection of the soil type.

## 10.2.2 Soil Ceimnt 10.2.2 Soil Ceimnt

This type of construction material is very useful and economical where sandy silt and silty sand are available.

With the addition of about 10 percent of cement by weight, these soils will have proper stabilization to insure a strong and lasting surface for pavement construction.

Another requirement This type of construction material is very useful and economical where sandy silt and silty sand are available.

With the addition of about 10 per
cett of cement by weight, these soils will have proper stabilization to insure a strong and lasting surface for pavement construction.

Another requirement
102
for soil cement is that 55 percent or wore of the soil should pass the No. 4
sieve; the maximum aggregate size should be 3 in. (76 mm).

The amount of water that iould be added will depend directly on the moisturedensity curve, reflecting the optimum moisture for maximum density.

Soil should be pulverized to permit an intimate mixture of soil and cement.

(Eighty percent should pass a No. 4 sIeve exclusive of gravel retained on No. 4, i.e., 80 percent of
55 percent.)
If clay soil is found, the clay must first be stabilized with lime to get a proper blending.

for soil cement is that 55 percent or wore of the soil should pass the No. 4
sieve; the maximum aggregate size should be 3
in. (76 mm).

The amount of water that iould be added will depend directly on the moisturedensity curve, reflecting the optimum moisture for maximum density.

Soil should be pulverized to permit an intimate mixture of soil and cement.

(Eighty percent should pass a No. 4 s1evc exclusive of gravel retained on No. 4, i.e., 80 percent of
55 percent.)
If clay soil is found, the clay must first be stabilized with lime to get a proper blending.

## 10.2.3 Wood 10.2.3 Wood

In the more arid regions, the topsoil has been void of nutrients for thousands of years, making it almost impossible to develop forest area8.

In the Middle East, Iran, Iraq, the mountains of Lebanon, Asia Minor, and Israel possess most of this natural resource.

In the more arid regions, the topsoil has been void of nutrients for thousands of years, making it almost impossible to develop forest areas.

In the Middle East, Iran, Iraq, the mountains of Lebanon, Asia Minor, and Israel possess most of this natural resource.

## 10.2.4 Concrte Ma.Onry 10.2.4 Concrte Masonry

Concrete hi. ocks are made with aggregates such as coral cinders, expanded shale, sand, gravel, clay, slag, and others.

They can.be made in different Sizes and shapes, and they can be solid or hollow units.

The normal size unit for a loadbearing concrete block i8 an 8 by 8 by 16in.

(203 by 203 by Concrete blocks are made with aggregates such as coral cinders, expanded shale, sand, gravel, clay, slag, and others.. They can be made in different sizes and shapes, and they can be solid or hollow units.

The normal size unit for a loadbearing concrete block is an 8 by 8 by 16in.

(203 by 203 by
406mm) hollow block, which can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (23 kg), depending on the aggregate u8ed in making the block.

Block machines are used in fabrication by tamping relatively dry concrete into the mold; the mold is stripped off immediately.

In this way, blocks can be made rapidly, using only one mold.

[f a hand method is used, a more fluid concrete is placed into a set of molds and stripped after the concrete is hardened.

However, this method requires many molds.

The blocks are held together with mortar.

A recommended mortar, proportioned on a volume basis, for exterior walls subjected to severe exposure is one part of portland cement, two parts of hydrated lime, and six parts of sand.

406mni) hollow block, which can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (23 kg), depending on the aggregate used in making the block.

Block machines are used in fabrication by tamping relatively dry concrete into the mold; the mold is stripped off imnediately.

In this way, blocks can be made rapidly, using only one mold.

If a hand method is used, a more fluid concrete is placed into a 8et of molds and stripped after the concrete i8 hardened.

However, this method requires many molds.

The blocks are held together with mortar.

A recommended mortar, proportioned on a volume basis, for exterior walls subjected to severe exposure is one part of portland cement, two parts of hydrated lime, and six parts of sand.

## 10.2.5 R.Iforced Gypsum 1.0.2.5 R.Iforced Gypsum

From literature available on this material, the optimum mix tested had a watertogypsum ratio of
1:2.

Reinforcing gypsum with burlap (jute), glass wool mats, galvanized stretched wire mesh, or reeds will improve the proper ties and strength of plain gypsum.

The thickness .of.gypsum cover mustbe at least 3/4 in. (19 mm).

From literature available on this material, the optimum mix tested had a watertogypsum ritio of 1:2.

Reinforcing gypsum with burlap (jute), glass wool mats, galvanized stretched wire mesh, or reeds will improve the proper ties and strength of plain gypsum.

The thickness .of.gypsum cover mustbe at least 3/4 in. (19 mm).

I.
Burlap:
1.
Burlap:
a.
One or wo layers.
a.
One or wo layers.
b.
Soak In water for a few hours.
b.
Soak in water for a few hours.
2.
Glass Wool:
2.
Glass Wool:
a.
One or two layers (loose).
a.
One or two layers (loose).
b.
Mats overlapped.
b.
Mats overiapped.
103

3.
Galvanized Stretched Wire Mesh:
3.
Galvanized Stretched Wire Mesh:
a.
One or two layers.
a.
One or two layers.
b.
Straightened in the mold.
b.
Straightened in the mold.
c Openings 11/2 in. (38 im).
c.
Openings 11/2 in. (38 mm).
4.
Reeds:
4.
Reeds:
a.
One layer.
a.
One layer.
b.
Spaced 314 itt.
(19 mm).
b.
Spaced 314 in.
(19 mm).
c.
Reed on the span direction.
c.
Reed on the span direction.

## 10.2.6 Ththbl Construction 10.2.6 Ththbl Construction

Rubble construction is a method it which rubble, such as stone, concrete fragments, broken bricks, and/or other suitable materials, are used with portland cement mortar to form a building material.

Thi8 type of construction is practical when wood masonry units, and concretemaking faciltttes are not available.

It can be applied when the materials mentioned above are available due to extraction from an excavation, the effects of demolition or when buildings are abandoned because of advanced dterioration.

Stones bricks, and/or other hard and durable materials can be laid in courses by using a cement mortar to build foundations, walls, bridge abutments and retaining walls.

A variety of sizes is necessary to avoid using large amounts of mortar.

The largest rubble should be placed at the bottom of courses; the top of each course should be covered with a thin layer of mortar to provide a smooth stable, level surface.

The spaces between adjoining materials should be as small as pract1cable and the spaces should be filled with mortar and smaller stones.

The durability and strength of the construction depends oa the materials used and the quality of the mortar joining them.

Rubble construction is a method in which rubble, such as stone, concrete fragments, broken bricks, and/or other suitable materials, are used wjth portland cement mortar to form a building material.

This type of construction is practical when wood, masonry units, and concretemaking facilities are not available.

It can be applied when the materials mentioned above are available due to extraction from an excavation, the effects of demolition, or when buildings are abandoned because of advanced deterloration.

Stones, bricks, and/or other hard and durable materials can be laid in courses by using a cement mortar to build foundations, walls, bridge abutments, and retaining walls.

A variety of sizes is necessary to avoid using large amounts of mortar.

The largest rubble should be placed at the bottom of courses; the top of each course should be covered with a thin layer of mortar to provide a smooth, stable, level surface.

The spaces between adjoining materials should be as small as practicable, and the spaces should be filled with mortar and smaller stones.

The durability and strength of the construction depends on the materials used and the quality of the mortar joining them.

## 10.2.7 Brick 10.2.7 Brick

The following characteristics of brick masonry are significant. The following characteristics of brick masonry are significant.

I.

Heatinsulating properties.

Solid brick masonry walls provide very little insulation against heat and cold.

A cavity wall or brick wall backed with hollow clay tile has much better insulating value.

1.

Heatinsulating properties.

Solid brick masonry walls provide very little Insulation agathst heat and cold.

A cavity wall or brick wall backed with hollow clay tile has much better insulating value.

2.

Soundinsulating properties.

Since brick walls are very massive, they have good insulating properties.

In general the heavier the wall, the better its soundinsulating value; however, a wall more than 12 in. (305 mm)
thick does not increase souftd insulation much more than a wall between 10 and
12 in. (254 and 305 turn)
thick.

Dividing the wall into two or more layers as in the case of a cavity wall, will increase its resistance to sound transmission.

Brick walls are poor absorbers of souftd origination within the walls and reflect much of it into the structure.

Sounds caused by impact, as when the wall is struck with a hamnier will travel a great distance along the wall.

2.

Soundinsulating properties. .Since brick walls are very massive, they have good insulating properties.

In general, the heavier the wall, the better its soundinsulating value; however, a wall more than 12 in. (305 mm)
thick does not increase sound insulation much more than a wall between 10 and
12 in. (254 and 305 mm) thick.

Dividing the wall Into two or more layers, as in the case of a cavity wall, will increase its resistance to sound transmission.

Brick walls are poor absorbers of sound origination within the walls and reflect much of it into the structure.

Sounds caused by impact, as when the wall is struck with a hammer, will travel a great distance along the wall.

1.04
3.

Expansion and contraction.

Brick masonry expands and contracts with temperature change.

Walls up to 200 ft (60 in) long do not need expansion joints.

Loer walls need an expansion joint for every 200 ft (60 m) of wall.

Much of the expansion and contraction is taken up in the wall itself.

For this reason, the amount of movement that theoretically takes place does not actually occur.

3.

Expansion and contraction.

Brick masonry expands and contracts with temperature rhange.

Walls up to 200 ft (60 in) long do not need expansion joints.

Loer walls need an expansion joint for every 200 ft (60 m) of wall.

Much of the expansion and contraction is taken up in the wall itself.

For this reason, the amount of movement that theoretically takes place does not actually occur.

4.

Abrasion resistance.

The resistance of brick to abrasion depends largely on its compressive strength, which is related to the degree of burning.

Wellburned bricks have excellent wearing qualities.

4.

Abrasion resistance.

The resistance of brick to abrasion depends largely on its compressive strength, which is related to the degree of burning.

Wellburned bricks have excellent wearing qualities.

5.

Weight of brick.

The weight of brick varies from
100 to 150 lb/cu ft
(p) (2400 kg/m3) depending on the nature of the materials uBed in making the brick and the degree of burning.

Wellburned bricks are heavier than under burned bricks.

5.

Weight of brick.

The weight of brick varies from 100 to 150 lb/cu ft
(p) (2400 kg/rn3) depending on the nature of the materials used in making the brick and the degree of burning.

Wellburned bricks are heavier than under
burned bricks.

## 10.2.8 Water 10.2.8 Water

The quality of water needed for most expedient con8truction work is not critical.

Seawater or bracki8h water has been used for mixing concrete in many areas where potable water is hard to get; however, ealine mixing water tends to decrease strength.

Seawater with a maximum concentration of salts of about 3.5 percent does not appreciably reduce the concrete strength, although it may lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

At higher salt concentrations, a strength reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected.

This may be corrected by using somewhat les8 mixing water and 8omeWhat more cement.

Saline mixing water in concrete tends to cause dampness and Burface efflore8
cence in the hardened concrete and should not be uBed where surface finish is important or where the mortar or concrete will be covered with plaster.

Saline water has a very adverse effect on the Btrength of concrete made with high alwninum cement.

Organic impurities in water may retard setting and hardening of cement, except in artifically contaminated waters, where they do not usually occur to an objectionable extent.

It is improbable that water u8ed for curing would attack concrete if it were the type suitable fo use as mixing water.

Staining or discoloration of the concrete should be the principal curing water problem.

Provisions should be made to retain and recycle all water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation.

Facilities for water storage at the site of the aggregate and/or concrete production must be provided.

The mixing water storage should also include provisions for water cooling to help the problem of increased temperatures in fresh and new concrete.

The quality of water needed for most expedient construction work is not critical.

Seawater or brackish water has been used for mixing concrete in many areas where potable water is hard to get; however, saline mixing water tends to decrease strength.

Seawater with a maximum concentration of salts of about 3.5 percent does not appreciably reduce the concrete strength, although it may lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

At higher salt concentrations, a strength reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected.

This may be corrected by using socnewhat 1e88 mixing water and somewhat more cement.

Saline mixing water in concrete tends to cause dampness and surface efflores
cence in the hardened concrete and should not be used where surface finish is important or where the mortar or concrete will be covered with plaster. Saline water has a very adverse effect on the strength of concrete made with high aluminum cement.

Organic impurities in water may retard setting end hardening of cement, except in artifically contaminated waters, where they do not usually occur to an objectionable extent.

It is improbable that water used for curing would attack concrete if it were the type suitable for use as mixing water.

Staining or discoloration of the concrete should be the principal curing water problem.

Provisions should be made to retain and recycle all water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation.

Facilities for water storage at the site of the aggregate and/or concrete production must be provided.

The mixing water storage should also include provisions for water cooling to help the problem of Increased temperatures in fresh and new concrete.

## 10.2.9 Aggregates 10.2.9 Aggregates

In Middle East deserts, waterlain deposit8 do occur, but they are often subordinate to windlain deposits (e.g., dunes, drift sand, and bess).

More significantly, the climate produce8 intense evaporation, and various saltB are deposited at and below the surface.

In the areas of interest, the rocks are frequently chalky limestones and dolomites, which have undergone strong upward leaching because exaporation exceeds rainfall.

The leaching water carrie8
dissolved minerals, which are deposited near the surface when evaporation occurs, thus forming duricrust8."
Crusts of calcium and calciummagnesium carbonates are called calcrete and dolocrete, respectively.

Many poor limestone and dolomite deposits have been made usable because the duricrust that In Middle East deserts, waterlalo deposits do occur, but they are often subordinate to windlain deposits (e.g., dunes, drift sand, and mess).

More significantly, the climate produces intense evaporation, and various salts are deposited at and below the surface.

In the areas of interest, the rocks are frequently chalky limestones and doloinites, which have undergone strong upward leaching because exaporatlon exceeds rainfall.

The leaching water carries dissolved minerals, which are deposited near the surface when evaporation occurs, thus forming dur1crusts."
Crusts of calcium and calciummagnesium carbonates are called calcrete and dolocrete, respectively.

Many poor limestone and dolomite deposits have been made usable because the duricrust that
105
forms from them is much denser and etronger and can be ueed aB aggregate.

In general, a leached layer deficient in the substance forming the duricrust exists below it; this layer is weaker and more porous than the unaltered parent material.

forms from them is much denser and stronger and can be used as aggregate.

In general, a leached layer deficient in the substance forming the duricrust exists below it; this layer is weaker and more porous than the unaltered parent material.

The role of water in desert weathering is limited.

The products are transported largely by wind and gravity; this tends to create poorly graded deposits of widely different particle size, characterized either by coarse, angular screes (debris heaps) or by aeolian (windblown) dunes, mostly of fine sand and silt.

The prevalence of limestones, which weather readily by solution after some mechanical disintegration, combined with the limited movement of surface water, restricts the supply of alluvium.

Subsequently, clean, wellgraded alluvial sands and gravels are absent from many areas.

The superficial deposits considered for use as aggregates in the areas of interest vary widely.

Alluvial gravel and sand predominate in Kuwait, along the Oman shore in the Gulf of Oman to Muscat, and also near the common border of Qatar, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia.

Coastal salt flats or "sabkha"
form most of the coastal areas of Saudi Arabia and the UAE.

Inland in Saudi Arabia, behind the sabkha, are extensive areas of mainly carbonate rocks with widespread cover of caicrete/dolocrete duricrust.

Near Qatar1 the soil changes to aeolian sands.

The aeolian Bands form moat of the inland areas of the UAE and extend all the way to the coast from west of Abu Dhabi in the UAE
to the Strait of Hormuz.

Qatar and Bahrain are mostly carbonate rocks with. a duricrust.

The role of water in deeert weathering is limited.

The products are transported largely by wind and gravity; this tends to create poorly graded deposits of widely different particle size, characterized either by coarse, angular screes (debris heaps) or by aeolian (windblown) dunes, mostly of fine sand and silt.

The prevalence of limestones, which weather readily by Bolu tion after some mechanical disintegration, combined with the limited movement of aurface water, restricte the eupply of alluvium.

Subsequently, clean, wellgraded alluvial sands and gravels are absent from many areas.

The euper
ficial deposits considered for use as aggregates in the areas of intereet vary widely.

Alluvial gravel and sand predominate in Kuwait, along the Oman shore in the Gulf of Oman to Muscat, and also near the coiwnon border of Qatar, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia.

Coaetal salt flats or "sabkha"
form most of the coastal areas of Saudi Arabia and the UAE.

Inland in Saudi Arabia, behind the sabkha, are extensive areas of mainly carbonate rocks with widespread cover of calcrete/dolocrete duricrust.

Near Qatar, the soil changes to aeolian sands.

The aeolian sands form moat of the inland areas of the UAE and extend all the way to the coaet from west of Abu Dhabi in the UAE
to the Strait of Hormuz.

Qatar and Bahrain are mostly carbonate rocks with. a duricrust.

1.

Alluvial sands and gravels.

Downward leaching generally occura within the limited areas of modern ailuviation, and is practically confined to the mountains and their fringes, where periodic flooding may prevent the building of suiphates and chlorides.

However, cementation by the less soluble carbonates may still develop, especially in coarse deposits not moved by floods.

Active wadis (ravines through which a stream flows) within the mountains and limited parts of their alluvial fans where they emerge onto the desert plains are thus the main sources of relatively clean, veilgraded sands and gravels.

The deposits are generally torrentbedded and poorly 8orted, so a single pit may be a useful source of wellgraded material.

The deposits of some active wadis are approaching exhaustion, and all are of limited extent.

1.

Alluvial sands and gravels.

Downward leaching generally occure within the limited areas of modern alluviation, and is practically confined to the mountains and their fringes, where periodic flooding may prevent the building of sulphates and chlorides.

However, cementation by the less soluble carbonates may still develops especially in coarse deposits not moved by floods.

Active wadis (ravines through which a stream flows) within the mountains and limited parts of their alluvial fans where they emerge onto the desert plains are thus the main sources of relatively clean, wellgraded sands and gravels.

The deposits are generally torrentbedded and poorly sorted, so a single pit may be a useful source of wellgraded material.

The deposits of some active wadis are approaching exhaustion, and all are of limited extent.

Many of the older deposits tend to be cemented with gypsum and/or carbonate and contain friable particlesof .these materials, clays,'or weathered rock; thus, their removal and subsequent crushing is a very dusty operation, and the gravel must be washed before use.

The gravel deposits of the Oman Mountains are often rich in serpentinized olivine rocks that contain some unaltered alivine.

This source is usually a potential problem in concrete, but for some decades, the fresh gravels from these mountains have given satisfactory service in concrete and asphalt.

The older gravel sheets and terraces that occur in Kuwait are workable, if suitable techniques are used.

The product will often have good mechanical properties, but will suffer from sulphate contamination.

These gravels are usually deficient as sources of fine aggregate because of their cementing by gypsum.

Any natural or crushed rock fine8
produced are usually heavily contaminated by gypsum.

Natural silica sands are worked 4.n Kuwait and Qatar, but compared with carbonate sands, they are generally rare in the Gulf area.

They usually occur between a layer of gypcrust
(calcium sulphate) and a basal gypcrete, the thickness of chemically acceptable sand ranging from 3 to 20 ft (0.9 to 6 in).

Many of the older deposits tend to be cemented with gypsum and/or carbonate and contain friable particlesof .these materials, clays,or weathered rock; thus their removal and subsequent crushing is a very dusty operations and the gravel must be washed before use.

The gravel deposits of the Oman Mountains are often rich in serpentinized olivine rocks that contain some unaltered alivine.

This source is usually a potential problem in concrete, but for some decades the fresh gravels from these mountains have given satisfactory service in concrete and asphalt.

The older gravel sheets and terraces that occur in Kuwait are workable, if suitable techniques are used.

The product will often have good mechanical properties, but will suffer from sulphate contamination.

These gravels are usually deficient as sources of fine aggregate because of their cementing by gypsum.

Any natural or crushed rock fines produced are usually heavily contaminated by gypsum.

Natural silica sands are worked 4.n Kuwait and Qatar, but compared with carbonate sands, they are generally rare in the Gulf area.

They usually occur between a layer of gypcrust
(calcium sulphate) and a basal gypcrete, the thickness of chemically acceptable sand ranging from 3 to 20 ft (0.9 to 6 m).

2.

Coastal sands.

The absence of permanent rivers, a corresponding lack of waterdeposited silica sands, and the poor gradings of aeolian dunes depend greatly on beach and coastal sands as sources of fine aggregate.

These deposits are mainly carbonate sands, consisting of the worn debris of young marine organisms.

Carbonate sands are composed largely or wholly of fragile shells or shell fragments of calcium carbonate.

The particle shape can vary from round to elliptical to lenseshaped, depending on the type of shells that make up the sand.

Coral tends to make irregular, blocky particles.

Some carbonate sands are very brittle and fragile.

When the grains are smooth and rounded, the sands may provide good workability in concrete but may also be absorptive, have poor gradings, and trap air, chlorides, and suiphates in their porous, sometimes hollow, particles.

Many of the older carbonate sands may have experienced some recrystallization of carbonate particles and fusion at contact points, thus making them very difficult to dig and process.

Coastal sands, being more or less sorted by wave or current action, may have narrower (and often finer) gradings than are preferred for asphalt or portland cement concrete.

They may also contain some hollow sheila that may have to be screened off to avoid adverse effects on the strength or density of concrete or asphalt mixes.

The proportion of hollow shells retained on a No. 8 sieve should not exceed 3 percent by weight of the en-tire aggregate samples.

2.

Coa8tal 8and8.

The ab8ence of permanent rivers, a corre8ponding lack of waterdepo8ited 8ilica sands, and the poor grading8 of aeolian dunes depend greatly on beach and coa8tal 8and8 as sources of fine aggregate.

These depo8it8 are mainly carbonate sands, consisting of the worn debris of young marine organi8ms.

Carbonate 8ands are cotnposed largely or wholly of fragile
8hells or shell fragment8 of calcium carbonate.

The particle shape can vary from round to elliptical to lenseshaped, depending on the type of shell8 that make up the sand.

Coral tends to make irregular, blocky particle8.

Some carbonate sands are very brittle and fragile.

When the grains are 8mooth and rounded, the sand8 may provide good workability in concrete but may also be absorptive, have poor grading8, and trap air, chlorides, and Bulphate8 in their porous, 8ometlme8 hollow, particles.

Many of the older carbonate sands may have experienced 8ome recry8tallization of carbonate particles and fu8ion at contact points, thus making them very difficult to dig and proces8.

Coa8tal sands, being more or les8 sorted by wave or current action, tnay have narrower (and often finer) grading8 than are preferred for a8phalt or portland cement concrete.

They may al8o contain 8ome hollow shells that may have to be screened off to avoid adver8e effect8 on the strength or den8ity of concrete or asphalt mixe8.

The proportion of hollow 8hells retained on a No. 8 sieve should not exceed 3 percent by weight of the en-tire aggregate 8amples.

The mixture design can partly compensate for the effect8 of a poor grading or a high water demand.

If thi8 compensation has been made 8atisac
torily, the main difficulties in the use of beach sands as fine aggregate will mo8t likely be related to unacceptable chloride and aulphate levels, especially where pits have been worked to the water table and allowed t& develop into evaporating pans.

In these ca8e8, extensive wa8hing of the chloride or sulphateloaded 8ands with nonsaline water may be needed.

Coasts facing the prevailing wind may experience further sandsize 8orting.

Behind the modern beach, there may be wide zones in which the coastal sands are being redistributed and modified into true aeolian dunes.

Sand from these areas will tend to become finer and more rounded with increa8ing distance from the coa8t because of sorting and potishing by the wind.

The mixture design can partly compensate for the effects of a poor grading or a high water demand.

If this compensation has been made satisfactorily, the main difficulties in the use of beach sands as fine aggregate will most likely be related to unacceptable chloride and sulphate levels, especially where pits have been worked to the water table and allowed to develop Into evaporating pans.

In these cases, extensive washing of the chloride or sulphateloaded sands with nonsaline water may be needed.

Coasts facing the prevailing wind may experience further sandsize sorting.

Behind the modern beach, there may be wide zones in which the coastal sands are being redistributed and modified into true aeolian dunes.

Sand from these areas will tend to become finer and more rounded with increasing distance from the coast because of sorting and polishing by the wind.

3.

Windblown (Aeolian) sand8.

Windblown depo8it8 8uch as dunes, ripple8
and ridges, drift8, 8and shadows, and screes will be a principal source of fine aggregate.

A true dune is a mound or hill of 8and that ri8es to a 8ingle summit or peak.

Dunes may exist alone or be attached to one another in colonies or dune chain8 whose coincides with that of the prevailing wind.

Dunes can exist independently of any other desert 8urface feature.

Ripple8
and ridges can occur in certain typea of sands and under certain wind condi
tion8.

Sand shadows and sand drifts that are cau8ed by a fixed obstruction in the path of a sanddriving wind form behind the ob8truction.

Angular scree8
or debris heaps occur when the wind drives off the 8and leaving only a coarser material behind.

The product8 that are tran8ported largely by wind and gravity tend to create poorly graded depo8its of widely different particle size and generally are viewed with disfavor for u8e in concrete because of their narrow, fine grading8 with 8ilt contents often of about 10 percent.

However, they can be u8ed in the ab8ence of more 8uitable 8Ources.

3.

Windblown (Aeolian) sands.

Windblown deposits such as dunes, ripples and ridges, drifts, sand shadows, and screes will be a principal source of fine aggregate.

A true dune is a mound or hill of sand that rises to a single summit or peak.

Dunes may exist alone or be attached to one another In colonies or dune chains whose coincides with that of the prevailing wind.

Dunes can exist independently of any other desert surface feature.

Ripples and ridges can occur in certain types of sands and under certain wind conditions.

Sand shadows and sand drifts that are caused by a fixed obstruction In the path of a sanddriving wind form behind the obstruction.

Angular screes or debris heaps occur when the wind drives off the sand leaving only a coarser material behind.

The products that are transported largely by wind and gravity tend to create poorly graded deposits of widely different particle size and generally are viewed with disfavor for use in concrete because of their narrow, fine gradings with silt contents often of about 10 percent.

However, they can be used in the absence of more suitable sources.

4.

Dunes.

Dune8 have many, and varied forms
80 many, in fact, that it is hard to define a universal cla88ification.

The simplest forms are cotn
monly known as the barchan or cre8cent dune and the seif or longitudinal dune. They are all composed of the 8ame type of material; their 8hapes and Bize8 are
4.

Dunes.

Dunes have many, and varied forms
so many, in fact, that it is hard to define a universal classification.

The simplest forms are commonly known as the barchan or crescent dune and the seif or longitudinal dune. They are all composed of the same type of material; their shapes and sizes are detennined mostly by the prevailing winds.

The grading of the material composing a barchan dune is nearly homogeneous from the summit downwards to within a height above the ground of about 5 percent of the summit.

This material is usually finer than would be desirable for use in concrete.

Below this material, on the windward 8ide, according to the nature of the surrounding country, there may be a fringe of coarse grains and small pebbles that could be used in concrete.

This fringe is only superficial and will not extend deeply into the dune.

As the barchan dune moves with the direction of the prevailing wind, it leaves behind this coarser marterial and forms a wake of coarse material ridges that could be recovered for use.

These ridges can be located by progressing away from the dune and into the wind.

For asphalt or portland cement concrete, use only the eand from the top of the windward side of a barchan thtne.

Avoid using the sand from the bottom of the ship face because it will usually be too fine.

The grainsize distribution in the seif dune varies markedly from that of the barchan dune; the coarser graine tend to collect at the foot of the ship face.

Coarsegrained residues or platforms, built up and left behind by the passage of a longcontinued succession of seif dunes along the Bame path, are also good sources of coarser grained material.

determined mostly by the prevailing winds.

The grading of the material coin
posing a barchan dune is nearly homogeneous from the summit downwards to within a height above the ground of about 5 percent of the summit.

This material is usually finer than would be desirable for use in concrete.

Below this material, on the windward side, according to the nature of the surrounding country, there way be a fringe of coarse grains and small pebbles that could be used in concrete.

This fringe is only superficial and will not extend deeply into the dune.

As the barchan dune moves with the direction of the prevailing wind, it leaves behind this coarser marterial and forms a wake of coarse material ridges that could be recovered for use.

These ridges can be located by progressing away from the dune and into the wind.

For asphalt or portland cement concrete, use only the sand from the top of the windward side of a barchan dune.

Avoid using the sand from the bottom of the ship face because it will usually be too fine.

The grainsize distribution in the self dune varie8 markedly from that of the barchan dune; the coarser grains tend to collect at the foot of the ship face.

Coarsegrained residues or platforms, built up and left behind by the passage of a longcontinued succession of seif dunes along the same path, are also good sources of coarser grained material.

Dunes can occur both near coastal areas and in the desert.

Their location will generally determine their mineralogical composition and grading.

In coasta]. duiaes, the grading has been predeternined by the Water's flow condi
tione.

The material supplied at any one place is usually very t,nfor- in grain size.

Sea sand, which feeds dune growth, tends to be conspicuously free of large grains.

The finer graits are deposited on the shore and left high and dry.

In desert dunes, the place of origin of the grains is usually obvious, such as an escarpment or a series of depressiona where wind erosion is taking place.

These dunes tend to have less salt contamination unless they are downwind from sabkhas or salines.

Dunes at the leeward edge of sabkhas may be largely composed of gypsum.

The range of sand gradings available in dunes is presented in Chapter 7.

Dunes can occur both near coastal areas and in the desert.

Their location will generally determine their mineralogical composition and grading.

In coastal dunes, the grading has been predetermined by the water's flow conditions.

The material supplie4 at any one place is usually very unfor-m in grain size.

Sea sand, which feeds dune growth, tends to be conspicuously free of large grains.

The finer grains are deposited on the shore and left high and dry.

In desert dunes, the place of origin of the grains is usuallr obvious, such as an escarpment or a series of depressions where wind erosion is taking place.

These dunes tend to have le8s 8alt contamination unless they are downwind from sabkhas or salines.

Dunes at the leeward edge of sabkhas may be largely composed of gypsum.

The range of sand gradings available in dunes is presented in Chapter 7.

5.

Ripples and ridges.

Pronounced rippling or waving of sand surfaces can occur in sands that have a range of grain size.

As the wind carries off the fine sand grains, the coarser grains collect and form periodic, crests.

Since these grains are not easily moved, they protect the crest and allow it to rise into a region of stronger wind than would otherwise be possible. These ripples can be selectively processed to provide a sand suitable for use in concrete; however, the process may be very laborintensive.

5.

Ripples and ridges.

Pronounced rippling or waving of sand surfaces can occur in sands that have a range of grain size.

As the wind carries off the fine sand grains, the coarser grains collect and form periodic, crests.

Since these grains are not easily moved, they protect the crest and allow it to rise into a region of stronger wind than would otherwise be possible. These ripples can be selectively processed to provide a sand suitable for use in concrete; however, the process may be vary laborintensive.

6.

Crushed rock aggregates.

Where 9uitable sands and gravels are unobtainable, crushed rock may be used for both coarse and fine aggregate.

The prevalence of limestone has been mentioned, and there may also be local outcroppings of other rock types that may be suitable.

Much of the coarse aggregate used in the Gulf, however, has been obtained from the calcrete layer or "pavement" as it is often called.

The calcrete pavement is either exposed at the surface or reached by removing a cover of gypcrust or windblown sand.

For many years, especially in Rahrain and Qatar, calcrete has been worked by prying up loose blocks from the surface for transport to a local crusher.

Typically, Gulf calcretes are at least 3 ft (0.9 m) thick and somettmes 16 ft
(4.8 m) or more; therefore, quarrying by conventional drilling and blasting is a possibility.

Because the calcrete usually has no definite base, passing
.gradually into the unhardened limestone below, the depth of working must be carefully controlled to maintain product quality.

Most calcretes
6.

Crushed rock aggregates.

Where suitable sands and gravels are unobtainable, crushed rock may be used for both coarse and fine aggregate.

The prevalence of limestone has been mentioned, and there may also be local outeroppings of other rock types that may be suitable.

Much of the coarse aggregate used in the Gulf, however, has been obtained from the calcrete layer or "pavement" as It is often called.

The calerete pavement is either exposed at the surface or reached by removing a cover of gypcrust or windblown sand.

For marty years, especially in Babrain and Qatar, calcrete has been worked by prying up loose blocks from the surface for transport to a local crusher.

Typically, Gulf caicretes are at least 3 ft (0.9 in) thick and somettmes 16 ft
(4.8 in) or more; therefore, quarrying by conventional drilling and blasting is a possibility.

Because the caicrete usually has no definite base, passing
.gradually into the unhardened limestone below, the depth of working must be carefully controlled to maintain product quality.

Most calcretes traditionally used in the area cannot be considered first class materials on purely physical and mechanical grounds besides their possible chemical problems.

One 'ifficulty arises from the random and variable nature of the deposition and hardening process; this causes a lack of consistency in properties such as aggregate crushing value and water absorption.

Like other limestonesb most calcretes are very dusty when crushed.

Crushed rock sands have a poor particle shape and correspondingly adverse effect on concrete workability and density; howeverb their wain drawbackb especially where they are derived from calcretes, is that contaminants in the natural stone tend to become concentrated in the fine fraction during crushing.

These crushed rock sands may contain as much as 25 percent of total impurities 8uch as gypsum flourb chlorides, clays and silts.

The dust creates a highwater demand in concrete aggregates; there will be shrinkage and other problems associated with a highwater/cecuent ratio unless the dust is removed.

traditionally used in the area cannot be considered first class materials on purely physical and mechanical grounds, besides their possible chemical problems.

One 'ifficulty arises from the random and variable nature of the deposition and hardening process; this causes a lack of consistency in properties such as aggregate crushing value and water absorption.

Like other limestones, most caicretes are very dusty when crushed.

Crushed rock sands have a poor particle shape and correspondingly adverse effect on concrete workability and density; however, their main drawback, especially where they are derived from caicretes, is that contaminants in the natural stone tend to become concentrated in the fine fraction during crushing.

These crushed rock sands may contain as much as 25 percent of total impurities such as gypsum flour, chlorides, clays, and silts.

The dust creates a highwater demand in concrete aggregates; there will be shrinkage and other problems associated with a highwater/cement ratio unless the dust is removed.

- -
Special consideration must be given to how aggregate is obtained for processing.

In downward leaching areas, contamination by aggressive salts will not usually be serious.

However, these areas tend to be localized and contained within generally saline environments.

Caicrete development can proceed where more soluble substances are leached downward; then bodies of carbonate-
Special consideration must be given to how aggregate is obtained for processing.

In downward leaching areasb contamination by aggressive salts will not usually be serious.

Howeverb these areas tend to be localized and Contained within generally saline environments.

Calcrete developwent can proceed where more soluble substances are leached downward; then bodies of carbonate
cemented materials may impede the working of a gravel deposit and increase dust.

When present, rocks decomposable by weathering, especially igneous rocks, may increase the proportion of unsound material in the aggregate, whether crushed gravel or quarried rock.

Processing techniques may have to be designed to reject this material; much dust may result.

However, in downward leaching areas, there is a better chance of water being available for dust suppression and washing.

In upward leaching areas, selective working of both natural aggregates and quarried rock will usually be necessary.

In the Gulf region, much quarried rock will be limestone or its associated caicrete dun
crust.

If there is a surface layer contaminated with chlorides and sulfatea
(e.g., gypcrust), this layer will have to be stripped off and wasted.

Because of the widespread presence of chemical contamination near the surface, quarried rock will often be preferred to the traditional handpicked surface stone, if the required physical properties are maintained to an adequate depth.

cewented materials may impede the working of a gravel deposit and increase dust.

When presentb rocks decomposable by weathering, especially igneous rocks, may increase the proportion of unsound material in the aggregate, whether crushed gravel or quarried rock.

ProcesBing techniques may have to be designed to reject this material; much dust may result.

Roweverb in downward leaching areasb there i a better chance of water being available for dust suppression and washing.

In upward leaching areas, selective working of both natural aggregates and quarried rock will uBually be nece8sary.

In the Gulf region, much quarried rock will be limestone or its associated calcrete dun
crust.

If there is a surface layer contacuinated with chlorides and sulfate8
(e.g., gypcrust) this layer will have to be stripped off and wa8ted.

Becau8e of the widespread presence of chemical contamination near the surface, quarried rock will often be preferred to the traditional handpicked surface stone, if the required physical properties are maintained to an adequate depth.

Quarried caleretes, after removal of any contaminated surface layer, will also need selective processing to avoid inclusion of the clay pockets and cry
stals of gypsum or other salts.

The rock-should appear uniform in harthiess and color.

Selection can normally be made by eye with a little experience.

A
useful technique presently used in Saudi Arabia prescreens the quarried material on grizzly screens and rejects the material smaller than 2 to 3 in.

(51 to 76 mm) before transferring the oversized rock to the crusher.

More than one stage of scalping will improve the product.

Multistage scalping really helps the situation but can easily produce waste that represents 50 percent of the volume quarried.

}Iand selection of rocks from a blown face is an alternative to selection by scalping on a grizzly.

Usual processing techniques have a high energy demand.

A more suitable method for troops would be to use a bulldozer with a ripper to work only the upper surface of the rock, after removal of any gypcrust or other overburden.

Caicrete can usually be ripped only in the openjointed zone extending to about 3 ft (0.9 m) below the rockhead.

if tracked vehicles are operated over the ripped surface and perforated loading shovels are used, most contaminants and inferior rock can be left behind in the worked area.

These methods have been used widely on Quarried caicretes, after removal of any contaminated surface layers will also need selective processing to avoid inclusion of the clay pockets and cry
stals of gypsum or other salts.

The rock-should appear uniforw in harthiess and color.

Selection can normally be made by eye with a little experience.

A
useful technique presently used in Saudi Arabia prescreens the quarried material on grizzly screens and rejects the material smaller than 2 to 3 in.

(51 to 76 mm) before transferring the oversized rock to the crusher.

More than one stage of scalping will improve the product.

Multistage scalping really helps the situation but can easily produce waste that represents 50
percent of the volume quarried.

}Iand selection of rocks from a blown face is an alternative to selection by scalping on a grizzly.

Usual processing techniques have a high energy decuand.

A more suitable method for troops would be to use a bulldozer with a ripper to work only the upper surface of the rock, after removal of any gypcrust or other overburden.

Calcrete can usually be ripped only in the openjointed zone extending to about 3 ft (0.9 m) below the rockhead.

If tracked vehicles are operated over the ripped surface and perforated loading shovels are usedb most contaminants and inferior rock can be left behind in the worked area.

These methods have been used widely on calcrete pavementB in Qatar and Bahrain, but they lay waste to wide areas and produce uncontrollable quantities of dust.

Gypsumcemented gravels may be released from their matrix, where there is gypcrust and not gypcrete, by extenoive working and processing.

Repeated travereing of an area by bulldozer and ripper will sometimes release the gravels; the disaggregated product can then be loaded on screens and the gypsum content reduced by rejection of the undersized fraction.

The use of impact or cone crushers, followed by further stages of scalping and a final washing to reDove dust (if water is available), should further reduce the sulphate contents.

caicrete pavements in Qatar and Bahrain, but they lay waste to wide areas and produce uncontrollable quantities of dust.

Gypsumcemented gravels may be released from their matrix, where there is gypcrust and not gypcrete, by extensive working and processing.

Repeated traversing of an area by bulldozer and ripper will sometimes release the gravels; the disaggregated product can then be loaded on screens and the gypsum content reduced by rejection of the undersized fraction.

The use of impact or cone crushers, followed by further stages of scalping and a final washing to remove dust (if water is available), should further reduce the sulphate contents.

7.

Aggregates for pavements.

Properly graded materials for unbound pavement construction are often not available from natural sources without screening and recombining differentsized fractions.

Crushing may also be necessary to increase or create a fine fraction.

Most of the desert surface is covered by lag gravel, highly fractured caicrete, or aeolian sand, which seldom yields significant material in the middlesized ranges.

7.

Aggregates for pavements.

Properly graded materials for unbound pavement construction are often not available from natural sources without screening and recombining differentsized fractions.

Crushing may also be necesaary to increase or create a fine fraction.

Most of the desert surface is covered by lag gravel, highly fractured calcrete, or aeolian sand, which seldom yields significant material in the middlesized ranges.

## 10.2.10 Concrete Reinforcement 10.2.10 Concrete Reinforcement

There is no commercial production of reinforcing steel in the Middle East.

All reinforcing steel Is imported, mostly from Japan, and is usually available in a wide range of sizes.

There is no commercial production of reinforcing steel in the Middle East.

All reinforcing Bteel is imported, mostly froa Japan, and is usually available in a wide range of sizes.

## 10.2.11 Expedient Reinforcement 10.2.11 Expedient Reinforcement

Any type of construction in specific regions may be made with materials available in the region.

In some parts of the Middle East, the conventional steel reinforcing bar is one of the most scarce or unavailable construction materials.

Some materials, not indigenous, may be available in remote areas or as part of the mobilization materials of the military forces and can substitute for conventional reinforcing materi1s.

Some of these are military wire rope, landing mat, landing mat tie bars, concertina wire, and high tensile steel barbed wire.

Any type of construction In specific regions may be made with materials available in the region.

In some parts of the Middle East, the conventional steel reinforcing bar is one of the most scarce or unavailable construction materials.

Some materials, not indigenous, may be available in remote areas or as part of the mobilization materials of the military forces and can substitute for conventional reinforcing materials.

Some of these are military wire rope, landing mat, landing mat tie bars, concertina wire, and high tensile steel barbed wire.

## 10.2.12 Portland Cement 10.2.12 Portland Cement

Although there is some local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Many countries ship cement into the region, and it varies in quality.

In general, there iI1 be nO contol over what Is reeeied and its quality.

If possible, sulfateresistant and lowheat cements should be used.

These are the predominant types imported.

Unless bulk handling capabilities are available locally, troop manpower will not be able to handle and transport large quantities of cement with their equipment.

Bag handling of cement is very slow, laborintensive, and not recommended except as a last resort.

If none exists locally, airtight storage, which is best accomplished by rubberized bulk bags, must be provided in all coastal areas.

Any prolonged storage at the high temperatures of the region will cause the cement to degrade.

Although there Is some local cement production in the region, most cement will have to be imported.

Many countries ship cement Into the region, and it varies in quality.

In general, there II1 be no contol aver what 1s re.eired and its quality.

If possible, sulfateresistant and lowheat cements should be used.

These are the predominant types imported.

Unless bulk handling capabilities are available locally, troop manpower will not be able to handle and transport large quantities of cement with their equipment.

Bag handling of cement is very slow, laborintensive, and not recommended except as a last resort.

If none exists locally, airtight storage, which is best accomplished by rubberized bulk bags, must be provided in all coastal areas.

Any prolonged storage at the high temperatures of the region will cause the cement to degrade.

## 10.2.13 Concrete 10.2.13 Concrete

The general absence of goodquality aggregate, both fine and coarse, which makes up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable quantities of water for concreting operations will present a challenge to The general absence of goodquality aggregate, both fine and coarse, which makes up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable quantities of water for concreting operations will present a challenge to troop construction.

High temperatures and strong prevailing winds associated with the ara will further compound the problem.

The engineer support associated with the size of the operation will probably not have the production equipment needed to make anything more than occasional batches of concrete. Once made, transportation of the concrete will be a problem due to limited vehicular support and lack of suitable surfaces over which to transport it.

troop construction.

High temperatures and strong prevailing winds associated with the aria will further compound the problem.

The engineer support associated with the size of the operation will probably not have the production equipment needed to make anything more than occasional batches of concrete. Once made, transportation of the concrete will be a problem due to limited vehicular support and lack of suitable surfaces over which to transport it.

Adequate couimercial concrete production facilities are widely 5cattered throughout the Middle Eaet.

In areas away from population centers, concrete production will be restricted to the facilities available in the construction support unit, which will con5ist of smallvolume mixers and thus greatly limit concrete production.

Unless there is a large supply of local concrete trucks or other methods of moving concrete, the vehicular support for the moving of concrete can be expected to be very limited.

Generally, the engineer unit will have no agitating delivery equipment and i5 re5tricted to using dump trucks.

In most areas, the surfaces over which fully loaded concrete or dump trucks must travel is less than satisfactory.

Partial loads may alleviate the problem.

Haul times for the concrete must be very short because of the high temperatures, rapid evaporation of batch water,.salt concentrations in the aggregate, and lack of agitation.

These. timee could be extended by the use of chemical adraixtures.

Adequate commercial concrete production facilities are widely scattered throughout the Middle East.

In areas away from population centers, concrete production will be restricted to the facilities available in the con8truction support unit, which will consist of smallvolume mixers and thus greatly limit concrete production.

Unless there is a large supply of local concrete trucks or other methods of moving concrete, the vehicular support for the moving of concrete can be expected to be very limited.

Generally, the engineer unit will have no agitating delivery equipment and is restricted to using dump trucks.

In most areas, the surfaces over which fully loaded concrete or dump trucks must travel is less than satisfactory.

Partial loads may alleviate the problem.

Haul times for the concrete must be very short because of the high temperatures, rapid evaporation of batch water,.galt concentrations in the aggregate, and lack of agitation.

These. times could be extended by the use of chemical adraixtures.

Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by the locally available materials, which are highly variable.

Tht existing technology for developing predetermined concrete mixture designs is limited.

The principal problem is that there is no quanttfiable base for chatiging aggregate factors expressed as a percent of the total aggregate ae the aggregate characteristics change. Excessive fines, which have a higher water demand, and salt contents, which require higher cement contents to compensate for strength loss, further complicate the problem.

The proportions shown in Table 74 can be used as beginning points for developing a suitable mixture.

Adjustments in the amount of ingredienta can be made,.usually to obtain a mixture that can be easily placed.

The amount of water used in concrete should be kept to the least amount needed to make the concrete workable.

The use of chemical admixtures, such as water reducing, retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures, are available for reduced water requirements, improved consistency, and extended working time.

However1 these admixtures will all have to be brought into the area.

Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by the locally available materials, which are highly variable.

Tht existing technology for developing predetermined concrete mixture designs is limited.

The principal problem is that there is no quantifiable base for changing aggregate factors expressed as a percent of the total aggregate as the aggregate characteristics change. Excessive fines, which have a higher water demand, and salt contents, which require higher cement contents to compensate for strength loss, further complicate the problem.

The proportions shown in Table 74 can be used as beginning points for developing a suitable mixture.

Adjustments in the amount of ingredients can be made,.usually to obtain a mixture that can be easily placed.

The amount of water used in concrete should be kept to the least amount needed to make the concrete workable.

The use of chemical admixtures, such as water reducing, retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures, are available for reduced water requirements, improved consistency, and extended working time.

However, these adtnixtures will all have to be brought into the area.

The very hot temperatures of the Middle East will affect the consistency of the fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place.

Most of the concrete will have been made with high water/cement ratios, high cement contents, and aggregates that promote bleeding.

The concrete will receive little, if any, consolidation treatment.

In the ca5e of flatwork, it may even be spread by a road grader or dozer rather than conventional screeds.

The cecent, aggregate, and mixing water can all be expected to be about 115F (46C) at the time of batching; the final concrete temperature will be even higher. This temperature is very undesirable for many reasons.

Shaped storage should be provided for both the cement and aggregate to reduce their initial temperatures.

As noted earlier, the sprinkling of aggregate stockpiles to cool them may create other problems.

Some type of cooling should be applied to the mixing water through either a cooling plant or by adding ice.

If possible, all nilxers should be painted white to help relieve the solar heat development problem.

When mixed, concrete temperatures should be kept a low as possible.

The very hot temperatures of the Middle East will affect the consistency of the fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place.

Most of the concrete will have been made with high water/cement ratios, high cement contents, and aggregates that promote bleeding.

The concrete will receive little, if any, consolidation treatment.

In the case of flatwork, it may even be spread by a road grader or dozer rather than conventional screeds.

The cement, aggregate, and mixing water can all be expected to be about 115F (46C) at the time of batching; the final concrete temperature will be even higher.

This temperature is very undesirable for many reasons.

Shaped storage should be provided for both the cement and aggregate to reduce their initial temperatures.

As noted earlier, the sprinkling of aggregate stockpiles to cool them may create other problems.

Some type of cooling should be applied to the mixing water through either a cooling plant or by adding ice.

If possible, all nilxers should be painted white to help relieve the solar heat development problem.

When mixed, concrete temperatures should be kept as low as possible.

Quality control of the concrete ingredients and the freshly mixed concrete can be expected to be nonexistent.

The technical apecialistin the engineer unit is responsible for the concrete technology; without special training in the materials and problems of this region, he or she will not be able to respond satisfactorily to problems as they occur.

If any quality
control programs are begun, the control tests must be very simple and rapid.

Some of the established testB do not fit these criteria.

Quality control of the concrete ingredients and the freshly mixed concrete can be expected to be nonexistent.

The technical specialist in the engineer unit is responsible for the concrete technology; without special training in the materials and problems of this region1 he or she will not be able to respond satisfactorily to problems as they occur.

If any quality
control programs are begun, the control tests must be very simple and rapid.

Some of the established tests do not fit these criteria.

There will be short finishing times due to the area'a hot temperatures and strong winds.

Shading and windscreens are a necessity to prolong the finishing period and to reduce evaporation from the concrete surface.

The quality of finishing will be marginal because the labor can be considered unskilled.

Although rapid production will be required, some curing will be needed to avoid excessive and severe plaBtic and drying shrinkage cracking.

The general lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing membranes be used.

Either of the two would have to be brought in.

Any water suitable for mixing concrete can also be used to cure it.

As noted above, uindscreens and shades would also be a great help.

There will be short finishing times due to the area's hot temperatures and strong winds.

Shading and windecreens are a necessity to prolong the f in
ishing period and to reduce evaporation from the concrete surface.

The quality of finishing will be marginal because the labor can be considered unskilled.

Although rapid production will be required, some curing will be needed to avoid excessive and severe plaBtic and drying shrinkage cracking.

The general lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing membranes be used.

Either of the two would have to be brought in.

Any water suitable for mixing concrete can also be used to cure it.

As noted above, windscreens and shades would also be a great help.

## 10.2.14 Rolled Conrpaoted Concrets.

10.2.14
Rolled Compacted Concret
This new construction method will apply when rapid placement of slabs on grade, such as paving for highways and airports, is desired and a1swhn specialized equipment (slip forms1 conventional payers) and skilled labor are absent.

Most of the prob1es generally associated with desert weather concrete work - such as increased water demand, slump loss, and plastic shrinkage cracking  are not severe in rolled compacted concrete (RCC) construction, primarily because of low water requirenents and the method of transportation, placement, and compaction used.

Basically, the method is a noslump concrete transported by a truck, spread by a frontend loader, and compacted by a vibratory roller.

The water content (pounds per cubic yard) for manufactured aggregates must be between 195 lb (88 kg) for 3/8in. (10ncn) maximum size aggregates to 130 lb (59 kg) for 6in. (152mm) maximum size aggregate.

When natural aggregates are used, the water content may have to be adjusted.

The RCC must be placed in layers that are thin enough to allow complete compaction by the vibratory roller.

The optimum placement layers range from 8 to
12 in. (203 to 305 mm).

Spreading is aided by consistent and symmetrical placing.

Rubbertired hauling equipment can operate on the freshly compacted surface with no adverse effects on the cncrete.

Hweier; provisions must be taken to keep the hauling equipment from tracking in mud and dirt, which would have an adverse effect on concrete quality.

The minimum number of passes for a given vibrating roller to achieve full consolidation depends mostly on the concrete mix and layer thickness.

Tests should be done before or during the operation to determine the minimum number of passes.

Generally, and to illustrate production and complementary equipment, a 6ftwide (1.8s) vibratory roller (of appropriate design) must make four passes at a speed of 2 miles per hour in a 10in. (254mm) layer of noslump concrete.

At this rate and profile, the roller can compact more than 350 cu yd (266 m3) per hour.

A conventional batch Rlant would require about four 4cu yd (3 m3) mixers or one large
12 cu yd (9 ) mixer to match the compaction capabilities of one large roller on a continuous placement operation.

The required curing and protectior of the RCC is generally consistent with the treatment needed for conventional concrete.

This new construction method will, apply when rapid placement of slabs on grade, such as paving for highways and airports, is desired and also when specialized equipment (slip forms, conventional payers) and skilled labor are absent.

Most of the problems generally associated with desert weather concrete work - such as increased watur demand, slump loss, and plastic shrinkage cracking  are not severe in rolled compacted concrete (RCC) construction, primarily because of low water requirements and the method of transportation, placement, and compaction used.

Basically, the method is a noslump concrete transported by a truck, spread by a frontend loader, and compacted by a vibratory roller.

The water content (pounds per cubic yard) for manufactured aggregates must be between 195 lb (88 kg) for 3/8in. (10ncn) maximum size aggregates to 130 lb (59 kg) for 6in. (152mm) maximum size aggregate.

When natural aggregates are used, the water content may have to be adjusted.

The RCC must be placed in layers that are thin enough to allow complete compaction by the vibratory roller.

The optimum placement layers range from 8 to
12 in. (203 to 305 mm).

Spreading is aided by consistent and symmetrical placing.

Rubbertired hauling equipment can operate on the freshly compacted surface with no adverse effects on the concrete.

Hweier; provisions must be taken to keep the hauling equipment from tracking In mud and dirt, which would have an adverse effect on concrete quality.

The minimum number of passes for a given vibrating roller to achieve full consolidation depends mostly on the concrete mix and layer thickness.

Tests should be done before or during the operation to determine the minimum number of passes.

Generally, and to illustrate production and complementary equipment, a 6ftwide (1.8in) vibratory roller (of appropriate design) must make four passes at a speed of 2 miles per hour in a 10in. (254mm) layer of noslump concrete.

At this rate and profile, the roller can compact more than 350 cu yd (266 in3)
per hour.

A conventional batch plant would require about four 4cu yd (3 in3) mixers or one large
12 cu yd (9 m) mixer to match the compaction capabilities of one large roller on a continuous placement operation.

The required curing and protection of the RCC js generally consistent with the treatment needed for conventional concrete.

## 10.3 Cement Production Facilities (From Cembureau) 10.3 Cement Production Facilities (From Cembureau)

AFCANISTAN
AFCANISTAN
City
Projected Capacities,
Year
Metric Tons
City
Projected Capacities1,
Year
Metric Tons
1. PoliKhon.iri
NA*
NA
2. Herat
NA
NA
3. JabuleSeraj
NA
NA
4. Kandahar
NA
NA
1. PoliKhon.irj
NA*
NA
2. Herat
NA
NA
3. JabuleSeraj
NA
NA
4. Kandahar
NA
NA
BAHARIN
BAHAR I N
LU IBOUTI
EGYPT
111 IBOUTI
EGYPT
5. ElMex
800,000
1982
6. Helwan
5,000,000
1982
7. Tourah
1,600,000
1982
8. Suez
1,000000
1981
9. Quattainia
1,400,000
1983
10. ElTabbin, Relvan
300,000
1983
5. ElMex
800,000
1982
6. Heiwan
5,000,000
1982
7.
Tourah
1,600,000
1982
8. Suez
1,000,000
1981
9. Quattamia
1,400,000
1983
10. ElTabbin, Helvan
300,000
1983
ETHIOPIA

ETHIOPIA

ii.
Addis Ababa
75,000
1980
12.
Dire Dawa
30,000
1980
13.
Gurgussum,
Massawa
40,000
1980
14.
Asmara
NA
NA
11.
Addis Ababa
75,000
1980
12.
Dire Dawa
30,000
1980
13.
Gurgussuin,
Maseawa
40000
1980
14.
Aguiara
NA
NA
IRAN
IRAN
15. Doroud
1,350,000
1979
16. Shirez
900,000
1979
17. Abyek
2,100,000
1979
18. Behbehan
850,000
1979
19. Isfahan
650,000
1979
20. Kerman
1,500,000
1980
21. Loshan
720,000
1979
22. Rey
148,000
1980
23. Mashhad
560,000
1979
24. Soufian
850,000
1979
25. Dauiavand
675,000
1979
26. Sheuial
90)000
1979
27. Tehran
2,340,000
1979
28. Aryamehr, Isfahan
2,000,000
1979
29. Kernianshah
660,000
1979
30. Neka
600,000
1979
15. Doroud
1,350,000
1979
16. Shirez
900,000
1979
17. Abyek
21,100,000
1979
18. Behbehan
850,000
1979
19. Isfahan
650,000
1979
20. Kerman
1,500,000
1980
21. Loshan
720,000
1979
22. Rey
148,000
1980
23. Mashhad
560,000
1979
24. Soufian
850,000
1979
25. Damavand
675,000
1979
26. Shemal
90,000
1979
27. Tehran
2,340,000
1979
28. Aryamehr, Isfahan
2,000,000
1979
29. Kernianshah
660,000
1979
30. Neka
600,000
1979

*NA
Not available.

*NA
Not available.

1013

City
Projected Capacities
Year
City
Projected Capacities
Year
IRAN (Cont'd)
IRAN (Cont'd)
31. Kerman
700,000
1979
32. ilamadan
600,000
NA
33. Bandar Abbas
1,000,000
NA
34. Ghom
600,000
NA
31. Kerman
700,000
1979
32. ilaniadan
600,000
NA
33. Bandar Abbas
1,000,000
NA
34. Chom
600,000
NA
IRAQ
IRAQ
35. Baghdad
NA
NA
36. Falluja I
NA
NA
37. Falluja It
NA
NA
38. Hindiyah Barrage
NA
NA
39. Kufa I
NA
NA
40. Kuf a It
NA
NA
41. Badoosh
NA
NA
42. Hammam AlAlil
NA
43. Samawah
NA
NA
44.'Urn Qasr
NA
NA
45. Sarchinar, Sulaimaniyah
270,000
1980
35. Baghdad
NA
NA
36. Falluja I
NA
NA
37. Falluja II
NA
NA
38. Hindiyah Barrage
NA
NA
39. Kufa I
NA
NA
40. Kufa II
NA
NA
41. Badoosh
NA
NA
42. Hammam AlAlil
NA
43. Samawah
NA
NA
44.Uru Qaer
NA
NA
45. Sarchinar, Sulaimaniyah
270,000
1980
ISRAEL
ISRAEL
46. HarTuv
47. Ramla
48.
Haifa
46. HarTuv
47. Ramla
48.
Haifa
1982
1982 1982
1982
1982
1982
800,000
1,000,000 1,000,000
800,000
1,000,000 1,000,000
JORDAN

JORDAN

1982
1980 1982 1980
49. Fuhais
50. QasrE1Hall'abat
1,800,000
1,200,000
49. Fuhais
50. QasrE1Hall'abat
1,800,000
1,200,000
KUWAIT KUWAIT 51. Shuaiba
1,425,000
1980
51. Shuaiba
1,425,000
1980
LEBANON LEBANON
1980
1979
1980
1980
1979
1980
52. Chekka (fiery)
53. Chekka (Private
54. Chekka
Port)
1,900,000
450,000
153,000
52. Chekka (fiery)
53. Chekka (Private
54. Chekka
Port)
1,900,000
450,000
153,000
OMAN
NA
NA
OMAN
NA
NA
City
Projected Capacitie8
Tear
City
Projected Capacitie8
Tear
PAKISTAN

PAKISTAN

55. Wah R.S. Lawalpindi
450,000
1980
56. Rohri, Sukkur
270,000
1980
57. Gharibwal, Diatt., .Jhelum
540,000
1980
58. Manghopir, Karachi 26
280,000
1980
59. [akanderabad, Diett., Mianwali
255,000
1980
60. AbottabadDiBtrict Hattar
660,000
1980
61. Shantinagar, Karachi 12
180,000
1980
62. Dandot, Dietrict Jhelum
58,000
1980
63. Iskanderabad, Diatr., Mianwali
15,000
1980
64. Hyderabad
1,080,000
1980
55. Wah R.S. Rawalpindi
450,000
1980
56. Rohri, Sukkur
270,000
1980
57. Gharibwal, Diett., Jhelum
540,000
1980
58. Manghopir Karachi 26
280,000
1980
59. I8kanderabad, Diett., Kianwali
255,000
1980
60. AbottabadDiBtrict Hattar
660,000
1980
61. Shantinagar Karachi 12
180,000
1980
62. Dandot, Dietrict Jhelum
58,000
1980
63. Iskanderabad Diatr., Mianwali
15OO0
1980
64. Hyderabad
1080,000
1980
P.D.R. YEMEN
NA
NA
P.D.R. YEMEN
NA
NA
QATAR

QATAR

65. Doha
270,000
1980
65. Doha
270,000
1980
SAUDI ARABIA

SAUDI ARABIA

66. Jeddah
600,000
1982
67. Rabigh
1,350,000
NA
68. Qassim
600,000
1981
69. Hofuf
1,350,000
1980
70. AinDar
1,900,000
1981
71. Rlyadh
1,300,000
1980
72. Jizan
1,400,000
1983
73. Yanbu
350,000
1980
66. Jeddah
600,000
1982
67. Rabigh
1350O00
NA
68. Qassim
600000
1981
69. Hofuf
1,350,000
1980
70. AinDar
1,900,000
1981
71. Riyadh
1,300,000
1980
72. Jizan
1,400,000
1983
73. Yanbu
350000
1980
SOMOLIA
MA
NA
SOMOLIA
MA
NA
SUDAN
NA
NA
SUDAN
NA
NA
SYRIA

SYRIA

74. AdraDaascu8
550,000
1980
75. Bourg IBlain
82,000
1979
76. Muslimiyeh
450,000
1979
77. Sheik Said
202,000
1979
78. llama I
110,000
1979
74. AdraDaascus
550,000
1980
75. Bourg IBlain
82,000
1979
76. Muslimiyeh
450,000
1979
77. Sheik Said
202,000
1979
78. Hama I
110,000
1979
79. Hauia II
412,000
1979
79. Hauia II
412000
1979
80. Dunimar
280,000
1979
81. Tartoua
NA
NA
80. Dunimar
280,000
1979
81. Tartous
NA
NA
City
Projected Capacities
Year
City
Projected Capacities
Year
TURKEY
NA
NA
TURKEY
NA
NA
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
NA
NA
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
NA
NA
YEMEN,
ARAB REB.
YEMEN,
ARAB REB.
82. Bajil
80,000
1980
82. Bajil
80,000
1980
10.4
Concrete Block Plants Operating in MidEast
10.4
Concrete Block Plante Operating in MidEast

## Kuwait Kuwait

National Industries Company
P.O. Box 3358,
Safat
Kuwait, Arabian Gulf
National Industries Company
P.O. Box 3358,
Safat
Kuwait, Arabian Gulf
Abdulla A. AlAyoub & Bros.
B.0. Box 155, Safat Kuwait, Arabian Golf
Abdulla A. AlAyoub & Bros.
B.O. Box 155, Safat Kuwait, Arabian Gulf

## United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates

Raknor Private Ltd. P.O. Box 883
Khor Khuwair Ras Al Khaimah, U.A.E.

Raknor Private Ltd. P.O. Box 883
Khor Khuwair Ras Al Khaimah, U.A.E.

## Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia Dabbagh Establishment P.O. Box 2677
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dabbagh Establishment P.O. Box 2677
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Almoajil Cement Products Plant P.O. Box 53
Dammam, Saudi Arabia Almoajil Cement Products Plant P.O. Box 53
Damniam, Saudi Arabia AlChazi Trading & Importing Co.

P.O. Box 4105
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia AlGhazi Trading & Importing Co.

P.O. Box 4105
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
1016
Sam Whan Corp. of Korea P.O. Box
5743
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Sam Whan Corp. of Korea P.O.

Box
5743
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Kong 'lung Construction Co., Ltd.

P.O.

Box 1035
Dammam, Saudi Arabia Kong 'lung Construction Co., Ltd.

P.O. Box 1035
Dammam, Saudt Arabia Kuk Dong ConBtructton Co. Ltd.

P.O. Box 1752
Daminam, Saudt Arabia Kuk Dong ConBtructton Co. Ltd.

P.O. Box 1752
Daminam, Saudi Arabia S.A.I.C. Ltd.

P.O. Box 900
South Central Market Street Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Plant Sites:
Jeddah 6 Rihadh S.A.I.C. Ltd.

P.O. Box900
South Central Market Street Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Plant Sites:
Jeddah 6 Rthadh Tradco Vulcan/Aramco P.O. Box 84
Dhahran Airport Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Plant Sites:
Dhahran & Abqal Tradco Vulcan/Arainco P.O. Box 84
Dhahran Airport Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Plant Sites:
Dhahran & Abqal

## List Of Abbreviations

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFCS
Army Facility Component System
BCY
InBank Cubic Yards
BDL
Beach Discharge Light
DCPD
Dicyclopentadiene
DI'
Dipentene
GEP
Gas Engine Powered
GP
General Purpose
IBCF
rnBank Correction Factor
ISB
Intermediate Staging Bases
LASH
Lighter Aboard Ship
LCY
Loose Cubic Yards
LOC
Lines of Communication
LI'
Liquid Propane
LWRU
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
MEP
Mobile
Electric Power
MEPP
Mobile Electric Power Program
MTBF
Mean Time Between Failures
NBC
Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
OCONUS
Outside Continental United States
OGD
OntheGround Distribution
OHD
Overhead Distribution
RCC
Rolled Compacted Concrete
RDF
Rapid Deployment Force
RO/RO
Roll On/Roll Off
ROWPU
Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
SF
Swell Factor
SWA
Southwest Asia
SWRU
Shower Wastewater Reuse Unit
TENV
Totally Enclosed NonVentilated
TG
Tacttcal Generators
TO
Theater of Operations
TOE
Table of Organization and Equipment
TWDS
Tactical Water Distribution Set
UGD
Underground Distribution
USE
Underground Secondary Electrical
USMC
U.S. Marine Corps
WPU
Water
Purification Unit
AFCS
Army Facility Component System
BCY
InBank Cubic Yards
BDL
Beach Discharge Light
DCPD
Dicyclopentadlene
DP
Dipentene
GEP
Gas Engine Powered
GP
General Purpose
IBCF
rnBank Correction Factor
ISB
rnterediate Staging Ba8es
LASH
Lighter Aboard Ship
LCY
Loose Cubic Yards
LOC
Lines of Communication
LP
Liquid Propane
LWRU
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
MEP
Mobile
Electric Power
MEPP
Mobile Electric Power Program
MTBF
Mean Time Between Failures
NBC
Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
OCONUS
Outside Continental United States
OGD
OntheGround Distribution
OHD
Overhead Distribution
RCC
Rolled Compacted Concrete
RDF
Rapid Deployment Porce
RO/RO
Roll On/Roll Off
ROWPU
Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
SF
Swell Factor
SWA
Southwest Asia
SWRU
Shower Wastewater Reuse Unit
TENV
Totally Enclosed NonVentilated
TG
Tacttcal Generators
TO
Theater of Operations
TOE
Table of Organization and Equipment
TWDS
Tactical Water Distribution Set
UGD
Underground Distribution
USE
Underground Secondary Electrical
USMC
U.S. Marine Corps
WPU
Water
Purification Unit

ABBREVIATIONSi

## Index

INDEX

Page
Page
Adobe Construction
617
Adobe Construction
617
Airfield Construction
723
Airfield Construction
723
For Ci30 Traffic
723
Runway Bomb Damage Repair
728
For C130 Traffic
723
Runway Bomb Damage Repair
728
Asphalt
712
Asphalt
712
Expedient
7li
Aggregate
7i2
Bituminous Mixture8
7i2
Gradations and Uses of Aggregates
7i3
Expedient
7li
Aggregate
7i2
Bituminous Mixtures
712
Gradations and Uses of Aggregates
713
Brick
622
Brick
622
Asphalt Stabilized
623
Cement Stabilized
625
SandLime
631
Lime Stabilized
626
Asphalt Stabilized
623
Cement Stabilized
625
SandLime
631
Lime Stabilized
626
Bunker Construction
37
Bunker Construction
37
Cable
410
Cable
410
Electrical
411
Insulation Problems of
411
Electrical
4li
Insulation Problems of
4u
Camouflaging
37
Camouflaging
37
Tracks
37
Taxiways
37
Tracks
37
Taxiways
37
Pipelines
37
Electrical Power Generation
38
Tall Towers and Antennae
38
Individual Buildings and Shelters
3S
Open Material Storage SiteB
39
Fuel Storage
39
Pipelines
37
Electrical Power Generation
38
Tall Towers and Antennae
38
Individual Buildings and Shelters
38
Open Material Storage Sites
39
Fuel Storage
39
Bases
31
Bases
31

## Index (Cont'D) Index (Cont'D)

Page

Page

Concrete
610, 716
Concrete
610. 716
Concrete Block
613, 616
Horizontal Construction
71
Concrete Block
613, 616
Horizontal Construction
71
Portland Cement Concrete
611, 717
Portland Cement Concrete
611, 717
Corrosion
418
CorroBion
418
Electrical System
418
Electrical System
418
Deserts
11, 51
Deserts
11, 51
'Terrain
13
Climate
13
'Terrain
13
Climate
13
Earth Construction SyBtems
617
Earth Construction Systems
617
Electrical Di8tribution
47
Electrical Distribution
47
Underground Distribution
47
OntheGround Distribution
47
Overhead Distribution
4-7
Frequency Problems
421
Underground Distribution
47
OntheGround Distribution
47
Overhead Distribution
47
Frequency Problem8
421
Environmental Factors
11, 311, 51, 62
Environmental Factors
11, 311, 51, 62
Effects of Heat
13, 310, 5-9, 526
Protective Equipment
92
Water Intake Requirements
5'9, 525
Sanitation Considerations
513
Local Labor
93
Effects of Heat
13, 310, 59, 526
Protective Equipment
92
Water Intake Requirements
5-9, 525
Sanitation Considerations
513
Local Labor
93
Environmental Setting
51
Environmental Setting
51
Military Iniplication
51
Water Habits of Indigenous Personnel
56, 556
Military Implication
51
Water Habits of Indigenous Personnel
56, 556
Excavation, Explosive
31
Excavation, Explosive
31
For Emplacements
31
For Tank Obstacles
32
For Emplacements
31
For Tank Obstacles
32

INDEX2

## Index (Cont'D)

INDEX (Cont'd)

Page

Page

Field Fortification
32
Field Fortification
32
Foundation Pads
730
Foundation Pads
730
Generators, Tactical
42
Generators, Tactical
42
Safety Switches
46
Ground ing
4...4
Safety Switches
46
Grounding
44
Grounding
421
Grounding
421
Low Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
428
High Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
428
Low Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
428
High Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
428
Habitability
61
Habitability
61
Improving
61
Effect of Climate
62
Thermal Comfort
62
Cooling Buildings
64
Habitability of Prefabricated Temporary Buildings
66
Cooling Systems
68
Heating
69
Improving
61
Effect of Climate
62
Thermal Comfort
62
Cooling Buildings
64
Habitability of Prefabricated Temporary Buildings
66
Cooling Systems
68
Heating
69
Intruder Detection
311
Intruder Detection
311
Maintenance (Construction and Engineering Equipment)
95
Maintenance (Construction and Engineering Equipment)
95
Fueling and Refueling
95
Lubrication
96
Maintenance Facilities
95
Air Filters
96
Engine Overheating
97
attery
97
Tire Pressures
98
Fuel and Equipment Temperatures
98
Vehicle Operation
9li
Equipment Operation In High Temperatures
911
Fueling and Refueling
95
Lubrication
96
Maintenance Facilities
9S
Air Filters
96
Engine overheating
97
Battery
97
Tire Pressures
98
Fuel and Equipment Temperatures
98
Vehicle Operation
9li
Equipment Operation in High Temperatures
911

## Index (Cont'D)

INDEX (Cont'd)

Page

Page

Mines
32
Mines
32
Use
32
Removal
310
Temperature Effect on
310
DetectIon
310
Placement in Shifting Sands
310
lIsa
32
Removal
310
Temperature Effect on
310
Detection
310
Placement in Shifting Sands
310
Mortar
615, 621
Mortar
615, 621
Sulphur
6IS
Cement
615 717
Lime
615
Sulphur
615
Cement
615, 717
Lime
615
Panels, CementAsbestos Panels, CementAsbestos
635
Port Construction
81
Port Construction
81
General
81
Channel Dredging
8i
Training of Personnel
81
POL Terminal Facilities
8-2
ContainerHandling Facilities
83
Debris Removal
83
ThroughPut Operations
84
Lack of Materials
8-4
General
81
Channel Dredging
8i
Training of Personnel
8-1
POL Terminal Facilities
82
ContainerHandling Facilities
83
Debris Removal
83
ThroughPut Operations
84
Lack of Materials
84
Prefabricated Structural Systems
635
Prefabricated Structural Systems
635
Road Construction
719
Road Construction
719
Over Loose Sand
719
Controlling Drifting Sand
720
Dust Control
722
Intermittent Stream Crossings
720
Over Loose Sand
719
Controlling Drifting Sand
720
Dust Control
722
Intermittent Stream Crossings
720
Roof Water Ponds
69
Roof Water Ponds
69
Site Selection and Planning
21
Site Selection and Planning
21

## Index (Cont'D)

INDEX (Cont'd)

Page

Page

Soils
72
Soils
72
Compaction
Types
710
Compaction Equipment
710
Compaction Construction Procedures
711
Compaction
79
Types
710
Compaction Equipment
710
Compaction Construction Procedures
711
Stone Block Construction
631
Stone Block Constructlort
631
Sulphur Concrete Construction
627
Sulphur Concrete Construction
627
Tents
636
Tents
636
General Purpose
636
TEMPER
641
Ground Anchors For
641
General Purpose
636
TEMPER
641
Ground Anchors For
641
Transformers, Totally Enclosed NonVentilated (TENV)
49
Transformers, Totally Enclosed NonVentilated (TENV)
49
Water Conservation
56
Water ConservatIon
56
Drinking Water
59
Mess Operations
5li
Personal Hygiene
513
Shower Operations
514
Laundry Operations
519
Hospital Operations
524
Heat Casualty Treatment
525
Graves Registration
526
ConstructIon
528, 530, 534,
535
Potable Water Production
537
Well Drilling
538
Water Distribution
540
Water Storage
541
Aircraft Thrust Augmentation
546
Aircraft Cleaning
547
Vehicle and Equipment Cleaning
550
Vehicle Radiator Makeup Water
551
Electrical Grounding
551
Photo Processing
552
Fire FightIng
553
Pest Control
554
Decontaminating Personnel and Equipment
555
Drinking Water
59
Mess Operations
511
Personal Hygiene
513
Shower Operations
514
Laundry Operations
519
Hospital Operations
524
Heat Casualty Treatment
525
Graves Registration
526
Construction
528, 530, S34,
535
Potable '1ater Production
537
Well DrIlling
538
Water Distribution
540
Water Storage
541
Aircraft Thrust Augmentation
546
Aircraft Cleaning
547
Vehicle and Equipment Cleaning
550
Vehicle Radiator Makeup Water
551
Electrical Grounding
551
Photo Processing
552
Fire FightIng
553
Pest Control
s54
Decontaminating Personnel and Equipment
555
Wood Construction
631.-
Wood Construction
631.-