# Engineer Reconnaissance

## March 2008

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION. **Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited**.

## Headquarters Department Of The Army United States Marine Corps

This publication is available at
Army Knowledge Online <www.us.army.mil> and
General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine
Digital Library at <http://www.train.army.mil>.

## Engineer Reconnaissance Contents

|                                                               | PREFACE vii     |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|
|                                                               |                 |
|                                                               | INTRODUCTION ix |
|                                                               |                 |
| ENGINEER RECONNAISSANCE 1-1                                   |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Chapter 1                                                     |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Engineer Functions 1-1                                        |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Army Warfighting Functions 1-3                                |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Engineer Reconnaissance 1-4                                   |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Engineer Reconnaissance Team Capabilities and Limitations 1-9 |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| INTEGRATING ENGINEER RECONNAISSANCE CAPABILITIES 2-1          |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Chapter 2                                                     |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Enabling Information Superiority 2-1                          |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Integrating Assured Mobility 2-3                              |                 |
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| Staff Engineer Coordination 2-4                               |                 |
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| Geospatial Integration 2-6                                    |                 |
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| Planning Processes 2-7                                        |                 |
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| Specific Command and Control Considerations 2-13              |                 |
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| Chapter 3                                                     |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| ENGINEER SUPPORT TO INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND           |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| RECONNAISSANCE OPERATIONS 3-1                                 |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Planning 3-1   |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Reconnaissance Operations 3-7                                 |                 |
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| Engineer Reconnaissance Operations 3-17                       |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Sustainment Considerations 3-19                               |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| TACTICAL RECONNAISSANCE SUPPORT 4-1                           |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Chapter 4                                                     |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Support to Mobility Operations 4-1                            |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Support to Countermobility Operations 4-13                    |                 |
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| Support to Survivability Operations 4-14                      |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Support to Other Combat Operations 4-15                       |                 |
|                                                               |                 |
| Other Types of Reconnaissance 4-27                            |                 |
|                                                               |                 |

Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

## Preface

Doctrine provides a military organization with unity of effort and a common philosophy, language, and purpose. This field manual provides doctrine for the application of engineer reconnaissance capabilities in support of the combined arms team conducting full spectrum operations. Engineer reconnaissance, like chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) and other technical applications, is not a form of reconnaissance (see chapter 3 for a discussion of the four forms of reconnaissance). Engineer reconnaissance is instead a focused application of special/unique capabilities supporting reconnaissance operations and is applicable over/pertinent to all four forms of reconnaissance. Field manual (FM) 3-34.170/Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 3-17.4 updates the FM that provides doctrinal guidance for engineer reconnaissance in support of full spectrum operations, including engineer reconnaissance in support of tactical operations as well as engineer technical reconnaissance support. This manual supersedes FM 5-170 and supports the doctrine found in FM 3-0, FM 3-34, and FM 6-0, and Field Manual Interim (FMI) 5-0.1. This manual will serve as a reference document for engineer commanders and staff, leaders, training developers, and doctrine developers throughout the Army and Marine Corps. It will also provide guidance to commanders for the employment of engineer reconnaissance capabilities in support of all operations. It is also the primary reference for engineer reconnaissance for Joint Publication (JP) 3-34. This FM has an introduction and six chapters. It includes significant discussion on integrating the planning for engineer reconnaissance support within the planning doctrine in FM 5-0 and the command and control (C2) doctrine in FM 6-0. The introduction expands upon the manual's purpose and summarizes the doctrinal changes it contains. Chapter 1 provides a doctrinal framework for the provision of engineer reconnaissance capabilities resident within engineer functions and supporting the warfighting functions, describes a range of tactical to technical engineer reconnaissance capabilities, and provides capabilities and limitations of the engineer reconnaissance team (ERT). Chapter 2 provides doctrine for integrating the planning for engineer reconnaissance within information management and planning processes of the combined arms team. It specifically addresses integration of geospatial support and provides specific C2 considerations for integration of engineer reconnaissance. Chapter 3 provides doctrine for integrating the application of engineer reconnaissance within tactical reconnaissance operations of the combined arms team. It also addresses considerations for the sustainment of engineer reconnaissance elements. Chapter 4 provides doctrine for the conduct of ERT operations providing engineer reconnaissance support at the tactical end of the range described in Chapter 1. ERTs conduct zone, area, and route reconnaissance with a specified additional focus on required technical information. Chapters 5 and 6 provide doctrine for the conduct of engineer assessments and surveys which provide engineer reconnaissance support at the technical end of the range described in Chapter 1. Assessment and survey teams conduct reconnaissance specifically focused on collecting detailed technical information. Appendix B illustrates the preparation of required engineer reconnaissance reports and forms. Appendix C incorporates the smartcard tools developed for infrastructure assessment. Appendix D provides the environmental baseline assessment tool. Appendix H includes a collection of other useful tools and resources. The target audience for this manual is focused at the brigade and below maneuver commander and supporting staff. This also includes nonorganic unit commanders and staffs that will support brigade and below maneuver organizations. Additionally, it is pertinent to other commanders and staffs at all echelons. This doctrine will assist branch schools in teaching the integration of engineer capabilities. Engineer involvement is a virtual certainty for nearly every military operation. FM 3-34.170 is intended to inform all Service components of the types of engineer reconnaissance tasks and the variety of capabilities available to perform them.

This FM is built directly on the doctrine articulated in the following manuals:

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FM 3-0.
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FM 3-20.96.
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FM 3-34.
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FM 3-34.221.
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FM 3-90.
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FM 3-90.6.
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FM 5-0.
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FM 5-7-30.
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FM 5-71-2.
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FM 5-71-3.
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FM 6-0.
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FMI 5-0.1.
Given the magnitude of doctrinal changes in recent years, becoming familiar with these documents is essential to effectively using this manual. It also applies to selected portions of engineer support across echelons and throughout the area of operations (AO). Doctrine in FM 3-34.170 applies across the spectrum of conflict (from peace to general war) and the operational components of full spectrum operations (offense, defense, and stability, or civil support). However, it is focused at the tactical level of war and support of the tactical commander's engineer reconnaissance needs. Terms that have joint or Army definitions are identified in both the glossary and the text. Glossary terms: The glossary lists most terms used in FM 3-34.170 that have joint or Army definitions. Terms with an asterisk in the glossary indicate that this FM is the proponent FM (the authority). Text references: Definitions printed in boldface in the text indicate that this FM is the proponent FM. These terms and their definitions will be incorporated into the next revision of FM 1-02/Marine Corps Reference Publication (MCRP) 5-12A. For other definitions in the text, the term is italicized, and the number of the proponent FM follows the definition. As a dual service manual, references made to the United States (U.S.) Army, Soldiers, and brigade combat team (BCT) are interchangeable with and/or include the United States Marine Corps (USMC), Marines, and regimental combat team (RCT) unless stated otherwise in the text. Additionally, unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns or pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. This FM applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard (ARNG)/Army National Guard of the United States (ARNGUS), the United States Army Reserve (USAR) unless otherwise stated and to the USMC. Headquarters, United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) is the proponent for this publication. The preparing agency is the Doctrine Division (DD), United States Army Engineer School (USAES). Send written comments and recommendations on DA Form 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms, directly to Commandant, United States Army Engineer School, ATTN: ATZT-TDD-E, 320 MANSCEN Loop, Suite 220, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri 64573-8929. Send comments and recommendations by e-mail to <leon.mdottddengdoc@conus.army.mil>.

## Introduction

The three engineer functions are combat (with the capabilities and activities of mobility, countermobility, and survivability [M/CM/S]), general, and geospatial engineering. All three of these functions include significant reconnaissance capabilities. This manual focuses on engineer support to combined arms commanders at all levels for engineer reconnaissance support during full spectrum operations. It includes extensive discussion on integrating the planning for and conduct of engineer reconnaissance support within the tactical operations of the combined arms team. This manual discusses capability resident within combat engineer units to form and employ ERTs. It also describes the capability resident within general engineer elements to form and employ ERTs, augment combat engineer ERTs, or provide assessment and survey teams. Finally, geospatial engineering is used to enable reconnaissance operations and may play a large role, especially during the planning process. Engineer reconnaissance, like CBRN and other technical applications, is not a form of reconnaissance (see chapter 3 for a discussion of the four forms of reconnaissance). Engineer reconnaissance is instead a focused application of special/unique capabilities supporting reconnaissance operations and is applicable over/pertinent to all four forms of reconnaissance. Engineer reconnaissance generated from and organized by the engineer functions provides a range of technical reconnaissance capabilities. Each of the functions provides varying degrees of technical expertise and effort within the assigned mission and tasks. The tasks and levels of expertise provided overlap from function to function. For example, there is no clean dividing line from the technical effort required for the combat engineering task of classifying a route for combat vehicle traffic to the general engineering task of conducting a road reconnaissance to estimate the effort required for the upgrade of a main supply route (MSR). The combat engineering task will effectively address classification of the route but will also provide information useful in the general engineer's estimate. Similarly the general engineer's estimate will effectively address the effort required for an upgrade and will provide information useful in the classification of the route. Geospatial engineering is employed in support of both and in varying degrees as required by the task and situation. The engineer functions provide a menu of reconnaissance capabilities varying in linkages to warfighting functions and varying in degree of technical expertise and effort applied to the assigned mission and tasks. The capabilities are generated from and organized by both combat and general engineer units with overarching support from geospatial means. With few exceptions (discussed in chapter 1), these units do not have organized and dedicated reconnaissance elements within their structure. Rather, combat and/or general engineers are task-organized as required by the situationbased on mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, civil considerations (METT-T[C])and may be teamed separately or with other elements from across engineer (or even various warfighting) functions.

Note. The Marine Corps and joint doctrine use METT-T without "civil considerations" being added.

FM 3-34.170 is a significant revision from FM 5-170, which it supersedes, and reflects considerable changes that have occurred over the 9 years since that manual was released. Many of the tactical tasks associated with engineer reconnaissance have remained essentially constant, but the operational environment (OE) has dramatically shifted. New requirements for technical information and new technologies available to the engineer have caused adjustments in reconnaissance challenges and capabilities. Another major change involves the Army's reorganization and restructuring to a modular force and the effects that this has on doctrine and operations. Changes that directly affect this manual include

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The advent of the construct and term of assured mobility and its relationship to other doctrine (see FM 3-34).

## Introduction

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An acknowledgement of the importance of joint interdependence among the Services.
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The formalization of a planning tool that supports the engineer staff running estimate known as essential tasks for M/CM/S (see FM 3-34).
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The OE.
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The likelihood that the operations conducted will be joint, interagency, and multinational (see
FM 3-0). The primary focus of joint engineer operations is to achieve the commander's intent by coordinating engineer support throughout the joint AO. All branches of Service possess organic engineer elements with varying degrees of technical and tactical capabilities. When available, units such as Navy construction battalion-engineers (Seabees), Air Force Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron Engineer (RED HORSE), and Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force (Prime BEEF) organizations can augment the technical reconnaissance capability.
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The formalization of support requirements to homeland security. See JP 3-26 and FM 3-07.
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The frequency of contractors on the battlefield and their support for many of the tasks associated with general engineering. (See Army Regulation [AR] 715-9 and FM 3-100.21).
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Resulting changes in the basic design and organizational structures and equipment of engineer organizations to support the Army's ongoing transformation.
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The acknowledgement that nearly all operations will be conducted in the context of a joint, interagency, and multinational environment.
This FM includes the discussion of engineer reconnaissance in support of tactical operations as well as more technical engineer reconnaissance. It includes revised material from the current manual that guides engineer reconnaissance of roads, bridges, tunnels on routes, and other infrastructure components along a selected route and will discuss and integrate discussions of engineer reconnaissance in support of, M/CM/S operations. Changes in the structure of the force have not changed the basic principles of engineer employment, but they will adjust the C2 structure and force tailoring of engineer forces to support the BCT. Recent lessons learned include the need to define, develop, and provide a proponent manual for infrastructure reconnaissance and its memory aid for sewage, water, electricity, academics, trash, medical, safety, and other considerations (SWEAT-MSO) as well as reintegrate the discussion of clearing operations. Significant changes occur in this manual. This manual
z Updates the discussion of the integration of engineer reconnaissance capabilities within the combined arms team.

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Describes a range of engineer reconnaissance capabilities from tactical to technical with
overarching geospatial support.
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Establishes the ERT as an ad hoc, tactically focused reconnaissance capability.
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Establishes assessment and survey teams as an ad hoc, technically focused reconnaissance capability.
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Incorporates the capacity to augment with technical capabilities through field force engineering (FFE), multi-Service, interagency, contractor, and host nation (HN) capabilities.
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Changes "engineer recon" to an engineer resource assessment.
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Incorporates developing doctrine on infrastructure reconnaissance and environmental reconnaissance.
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Introduces or recaptures new doctrine on the reconnaissance of underground tunnels, as distinct
from tunnels on routes as covered in the previous FM 5-170.
The engineer's contribution to operational success will always be highly desired/required by the commander. Demands for engineer reconnaissance support will often exceed capabilities as they are spread across and compete with the commander's needs for other engineer applications. The same engineer elements and capabilities are often required for each of these areas. Resolution of this competition is one of the goals of the planning process as the staff running estimate is created during mission analysis and the engineer coordinator (ENCOORD) identifies the specified and implied engineer tasks (may be more than M/CM/S) and their associated purposes. This results in the recommendation of essential tasks for M/CM/S to the supported commander.

Finally, this manual is written with the acknowledgement that the OE is much more variable than what doctrine was previously written against. Engineers must be prepared to go into any OE and perform its full range of reconnaissance tasks in support of the maneuver commander while dealing with a wide range of threats and other influences. It builds on the collective knowledge and wisdom gained through recent conduct of operationscombat as well as operations other than warnumerous exercises, and the deliberate process of informed reasoning throughout the Army. It is rooted in time-tested principles and fundamentals, while accommodating new technologies and diverse threats to national security.

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## Chapter 1 Engineer Reconnaissance

Nothing is more worthy of attention of a good general than the endeavor to penetrate the designs of the enemy.

Niccolo Machiavelli FM 1 and field manual interim (FMI) 5-0.1, describes "how Army forces fight" by describing an operational concept that is the core statement of Army doctrine. The Army's operational concept is full spectrum operations. The operational concept depends on the flexible combination of Army capabilities (combined arms) and joint capabilities (joint interdependence) integrated across the warfighting functions (WFFs) through mission command and the operations process. One of the fundamentals that underlie this concept and the basis for organization and operations of Army forces is combined arms. Combined arms is synchronized or simultaneous application of several armssuch as infantry, armor, field artillery, engineers, and aviationto achieve an effect on the enemy that is greater than if each arm was used against the enemy separately or in sequence. Engineer support to the combined arms team adds key capabilities that ensure the team's freedom of maneuver and preserve the team's combat power. An important measure of effectiveness of the team's integration of lethal and nonlethal capabilities is the degree to which the commander can concentrate combat power at the critical place and time and the agility with which the commander can shift those concentrations to new situations. Engineer support also adds reconnaissance capabilities to improve the commander's situational understanding (SU) about the enemy and environment, enabling the concentration and agility needed. This chapter begins the discussion of engineer reconnaissance and the application of those capabilities integrated and synchronized with the other systemswarfighting functionsunited by the combined arms commander toward the common purpose of accomplishing the mission.

## Engineer Functions

1-1. Engineer support capabilities are traditionally characterized as supporting the combined arms team with combat tasks (including mobilitybreaching, clearing, and bridging; countermobilityemplacing and/or reinforcing obstacles; and survivability hardening and emplacement of fighting/protective positions), general tasks (including general construction and reinforcement of the combat tasks), and geospatial tasks (to include mapping and terrain analysis). The traditional engineer support capabilities are organized into three engineer functions: combat M/CM/S, general, and geospatial engineering. The engineer functions are useful in describing the various engineer support capabilities and associated linkages through the WFFs across the entire spectrum of operations. Engineer functions are similarly useful in organizing and describing a range of engineer reconnaissance capabilities that vary from a purely tactical focus to a purely technical focus linking through the warfighting functions to support the combined arms reconnaissance operation.

## Combat Engineering

1-2. Combat engineering is defined by JP 3-34 and JP 1-02 as those engineering capabilities and activities that support the maneuver of land combat forces and that require close support to those forces. Combat engineering consists of three types of capabilities and activities: M/CM/S.

1-3. Combat engineering includes those capabilities organic to and augmenting the BCTs/RCTs. Combat engineering provides tactical level engineer support to combat (offense and defense), stability, or civil support operations and is typically (although not always) focused on the support of close combat. It may be augmented at times with general engineering support but retains its focus on the integrated application of engineer capabilities to support the combined arms team's freedom of maneuver (mobility and countermobility) and protection (survivability). (See FM 3-34.2, FM 90-13, and FM 5-103 for more information on combat engineering.) 1-4. Combat engineer reconnaissance capabilities are similarly focused on supporting the WFFs of movement and maneuver and protection. These capabilities are typically fully integrated into the intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) plan and targeted to improve the commander's understanding of the enemy's use of terrain and obstacles within the AO. Combat engineer reconnaissance can range from almost purely tactically focused to a fully integrated tactical reconnaissance focused on gathering technical information.

## General Engineering

1-5. General engineering is defined by JP 3-34 and JP 1-02 as those engineering capabilities and activities, other than combat engineering, that modify, maintain, or protect the physical environment. Examples include the construction, repair, maintenance, and operation of infrastructure, facilities, lines of communication and bases; terrain modification and repair; and selected explosive hazard activities. (See FM 5-104, FM 3-100.4; and FM 7-15 for additional information on general engineering.) 1-6. As mentioned in the definition, general engineering may be performed in direct support of combat operations which results in a gray area in distinguishing purely combat engineering from general engineering tasks at the tactical level. General engineering will typically not be associated with close combat. More distinguishable at the operational level, general engineering capabilities are applied to establish and maintain the infrastructure necessary for sustaining military operations in theater. At times, the military operation may extend general engineering support to restore facilities, power, and life-support systems within the infrastructure of the AO. This effort aids in the recovery and the transition to preconflict conditions or may be the objective of civil support operations. General engineering tasks

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May include construction or repair of existing logistics-supported facilities, line of communications (LOC) and MSRs, airfields, ports, water wells, power plants, pipelines, and base camps/force bed down.
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May be performed by a combination of joint engineer units, civilian contractors, and host-nation (HN) forces.
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Usually require large amounts of construction materials, which must be planned and provided for in a timely manner.
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May include the production of construction materials.
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May include support to selecting real property for lease or operation and upgrading those facilities (to include hardening for protection).
1-7. General engineer reconnaissance capabilities are typically focused on technical requirements for the construction or repair of sustainment facilities. However; just as other general engineering capabilities may be applied in direct support of combat engineering, general engineer reconnaissance may similarly augment combat engineer capabilities at the tactical level. General engineer capabilities may be focused at the tactical or operational level but, in every case, introduce additional technical capabilities that are applied to improve the commander's understanding of the terrain, facilities, and infrastructure within the AO.

## Geospatial Engineering

1-8. Geospatial engineering is defined by JP 3-34 and JP 1-02 as those engineering capabilities and activities that contribute to a clear understanding of the physical environment by providing geospatial information and services to commanders and staffs. Examples include terrain analyses, terrain visualization, digitized terrain products, nonstandard tailored map products, precision survey, geospatial data management, baseline survey data, and force bed-down analysis. Engineer planners are charged to be terrain experts and to advise commanders on how to conceptualize the OE effectively. They must be supported by terrain analysts to fully assist others to use the terrain more effectively. (See FM 3-34.230 and JP 2-03 for more information on geospatial support to Army and Joint systems.) 1-9. Geospatial engineering provides commanders with information about the terrain and assists them in conceptualizing the OE more accurately to make knowledgeable decisions. It supports reconnaissance and other operations ranging from a tactical to a more technical focus. Geospatial engineering provides terrain analysis, digitized terrain products, nonstandard tailored map products, map production, precision survey, terrain data management, and baseline survey dataall of which contribute to improving SU. Creative and productive use of digital terrain data aids the commander's visualization of the physical environment by determining factors such as, but not limited to

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Avenues and routes for friendly/enemy forces.
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Terrain limitations to enemy capabilities.
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Obstacle zone locations.
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Environmentally significant areas (water resources, hazards).
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Major engagement areas (EAs).
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Unit positions.
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Deep operation targets and their impact on future operations.
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Rescue operation parameters.
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Flood prediction models.
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Mission planning and rehearsal data.

## Army Warfighting Functions

1-10. Engineer functions are the baseline functions performed by multi-Service engineers to support the maneuver force. These functions are each generally aligned in support of specific warfighting functions
(see figure 1-1 on page 1-4) although they have impact in and across the others.

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Combat engineering is aligned primarily with the movement and maneuver and the protection functions.
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General engineering aligns to focus its support on the sustainment and protection functions,
reinforcement of combat engineering outside of close combat, and support to operational mobility and countermobility.
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Geospatial engineering is primarily aligned with the C2 and intelligence functions.
1-11. In describing the purpose of the warfighting functions, FMI 5-0.1 states that commanders generate and focus combat power by tying the warfighting functions together through leadership. To synchronize and execute operations, commanders must be able to visualize and direct operations through the warfighting functions. To effectively support the combined arms team, engineer reconnaissance capabilities retain their relationship through the warfighting functions. The combat engineer capability to rapidly assess the maneuverability of a selected route for heavy combat vehicle traffic is synchronized and then executed primarily through its relationship to the movement and maneuver function and is typically conducted as an enabler to the tactical route reconnaissance mission. The general engineer capability to classify and provide a design for the upgrade of a selected bridge along the MSR is similarly synchronized and executed through its relationship to the sustainment function and would typically be conducted as a stand-alone engineer mission. Engineer reconnaissance capabilities are generated from and organized within the framework of the engineer functions but are applied by the commander through their alignment or relationship to the warfighting functions.

## Engineer Reconnaissance

1-12. Reconnaissance operations are those operations undertaken to obtain, by visual observation or other detection methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy or to secure data concerning the meteorological, hydrographical, or geographical characteristics and the indigenous population of a particular area. Reconnaissance primarily relies on the human dynamic rather than technical means. Reconnaissance is a focused collection effort. It is performed before, during, and after other operations to provide information used in the intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB) process, as well as by the commander to formulate, confirm, or modify the course of action (COA). 1-13. The responsibility for conducting reconnaissance does not reside solely with specifically organized units. Every unit has an implied mission to report information about the terrain, civilian activities, and friendly and enemy dispositions; regardless of its physical location and primary function. Although all units conduct the implied reconnaissance mission, the commander typically focuses specifically organized reconnaissance units on the highest priority requirements. The BCT designs have more than doubled the reconnaissance capabilities organic to brigade commanders and given them new surveillance and target acquisition capabilities. This design permits the BCT to mix aggressive patrolling, reconnaissance in force, and a multilayered and integrated approach to their reconnaissance efforts. Their ability to develop the situation both in and out of contact and to act first with decisiveness is enhanced by this robust reconnaissance capability.

1-14. Even with the robust reconnaissance capability now available in support of the BCT, the commander must know the capabilities and limitations of reconnaissance assets to ensure that the employment of these assets is within their capabilities and on missions for which they have been trained and equipped. Although reconnaissance primarily relies on the human dynamic rather than technical means, the situation may require collecting a higher degree of technical information than nonspecialized units possess. An area with suspected contamination by chemicals or industrial toxins, for example, must be targeted for reconnaissance by assets equipped to determine the type and level of contamination present as well as protection from the contamination. Supporting unitssuch as engineers, CBRN, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), military police (MP), and othershave specialized capabilities to collect technical information that complements the force's overall reconnaissance effort. It is this collection of technical information that defines a range of engineer reconnaissance capabilities.

## Range Of Engineer Reconnaissance

1-15. Engineer reconnaissance, like CBRN and other technical applications, is not a form of reconnaissance (see chapter 3 for a discussion of the four forms of reconnaissance). Engineer reconnaissance is instead a focused application of special/unique capabilities supporting reconnaissance operations and is applicable over/pertinent to all four forms of reconnaissance. Engineer reconnaissance generated from and organized by the engineer functions provides a range of technical reconnaissance capabilities. Each of the functions provides varying degrees of technical expertise and effort within the assigned mission and tasks. The tasks and levels of expertise provided overlap from function to function. For example, there is no clean dividing line from the technical effort required for the combat engineering task of classifying a route for combat vehicle traffic to the general engineering task of conducting a road reconnaissance to estimate the effort required for the upgrade of an MSR. The combat engineering task will effectively address classification of the route but will also provide information useful in the general engineer's estimate. Similarly the general engineer's estimate will effectively address the effort required for an upgrade but also provide information useful in the classification of the route. Geospatial engineering is employed in support of both and in varying degrees as required by the task and situation. Figure 1-2 on page 1-6 graphically describes the range of technical information provided by engineer reconnaissance capabilities. This graphic is not intended to define absolutes but rather general relationships and linkages between the engineer functions and the technical and tactical engineer reconnaissance capabilities.

1-16. As portrayed in figure 1-2, the engineer functions provide a menu of reconnaissance capabilities varying in linkages to warfighting functions and varying in degree of technical expertise and effort applied to the assigned mission and tasks. The capabilities are generated from and organized by both combat and general engineer units with overarching support from geospatial means. With few exceptions as discussed later in this chapter, these units do not have organized and dedicated reconnaissance elements within their structure. Rather, combat and/or general engineers are task-organized as required by the situation, based on METT-T[C], and may be teamed separately or with other elements from across engineer (or even warfighting) functions.

Note. The Marine Corps and joint doctrine use METT-T without "civil considerations" being added.

## Enabling And Teaming With Other Reconnaissance Capabilities

1-17. Engineers teamed directly with dedicated reconnaissance assets, by adding some degree of technical skill to the team, can increase the tempo and effectiveness of the reconnaissance mission. Combat engineers are typically task-organized directly to maneuver battalion scouts or reconnaissance squadron troops to augment those units during tactical reconnaissance operations. The reconnaissance unit conducts the overall mission while the assigned engineer team focuses on the more technical information required, such as detailed information on a complex obstacle or a proposed crossing site. While various engineers are available to be task-organized directly to reconnaissance units, the teaming of engineers directly into the reconnaissance forces directly supporting the BCT/RCT is the most common application. 1-18. With the exception of the reorganized single engineer company supporting the Army heavy BCT (HBCT), engineer units organic to and augmenting the BCTs/RCTs have no dedicated reconnaissance assets; but with measured risk to other mission support, they have the capability to provide ERTs to augment the BCT/RCT reconnaissance squadron or maneuver battalion scout platoons. If required, the engineer company commander forms an ERT(s) ranging in size from a three-man team to a platoon. ERTs may operate independently; however, they normally augment one of the squadron troops or other maneuver units directly involved in reconnaissance operations. If an ERT augments a squadron element, the team should be task-organized with equipment that is compatible with mission requirements and the supported reconnaissance force. The final section of this chapter provides additional discussion on the formation of ERTs. 1-19. General engineer reconnaissance capabilities, when not in direct support of combat engineers, will typically be organized in the form of assessment or survey teams. These task-organized teams will have a specific focus for the collection of technical information and are less likely to be teamed directly with reconnaissance units in the BCT/RCT. (Additional discussion on engineer assessment and survey teams is provided later in this chapter as well as in chapter 6.)

## Tactical Capabilities

1-20. Combat engineers conduct tactical reconnaissance as described by Army tactical task (ART), Conduct Tactical Reconnaissance, in FM 7-15 and includes five subtaskszone reconnaissance, area reconnaissance, reconnaissance-in-force, route reconnaissance, and conducting a reconnaissance patrol. These missions are fully integrated within the BCT/RCT tactical reconnaissance operations but, because they are conducted by engineers, will include some degree of focus on technical information as required by the commander's reconnaissance guidance. These missions may be conducted by ERTs, teamed with other forces or in a stand-alone fashion, if they are assigned to a combat engineer unit supporting the BCT/RCT. 1-21. The majority of tactical engineer reconnaissance capabilities enable the collection of technical information in support of the combat engineering function. Reconnaissance in support of M/CM/S
operations is conducted primarily by ERTs (composed of combat engineers) and focuses on collecting tactical and technical information to support the BCT's/RCT's freedom of maneuver and protection. (Chapter 4 provides a detailed discussion of reconnaissance support of the five functions of mobility operations, support of obstacle integration and turnover in countermobility operations, support to fighting and other protective positions, and support to other tactical operations in the BCT/RCT.) The specific combat engineer reconnaissance tasks include, but are not limited to,

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Obstacle reconnaissance focused on bypass or breach of obstacles.
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Route reconnaissance focused on route clearance operations.
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Area reconnaissance focused on explosive hazards (EHs), such as mines and unexploded explosive ordnance (UXO), requiring area clearance operations.
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Crossing site reconnaissance focused on determining requirements for a gap crossing.
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Route reconnaissance focused on establishing a combat road or trail.
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Reconnaissance of planned or existing sites and facilities supporting forward aviation operations.
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Obstacle, including demolition obstacles, reconnaissance focused on establishing friendly obstacles integrated with fires.
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Obstacle reconnaissance in preparation for target turnover.
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Area reconnaissance focused on establishing vehicle fighting positions and/or protective works.
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Area reconnaissance in support of urban combat operations.
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Reconnaissance of tunnels and underground structures.
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Reconnaissance to establish an initial assessment of environmental factors.
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Reconnaissance to establish an initial assessment of infrastructure factors.
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Reconnaissance in complex terrain.
1-22. General engineering capabilities are employed in direct support of combat engineer ERTs as required based on the factors of METT-T[C], providing additional technical capabilities as required for the mission. Additionally, general engineer capabilities are teamed with ERTs, other BCT/RCT units, or in stand-alone organizations to conduct tactical reconnaissance tasks that enable missions linked to BCT/RCT sustainment. These tasks are tactical missions that include the requirement to gather technical information needed for

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MSR maintenance and upgrade.
z
General engineering in support of airfields and heliports.
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Bridge construction or repair.
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General engineering in support of protection.
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Procurement and/or production of construction materials.
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General engineering in support of real estate activities.

## Technical Capabilities

1-23. General engineers provide a range of technical reconnaissance capabilities. These capabilities are similar in focus to the reconnaissance tasks that enable missions linked to BCT/RCT sustainment. Technical capabilities are distinguished from the support provided to combat engineer missions and from tactical sustainment missions by the level at which the requirements are identified and addressed. At the tactical level, the BCT/RCT may have a general engineer element in direct support to maintain or upgrade a specified MSR in the BCT/RCT AO. General engineers working at the operational level will conduct reconnaissance to identify requirements for major construction along a ground LOC. Technical reconnaissance capabilities are typically conducted by a general engineer assessment team or survey team to gather the technical information required for

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Maintenance and upgrade of ground LOCs.
z
Bridge construction or repair.
z
General engineering in support of airfields and heliports.
z
General engineering in support of seaports.
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General engineering in support of survivability.
z
Real estate and real property maintenance activities.
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Procurement and/or production of construction materials.
z
General engineering in support of base camps and support areas.
z
Power generation and distribution.
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Petroleum pipeline and storage facilities.
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Water supply and well drilling.
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Underwater and other specialized construction support.
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Infrastructure survey.
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Environmental baseline assessment.
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Environmental remediation survey and assessment.
1-24. Technical capabilities include robust support from joint service, multiagency, contractor, HN, and reach-back element. Field force engineering (FFE) is the broad range of activities linked through the general engineer element on the ground to apply a high degree of technical expertise to the engineer mission. (FFE is discussed in chapter 6. Some of the reach-back resources available are discussed in appendix H. See also FM 3-34.)

## Engineer Reconnaissance Team Capabilities And Limitations

1-25. The Army is restructuring from a division-based to a brigade-based forcethe modular force. Modular force brigades are strategically flexible, and the major combat and support capabilities a brigade needs for most operations are organic to its structure. The three types of BCTs are HBCT, infantry (IBCT), and Stryker (SBCT). The BCT contains organic elements from many different branches, including, MP, military intelligence (MI), infantry/armor, artillery, logistics, and engineers. When deployed, specialized units are added according to the needs of the mission. The BCT has a significant collection capability inherent in its organic reconnaissance squadron, maneuver battalion scout platoons, and MI company and may be augmented with ISR assets from echelons above the BCT. This section describes the capabilities and limitations of task-organized ERTs formed by engineers supporting the BCT. This includes the combat engineer companies organic to each of the BCT structures and augmenting engineer units. (Additional information on the structure of each of the BCTs can be found in FM 3-90.6. Additional information on the capabilities and structure of the combat engineers organic to each of the BCTs can be found in FM 3-34.221, FM 7-30, FM 7-71.2, and FM 5-71-3.) 1-26. The Marine Corps structure includes combat engineer capabilities task-organized in direct support of the RCT. While the combat engineer elements supporting the RCT do not include organic or dedicated reconnaissance formations, they do have the capability to conduct tactical reconnaissance as required by the situation. Combat engineers conducting tactical reconnaissance in support of the RCT provide the range of capabilities described in the section on tactical capabilities above and in chapter 4. The RCT will tend to rely more heavily than its BCT counterpart on joint Service support or other general engineer augmentation to provide the technical range of support. 1-27. With the exception of the HBCT engineer company, current engineer force structure does not provide for personnel or equipment dedicated to reconnaissance efforts. However, experience has shown that employment of engineers in a tactical reconnaissance role enhances the effectiveness of combat engineer support as well as the tempo and technical quality of the reconnaissance operation. Because an engineer unit has limited assets to draw from, the formation of ad hoc ERTs will subsequently degrade the capabilities of the organization from which they are drawn. The commander should be aware of the ERT capabilities but also understand the trade-offs between using engineer assets in a reconnaissance role versus using them in other roles.

## Formation Of An Engineer Reconnaissance Team

1-28. An ERT is the baseline engineer reconnaissance element. Only the reorganized single engineer company in the HBCT provides dedicated personnel and equipment that can be quickly organized in a reconnaissance element. However, engineer units that identify and train personnel, establish standing operating procedures (SOPs), and provide necessary equipment for the formation of task-organized reconnaissance teams have effectively employed ERTs. The identified element may be a team, squad, platoon, or larger. Highly trained personnel are required for obstacle and other engineer tactical reconnaissance operations requiring not only the tactics, techniques, and procedures necessary for tactical reconnaissance operations but also knowledge and experience in the specific technical information requirements (IR). ERT training must include the skills sets necessary for tactical reconnaissance tasks with a focus on collecting technical information.

1-29. The ERT is normally task-organized for a specific mission, and its elements are drawn from the combat mobility platoons, the mobility support platoon, or the search team of the engineer company in the HBCT. The ERT

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Increases the supporting unit reconnaissance capabilities concerning complex mine and wire
obstacle systems, enemy engineer activities, and the details of mobility along a route.
z
Provides detailed technical information on any encountered obstacle.
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Conducts an analysis of assets needed to reduce any encountered obstacle.
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Marks bypasses of obstacles based on guidance from the supported commander. This guidance includes whether to mark bypasses and the direction the force should maneuver when bypassing an obstacle.
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Assists in guiding the breach force to the obstacle for reduction.
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Assists in gathering basic enemy information.
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Provides detailed technical information on routes (including classification) and specific information on bridges, tunnels, fords, and ferries along the route.
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Provides the initial level technical information required for an airfield assessment.
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Assists in acquiring information on enemy engineer equipment on the battlefield.
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Conducts tactical reconnaissance with a specified focus on the initial technical information required for environmental or infrastructure assessments.
1-30. An ERT conducts operations as part of a larger combined arms force, directly augmenting the reconnaissance squadron or operating as a discrete element within the plan. The team normally performs reconnaissance of one named area of interest (NAI) or multiple NAIs within the same vicinity in the AO. More than one ERT may be employed if multiple NAIs need to be observed in dispersed locations. In most instances, the ERT will conduct its reconnaissance dismounted. However, the team may arrive in the vicinity of the reconnaissance objective in many waysincluding dismounted, by air, or by ground transportation. If the team travels dismounted or is air inserted, it should consist of at least three personnel. If the team uses an organic vehicle to arrive in the vicinity of its reconnaissance objective, it should consist of at least five personnelthree with the dismounted element and two with the team's vehicle as the mounted element. Ideally it will travel in a vehicle that is similar to other reconnaissance vehicles so it will blend in and maintain comparable mobility, maneuverability, and vehicle protection. 1-31. A dismounted element should consist of three or more personnel and be commanded by a reconnaissance team leader. The dismounted element's mission is to locate and report all necessary information required by the supported commander according to the ISR plan. This information can be transmitted directly to the supported unit's headquarters on the appropriate net (according to the SOP or the ISR order) or relayed through the mounted element. 1-32. A mounted element consists of at least two personnel per vehiclethe vehicle operator and an assistant reconnaissance team leader. The mounted element's mission is to maintain communication with both the dismounted element and the supported unit. The mounted element is responsible for relaying any intelligence collected by the dismounted element to the appropriate C2 node and ensures that the team's vehicle is not discovered by the enemy. All obstacle intelligence (OBSTINTEL) collected by a reconnaissance team is also sent to its parent engineer headquarters, if possible. The mounted element's secondary mission is to be prepared to go forward and complete the reconnaissance if the dismounted element is unsuccessful. 1-33. Successful employment of engineers in a tactical reconnaissance role requires a trained engineer staff at the BCT/RCT as well as in the engineer unit providing the capability. The formation of ERTs will consequently degrade the capabilities of the organization from which the personnel and equipment is drawn. The brigade engineer and the unit commander must understand the trade-offs between using engineer assets in a reconnaissance role versus using them for other M/CM/S tasks when making recommendations to the BCT/RCT commander. The brigade engineer must work with the engineer unit commander to understand the specific unit's capabilities, their SOP, and any augmentation they will require, including integration within the security and evacuation plan for the overall reconnaissance effort.

The brigade engineer and unit commander coordinate with the supported maneuver unit to augment the ERT with necessary assets to accomplish the mission.

## Limitations Of An Engineer Reconnaissance Team

1-34. One of the high-frequency tasks associated with reconnaissance missions is locating obstacles and restrictions that may affect the trafficability along a route or an axis. The purpose of this reconnaissance is to determine how best to overcome the effects of the obstacle: reduction or bypass. Tasks associated with this reconnaissance may be to estimate the reduction assets necessary to reduce the obstacle, to mark the best location to reduce, or to recommend a bypass of the obstacle. If the obstacle is to be bypassed, the reconnaissance team should be prepared to provide guides and markings. The reconnaissance should include the location of supporting enemy positions and possible reduction sites for the obstacle. Obstacles and restrictions are either existing or reinforcing. Manmade and natural obstacles and restrictions include the following:

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Minefields, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), and other EHs.
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Bridges and other terrain gaps.
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Log obstacles.
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Antitank (AT) ditches.
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Wire entanglements.
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Defiles.
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Persistent agent contamination.
1-35. Some ERTs (primarily Army ERTs) have the capability to clear or reduce small obstacles that are not covered by fire or observation; however, an ERT's primary task with regard to tactical and protective obstacles is the reconnaissance of those obstacles as well as locating and marking bypasses around obstacles and restrictions. ERTs have the following limitations:

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The engineer company does not have personnel and equipment listed on the table(s) of organization and equipment (TOE) and the modified TOE specifically dedicated for reconnaissance activities. Only the reorganized engineer company in the HBCT has a search team that can be quickly organized to function as an ERT.
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The team is extremely limited in its ability to destroy or repel enemy reconnaissance units and
security forces.
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The distance the ERT can operate away from the main body is restricted by the range of communications, the range of supporting indirect fires, and the ability to perform sustainment operations.
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The team has limited communications capability. Based on the radio configuration of the vehicle used during the reconnaissance and whether the ERT is working under maneuver element
control, dedicated monitoring of engineer nets may be difficult. However, with the singlechannel ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS), the ERT should be able to scan critical engineer nets or, at the very least, easily switch to the engineer net to report OBSTINTEL. Other communication means, including digital systems, may not be as capable of rapidly switching linkages to reflect task organization changes.
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The ERT has very limited obstacle creation and reduction ability because it normally carries a light basic load of demolitions according to the unit SOP. Obstacle reduction is normally limited to manually reducing obstacles not covered by enemy fires and observation.
1-36. Regardless of where personnel come from to create the ERT, units have to dedicate a large amount of training time toward developing an effective ERT. This training includes

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Training events with the reconnaissance squadron to develop a strong working relationship.
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Fundamentals of reconnaissance operations (see chapter 3).
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Operation with brigade assets, the reconnaissance squadron, and maneuver battalion scouts in a nearly habitual relationship to develop the trust and familiarity necessary to succeed on the battlefield.
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Procedures for reporting, calling for fires, first aid, land navigation, demolitions, minefield indicators, foreign mine recognition, dismounted movement techniques, vehicle and equipment maintenance, helicopter insertion, resupply, extraction, relay, and retransmission.
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Operation of digital communications and automated reconnaissance systems to facilitate passing
reconnaissance information.
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Noise, light, and litter discipline and the use of night vision devices and camouflage.
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Rigorous physical training to meet mission requirements.

## Technical Augmentation Of An Engineer Reconnaissance Team

1-37. General engineers can provide a range of additional technical reconnaissance capabilities in direct support of an ERT. Technical support can take the form of augmentation of the ERT or reach-back support. In some cases, the ERT's mission will provide the initial technical information to plan or focus the employment of follow-on assessment or survey elements from the general engineer force. General engineer capabilities available to add technical expertise include

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Vertical or horizontal construction specialists.
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Port or pipeline construction expertise.
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Power generation and distribution specialists.
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Water well drilling and distribution specialists.
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Divers and underwater construction specialists.
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Real estate and facilities management expertise.
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Environmental engineering and specialist.
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Structural engineering and antiterrorism specialist.
1-38. ERTs may also be augmented with specialized capabilities from within the combat engineer function. In response to the proliferation of explosive and other hazards in the OE, selected combat engineers receive special training to provide additional capability to address the EH and other threats. Specialized training available includes a search advisor course and explosive ordnance clearance agent training. 1-39. Any person or organization that has received basic search training is a resource that may be able to provide specialized information to support the intelligence picture. Even relatively trivial information provided by a search aware individual may provide the necessary information from which to launch future search operations. (See FM 3-34.210 for additional information on search operations.) 1-40. The search advisor is usually an experienced company-level officer, warrant officer, or senior noncommissioned officer who has received intermediate or advanced search advisor training. A search advisor conducts detailed search planning, preparation, rehearsals, and mission execution. A unit commander may delegate authority to the search advisor as appropriate to accomplish the search mission. The specific authorities delegated depend upon the situation and the personalities involved. The search advisor can directly augment an ERT when the reconnaissance mission is planned in support of search operations. When unavailable to augment or accompany the ERT, the search advisor may provide specific IR for the reconnaissance focus in support of planned search operations.

1-41. The explosive ordnance clearance agent (EOCA) is not an engineer unit but rather a special engineer capability. EOCA personnel are combat engineers trained to perform limited identification and battlefield disposal of UXO as outlined in the EOCA identification guide and supplemental list of EOCA ordnance provided by the theater EOD commander (part of the ordnance order of battle). If the UXO is out of the scope of operations for the EOCA, EOD personnel must be called. EOCA personnel can assist EOD personnel in disposing of other EH as requested. Properly trained and certified EOCA personnel capabilities include

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UXO reconnaissance. EOCA personnel are trained to perform detailed reconnaissance of a suspected UXO.
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UXO identification. EOCA personnel can perform limited identification of the items listed in the EOCA identification guide and supplemental EOCA ordnance list. Items that the EOCA cannot positively identify must be reported to EOD personnel.
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UXO area marking. EOCA personnel mark the UXO area according to the standard UXO marking system.
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Protective works. EOCA personnel can provide the blast and fragmentation danger area of identified UXO. EOCA may provide the estimated blast and fragmentation danger area for items similar to but not included in the EOCA identification guide and supplemental EOCA ordnance list. EOCAs will advise the on-scene commander with the recommended personnel and equipment protective measures. When the commander determines that certain personnel or equipment cannot be removed from the hazard area, protective works must be established to protect those personnel and assets from the effects of the UXO. EOCAs will recommend and supervise the appropriate protective works to be completed.
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UXO disposal. EOCA personnel are authorized to destroy by detonation individual UXOs identified in the EOCA identification guide and supplemental EOCA ordnance list.
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IED disposal. EOCA personnel are authorized to blow in place munition-based IEDs identified in the EOCA identification guide and supplemental EOCA ordnance list.
1-42. The following are the EOCA's limitations:

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Cannot move, combine, and/or destroy multiple UXOs (such as a cache).
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Cannot perform reconnaissance or handling of IED or vehicle-borne IED (VBIED) incidents.
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Can only perform captured enemy ammunition (CEA) operations under direct supervision of EOD personnel (includes EH teams [EHTs]).
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Are not to be used for EH response calls. However, if EOD is not readily available as determined by the maneuver commander, EOCA personnel can be used to conduct an initial
reconnaissance of the UXO. If the UXO falls within their capability, then EOCA personnel may
dispose of the UXO.
Note. The EOD battalion/group at corps/division or EOD personnel within the chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high-yield explosives (CBRNE) cell at the brigade manages modification to the supplemental EOCA ordnance list provided by the theater EOD commander (part of the ordnance order of battle), based upon the published ordnance of battle. Requests to modify the supplemental list will be coordinated through the local EOD unit or the EHT for approval by the EOD battalion/group at corps/division or EOD personnel within the CBRNE cell at the brigade.

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## Chapter 2 Integrating Engineer Reconnaissance Capabilities

Make your plans fit the circumstances.

General George S. Patton, Jr.

As stated in FM 6-0, the essential task of commanders is applying the art and science of war to the command and control of Army forces. The commander's command and control system enables the commander to use his authority to accomplish the mission and see to the health and welfare of subordinates. Using the command and control system, the commander directs the actions of his forces and imposes his will on the enemy. Through command and control the commander initiates the actions of, influences, and synchronizes the elements of combat power [warfighting functions plus leadership] to impose his will on the situation and defeat the enemy. The supporting arms must be fully integrated throughout the command and control system to effectively support the combined arms team. Engineer support includes reconnaissance capabilities to improve the commander's SU about the enemy and environment but must fit fully within the C2 processes and functions that enable information superiority and facilitate the commander's SU.

## Enabling Information Superiority

2-1. Reconnaissance provides information. In the general sense, information is the meaning humans assign to data. As described in FM 6-0, information is the most important of three elements of control. Information gives structure and shape to military operations and the operational environment. Commanders and staffs can then give meaning to and gain understanding of the events and conditions in which they make decisions and conduct operations. 2-2. Relevant information is all information of importance to the commander and staff in the exercise of command and control (see FM 3-0). (Intelligence is a subset of relevant information). An operational picture is a single display of relevant information within a commander's area of interest (see FM 3-0). A common operational picture (COP) is an operational picture tailored to the user's requirements, based on common data and information shared by more than one command (see FM 3-0). Data and information from all echelons of command and shared among all users create the COP. Although ideally the COP is a single display, it may include more than one display and information in other forms. By applying judgment to the COP, commanders achieve SU, upon which they base decisions. However, maintaining an accurate COP is complex and difficult. Information management (IM) contributes to the information superiority necessary for an accurate COP. 2-3. IM is a component of all C2 systems. It is a contributor to information superiority. IM is the provision of relevant information to the right person at the right time in a usable form to facilitate SU and decision-making. It uses procedures and information systems to collect, process, store, display, and disseminate information (see FM 3-0). IM provides the structure to process and communicate information and to put decisions into action. 2-4. Commanders can neither make decisions nor act to implement them without information. The amount of information that is available today and in the future makes managing information and turning it into effective decisions and actions critical to success during operations. Since effective C2 depends on getting relevant information (RI) to the right person at the right time, IM is crucial to C2. IM narrows the gap between RI that commanders require and the RI that they have. C2 systems manage information for one overriding purposeto enable commanders to make timely decisions in spite of the fog and friction of operations. All information given to commanders must be RI; that is, commanders should only receive information they need to exercise C2. Staffs ensure this RI is accurate, timely, usable, complete, precise, and reliable.

2-5. Information becomes RI if it supports exercising C2 for a mission and if it is accurate, timely, usable, complete, precise, and reliable. RI provides the basis for creating and maintaining the COP and the substance of execution information. It is the basis for achieving SU. Commanders state the RI that they need by establishing the commander's critical information requirements (CCIR). The commander alone decides what information is critical based on his experience, the mission, input from his staff, the higher commander's intent, and his estimate of the situation. CCIR consist of two primary components (see figure 2-1):

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Priority intelligence requirements (PIR). PIR are the intelligence requirements for which the commander has an anticipated and stated priority in his task of planning and decision-making (FM 2-0).
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Friendly force information requirements (FFIRs). FFIR cover information the commander needs about the forces available for an operation. This could include unit strength, disposition, capability, and readiness (FM 6-0).
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Essential elements of friendly information (EEFI). EEFI are not CCIR but become priorities on a level with CCIR when a commander designates them as such. They also generate CCIR (usually PIR to determine if the enemy is collecting against or has detected EEFI). EEFI are the critical aspects of a friendly operation that, if known by the enemy, would subsequently compromise, lead to failure, or limit success of the operation and, therefore, must be protected from enemy detection (FM 1-02/MCRP 5-12A).
2-6. IM, including priorities commanders set by establishing and continuously updating their CCIR, supports commanders' achieving and maintaining SU. SU and commander's visualization are based on RI provided by functional experts in the C2 system who process data into information. As commanders achieve SU, they use commander's visualization to determine the end state and the ways of getting from the present state to the end state. Figure 2-2 graphically depicts the commander's development of SU.

2-7. At the start of the military decision-making process (MDMP), commanders expect to have gaps in information needed to accomplish the mission. Nevertheless, they make some initial decisions. One decision to make is which information, including intelligence, is needed to fill those gaps and attain a comprehensive SU. Commanders use CCIR to focus information collection on the RI they need to support their visualization and to make critical decisions. Staffs translate CCIR into execution information by tasking assets to collect the information required to answer them. Within the combined arms team, the ENCOORD acts as the translator of the CCIR into the technical information required from engineer reconnaissance.

## Integrating Assured Mobility

2-8. Assured mobility provides a planning framework to guide the commander and staff in the proactive application of engineer and other combat power to assure the freedom of movement and maneuver. As an integrating process, assured mobility provides linkage between the tasks associated with M/CM/S and their roles across the six WFFs. It applies in all operations and across the complete spectrum of conflict. Assured mobility is the framework of processes, actions, and capabilities that assure the ability of the joint force to deploy and maneuver where and when desired, without interruption or delay, to achieve the mission. It strives to ensure freedom of maneuver and preserve combat power throughout the AO as it seeks to exploit superior SU. This construct is one means of enabling a joint force to achieve the commander's intent. Assured mobility emphasizes proactive mobility and countermobility (and supporting survivability) and integrates all of the engineer functions in accomplishing this. Assured mobility is broader than the term mobility and should not be confused with the limited application of the mobility operations as described in FM 3-34.2. Its focus is on supporting the maneuver commander's ability to gain a position of advantage in relation to the enemyby conducting mobility operations to negate the impact of enemy obstacles, conducting countermobility to impact and shape enemy maneuver, or a combination of both. 2-9. While focused primarily on the WFFs of movement and maneuver, intelligence, and protection, it has linkages to each of the WFFs and both enables and is enabled by those functions. While the engineer has a primary staff role in assured mobility, other staff members support its integration and have critical roles to play. The engineer plays an integrating role in assured mobility that is similar to the role played by the intelligence officer in the IPB integrating process. Other staff members also integrate M/CM/S tasks as a part of assured mobility. Examples would includebut are not limited tothe regulation of traffic in the maneuver space, the handling of displaced persons, and other M/CM/S tasks to support the maneuver plan. Assured mobility is the integrating planning process within which consideration of engineer, CBRN, and other reconnaissance capabilities will occur. 2-10. The framework of assured mobility follows the continuous cycle of the operations process. Achieving assured mobility rests on applying six fundamentals that both sustain friendly maneuver, preclude the enemy's ability to maneuver, and assist the protection of the force. The fundamentals of assured mobility are

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Predict: Engineers and other planners must accurately predict potential enemy impediments to
joint force mobility by analyzing the enemy's tactics, techniques, procedures, capability, and evolution. Prediction requires a constantly updated understanding of the OE.
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Detect: Using ISR assets, engineers and other planners identify early indicators for the location
of natural and manmade obstacles, preparations to create/emplace obstacles, and potential means for obstacle creation. They identify both actual and potential obstacles and propose solutions and alternate courses of action to minimize or eliminate their potential effects.
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Prevent: Engineers and other planners apply this fundamental by denying the enemy's ability to
influence mobility. This is accomplished by forces acting proactively before the obstacles are emplaced or activated. This may include aggressive action to destroy enemy assets/capabilities before they can be used to create obstacles. Political considerations and rules of engagement (ROE) may hinder the ability to apply the fundamental early in a contingency.
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Avoid: If prevention fails, the commander will maneuver forces to avoid impediments to
mobility if this is viable within the scheme of maneuver.
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Neutralize: Engineers and other planners plan to neutralize, reduce, or overcome
obstacles/impediments as soon as possible to allow unrestricted movement of forces. The breaching tenants and fundamentals apply to the fundamental of "neutralize."
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Protect: Engineers and other elements plan and implement survivability and other protection
measures that will deny the enemy the ability to inflict damage as joint forces maneuver. This may include countermobility missions to deny the enemy maneuver and provide protection to friendly maneuvering forces.
2-11. Assured mobility provides the broad framework of fundamentals that serve to retain the focus and integrate M/CM/S within the combined arms team. Planners at all levels of the combined arms team rely on this framework to ensure that adequate support is provided to the commander's scheme of maneuver and intent. Within the combined arms team planning staff, it is the assured mobility section at the BCT level (and those same staff members at echelons above the BCT) that provides the input for engineer, CBRN, and similar specialized reconnaissance. The ENCOORD plans for the application of and coordinates the integration of engineer reconnaissance across the engineer functions and spanning the range from tactical to technical capabilities.

## Staff Engineer Coordination

2-12. Each maneuver force echelon down to brigade level has an organic engineer planner to integrate engineers into the combined arms fight. The task force and company levels may also have an engineer, but the engineer will seldom be organic to these echelons, except in the combined arms battalion of the HBCT. The engineer is a special staff member of the battle staff responsible for understanding the range of engineer capabilities/functions (combat, general, and geospatial engineering) available to the force and for synchronizing those capabilities to best meet the needs of the maneuver commander. 2-13. The ENCOORD is the planner responsible for coordinating engineer reconnaissance operations and is usually the senior engineer officer in the force. The ENCOORD may or may not command an engineer unit supporting the BCT/RCT. In the BCT/RCT, the brigade or regimental engineer is the ENCOORD.

However, when an engineer battalion is task-organized in support of the BCT/RCT, the BCT/RCT commander determines if a change will occur in ENCOORD designation. This decision is based upon the type of unit, duration of the attachment, and focus of the mission being performed by the supporting engineer battalion. If the attached engineer battalion commander is designated as the ENCOORD, the BCT/RCT staff engineer becomes the assistant ENCOORD. The assistant represents the ENCOORD during planning and when the ENCOORD is not available. At the maneuver battalion level, the ENCOORD is the senior engineer supporting that battalion. The ENCOORD performs the following key tasks that directly or indirectly support planning for engineer reconnaissance operations:

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Integrates the engineer functions of combat (M/CM/S), general, and geospatial engineering into future brigade plans.
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Develops the necessary input to BCT/RCT orders, annexes, and engineer unit orders (as required).
z
Makes time-sensitive engineer decisions on requests for immediate tactical support received from BCT/RCT engineers.
z
Trains the brigade engineer cell located at the brigade main command post (CP).
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Formulates ideas for engineer support to meet the BCT/RCT commander's intent.
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Visualizes the future state of engineer operations in the BCT/RCT.
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Recommends the engineer priorities of effort and support, essential tasks for M/CM/S, and acceptable mission risks to the BCT/RCT commander.
z
Determines and evaluates critical aspects of the engineer situation.
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Decides what engineer missions must be accomplished to support current and future fights.
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Develops a scheme of engineer operations concurrent with the BCT/RCT maneuver COAs.
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Integrates the necessary orders and instructions into higher headquarters plans and orders.
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Issues timely instructions and orders to subordinate engineer units through the BCT/RCT base order to simplify preparation and integration.
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Monitors the execution of engineer orders and instructions by tracking the current fight.
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Alters the engineer plan using the feedback received from maneuver battalions, the engineer company, and any augmenting engineer units as required.
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Identifies any BCT/RCT requirements for echelons above brigade engineer and other M/CM/S assets to support the brigade.
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Makes the BCT/RCT commander aware of the capabilities, limitations, and employment considerations of supporting engineers and other M/CM/S assets.
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Recommends the engineer organization for combat.
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Plans and coordinates with the FSCOORD on integrating obstacles and fires.
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Advise the commander on using organic and nonorganic engineer assets.
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Advises the commander on employing and reducing obstacles.
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Provides a terrain visualization mission folder to determine the terrain effect on friendly and enemy operations (see TC 5-230).
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Produces maps and terrain products and coordinates with the terrain section for planning and distribution.
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Assists the intelligence staff officer (S-2) with the IPBincluding information from the preparation of the engineer estimate.
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Participates in the targeting process.
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Provides information on the status of engineer assets on hand.
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Tracks all templated and known obstacles, scatterable mines (SCATMINEs), the survivability status, the route status, engineer missions, and any other engineer-specific information.
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Recommends MSRs and logistics areas to the logistics staff officer (S-4) based on technical information.
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Recommends IR to the S-2 through the operations staff officer (S-3).
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Coordinates with BCT/RCT S-4 or maneuver battalion S-4 for additional resources to support the mobility effort (Class III, Class IV).
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Advises the commander on environmental issues, coordinates with other staff members to determine the impact of operations on the environment, and helps the commander integrate environmental considerations into decision making.
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Recommends when engineer diver support may facilitate specific engineer reconnaissance in support of the BCT/RCT.
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Coordinates with MI and MP resources to identify elements of the threat that are pertinent to
survivability and ensures that BCT/RCT personnel incorporate this threat into engineering
survivability support activities.
2-14. The ENCOORD plans for the application and coordination of engineer reconnaissance and its integration. In this role, the ENCOORD is a critical link in the commander's IM processes that provide the translation from the gaps identified by the commander in CCIR to the technical information focus of engineer reconnaissance. The ENCOORD and other members of the staff also ensure that geospatial support is provided and integrated in the combined arms team.

## Geospatial Integration

2-15. Geospatial support includes the standards, processes, Soldiers and Marines, and equipment required to generate, manage, analyze, and disseminate the geospatial information necessary to assemble the best view of the operational environment for the command. Geospatial engineers manage the enterprise geospatial databasecompiled from all sources including National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Topographic Engineering Center (TEC), other Services, coalition allies, as well as exploiting new collection and production from deployed Soldiers and Marines and sensors. Geospatial engineers manage the geospatial foundation of the COP, synchronizing hard and soft copy products that are a necessary component of all source intelligence and battle command. 2-16. Terrain analysis is a key product of geospatial support. It is the study of the terrain's properties and how they change over time, with use, and under varying weather conditions. Terrain analysis starts with the collection, verification, processing, revision, and construction of source data. It requires the analysis of climatology (current and forecasted weather conditions), soil conditions, and enemy or friendly vehicle performance metrics. Terrain analysis and geospatial information and services (GI&S) is necessary to support the warfighter's mission planning and operational requirements and requires the management of an enterprise geospatial database at every echelon from combatant command to deployed BCT/RCT. Terrain analysis is a technical process and requires the expertise of terrain-analysis technicians and terrain data specialist. 2-17. Geospatial engineering is provided to the Army and other Services based on echelon. It is focused on data generation, data management, and quality control at the numbered Army and combatant command level. At the corps and division levels, the majority of the workload is required to support database management, mission planning, and the IPB process. Below division level, geospatial engineering is increasingly focused on current operations and updating the geospatial database (database management). 2-18. A topographic company is assigned to provide direct and general support to an active theater of operations. Topographic companies are the only unit with dedicated geospatial data generation capability within the Army force structure. The topographic company requires access to the Global Information Grid (GIG) and classified tactical local area network (LAN) SECRET Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNET) to update and disseminate geospatial information and products. Topographic companies are composed of collection management platoons, analysis platoons, finish print platoons, and a headquarters platoon. Two collection management platoons generate geospatial data from a variety of sources. Currently these platoons are designed to derive high-resolution elevation and feature data from existing and emerging sensors. Two analysis platoons provide direct support to separate numbered armies, coalition allies (that lack geospatial support), joint task force (JTF) commands, and deployed divisions. Two print finish platoons provide hard copy geospatial products to units in theater.

2-19. The geospatial engineer team organic to the corps/division collects and provides updated geospatial data and products to support corps/division operations. The team performs analysis and acquires, manages, and disseminates geospatial data and products to support corps/division planning and execution, maintains the corps/division common topographic operating picture (CTOP) on the corps'/division's server, and provides updates to the corps's/division's portion of the Theater Geospatial Database (TGD). The corps/division team provides direct support to the component intelligence staff (G-2) and operations staff (G-3) planners and provides general support to the staff and subordinate units. The geospatial engineer team requires access to the classified tactical LAN (SIPRNET) to update and disseminate geospatial information and products. 2-20. The geospatial engineer team organic to the brigade headquarters performs analysis, management, and dissemination of geospatial data and products to support brigade planning and execution and maintains the brigade's CTOP on the brigade's server and provides updates to the brigade's portion of the TGD. The team provides direct support to the S-2/S-3 with general support to the staff and subordinate units. The brigade level team is too small to provide continuous direct support to the S-2 but will form ad hoc geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) cells as necessary to support operations. The geospatial engineer team requires access to the classified tactical LAN (SIPRNET) to update and disseminate geospatial information and products.

## Planning Processes

2-21. The MDMP (and associated troop-leading procedures [TLPs]) is the doctrinal planning model that establishes procedures for analyzing a mission; developing, analyzing, and comparing COAs against criteria of success and each other; selecting the optimum COA; and producing a plan or order (see figure 2
3 on page 2-8). (Detailed references to the MDMP and the TLP are found in FM 5-0.)
2-22. Commanders and staffs also use the rapid decision-making and synchronization process (RDSP) described in FMI 5-0.1 to make decisions and rapidly resynchronize forces and warfighting functions when presented opportunities or threats during execution. The RDSP includes five steps. Leaders perform them as shown in FMI 5-0.1. The first two steps may be performed in any order, including concurrently. The last three steps are performed interactively until an acceptable COA is found (see figure 2-4).

2-23. As is the case with other reconnaissance capabilities, commanders must balance the application of engineer reconnaissance against the corresponding trade-off in primary capability. In the case of engineers, engineer units tasked to conduct a specified reconnaissance task may not be available for employment on other M/CM/S tasks. 2-24. Increased engineer requirements in the contemporary OE may limit engineer resources immediately available to support mobility operations. Combat engineering (M/CM/S) and general engineering requirements often compete for the same engineer assets. Combat engineering requirements are assessed and categorized as mobility, countermobility, or survivability. The maneuver commander sets the priorities to allow the force to perform the most critical tasks. The ENCOORD and other staff members assist the maneuver commander in his decision by identifying essential tasks for M/CM/S. 2-25. An essential task for M/CM/S  is a specified or implied M/CM/S task that is critical to mission success. Essential tasks for M/CM/S support assured mobility in a similar fashion to how essential tasks for fire support targeting. Although ultimately executed by a combined arms element, the staff (typically elements such as engineer, CBRN, MP, or EOD) identifies and recommends the essential tasks for M/CM/S to the commander. A fully developed essential task for M/CM/S includes the task and purpose.

z
Task. A task is one or more clearly defined and measurable activities accomplished by individuals and organizations required to achieve the desired effects (FM 7-0). These are the most important M/CM/S tasks which must be accomplished. Often the entire operation is dependant on completing these tasks, and without their successful completion, the operation is at
risk.
z
Purpose. The desired or intended result of the task stated in terms relating to the purpose of the supported unit. This portion of the essential task for M/CM/S explains why it must be accomplished. It also provides intent to the engineer commander so he can be reactive as the situation changes.
2-26. The maneuver commander uses essential tasks for M/CM/S  to communicate to subordinate maneuver units what he wants accomplished with specific assets supporting M/CM/S. This provides the maneuver unit with clear priorities and unity of purpose in planning, preparation, and execution. Essential tasks for M/CM/S also provide CBRN, MP, psychological operations (PSYOPS)/civil affairs (CA), and other nonengineer elements clearly articulated tasks related to M/CM/S. Example engineer reconnaissance related essential tasks for M/CM/S might include the following:

Essential Task for M/CM/S, Example #1
Task:
Conduct engineer reconnaissance of MSR Tigers from CP 1 to CP 2.
Purpose
:
Classify route, identify impediments to maneuver, and facilitate planning of route clearance operations.
Essential Task for M/CM/S, Example #2
Task:
Conduct engineer reconnaissance of Crossing Area WHITE.
Purpose
:
Collect and confirm crossing site data and locate key BCT river crossing locations.
Essential Task for M/CM/S, Example #3
Task:
Conduct an infrastructure reconnaissance of the power station at grid ST231546.
Purpose
:
Assess the status of the power station to enhance the SU of critical infrastructure throughout the area of operation.
Essential Task for M/CM/S, Example #4
Task:
Conduct engineer reconnaissance of buildings at grid ST234544.
Purpose
:
Determine if buildings are adequate to house BCT headquarters from protection standpoint.

2-27. The development of essential tasks for M/CM/S development begins during the mission analysis phase of the MDMP. During this phase, planners identify specified and implied tasks and associated purpose. From these tasks, combined with the maneuver commander's guidance, the ENCOORD and other staff representatives recommend essential tasks for M/CM/S to maneuver commanders during the mission analysis brief. At the conclusion of the mission analysis brief, the commander approves those essential tasks for M/CM/S that he considers relevant. 2-28. After essential tasks for M/CM/S are approved, the ENCOORD and other planners integrate them into COA development. The ENCOORD and other planners identify the essential tasks for M/CM/S required to achieve the desired effects and achieve the designated purpose. These planners develop associated methods to complete the essential tasks for M/CM/S by assigning resources and recommending priorities. The ENCOORD and other planners, in coordination with the maneuver planner, then synchronize the methods to achieve the desired effects on enemy or friendly forces.

2-29. The engineer estimate is a logical thought process and extension of the MDMP. It is conducted by the ENCOORD, concurrently with the planning process of the supported maneuver force, and is continually refined. This estimate allows for early integration and synchronization of essential tasks for M/CM/S into combined arms planning processes (MDMP or RDSP). It drives the coordination between the engineer, the supported commander, and other staff officers in developing engineer plans, orders, and the supporting annexes. Additionally, allocating engineer assets and resources assists in determining command and support relationships that will be used. Table 2-1 on page 2-12, illustrates the relationship between the MDMP and the engineer estimate, including identification of essential tasks for M/CM/S.

Military Decision-making Process
Mission Analysis
Engineer Staff Running Estimate
Analyze the higher headquarters orders.
Commander's intent Mission Concept of operation Timeline AO
Conduct IPB/develop engineer staff running estimate.
Terrain and weather analysis
Enemy mission and M/CM/S capabilities
Friendly mission and M/CM/S capabilities
Analyze the engineer mission.
Specified M/CM/S tasks
Analyze higher headquarters order. Conduct IPB. Determine specified, implied, and essential tasks. Review available assets. Determine constraints. Identify critical facts and assumptions. Conduct risk assessment. Determine CCIR. Develop ISR plan. Plan use of available time.
Write restated mission.
Conduct mission-analysis briefing. Approve restated mission. Develop commander's intent. Issue commander's guidance. Issue warning order (WARNORD). Review facts and assumptions.
Implied M/CM/S tasks
Assets available Limitations Risk as applied to engineer capabilities Time analysis
Identify essential tasks for M/CM/S
Restated mission
Conduct risk assessment.
Safety Environment Determine CCIR (terrain and mobility restraints,
obstacle intelligence, threat engineer capabilities).
Integrate reconnaissance effort.
COA Development
Develop scheme of engineer operations.
Analyze relative combat power.
Refine essential tasks for M/CM/S.
Identify engineer missions and allocation of
forces/assets
Determine engineer priority of effort/support
Refine commander's intent for M/CM/S operations
Apply engineer employment considerations. Integrate engineer operations into the maneuver COA.
COA Analysis
Wargame and refine the engineer plan.
COA Comparison
Recommend a COA.
COA Approval
Finalize the engineer plan.
Order Production
Input to basic operation order (OPORD).
Scheme of engineer operations
essential tasks for M/CM/S
Subunit instructions Coordinating instructions Engineer annex/appendixes

## Specific Command And Control Considerations

2-30. Engineers are task-organized in a variety of ways, depending on the mission and current requirements. This task organization drives an engineer reconnaissance team's command or support relationship. When attached, a reconnaissance team is temporarily placed in the unit it supports. The commander of the supported unit exercises the same degree of C2 as he does over his organic units. In this relationship, the reconnaissance team receives all of its missions and support from the supported unit, not its organic engineer unit. Additionally, the supported unit commander may task organize the reconnaissance team as he feels is appropriate.

z
In an operational control (OPCON) relationship, a reconnaissance team receives all of its tasking and missions from the supported unit. The supported unit commander retains the same authority over the reconnaissance team as over his organic units and may task organize the reconnaissance team as he feels is appropriate. Logistical support comes from the parent engineer unit unless the engineer battalion has coordinated with the supported unit for certain classes of supply.
z
In a direct support (DS) relationship, a reconnaissance team answers directly to the supported unit's requests for support. Logistical support is provided by the parent engineer unit, and the reconnaissance team is commanded by its parent engineer unit commander.
z
In a general support (GS) relationship, a reconnaissance team receives missions and all support from its parent engineer unit.
2-31. An engineer reconnaissance team can be employed using several methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages.

z
Integrated as part of the brigade intelligence-collection effort. In this method, an ERT is integrated into a brigade's collection effort. This effort normally includes other assets and receives the same types of support and sustainment as the rest of the brigade's reconnaissance
assets. It is imperative that the engineer unit providing the ERT understands all aspects of the plan to employ the ERT. As a minimum, the ERT leader should attend the brigade's ISR rehearsal. The providing unit continues to track the ERT through the operation. Resources (including maintenance and personnel status), verification of the team's position, and activation
of no-fire areas) must be closely monitored. The efficient dissemination of the intelligence collected by the team is also a critical task of the providing unit staff.
z
Assigned brigade NAIs in a TF's AO. Under this method, an ERT receives its reconnaissance objectives from brigade through an engineer unit supporting a maneuver battalion/TF. The ERT leader should link up with the appropriate TF scout platoon leader upon receiving the mission from the providing engineer unit. The engineer unit must ensure that the necessary instructions to the appropriate TFs are included in the brigade's OPORD, especially if the TFs are expected
to provide logistical support to the ERT (including casualty evacuation and vehicle recovery support). The team leader should be present at the scout platoon leader's OPORD and rehearsals to ensure understanding of the scout platoon's plan. To reduce the risk of fratricide, the ERT leader must provide his plan to the scout platoon leader. The ERT should report all checkpoints/locations on the same net that the TF scouts are operating on (for example, the TF operations and intelligence [O/I] net). All intelligence reports should be sent to both the TF and the engineer unit. The unit should then pass the information to the brigade and its subordinate elements. This employment concept should be used anytime the ERT works close to the TF scouts.
z
Working under a TF's control. In this method, ERTs are placed under the TF's control to look at NAIs that the brigade has tasked to the TF or expects the TF to develop requiring engineer expertise (possibly a TF breaching operation). This method involves the least amount of coordination and planning for the providing engineer unit. However, the responsibility to plan and monitor the ERT's activities now falls to the TF engineer. Although the TF decides how to use the ERT, the TF engineer must be involved in the planning details to ensure that the team is properly used, is integrated into a sound ISR plan, and receives all necessary support.
2-32. The BCT/RCT distributes its reconnaissance assets throughout its AO. To prevent fratricide and to synchronize the collection effort and logistic support, the BCT/RCT must organize the AO. When assigning boundaries and task organizing subordinate units, the terrain team or BCT/RCT engineer should be included in the decision process. This will help to ensure the boundaries and task organization in conjunction with the terrain complement rather than hinder the reconnaissance effort. The reconnaissance squadron operates in one of two battlefield organizations with respect to terrain and command relationships. First, it can operate independently inside of its own AO. Second, it can operate independently inside one or more of the battalion AOs. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages for C2 and fratricide reduction and specific planning and coordination requirements that are part of the ISR order. 2-33. In most cases, ISR assets will be attached to a subordinate command to ensure integration and C2. However, the brigade may keep some assets under brigade control and assign them their own AO or have them operated independently in someone else's. The brigade special troops battalion (BSTB) is responsible for command oversight of these independent operators (in the HBCT and the IBCT), while the asset has the requirement to ensure coordination with the terrain manager of the land the BSTB is operating on. Examples of ISR assets operating independent of subordinate units include

z
BCT/RCT retransmission section supporting the reconnaissance squadron but located in a maneuver battalion sector.
z
Unmanned aircraft system (UAS) launch and recovery site.

## Chapter 3 Engineer Support To Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Operations

No matter how enmeshed a commander becomes in the elaboration of his own thoughts, it is sometimes necessary to take the enemy into account.

Sir Winston Churchill Commanders make decisions and direct actions based on their SU. They keep their SU current by continuously assessing the situation and stating the information they need in CCIR. Throughout a continuous operations process, the commander's directions take different forms during planning, preparation, and execution. Chapter 2 discussed integrating engineer reconnaissance capabilities in the commander's planning processes. During preparation, commanders take every opportunity to improve their SU about the enemy and environment. Commanders integrate reconnaissance missions and surveillance means to form an integrated ISR plan that capitalizes on their different capabilities. Engineer reconnaissance can be an important part of this activity, providing data that contribute to answering the CCIR. Commanders normally initiate reconnaissance operations before completing the overall plan. Again, engineer reconnaissance operations, integrated with the commander's ISR plan, can gather important information which impacts the final plan. This chapter discusses considerations for employing engineer reconnaissance within ISR operations. Reconnaissance is not a static, one-time effort that achieves a goal and stops. To sustain the engineer reconnaissance capability, consideration must be made for its support. This chapter includes a discussion of sustainment considerations for engineer reconnaissance.

## Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Planning

3-1. BCTs/RCTs conduct ISR operations producing intelligence on the enemy, environment (to include weather and terrain), and civil considerations necessary to support the commander in developing SU and making decisions. ISR operations are a commander's function supported by the entire staff and subordinate units. ISR operations are multifaceted and develop, synchronize, and integrate intelligence from a multitude of collection sources to eliminate functional "stovepipes" for planning, reporting, and processing information and producing intelligence. ISR operations must be nested from division to battalion level to ensure integration of all available assets towards a single purpose that results in increased security and flexibility to gain and maintain the initiative at the tactical levelthe focus of the BCT/RCT and its subordinate elements. 3-2. ISR operations are a continuing activity that allows units to produce a continuous feed of relevant intelligence on the enemy, environment, and civil considerations required for the commander to make critical decisions. This information answers requirements developed throughout the operations process. Timely and accurate intelligence developed by aggressive and continuous ISR encourages audacity and can facilitate actions that negate enemy symmetric or asymmetric strengths.

## Staff Support Of The Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Process

3-3. The BCT/RCT commander and the executive officer (XO) must ensure an integrated staff process to conduct planning and disseminate ISR orders. In the past, while the S-3 was doctrinally responsible, developing the ISR plan habitually fell on the brigade S-2 since the S-2 normally coordinated ISR assets and was the primary user of ISR products. Given the complex nature of the OE, combined with the significantly enhanced ISR capabilities of the BCT/RCT, it is imperative that the S-3, S-2, the FSCOORD, the ENCOORD, and other required staff work together to develop the ISR plan. The engineer is especially critical in ensuring that the reconnaissance effort will facilitate and enable the mobility of the BCT/RCT.

Further, the significance of ISR operations on unit success dictates involvement by the entire staff, not just the ISR section. This allows the S-2 to focus on fusing information from national through tactical intelligence sensors, better enabling the S-2 to provide the commander with timely and accurate intelligence assessments. The commander uses the fused intelligence provided by ISR to make decisions that allow him to place combat effects on the enemy to impede, harass, or attrite the enemy and then to employ maneuver forces to destroy it. The BCT/RCT XO integrates the staff actions of the S-2 and S-3, as well as the rest of the staff and reconnaissance squadron commander to identify collection requirements and implement the ISR plan. 3-4. With staff participation, the BCT/RCT S-2 supports the ISR effort by focusing the collection, processing, analysis, and intelligence products on the critical needs of the commander. The BCT/RCT S-3, in coordination with the S-2, tasks and directs the available ISR assets to answer the CCIRs. The required information is obtained through various detection methods and systematic observation, reconnaissance, and surveillance. A continuous process, this task has four subtasks: perform intelligence synchronization, perform ISR integration, conduct surveillance, and conduct reconnaissance.

## Intelligence Synchronization

3-5. The S-2, with staff participation, synchronizes the entire collection effort to include all assets the commander controls, assets of lateral units and higher echelon units and organizations, and intelligence reach to answer the commander's PIRs and IRs. Intelligence synchronization activities include the following:

z
Conducting requirements management: anticipate, develop, analyze, validate, and prioritize
intelligence requirements. Recommend PIRs to the commander. Manage the commander's intelligence requirements, requests for information (RFIs) from subordinate and lateral organizations, and tasks from higher headquarters. Eliminate satisfied requirements and add new requirements as necessary.
z
Developing indicators for each enemy COA.
z
Developing specific information requirements (SIRs) that will answer the PIR and IR.
z
Converting the SIRs into ISR tasks or RFIs that tailor the reporting criteria to the collection capabilities of tasked assets (See figure 3-1 for the ISR task development process). The S-2 assigns intelligence production and reach tasks to subordinate intelligence elements or personnel, submits RFIs to higher and lateral echelons, and coordinates with (or assists) the S-3 to develop and assign ISR tasks.
z
Comparing the ISR tasks to the capabilities and limitations of the available ISR assets (in coordination with the S-3).
z
Forwarding SIRs that cannot be answered by available assets to higher or lateral organizations as RFIs.
z
Assessing collection asset reporting and intelligence production to evaluate the effectiveness of the ISR effort.
z
Maintaining SU to identify gaps in coverage and to identify the need to cue or redirect ISR assets.
z
Updating the intelligence synchronization plan. The S-2 manages and updates the intelligence synchronization plan as PIRs are answered and new requirements arise.

## Intelligence Synchronization Considerations

3-6. The S-2 generally follows six considerations in planning intelligence synchronization and ISR activities: anticipate, integrate, prioritize, balance, control, and reach. (Refer to FM 34-2 for more information regarding intelligence synchronization).

z
Anticipate. The intelligence staff must recognize when and where to shift collection or identify
new intelligence requirements. The overall intent of this principle is to identify a new, or adjust an existing requirement, and present it to the commander for approval before waiting for the commander or staff to identify it.
z
Integrate. The intelligence staff must be fully integrated into the unit's orders production and
planning activities to ensure early identification of intelligence requirements. Early and continuous consideration of collection factors enhances the unit's ability to direct collection
assets in a timely manner, ensures thorough planning, and increases flexibility in selecting
assets.
z
Prioritize. Prioritize each intelligence requirement based on its importance in supporting the commander's intent and decisions. Prioritization, based on the commander's guidance and the current situation, ensures that limited ISR assets and resources are directed against the most critical requirements.
z
Balance. ISR capabilities complement each other. The intelligence staff should resist favoring or becoming too reliant on a particular unit, discipline, or system. Balance is simply planning redundancy when required, eliminating redundancy when not desired, and ensuring an appropriate mix of ISR assets or types. The intelligence synchronization matrix (ISM) is useful in determining or evaluating balance.
z
Control. To ensure timely and effective responses to intelligence requirements, a unit should first use the ISR assets it controls. These assets usually are more responsive to their respective commander and serve to lessen the burden on the ISR assets of other units, agencies, and organizations.
z
Reach. Intelligence reach may be the only way to satisfy an intelligence requirement. If possible, one should not depend solely on intelligence to answer a PIR.
3-7. An effective discussion of ISR has to include an understanding of the CCIRs. The CCIRs are elements of information required by commanders that may affect decision making and dictate the successful execution of missions. The commander decides what information is critical based on experience, the mission, the higher commander's intent, the staff's input, initial IPB, information, intelligence, and recommendations. (Refer to FM 3-0 for more information regarding CCIRs.) 3-8. Based on the CCIRs, two types of supporting IRs are generated: PIRs and FFIRs. However, commanders may determine that they need to know whether one or more EEFI have been compromised or that the enemy is collecting against a designated EEFI. In those cases, commanders may designate that question as one of their CCIRs. 3-9. IRs are all of the information elements required by the commander and staff to successfully plan and execute operations; that is, all elements necessary to address the METT-T[C] factors. Vetting by the commander or his designated representative turns an IR into either a PIR or an intelligence requirement. IRs are developed during COA analysis based on METT-T[C] factors. 3-10. PIRs are those intelligence requirements for which a commander has an anticipated and stated priority in his task of planning and decision-making. PIRs are associated with a decision based on action or inaction or the OE that will affect the overall success of the commander's mission. The commander designates intelligence requirements as CCIR (PIR and FFIR). Answers to the PIRs help produce intelligence essential to the commander's SU and decision making. 3-11. The S-2 recommends to the commander those IRs produced during the MDMP that meet the criteria for PIR. They do not become CCIR until approved by the commander. Additionally, the commander may unilaterally designate PIRs. The IRs that are not designated by the commander as PIRs remain intelligence requirements. The intelligence requirement is a gap in the command's knowledge or understanding of the OE or threat that the intelligence Army warfighting function must fill.

3-12. The S-3 then tasks the unit's assets to answer both the PIR and intelligence requirements through the ISR plan. PIR should

z
Ask only one question.
z
Support a decision.
z
Identify a specific fact, event, activity (or absence thereof) that can be collected.
z
If linked to an enemy course of action (ECOA), indicate an ECOA prior to, or as early as possible in, its implementation.
z
Indicate the latest time the information is of value (LTIOV). The LTIOV is the absolute latest time the information can be used by the commander in making the decision the PIR supports. The LTIOV can be linked to time, an event, or a point in the battle or operation to friendly force IRs. The staff also develops FFIRs which, when answered, provide friendly force information that the commander and staff need to achieve SU and to make decisions.

## Friendly Force Intelligence Requirements

3-13. The staff also develops FFIRs which, when answered, provide friendly force information that the commander and staff need to achieve SU and to make decisions.

## Essential Elements Of Friendly Information

3-14. EEFI establish information to protectnot information to obtain. Thus, EEFI are established to inform or direct BCT/RCT unit and element efforts to deny enemy efforts to collect against specific BCT/RCT actions, units, intentions, or capabilities. In some cases, EEFI may form the underlying basis for tasks to subordinate units, particularly during security operations. Further, commanders may determine that they need to know whether one or more EEFI have been compromised or that the enemy is collecting against a designated EEFI. In those cases, commanders may designate that question as one of their CCIRs, using the ISM which generates PIRs and/or FFIRs. For example, a commander may determine that if the enemy discovers the location and movement of the friendly reserve, the operation is at risk. In this case, the location and movement of the friendly reserve are EEFI. The commander designates determining whether the enemy has discovered the location and movement of the friendly reserve as one of his CCIR. That CCIR, in turn, generates PIR and FFIR to support staff actions in determining whether the EEFI have been compromised.

## Development Of The Intelligence Synchronization Plan

3-15. The entire unit staff develops its IRs and determines how best to satisfy them. The staff uses reconnaissance and surveillance assets to collect information. The ISR synchronization plan includes all assets that the operations officer can task or request and coordination mechanisms to ensure adequate coverage of the areas of interest. 3-16. The ISR synchronization plan, often presented in a matrix format, aids in synchronizing the entire ISR effort with the overall operation and the commander's decisions and/or decision points (DPs). The intelligence synchronization plan is often produced in conjunction with the ISR plan. However, before performing intelligence synchronization and finalizing the intelligence synchronization plan, the S-2 must have the following:

z
The CCIR (PIR and FFIR).
z
A prioritized list of the remaining intelligence requirements.
z
Evaluated ISR assets and resources.
z
All of the assigned ISR tasks.

## Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Integration

3-17. As depicted in figure 3-2 on page 3-6, ISR integration is a continuing process. Engineer planners must be integrated throughout the cycle.
3-18. The S-3, in coordination with the S-2 and other staff members, orchestrates the tasking and directing of all available ISR assets to answer the PIRs, FFIRs, and IRs by matching requirements with specific collection assets using the following factors:

z
Availability. Determine what assets are organic and readily available. When will attachments arrive? What systems are not fully mission capable and when will they be repaired? What are the maintenance and crew rest requirements? What systems are available in higher, adjacent, and subordinate units? How long will it take the asset to get into position?
z
Capability. Can the asset answer the questions asked? Does it have sufficient range? Can it operate in the expected climate and visibility conditions? Will you need to maintain contact with the target when it is identified?
z
Vulnerability. What is the threat's ability to locate, identify, and destroy the collector both at the target area and on the route to and from the mission? Is the risk of loss greater than the potential
gain of information? Will the asset be needed for other subsequent operations?
z
Performance History. How reliable is the specific asset based on training, leadership, and past experience. Who are the "work horses" that can get the job done?

## Formation Of The Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Plan

3-19. The result of this process forms the ISR plan. The ISR plan provides a list of all the ISR tasks to be accomplished, both internal and external to the BCT/RCT. The S-2 and the S-3 develop tasks, orders, and requests from the SIRs. These tasks, orders, and requests are then assigned based on the capabilities and limitations of the available ISR assets and the LTIOV taking into account the concepts of

z
Cuing. Cuing involves the use of one or more sensor systems to provide data that directs collection by other systems. For example, sweeping the AO electronically with a wide area surveillance system may reveal activity that in turn triggers direct collection by a more accurate, pinpoint sensor system such as an UAS or scout team.
z
Redundancy. Redundancy involves the application of several identical assets to cover the same target. Use redundant tasking against high-payoff targets when the probability of success by any
one system is low (for example, several scout teams infiltrating over different routes when the risk of detection is high but no other systems are capable of collecting the required information).
z
Mix. Mix refers to planning for complementary coverage by a combination of assets from multiple disciplines. Sensor mix increases the probability of collection, reduces the risk of successful enemy deception, facilitates cueing, and provides more complete reporting. For example, thermal imagery from a UAS may indicate several vehicle-like hot spots in a suspected enemy battle position (BP). A scout team observing the same NAI may reveal that half of those hot spots are actually decoys and not enemy armored vehicles.
z
Integration. Integration is the resource management aspect of collection strategy development. Barring a decision to use redundant coverage of a critical target, attempt to integrate new requirements into planned or ongoing missions. Integration helps avoid the common problem of under tasking very capable collectors. During limited periods of time, collection capability may exceed that of the tasking. Brigades can resolve this by reevaluating each collection asset for excess capability, focusing excess collection capability on the most important of the remaining unfulfilled requirements, and finally redirecting assets to maximize support to the most important requirementsnew or old.

## Finalized Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Isr Plan

3-20. The finalized ISR plan is produced as an ISR order in the ISR annex to a BCT/RCT OPORD. (Refer to FM 5-0 for specific information on the ISR annex). However, an initial ISR order is usually prepared at the conclusion of mission analysis during the planning process and issued prior to the completed BCT/RCT operations order to start reconnaissance and surveillance operations required to achieve the intended ISR effect.

## Execution Of And Updating The Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance Plan

3-21. The S-3 updates the ISR plan based on information received from the S-2. The S-3 is the integrator and manager of the ISR effort through an integrated staff process and procedures. As PIRs are answered and new IR arise, the S-2 updates intelligence synchronization requirements and provides the new input to the S-3 who updates the ISR plan. The S-2 works closely with all staff elements to ensure the unit's organic collectors receive appropriate tasking. The ISR plan reflects an integrated collection strategy and employment, production, and dissemination scheme that will effectively answer the commander's PIR.

## Reconnaissance Operations

3-22. Engineer reconnaissance occurs within the context of the maneuver commander's reconnaissance operations. Combat engineers may be assigned a tactical reconnaissance mission. For example, a sapper company augmenting the BCT/RCT may be tasked to conduct an area reconnaissance as part of the BCT/RCT reconnaissance operation. More likely, the engineer reconnaissance team will be tasked to conduct technical reconnaissance tasks in support of a broader tactical reconnaissance mission. In this case, for example, the sapper company is tasked with providing a team to conduct a crossing site reconnaissance as part of a supported element's area reconnaissance mission. In both situations, the engineer reconnaissance is one component of a broader combined arms reconnaissance operation. To ensure that the engineer component fits effectively within the combined arms operation, it is critical for the engineer reconnaissance planners and team leaders to understand the language of the maneuver commander's tactical reconnaissance operation. Similarly, the staff planners and team leader must describe their engineer reconnaissance capabilities and support requirements in terms of the tactical operation to ensure integration with the overall reconnaissance operation.

## Definitions

3-23. *Reconnaissance* is defined as a mission undertaken to obtain, by visual observation or other detection methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or to secure data concerning the meteorological, hydrographical, or geographical characteristics and the indigenous population of a particular area (FM 3-0). Reconnaissance is the focused collection effort performed before, during, and after other combat operations to provide combat information and intelligence, which are then used by the BCT/RCT commander and staff to develop, confirm, or modify the commander's plan. 3-24. *Surveillance* is a task defined as the systematic observation of airspace, surface, or subsurface areas by visual, auditory, electronic, photographic, or other means (FM 1-02). Surveillance tasks are inherent in reconnaissance and security missions; they are also conducted during offensive, defensive, and stability operations. 3-25. A *reconnaissance objective* is a terrain feature, geographical area, enemy force, and/or infrastructure about which the commander wants to obtain additional information (FM 3-90). It clarifies the intent of the reconnaissance effort by specifying the most important result that the reconnaissance is to accomplish. When a reconnaissance team does not have enough time to complete all of the tasks associated with a specific form of reconnaissance, it uses the reconnaissance objective to guide it in setting priorities. 3-26. The reconnaissance focus defines the "what" on which the reconnaissance team must concentrate its efforts and assets (threat, society, infrastructure, or terrain). It is linked to answering the BCT/RCT commanders' CCIR, supporting lethal and nonlethal targeting, and filling any additional voids in RI. Reconnaissance focus, combined with one or more reconnaissance objectives, serves to efficiently concentrate the effort of the reconnaissance assets on a chaotic, changing battlefield (FM 3-90).

Note. The reconnaissance tempo defines the pace of the operation and as such specifies the depth of detail that the reconnaissance is required to yield (FM 3-90).

3-27. *Engagement criteria* (lethal and nonlethal) establish minimum thresholds for engagement. They clearly specify which targets the reconnaissance teams are expected to engage and which they will hand off to other assets. Nonlethal contact, for example, identifies engagement criteria for tactical questioning of civilians and/or factional leaders. This criterion allows team leaders to anticipate bypass criteria and to develop a plan to maintain visual contact with bypassed threats (FM 3-90).

## Methods

3-28. Two general reconnaissance methods may be employed by a commander to solve tactical dilemmas and conduct battles and engagements: reconnaissance push and reconnaissance pull. These are not rigidly established prescriptions that are followed in checklist sequence or with by-the-numbers precision; rather, they are descriptive generalizations explaining how and when reconnaissance elements are to be employed (in the MDMP chronology) and what the results of reconnaissance will yield or drive in terms of the MDMP. 3-29. The answers to the following questions help provide a basis for categorizing methods of reconnaissance employment:

z
Are reconnaissance elements deployed early in the planning process before the BCT/RCT plan is even known, or later, after the plan is fairly fleshed out?
z
Does reconnaissance confirm or deny specifics of an evolving plan or help generalize a plan from the very start?

## Reconnaissance Push

3-30. Reconnaissance push emphasizes a detailed plan prior to deployment of reconnaissance assets.

Initially, a detailed ISR plan is developed to focus the reconnaissance effort on an evolving maneuver COAor on several COAsprior to the deployment of reconnaissance. As reconnaissance is deployed, commanders and staff begin work on one or more plans or COAs with the intent of refining these evolving plans as reconnaissance yields relevant combat information. Results of the reconnaissance effort, which tends to be broader and more extensive over a longer period of time, continue to be fed back to the BCT/RCT. There, commanders and planners, already actively engaged in MDMP, continue to update the evolving plans or COAs. They make refinements until available planning time is exhausted. The plan is then disseminated and rehearsed by subordinates. 3-31. In reconnaissance push, the detailed plan often encompasses several viable, well-digested branches or COAs that will be triggered by DP. These branches are understood by leaders at all levels and are well rehearsed. As the BCT/RCT deploys, the reconnaissance effort shifts to two other purposes:

z
Providing DP trigger criteria information to facilitate the commander's decisions to adopt planned branches.
z
Finding previously undiscovered enemy strengths and weaknesses on which the BCT/RCT can capitalize with greater success outside of planned branches.

## Reconnaissance Pull

3-32. Reconnaissance pull represents any of the various methods of reconnaissance in which the commander deliberately refrains from committing to a specific plan or COA prior to deploying reconnaissance elements. The commander and staff develop an integrated ISR plan designed to yield information on the most tactically advantageous way to maneuver the BCT/RCT. Reconnaissance is focused on collecting information on enemy strengths and weaknesses or information to update the terrain analysis (to include OBSTINTEL) that will be critical in formulating the future plan or COA. 3-33. Upon discovering enemy strengths and weaknesses, reconnaissance essentially "pulls" the BCT/RCT maneuver battalions along the path of least enemy resistance into positions of marked tactical advantage. Success is predicated on all maneuver units fully understanding the commander's intentthe "glue" that holds the BCT/RCT together in a decentralized, rapidly changing situation. Weaknesses are often discovered in the very midst of execution, necessitating an ability to rapidly shift and alter schemes of maneuver to exploit opportunities. These on-the-fly modifications, however, have to be executed according to the commander's intent. Reconnaissance pull knowingly emphasizes opportunity at the expense of a detailed, well-rehearsed plan and unity of effort.

## Techniques

3-34. Reconnaissance can be conducted using four techniquesdismounted, mounted, aerial, and sensor. For the most effective reconnaissance, the commander should consider using a combination of all methods. 3-35. The BCT/RCT employs numerous sensor systems in executing reconnaissance and surveillance. Commanders and staffs need to know the capabilities and limitations of the various systems. They must also understand that these systems are susceptible to countermeasures and that they lack the ability to convey the human dimension of the OE in terms of assessing the threat's morale, taking prisoners, or making crucial on-the-spot decisions or judgment calls. The scout directly observing the target is still the commander's most valuable reconnaissance asset. Therefore, the commander needs to maximize the use of dismounted scout observer teams to accurately assess the threat and the effects of the terrain on both forces. Engineer reconnaissance support is especially valuable to the commander for reporting OBSTINTELproviding information on gaps and physically confirmed terrain conditions.

3-36. Stealth is a primary consideration in reconnaissance operations. Given the engineer reconnaissance team's lighter organization, stealth is even more essential. The team can expect to operate over extended distances well before the BCT's/RCT's execution of combat operations and must use stealth to gain information without alerting the enemy to the BCT's/RCT's intentions. They may operate independently or as a part of a larger reconnaissance element.

3-37. Without organic direct-fire systems (such as the mobile gun system or tanks), the ERT will seldom employ aggressive reconnaissance techniques. Exceptions to this may include situations in which the establishment of a military presence is desired and those in which the commander has determined that the target meets his engagement criteria and it is necessary to fight for information. If fighting is required, it should be on a limited scale, precisely focused against a target that meets the engagement criteria established by the commander, and under conditions favorable to the ERT. Some ERTs may be mounted in the engineer squad vehicle, but many will not be. In situations where a Soldier and Marine/unit is compromised by a threat, self-defense will always override the need for stealth.

## Commander's Reconnaissance Guidance

3-38. The BCT/RCT commander's reconnaissance guidance is developed early in the MDMP. The commander's reconnaissance guidance covers the following considerations:

z
Focus of reconnaissance.
z
Tempo of reconnaissance.

Stealthy or forceful.

Deliberate or rapid.
z
Engagement criteria (if any), both lethal and nonlethal.

Aggressive.

Discreet.

## Focus

3-39. Reconnaissance focus defines *where* and *on what* the reconnaissance team needs to concentrate its information-gathering activities and allows the commander to select which critical tasks must be accomplished and with what asset(s). Reconnaissance focus must be linked to the tasks of answering the commanders' CCIR, supporting targeting (lethal and nonlethal), and filling additional voids in IR. The reconnaissance objectives of the team must be focused, at a minimum, on one or more of the following:

z
Threat. These may include conventional and known enemy forces, insurgents, paramilitary forces, guerrillas, criminal groups, and even civilian groups and individuals.
z
Society (social/human demographics). Gaining an awareness of how the local society affects military operations, as well as the impact of military operations on the society, may be critical to
the commander when making operational decisions.
z
Infrastructure. Infrastructure covers those systems that support the inhabitants, economy, and government of an area. Destroying, controlling, or protecting vital parts of the infrastructure can
isolate the enemy from potential sources of support. Because these systems are inextricably
linked, destroying or disrupting any portion of the urban infrastructure can have a cascading effect (either intentional or unintentional) on the other elements of the infrastructure. See chapter 6 for an in-depth discussion of infrastructure reconnaissance.
z
Terrain. Terrain-focused reconnaissance identifies voids in terrain-related IR that a map or digital analysis simply cannot satisfy to an acceptable degree. Terrain reconnaissance also includes the effect of weather on the military aspects of the terrain. Typical engineer focus includes OBSTINTEL, route classification, and gap crossing sites.

## Tempo

3-40. The tempo of the reconnaissance allows the commander to correlate time requirements for the reconnaissance with such factors as planning time, movement formations, and operational methods (such as dismounted or mounted). The commander establishes the tempo by answering several questions: Given available time, will troops need to conduct stealthy or forceful reconnaissance? Is the reconnaissance mission deliberate or rapid? Figure 3-3 illustrates these terms used to describe reconnaissance tempo:

z
Stealthy reconnaissance entails methodical, time-consuming operations that minimize chance
enemy contact. It is conducted predominantly dismounted, although mounted reconnaissance
may be involved as well.
z
Forceful reconnaissance, the opposite of stealthy, involves predominantly mounted operations that are much faster paced and in which reconnaissance units are less concerned about being detected by the enemy.
z
Deliberate reconnaissance entails slow, detailed, broad-based operations in which the troop accomplishes several tasks.
z
A rapid tempo, the opposite of deliberate, focuses the troops on a few key pieces of information required by the squadron commander.
3-41. Terminology describing the tempo of reconnaissance is not as important as the requirement that the commander and his subordinates talk the same language when it comes to determining what type of tempo is to be adopted and how that looks in the AO. Although the ERT may not receive specifically worded reconnaissance guidance from the commander, the ERT leader must analyze requirements for tempo based on collaborative huddles with the commander, WARNORDs, and his experience; the ERT leader can then articulate the requirements clearly to his subordinates in terms that have meaning.

## Engagement Criteria

3-42. Engagement criteria establish which targets the reconnaissance squadron and its troops are expected to engage with direct or indirect fires and which ones they are expected to handover to the BCT's/RCT's maneuver battalions. In general, engagement criteria will apply only to ERTs directly augmenting reconnaissance elements. Criteria fall into the following categories:

z
Aggressive reconnaissance implies liberal engagement criteria (weapons free/tight).
z
Discreet reconnaissance is conducted with restrictive engagement criteria (weapons tight/hold).
3-43. Engagement criteria may be articulated in terms of the type and number of threat systems that a reconnaissance unit may be required to engage (or are prohibited from engaging). They may describe situations in which engagement will or will not occur. They may even address what types of friendly weapon systems may be employed or prohibited. Engagement criteria are linked closely with established ROE; however, they define important deviations from the ROE as opposed to being merely a reiteration of them. 3-44. Engagement criteria may also pertain to how the troop handles nonlethal contact, such as tactical questioning of civilians and/or factional leaders. Additionally, they allow troop commanders to anticipate bypass criteria and to develop a plan to maintain visual contact with bypassed or bypassing threat elements.

## Forms

3-45. There are four forms of reconnaissancezone, area, route, and reconnaissance in force. As noted earlier in this chapter, these forms of reconnaissance will normally be conducted with a multidimensional focus that includes such factors as society and infrastructure as well as the threat and terrain. (Zone, area, and route reconnaissance are discussed further in this section. For information on reconnaissance in force, and additional information on the forms of reconnaissance, see FM 3-90.)
Note. A route reconnaissance is one of the three forms of tactical reconnaissance. It should not be confused with a route classification which can be included as part of the route reconnaissance (see chapter 5) or a road reconnaissance which is a technical component of the route classification.

## Zone Reconnaissance

3-46. Zone reconnaissance is the directed effort to obtain detailed information concerning threat, terrain, society, and infrastructure according to the commander's reconnaissance focus within a location delineated by a line of departure (LD), lateral boundaries, and a limit of advance (LOA). A zone reconnaissance is assigned when the threat situation is vague or when information concerning cross-country trafficability is desired. It is appropriate when previous knowledge of the terrain is limited or when combat operations have altered the terrain. The reconnaissance may be threat-oriented, terrain-oriented, society-oriented, infrastructure-oriented, or a combination. Additionally, the commander may focus the reconnaissance effort on a specific force, such as the threat's reserve. A terrain-focused zone reconnaissance must include the identification of obstacles (OBSTINTEL), both existing and reinforcing, as well as areas of CBRN contamination or toxic industrial material (TIM). Focused reconnaissance capabilities (engineer, CBRN, and others) may augment one or more of the primary reconnaissance elements as required and available.

3-47. Zone reconnaissance takes more time to execute than many other reconnaissance missions because the target area is larger and the initial IPB usually generates many unanswered questions. If the time available is not adequate, the reconnaissance leader seeks additional time, reinforcements, or systems to assist in the reconnaissance effort. If necessary, the reconnaissance leader may accelerate the reconnaissance effortand accept a degree of riskby reducing the number of critical tasks to be accomplished. 3-48. A zone reconnaissance is organized with subordinate elements operating abreast of one another within a portion of the zone as designated by graphic control measures (see figure 3-4). If the BCT/RCT commander expects significant threat forces to be found within the zone, he considers attaching armored, mechanized, or aviation forces to the reconnaissance element to deal with the anticipated threat. If it is likely that the reconnaissance elements will encounter significant obstacles or other mobility impediments, the commander may provide combat engineer augmentation. If the zone reconnaissance will be outside the supporting range of the BCT/RCT, additional fire support elements may be task organized to move with the reconnaissance element. 3-49. As noted, a zone reconnaissance is controlled using lateral boundaries, an LD, and an LOA. Within the zone, the element conducting the reconnaissance further divides the AO with additional lateral boundaries to define subordinate unit zones. Subordinate zones may differ in size. Phase lines (PLs) and contact points are designated to coordinate the movement of elements operating abreast. Critical terrain features or points of interest are designated as checkpoints. Fire support coordinating measures (FSCMs) are included as needed. A route for the reconnaissance unit to enter the zone must be designated as well. All control measures should be on recognizable terrain when possible. Figure 3-4 illustrates graphic control measures for a zone reconnaissance.

3-50. Zone reconnaissance is a deliberate, time-consuming process; therefore, it must be focused. The reconnaissance force must accomplish certain critical tasks unless the BCT/RCT commander specifically directs otherwise. These tasks serve as a guide to indicate the actions associated with the zone reconnaissance, although they are not a set checklist and are not necessarily arranged sequentially. Not all critical tasks will be appropriate in all situations. The tasks to be accomplished as part of a zone reconnaissance are the following:

z
Threat. Find and report threat forces within the zone.
z
Society.

Determine the size, location, and composition of the populace within the zone, as well as applicable social demographics (such as race, sex, age, religion, language, national origin, tribe, clan, class, party affiliation, education, or any other significant social grouping).

Reconnoiter the society to determine local centers of gravity; the size, location, and composition of identifiable groups; and the interests and actions of these groups.

Establish and maintain contact with local civilian and military leadership.

Identify allegiances of the local populace to factions, religious groups, or other organizations.
z
Infrastructure (see chapter 6 for more detailed discussion of infrastructure reconnaissance).

Identify key municipal infrastructure that can affect military operations (utilities, sewage, transportation [such as rail, bus, subway, or heliports and airfields], and communications).

Inspect and evaluate all bridges, overpasses, underpasses, and culverts within the zone.
z
Terrain.

Locate all obstacles; create and mark lanes as specified in the execution orders.

Locate and determine the extent of contaminated areas within the zone, including CBRN
and TIM.

Reconnoiter and determine the trafficability of all terrain within the zone, including urban areas.

Locate bypasses around urban areas, obstacles, and contaminated areas.

Provide OBSTINTEL and recommendations for breaching if necessary.

Locate fords or crossing sites near all bridges within the zone.

## Area Reconnaissance

3-51. An area reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information concerning threat, terrain, society, and infrastructure according to the commander's reconnaissance focus within a location often depicted as a reconnaissance objective. The objective in an area reconnaissance is substantially smaller than the terrain reconnoitered in a zone reconnaissance. These objectives may be a small village or town; facilities such as water treatment plants, weapon storage sites, or political headquarters; or other sites of tactical importance (such as a suspected assembly area, a cache site, or an airport). The reconnaissance squadron in the BCT can conduct decentralized reconnaissance in multiple areas simultaneously, either by maneuvering elements through the areas or by establishing stationary observation posts (OPs) within and/or external to them. 3-52. Forces conducting an area reconnaissance are organized according to the size, geography, physical infrastructure, and social dynamics of the area to be reconnoitered as well as the time available for conducting the reconnaissance. The forces may be required to reconnoiter one large area or several smaller ones. In many cases, areas to be reconnoitered are given to platoon-sized teams. A company-sized team may be committed to a larger area. Focused reconnaissance capabilities (engineer, CBRN, and others) may augment one or more of the primary reconnaissance elements as required and available. Area reconnaissance proceeds faster than zone reconnaissance because the effort is focused on a relatively smaller, specific piece of terrain or threat force. 3-53. The "area" for an area reconnaissance is delineated with a single continuous line enclosing the area to be reconnoitered and should be designated as an AO. If the AO is a large or complex urban area, it may also be delineated by marking lateral boundaries, an LD, and an LOA (similar to a zone reconnaissance). The graphic control measures for an area reconnaissance should always include the routes to and within the AO. See figure 3-5.

3-54. The tasks accomplished as part of an area reconnaissance are the same as those for a zone reconnaissanceonly the scale of the reconnaissance is different.

## Route Reconnaissance

3-55. Route reconnaissance is the directed effort to obtain information (usually focused on threat and/or terrain) according to the commander's reconnaissance focus along a specified route and on all adjacent terrain (including lateral routes) from which movement along the route could be negatively influenced. The route is a prescribed course from a point of origin (start point [SP]) to a specific destination (release point [RP]); it could be a road or an axis of advance. Route reconnaissance is conducted to determine whether the route is clear of obstacles and/or threat forces and how well or poorly it will support the planned movement. Below the BCT/RCT level, route reconnaissance is often a task performed during zone or area reconnaissance. 3-56. A route reconnaissance may be assigned as a separate mission or as a specified task for a unit conducting a zone or area reconnaissance. Reconnaissance platoons can reconnoiter only one route at a time; therefore, the number of reconnaissance platoons available directly influences the number of routes that can be covered at one time. Integrating ground, air, and other technical assets assures a faster and more detailed route reconnaissance. 3-57. Reconnaissance elements will reconnoiter the route out to threat direct-fire range, focusing on key terrain that threat elements can use to influence the route. Determining trafficability of a route requires the reconnaissance element to determine the capability or extent to which the terrain will bear traffic or permit continued movement of a force. A thorough ground reconnaissance is required for developing detailed information on the route. Modern roadway features are often difficult to evaluate quickly in the process of route reconnaissance. Unless directed, the reconnaissance element does not conduct a deliberate engineer route classification. In some cases, the reconnaissance element may be reinforced with engineers to perform that mission; in others, the element may identify key features for follow-on engineers to classify or obstacles for engineers to clear. If enemy contact is expected, fire support from the fires battalion should be readily available. If CBRN or TIM contamination is expected, CBRN reconnaissance assets should accompany the force conducting ground reconnaissance because they can detect and determine the extent of contamination more quickly and accurately. When time is limited, air reconnaissance (manned and unmanned) can be used to determine which areas are clear of enemy forces and obstacles and to cue ground reconnaissance elements on where to focus their efforts. 3-58. Control measures for a route reconnaissance create an AO for the unit conducting the reconnaissance. (See figure 3-6 for an illustration.) The commander places lateral boundarieson both sides of the route that are far enough out to allow reconnaissance of all terrain from which the threat could dominate the route. An LD perpendicular to the route is placed short of the SP. This allows adequate space for the unit conducting the reconnaissance to deploy into formation before reaching the SP. The LD creates one of the boundaries of the AO. An LOA is placed far enough beyond the route's RP to include any terrain from which the threat could dominate the route. Normally, coordination points or contact points are included to enable proper flank coordination. If air reconnaissance is employed, an air LOA is normally established to provide greater depth and to take advantage of the aircrafts' elevated observation platform and long-range acquisition capability. The SP and RP define that section of the route on which the unit collects detailed information. PLs and checkpoints are added to maintain coordinated reconnaissance, to control movement, or to designate critical points. Additional fire distribution measures and FSCMs are included to coordinate indirect and direct fires as necessary. All of these graphic control measures are placed along or on recognizable terrain features and, if possible, are identifiable from both the ground and the air to assist in air-ground coordination.

3-59. Certain tasks are accomplished during route reconnaissance unless the commander specifically directs otherwise. IPB and CCIR often indicate exclusive critical information required by the higher commander that narrows the focus of the reconnaissance. The critical tasks are the following:

z
Reconnoiter and determine trafficability of the route.
z
Find and report any threat elements that can influence movement along the route.
z
Reconnoiter routes approaching and inside urban areas.
z
Reconnoiter lateral routes.
z
Inspect and classify bridges along the route.
z
Inspect and classify overpasses, underpasses, and culverts.
z
Reconnoiter defiles along the route. Clear defiles of threat and obstacles within capability, or
locate a bypass.
z
Locate mines, obstacles, and barriers along the route. Within capabilities and according to the commander's intent, clear the route.
z
Locate bypasses around built-up areas, obstacles, and contaminated areas.
z
Update route information.

## Engineer Reconnaissance Operations

3-60. Within the combined arms reconnaissance operation, every unit has an implied mission to report information about the terrain, civilian activities, and friendly and enemy dispositions. The commander tasks reconnaissance elements to collect information that addresses his CCIR. When components of the CCIR include technical information, supporting arms with the appropriate specialty will be tasked to support the reconnaissance operation. As is also the case for CBRN, medical, EOD, and other supporting arms, engineer reconnaissance will typically occur within the context of tactical reconnaissance operations but include a focus on technical elements for which the supporting arms have been trained. As discussed in chapter 1, engineer reconnaissance generated from and organized by the engineer functions provides a range of technical as well as tactical reconnaissance capabilities. Specific considerations for engineer reconnaissance support will vary not only based on METT-T[C] but also based on the degree of technical expertise and effort required for the assigned mission and tasks. 3-61. Engineer reconnaissance operations support those operations undertaken to obtain, by visual observation or other detection methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or to secure data concerning the meteorological, hydrographical, or geographical characteristics and the indigenous population of a particular area. Engineer reconnaissance relies on the human dynamic but focuses on collecting technical information. It fits within the broader context of tactical reconnaissance operations but offers a range of capabilities based on the information required. Specific considerations for each engineer reconnaissance mission will vary as well.

## Engineer Reconnaissance Team Operations

3-62. ERTs are employed generally at the tactical level and in support of the combat engineer function. (ERT operations are discussed in detail in chapter 4 as tactical reconnaissance support.) The ERT will usually employ the same techniques and forms for their reconnaissance mission as the supported reconnaissance or maneuver element. The technical information collected by an ERT is an embedded part of a tactical reconnaissance mission, and the ERT is most effective as an integral part of (attached or OPCON to) a tactical reconnaissance element. Combat engineer units are more likely to provide the ERT, especially when it is attached or OPCON to a supported reconnaissance element. Combat engineer units organic to the BCTs/RCTs, as well as those typically augmenting the BCT/RCT, can more effectively integrate their ERT operations and coordinate for their required support. 3-63. ERTs conduct the basic tactical reconnaissance mission with an added focus on collecting the required technical information. The degree of technical focus required of the ERT will vary based on METT-T[C] but will generally highlight critical aspects of the combat engineer function: M/CM/S. ERTs will often conduct a zone, area, or route reconnaissance mission with added specified tasks to collect information on suspected obstacles, a possible crossing site or gap, or other aspects of mobility, countermobility, and/or survivability. While the ERT's technical focus is typically on the specified mobility, countermobility, and/or survivability mission, they have the capability to bring substantially increased technical expertise as required. With EOCA trained members or when augmented by EOCAs, the ERT can conduct limited UXO reconnaissance. The ERT can be augmented with general engineer capability if required to focus more specifically on detailed technical information required. The ERT can also use reach-back capability to apply substantial additional technical resources in support of IR.

3-64. General engineer units operate throughout the OE from the tactical level within BCTs/RCTs to the operational level supporting theaterwide requirements. General engineers have a limited capability to provide ERTs but are less effectively postured at the tactical level to integrate and coordinate the support of an ERT within BCT/RCT reconnaissance operations. General engineer units are more likely to provide expert augmentation to ERTs provided by combat engineers. A general engineer ERT may be employed to conduct reconnaissance to collect specific information supporting tactical sustainment missions (for example, a bridge reconnaissance along an MSR or a road reconnaissance in preparation for MSR upgrade missions). Although the ERT in this case is operating at the tactical level and within the BCT/RCT AO, the reconnaissance task is conducted more in support of a general engineer mission than as an integrated part of the BCT's/RCT's reconnaissance operations. 3-65. In every case, ERTs operating within the BCT/RCT AO must coordinate their activities and address the terrain management considerations as discussed at the end of chapter 2. The ENCOORD on the BCT/RCT staff is best postured to assist the engineer unit providing the ERT with the necessary coordination. The ENCOORD is also postured to assist with coordinating operational level reconnaissance missionsmissions identified and/or assigned at echelons above the BCT/RCTwhen those missions must occur within the BCT/RCT AO.

## Assessments And Surveys

3-66. Engineer assessments and surveys are typically conducted at the operational level and in support of the general engineer function. (Assessments and surveys are discussed in detail in chapter 6 as technical reconnaissance support.) The assessment or survey teams are generally not employed when direct contact with the enemy is likely. Rather, engineer assessment or survey is typically conducted in a relatively secure area and is focused on specific and detailed technical information required for a future-engineered, or at least heavily engineered, mission. When operating within an assigned maneuver AO (BCT/RCT, division, corps, JTF, and so forth) the assessment or survey team must fully coordinate its activity with the maneuver unit. But, the engineer team's mission may or may not be an integrated part of the maneuver unit's reconnaissance operation. While combat engineer units will in some situations conduct an assessment (see figure 1-2 on page 1-6), general engineer units are more likely to provide the required assessment or survey team. Additional specialized assistance may also be provided from assets not typically organized into tactical units (United States Army Corps of Engineers [USACE], other government agency [OGA], contractors, HN, and so forth).

3-67. An *assessment* is a judgment about something based on a technical understanding of the situation. (See the complete definition in the glossary.) An assessment may follow the same format as a survey, but in the case of the assessment, time and/or specific technical expertise are not adequate to call it a survey. The assessment requires less time but provides less technical detail. Other, nonspecialized reconnaissance elements may also do assessments, but surveys require specialized technical expertise.

3-68. A *survey* **looks at or considers something closely, especially to form a technical opinion.** (See the complete definition in the glossary.) Examples include an environmental baseline survey (EBS) (see FM 3-100.4), an infrastructure survey (see chapter 6), and the more technical components of route classification. 3-69. Assessment and survey teams are specifically tailored to collect the detailed technical information required. Horizontal construction specialists are employed if the mission includes information required for road or airfield construction. Pipeline specialists are added if the mission will include petroleum distribution requirements. Structural engineers and antiterrorism specialists are added if the mission will include evaluations of buildings. The teams include the variety of specialties necessary for the supported mission. Substantial additional technical capabilities are added as necessary from joint Service, multiagency, contractor, HN, and reach-back elements. FFE is the broad range of activities linked through the general engineer element on the ground to apply a high degree of technical expertise to the engineer mission. (FFE is discussed in detail in chapter 6. Some of the reach-back resources available are discussed in appendix H. See FM 3-34 for additional information.) 3-70. FM 5-170, superseded by this manual, used the term "engineer recon" (and DA Form 1711, Engineer Reconnaissance Report,) to describe a general engineer reconnaissance to gather engineer information of a broad nature within the AO. It considers material, resources, and terrain features having engineer applications. This manual changes the designation of this task to an engineer resource assessment to avoid confusion with using engineer reconnaissance in a broader sense. The engineer resource assessment remains a valid, relevant task and is included in the discussion in chapter 6.

3-71. The ENCOORD on the appropriate maneuver unit staff is best postured to assist the engineer unit providing the assessment or survey team with the necessary coordination. The ENCOORD is also postured to assist with coordination for any required sustainment or other support of the team. In the HBCT or the IBCT, this organic support is likely to come from coordination with the BSTB.

## Sustainment Considerations

3-72. An engineer unit providing an ERT capability will likely be able to provide only a limited amount of logistical support, especially after the ERT crosses the LD. For this reason, it is essential that the supported unit understands the ERT's requirements and embraces the support of the element. The engineer unit must coordinate closely with the brigade or battalion/TF for support that they cannot provide or that can be provided more effectively by the maneuver units. Examples include casualty evacuation, vehicle recovery, and maintenance support (including vehicle, communications, and weapon repair). Security considerations may also require assistance from the supported unit. 3-73. The sustainment concepts and organizational structures in the modular BCT reflect a paradigm shift from the supply-based sustaining system of the Army of Excellence to a technology-enhanced, distribution-based sustaining system. A distribution-based logistics system combines information capabilities with efficient delivery systems to form an efficient distribution pipeline. Direct throughput of supplies from the division and BCT to the battalion or company team is the rule rather than the exception with distribution-based logistics. For the BCT's organic engineer companies, the burden of sustainment operations is removed from the company commander and placed under the control of the combined arms or BSTB. The engineer company commander concentrates on fighting his unit to accomplish the tactical mission. The sustainment responsibility at company level is primarily to report status, supervise operatorlevel maintenance, request support, and ensure that sustaining operations are properly executed in the company's area. 3-74. For engineer units augmenting the BCT/RCT, staff coordination must be made at the appropriate battalion or brigade level so that the supporting unit's requirements are included in sustainment planning. Within the BCT/RCT, the maneuver and BSTB commanders ensure that support is provided not only for organic and attached elements but for any supporting units as well. The attached unit leader must coordinate with the battalion personnel staff officer (S-1) and furnish the S-1 with a copy of his unit battle roster as well as provide the battalion S-4 with the status of all key elements of equipment. The battalion S 4 coordinates support for the attachments and verifies who is to provide this sustainment and how support for attachments is to be requested. When a large unit attachment joins the BCT/RCT, the attachment should bring an appropriate slice of support assets from its parent unit. These sustainment assets are controlled by the BSB commander like the rest of the BCT/RCT sustainment elements. 3-75. Sustainment planning at the battalion level is the primary responsibility of the battalion S-4. In coordination with all company XOs and first sergeants, the process is integrated into operations planning with the concept of logistics support synchronized with operations. The unit SOP should be the basis for battalion level sustainment operations with planning to determine specific requirements and contingency preparation. The battalion and company orders should address only specific support matters for the operation and any deviations from the SOP.

## Effective Sustainment Planning

3-76. To provide effective support, sustainment planners and operators must understand the mission statement, commander's intent, and concept of the operation. The S-4 produces the service support paragraph and annexes of the OPORD, which include the following:

z
Commander's priorities.
z
Class III/Class V resupply during the mission (if necessary).
z
Movement criteria.
z
Type and quantities of support required.
z
Priority of support, by type and unit.
z
Sustainment overlay.
z
Supply routes.
z
Casualty evacuation (CASEVAC) points.
z
Maintenance collection points.

## Supporting Operations

3-77. There are certain general considerations that guide planning and preparation of supporting operations. The following considerations are key to successful sustainment operations planning.

## Reports

3-78. BCT/RCT SOPs establish report formats, reporting times, and voice brevity codes to keep logistics nets manageable. Digital communications provide sustainment functionality by providing accurate logistics situation and personnel situation reports, logistical call for support and logistics task order messaging, and task management capabilities. This functionality affects the synchronization of all logistics support in the AO between the supported and the supporter.

## Logistics Package Resupply

3-79. The most efficient resupply of dispersed units is accomplished by logistics packages (LOGPACs). The support platoon at each forward support company organizes LOGPACs based on the S-4's guidance. LOGPACs are normally organized once a day for routine resupply. A habitual LOGPAC organization facilitates operations and allows direct coordination by the supply sergeant as necessary. LOGPACs normally consist of the following:

z
A supply truck controlled by the food service sergeant. The supply truck contains the Class I rations for the unit (normally for the next 24-hour period) and the unit water trailer. The truck also brings requested Class II, V, and IX supplies.
z
A petroleum, oil, and lubricants (POL) truck brings bulk fuel while packaged POL products are transported on cargo trucks.
z
Additional trucks as necessary to carry supplies or replacement Soldiers and Marines.
z
Escort vehicles.

## Sustainment For Attachments

3-80. When a company, team, or detachment is attached to the maneuver battalion or special battalion, the S-4 should ensure the adequacy of medical, maintenance/recovery, and Classes III, V, and IX supply support. Basic support information sustainment planners should be obtained from the sending unit's S-4 when the receiving attachments includes

z
Number and type of vehicles, personnel by specialty, and weapon systems.
z
Current status/strength.
z
When the attachment is effective and for how long.
z
What support assets are coming with the attachment.
z
When and where the linkup will occur, and who is responsible for the linkup.

## Chapter 4 Tactical Reconnaissance Support

Tactics are the cutting edge of strategy, the edge which chisels out the plan into action; consequently, the sharper this edge, the clearer cut will be the result.

Major General J.F. C. Fuller Engineers are active participants in tactical reconnaissance operations: collecting information about the terrain, enemy engineer activity, obstacles, and weather effects within an AO. The ERT is the baseline engineer reconnaissance element for tactical reconnaissance support, and their operations share many of the characteristics that define the tactical reconnaissance operation. Tactical reconnaissance support is normally guided by the same objective, receives the same commander's guidance, and is conducted at the same tempo as the overall reconnaissance operation. ERT operations take the basic form of a route, area, or zone reconnaissance and use techniques compatible with the supported force. ERTs conduct zone, area, and route reconnaissance with a reconnaissance focus linked directly to answering the CCIR but with a specified additional focus on the required technical information. ERT operations share the characteristics of tactical reconnaissance while employing some of the same capabilities from the technical range of support as discussed in chapters 5 and 6. The majority of tactical engineer reconnaissance support enables the collection of information in support of M/CM/S operations and is conducted primarily by ERTs composed of combat engineers. General engineer capabilitieseither teamed with ERTs or in stand-alone organizationsconduct reconnaissance that enables engineer support to tactical sustainment, but these operations typically resemble the technical range of support described in chapters 5 and 6 more than tactical reconnaissance. This chapter focuses on a discussion of reconnaissance support of the five functions of mobility operations, support of obstacle integration and turnover in countermobility operations, support to fighting and other protective positions, and support to other tactical operations performed by the BCT/RCT.

## Support To Mobility Operations

4-1. The ART, *Conduct Mobility Operations*, is defined in FM 7-15 as "Maintain freedom of movement for personnel and equipment within an AO without delays due to terrain or barriers, obstacles and mines." The following five functional areas of mobility operations (see FM 3-34.2) are intended to meet the challenges of mobility and maintain freedom of tactical maneuver and operational movement:

z
Conduct Combined Arms Breaching Operations: detect, neutralize (by combined arms breach or bypass), mark, and proof mined areas and obstacles. Countermine and counterobstacle activities are typically performed in a close combat environment.
z
Conduct Clearing Operations: employ tactics and equipment to detect and eliminate obstacles, mines, and other EHs. While this is not always part of a combined arms breaching operation and is typically not performed in a close combat environment, it will still generally include the task of breach.
z
Conduct Gap Crossing Operations: fill gaps in the terrain to allow personnel and equipment to pass.
z
Construct/Maintain Combat Roads and Trails: expediently prepare or repair routes of travel for personnel and equipment. This includes temporary bypasses of damaged roads and bridges.
z
Perform Forward Aviation Combat Engineering (FACE): Construct/maintain forward airfields and landing zones (LZs), forward arming and refueling points (FARPs), landing strips, or other
aviation support sites in the forward combat area.
4-2. The primary focus of the ERT collecting technical information in support of the functional areas of mobility operations is obstacles. The task is to conduct route, zone, or area reconnaissance to determine terrain trafficability and the location and boundaries of barriers, obstacles, and minefields. An obstacle is any obstruction designed or employed to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the movement of an enemy force. They are also employed to impose additional losses in personnel, time, and equipment on the enemy. Obstacles can exist naturally or be manmade or can be a combination of both. The effectiveness of obstacles is enhanced considerably when covered by observation and fire. Obstacles include abatis, antitank ditches, blown bridges, built-up areas, minefields, rivers, road craters, terrain, and wire. As mentioned above, mines are employed in combination with other obstacles to create complex obstacles.

## Obstacle Reconnaissance

4-3. In any operation where enemy obstacles can interfere with friendly maneuver, OBSTINTEL is one of the IR and should become PIR. Finding enemy obstacles or seeing enemy obstacle activity validates and refines the S-2's picture of the AO/OE. OBSTINTEL helps the S-2 determine the enemy's intentions, plans, and defense strength. The force engineer is the unit's expert on enemy countermobility capabilities and assists the S-2 in templating enemy obstacles, analyzing OBSTINTEL, and analyzing the effects of terrain. The S-3, S-2, and engineer establish effective OBSTINTEL collection by determining specific obstacle IR. Obtaining OBSTINTEL requires dedicated collection assets. Reconnaissance assets are tasked to collect specific information that is needed to fulfill obstacle IR. 4-4. Obstacle reconnaissance is one of the high frequency tasks conducted by ERTs. The task is to conduct reconnaissance of obstacles focused on answering obstacle intelligence IRobstacle location, length, width, and depth; obstacle composition (wire, mines by type, and so forth.); soil conditions; locations of lanes and bypasses; and the location of enemy direct-fire systems. An ERT moves with scouts or a patrol and conducts dismounted reconnaissance of templated or confirmed obstacles. The purpose of the reconnaissance is not only to locate the obstacle but also to determine how best to overcome the effects of the obstaclereduction or bypass. The following tasks may be associated with the reconnaissance:

z
Locating and marking a bypass.
Note. If the obstacle is to be bypassed, the ERT can be employed to provide guides as well as mark the bypass.

z
Locating and marking the best location to reduce.
z
Estimating the reduction assets necessary to reduce the obstacle.
4-5. Although an ERT may have limited capability to clear or reduce small obstacles that are not covered by fire or observation, ERTs engaged in a reconnaissance mission for OBSTINTEL should rarely be used to reduce obstacles during the reconnaissance mission. Inadvertent detonation during reduction may compromise engineers and scouts, defeating the reconnaissance mission. It may also compromise the entire attack. If a decision is made to breach an obstacle, the ERT can typically provide guides to the breach forces for subsequent breaching operations. 4-6. The ERT approaches a known or suspected obstacle location with caution. Security is established, with support from the tactical reconnaissance element if possible, and selected engineers move dismounted to the obstacle. Trip wires and other wires may indicate that the enemy is using booby traps or commanddetonated mines to prevent friendly forces from collecting information on the obstacle. The ERT prepares an obstacle report with the relevant information. Examples of OBSTINTEL collected through obstacle reconnaissance include

z
The location of existing and reinforcing obstacles.
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The orientation and depth of obstacles.
z
Conditions of the soil (in the case of a minefield) to determine the ability to use tank plows.
z
The presence, location, and type of wire.
z
Lanes and bypasses.
z
The composition of the minefield (buried or surface-laid AT and antipersonnel (AP) mines,
antihandling devices [AHDs], and the depth of the mines).
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Types of mines and fuses; composition of the minefield.
z
The location of enemy indirect-fire systems that can fire into the breach area.
z
The composition of complex obstacles.
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Areas between successive obstacle belts.
4-7. The ERT forwards an obstacle report to both the supported unit tactical operations center (TOC) and its parent unit whenever possible. In the digital environment, information required remains the same; however, the means by which the ERT collects data and retransmits it back to the maneuver TOC has changed. Information obtained about the terrain, terrain features, and obstacles can now be digitally transmitted to the maneuver TOC to facilitate BCT/RCT force mobility. Information collected can be digitally transmitted in near real or real time via the digital reconnaissance system (DRS). The ERT employs DRS to record and report breached lanes, route critical points, bypasses, logistics resources, and the locations of wounded personnel or damaged equipment. 4-8. After collecting the information, the scout platoon or ERT leader analyzes the situation and the METT-T[C] factors to select a COA. Once the scouts and ERTs have determined the best COA for a situation, they execute it or recommend it to higher headquarters for approval. Generally, the reconnaissance team executes a particular COA without specific approval if it is addressed in the OPORD received from higher headquarters or if it is in the unit SOP. If the situation discovered is not covered by previous guidance, the reconnaissance team determines the best COA and recommends it to the commander before execution. The four COAs are

z
Use a bypass.
z
Reduce the obstacle.
z
Support a breaching operation.
z
Continue the mission.
4-9. Using a bypass is the preferred method when it offers a quick, easy, and tactically sound means of avoiding the obstacle. A good bypass must allow an entire force to avoid the primary obstacle without risking further exposure to enemy fire and without diverting the force from its objective. Bypassing conserves reduction assets and maintains the momentum. If a reconnaissance team locates a bypass and the commander approves its use, scouts and engineers must mark it according to the supported unit tactical SOP and report it to their commander. At a minimum, this report should include the grid location to the far recognition marker and information on how the obstacle is marked, even if it is just to confirm that the bypass is marked according to the SOP. If the reconnaissance team is tasked to mark a bypass, the team must emplace markers so that they are not visible to the enemy. Engineers and scouts may be required to provide guides for the main body, especially if the bypass is difficult to locate or if visibility conditions are poor. 4-10. Bypassing is not always possible, and breaching may be the best or only solution, as in the following situations:

z
The obstacle is integrated into a prepared defensive position, and the only available bypass moves friendly forces into the fire sack or an ambush.
z
The reconnaissance mission specifically tasks the reconnaissance team to clear the original route for follow-on forces.
z
The best available bypass route does not allow follow-on forces to maintain their desired rate of movement, or it diverts the force from the objective.
z
Improvements to the bypass may require more time and assets than breaching the primary obstacles.
4-11. Reducing an obstacle significantly degrades the ability to maintain the momentum of the reconnaissance or follow-on forces. Obstacles that the scout and engineer are able to reduce include small minefields, simple wire obstacles, small roadblocks, and similar obstacles. The supported commander should make the decision to have the reconnaissance team reduce an obstacle while considering the risk to the reconnaissance team and the potential for prematurely identifying the route. Obstacle reduction should not be attempted if the obstacle is part of an integrated defensive position. 4-12. When a large obstacle is located and cannot be bypassed easily, the alternative is to support a breaching operation. Scouts and engineers perform additional reconnaissance tasks in support of the breaching operation. These tasks include determining the assets and time needed to reduce the obstacle and determining the best location for the reduction site. Scout and engineer reconnaissance efforts focus on the following:

z
Trafficable routes to the reduction site and routes from the far side leading to the objective.
z
Proposed locations for positioning the support force.
z
Dispersed, covered, and concealed areas near the reduction site.
z
The best location for the reduction effort at the obstacle. It is imperative that the reduction plan be sent to the reconnaissance teams once the scheme of maneuver is finalized. Information (such as the number of lanes required and the distance between lanes) is needed for the reconnaissance forces to conduct the necessary reconnaissance.
z
Positions on both sides of the obstacle that could provide enemy observation of the reduction site.
z
Trafficability and soil conditions near the reduction site. This is especially important for minefield reduction because mine-clearing blades will not work properly in all soil conditions.
z
Soil type (loamy, rocky, sandy, and so forth).
z
The width, depth, and bottom conditions of wet and dry gaps and fords.
z
The bank height and slope and the soil stability of wet and dry gaps.
z
The water velocity and the direction of flow of wet gaps and fords.
z
The wind direction for using smoke to obscure enemy vision.
z
The location of the forward edge of the minefield to support mine-clearing line charge use.
4-13. The ERT must provide timely, valuable information when large obstacles are encountered during a mission. The information is used by all elements of the breaching operation to finalize the suppression, obscuration, security, reduction, and assault plans for the breaching operation.

## Clearing Operations

4-14. Clearing operations are designed to clear or neutralize all explosive hazards and other obstacles from a route or area. As with most mobility operations, clearing operations are often conducted by a combined arms force built around an engineer-based clearing force. Clearing operations include route clearance and area clearance. The reconnaissance focus in clearing operations is again on OBSTINTELbut in support of clearing operations. The OBSTINTEL must be comprehensive and detailed to enable the neutralization of all obstacles along the route or in the area. The task is to conduct detailed reconnaissance of obstacles focused on answering obstacle intelligence IRobstacle location, length, width, and depth; obstacle composition (wire, mines by type, and so forth); and soil conditions. The location of lanes and bypasses as well as information on enemy positions is also collected, but the focus is on detailed OBSTINTEL.

## Route Clearance

4-15. Maneuver units or scouts (augmented by engineers) conduct a route reconnaissance to gain detailed information about a specific route and the terrain on both sides of the route that the enemy could use to influence movement. When the commander wants to perform reconnaissance of a specific route, a maneuver unit or scout platoon with an ERT conducts a route reconnaissance to gain information on obstacles obstructing trafficability of the route. This information provides the basis for the planning process of the clearance mission. Since the clearing operation is designed to ensure that the route is clear of obstacles and enemy forces and will support vehicle movement, detailed OBSTINTEL is required for every obstacle along the route. (See FMI 3-34.119/MCIP 3-17.01 and FM 3-34.210 for specifics about the considerations of IEDs in route clearance.) 4-16. Chapter 3 included a discussion of route reconnaissance as a form of tactical reconnaissance. A route reconnaissance element must accomplish a specified number of tasks unless directed to do otherwise. In the route reconnaissance specifically in support of a route clearance, the focus narrows to those obstacles and enemy forces obstructing trafficability along the route. The situation may require varying the reconnaissance tempo and engagement criteria, but the reconnaissance focus in support of route clearance must remain the detailed information required for the complete neutralization of all explosive hazards and other obstacles from the route. 4-17. Based on the time available and the commander's intent, the reconnaissance element may be directed to conduct clearance of some identified obstacles. The reconnaissance element may be organized as part of the clearance element or be directed to assist in planning the follow-on clearance mission. The reconnaissance leader must clearly understand the engagement criteria and focus on the OBSTINTEL required for the clearance mission. A route reconnaissance supporting a follow-on clearance mission focuses on

z
Locating obstacles along the route. In some situations, reconnaissance units may be required to clear routes, or portions or a route, of obstacles. Although using digital cameras during route reconnaissance is becoming more popular, the reconnaissance element must still capture all of the critical OBSTINTEL for obstacles along the route and not rely solely on the images relayed via the digital camera.
z
Reconnoitering to the limit of the direct-fire range and terrain that dominate the route.
z
Reconnoitering all built-up areas along the route (identify bypass routes, construction supplies and equipment, ambush sites, evidence of booby traps, and suitable sites for C2 and sustainment facilities).
z
Locating bypasses around built-up areas, obstacles, and contaminated areas.
z
Reporting route information (see reports discussed in appendix B).
z
Finding and reporting all enemy forces that can influence movement along the route.

## Area Clearance

4-18. Area clearance is the detection and if found, the identification, marking, neutralization, destruction, or removal of mines or other explosive ordnance, IEDs, and booby traps in a defined area to allow a military operation to continue with reduced risk. It is a combined arms operation. Clearing land mine hazards is primarily the responsibility of combat engineer units; the clearing of all other EHs is primarily the responsibility of EOD units within the Army or from EOD elements in other supporting Services.

4-19. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to support the information gathering phase of an area clearance mission. The area reconnaissance enables detailed planning for the area clearance and provides the initial information needed to enable the technical survey described in FM 3-34.210. As with a route reconnaissance in support of clearance operations, the focus of the area reconnaissance narrows to those obstacles and enemy forces obstructing freedom of movement in the targeted area. The situation may require varying the reconnaissance tempo and engagement criteria, but the reconnaissance focus in support of area clearance must remain the detailed information required for the complete neutralization of all explosive hazards and other obstacles from the area. 4-20. Area reconnaissance provides the initial information needed to enable area clearance operations. The gathering of detailed technical and topographical information of known or suspected hazardous areas is conducted through a technical survey. (A technical survey is similar to intelligence preparation of the battlefield.) The primary aim of a technical survey is to collect sufficient information to enable the clearance requirement to be more accurately defined. The results of the survey drive the entire area clearance process from planning, task organization, and equipment and resource allocation to completion. Planners use all available intelligence assets to gather historical and existing EH information. Assets include

z
Coalition, joint, and Service fire support and air planners can provide information on possible friendly UXO locations and types.
z
Human intelligence (HUMINT), minefield records from former warring factions, coalition intelligence, and nongovernmental agencies are all potential assets.
z
Aerial reconnaissance must be used to analyze and determine the EH threat during the technical
survey.
4-21. An on-site briefing by the technical survey team to the clearing team is the capstone of the technical survey. This ensures that the clearing team fully understands the templated and verified threat assessment with specific locations of threats. The technical survey is the first phase of area clearance and consists of three tasks:

z
Information gathering.
z
Reconnaissance.
z
EHs survey.
4-22. Consider the following in gathering information:
z
Coordinate hazard areas. Use a map or imagery to draw the hazard area for the operation. Identify units, security forces, observation towers, and roads. Identify those personnel or indigenous peoples who will need to be evacuated or controlled during the operation. The base operations center shift change is the best place to coordinate operations and resolve issues. Conduct coordination meetings to ensure success. Announce the operation during all concerned or appropriate daily update briefings.
z
Employ HUMINT. Local commanders have some value in showing their own and enemy positions. This will help you see the no-man's-land in between and enable you to template obstacle reinforcement of the terrain. Local commanders can also tell you generally what types of EHs are in the area and where they are located.
z
Integrate CA. CA personnel can help in understanding the impacts of clearing operations to local civilians. They are trained to gain and maintain contact with the locals to avoid confrontations, gain explosive hazard (mine/UXO) HUMINT, get local force's security help,
and resolve any land rights issues in a timely fashion.
z
Confirm recent incident/accident reports.
z
Brief survey team prior to deploying to site.
4-23. Consider the following in conducting the reconnaissance:
z
Terrain. If the terrain is rough or full of battle positions and debris instead of flat, this adds difficulty.
z
Equipment or resources available.

Detection. Soldiers and Marines with hand-held detectors, sniffers, probes, trip-wire feelers, and mine detection dog teams.

Clearance. Flails, rollers, and mine-protected clearance vehicles.

Marking. The design of EH marking systems should take account of materials available and
the period for which the marking system will be in place. The amount of materials needed change from the technical survey phase through the clearing phase.
z
Weather. The effects of adverse weather on enemy and friendly systems must be factored into the plan.
z
Using aerial reconnaissance. This is the next best source to imagery. It allows the commander and his key leaders to see the ground and to take high-resolution photographs for future magnification and printing. As many of the area clearance leaders as possible should take part in the aerial reconnaissance.
z
Using visual reconnaissance. Key leaders should conduct a reconnaissance on the ground. Using the top of a mine-protected vehicle to stand on or a security observation tower, they should spend time viewing through binoculars. Coordinate and ensure EOD personnel are present. Their knowledge of UXOs will greatly assist in planning, clearing, and proofing the area.
z
Using imagery. Use both recent and older imagery to support change detection methods and know what the colors or shading levels mean. Recent imagery is the single most useful tool to describe the threats. Be cautious when printing the area of operations, and overlay the threats in as much detail as possible because possible threats may be over templated. This may cause the
recognition and assessment to be unnecessarily cautious or over resourced.
z
Observing local nationals. Local nationals typically use trails and paths in the area. Observe and/or talk to those in the area that use these trails and paths on a daily basis. Show these trails on the technical survey. These are low risk start paths for the recognition phase to begin its cross-hatching network.
4-24. Consider the following when conducting the EH survey (see FM 3-34.210 for a more detailed discussion on completing DA Form 7602 (EH Survey Report Form):

z
Confirmation of the presence of EH.
z
Confirmation of any data that has been initially collected.
z
Assessment of the ground in terms of the soil, metal contamination, vegetation, and slope.
z
A definition of the area in terms of its size, described through measurements and azimuths.
z
The required depth per area to which clearance will be conducted (may require adjustment from the depth specified in the tasking order).
z
The resources required to carry out clearance activities in the identified area and the estimated time for manual teams, mechanically assisted teams, mine detection dog teams, and EOD teams, as appropriate.
z
Boundary lane around the hazard area.
z
Location of known safe areas and known or suspected hazard areas adjoining the area to be cleared.
z
Survey marking. Use and record physical survey markers and indicators to assist subsequent area clearing operations.

Reference point. A reference point, or landmark, is a fixed point of reference some distance outside the hazardous area. It should be an easily recognizable and permanent feature (such as a crossroads or the abutment of a bridge) which can be used to assist in navigating to one or more benchmarks. The coordinates of a reference point should be surveyed by global positioning system (GPS).

Benchmark. A benchmark is a fixed point of reference that is used to locate a marked and recorded EH area. It should normally be located a short distance outside the suspected hazardous area. A benchmark may not be necessary if the reference point is sufficiently close to the perimeter of the hazardous area. The coordinates of a reference point should be surveyed by GPS.

Start point. An SP can be the same point as the benchmark or the first turning point.

Turn point (TP). A TP is a fixed point on the ground which indicates a change in direction of the perimeter of the hazardous area. It must be clearly marked and recorded. TP survey markers will be made of permanent or semipermanent material and will be buried or driven into the ground. Buried metal objects may be used to reinforce the marking of all TPs for permanent future reference.

Intermediate point (IP). The distance between survey markers on the perimeter of a hazardous area must not exceed 50 meters. IP survey markers will be used between TPs that are more than 50 meters apart. IP survey markers will be made of permanent or semipermanent material and will be buried or driven into the ground. Buried metal objects
will be used to reinforce the marking of all IPs for permanent future reference.

Detailed site sketch. In addition to the information mentioned above, a detailed site sketch (drawn to scale) is prepared and provided to the unit that will eventually carry out the clearance task. This process must be completed to ensure gaining units fully understand the area and the EH threat. The technical survey should describe the threats, likeliness of each threat, imagery showing the locations of the threats, and where any change in threat occurs.

Marking the perimeter. Mark the perimeter of the area to be cleared with red and white markers spaced no more than five meters apart. The red markers represent the hazard side and the white markers represent the safe side. The marking is done to provide a clear warning of danger to personnel and, where possible, to install a physical barrier to reduce
the risk of unintentional entry into hazardous areas.

Marking left and right edges. For boundary and safe lanes, left and right edges of the lanes should also be marked with red and white markers. The red markers are spaced five meters apart on the inside edge of the cleared lanes. White markers should be placed two to three inches inside the red markers on both sides of the cleared lane. Looking down a cleared lane, troops will see two rows of red markers on the outer edge of the lane and two rows of white markers inside the rows of red markers.
Note. If clearance does not immediately follow a technical survey, then survey markers should be left securely in place. Such markers will enable the hazardous area to be located accurately and safely at a later date.

## Gap Crossing

4-25. Military traffic engaged in rapid decisive maneuvers must be able to cross wet or dry gaps in existing road networks or natural high-speed avenues of approach. Very few LOCs will exist without some form of bridge, bypass, or detour. Maneuver forces and logistical support depend on three types of bridging: tactical, support, and LOC (and existing or permanent bridges). Tactical operations of combined arms forces within the BCT/RCT are primarily focused on the first two of these forms of bridging or the seizure of existing or permanent bridges. Tactical bridging is typically linked to combat engineers and immediate support of combined arms ground maneuver. (See FM 90-13 for a more in-depth discussion of bridging as a component of combined arms gap crossing operations.) 4-26. Engineers support gap crossing through construction, repair, and reinforcement of bridges; by providing bridge reconnaissance and classification; and in the construction of bypasses and detours. The specific mission undertaken is planned in a manner that maintains the momentum of the force. Bypasses and fording sites can be used to overcome obstacles when it is more feasible or when bridges are not available. Existing bridges may need to be repaired or reinforced to keep MSRs and LOCs open. As the tactical situation changes, MSRs are moved or adjusted to support the force. Forward elements may demand that expedient, standard, and nonstandard structures be emplaced to replace tactical bridging and support bridging and those assets returned for their use by the combat maneuver elements of the force. These types of bridges are also not designed for the multiple passes that are typical for MSRs and will need to ultimately be replaced by other bridging. Requirements for engineer units to employ tactical, support, and LOC bridging continue throughout the fight.

4-27. Engineers use products and support from geospatial engineering to greatly improve SU (to include terrain) and select optimal bridging sites. High-resolution satellite imagery or UAS video are precise pictures of terrain. The requirement for the engineer is to have the appropriate software. Engineer terrain teams assist in determining conditions in areas at or around potential gap crossing sites. Terrain teams have software that can assist in mission planning by determining soil conditions, hydrology, vegetation types, general weather patterns, and other useful aspects of the terrain. 4-28. ERTs conduct route or area reconnaissance with a focus on existing structures to gather information on trafficability of existing bridges. Chapter 6 provides a discussion on technical assessment of bridges. ERTs inspect the bridge to determine its load-carrying capacity (classification) and its structural integrity (see appendix F for classification instructions). The ERT determines whether the situation warrants emplacing a tactical, support, or LOC bridge. When a damaged bridge is to be replaced, reconnaissance information includes a report on the serviceability of the in-place structural members and other local materials that might be reused in other construction (see appendix B for reporting instructions). Maximum use should be made of existing bridge sites to take advantage of the existing roads, abutments, piers, and spans that are serviceable.

4-29. Bridge reconnaissance is classified as either hasty or deliberate, depending on the amount of detail required, time available, and security in the AO. ERTs typically conduct the hasty reconnaissance while augmented ERTs, assessment, or survey teams are tasked to conduct the deliberate reconnaissance. A deliberate reconnaissance is usually conducted in support of MSR and LOC bridging operations since greater traffic requirements dictate that time and qualified personnel be made available to support the task.

An engineer light dive team can assist with the deliberate reconnaissance by providing near shore and far shore crossing site data. Additionally, they can mark and prepare landing sites, riverbanks, and exit routes for the crossing force. A deliberate reconnaissance includes a thorough structural analysis; a report on approaches to the bridge site; a report on the nature of the crossing site, abutments, intermediate supports; and bridge structure; repair and demolition information; and the possibility of alternate crossing sites. 4-30. When existing structures are not present or adequate to the crossing requirement, ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to collect data to determine acceptable terrain and conditions for new construction. ERTs use the assessment tools and procedures discussed in chapter 6 to provide the required technical focus for other gap crossing sites. Using the results of reconnaissance, planners can determine which type of bridge or bridge combinations are right for the mission based on available resources. The location ultimately chosen for the bridge is determined by numerous factors which are reflected in its structural design. Primary screening considerations include

z
Access and approach roads. Determine if the preexisting roads are adequate. The time to construct approaches can be a controlling factor in determining if a crossing site is feasible. Approaches should be straight, with two lanes, and less than a 6-percent slope.
z
Width. Determine the width of the gap to be spanned at both normal and flood stage for wet gaps.
z
Banks. Estimate the character and shape of the banks accurately enough to establish abutment positions. The banks should be firm and level to limit the need for extensive grading. Select straight reaches to avoid scour.
z
Flow characteristics. Determine the stream velocity and erosion data, taking into consideration the rise and fall of the water. A good site has steady current that runs parallel to the bank at less than 3 feet per second.
z
Stream bottom. Record the characteristics of the bottom. This will help in determining the type of supports and footings required. An actual soil sample is useful in the planning process, particularly in wide gaps that may require an intermediate pier.
z
Elevation. Determine and record accurate cross-section dimensions of the site for determining the bridge's height. Planners must also know of any existing structures that the bridge must cross over.
z
Materials. Determine the accessibility of material for improving bank conditions such as rock, gravel, or other expedient construction materials.

## Combat Roads And Trails

4-31. The maneuver commander may require that a new or upgraded route be constructed to facilitate the mobility of his forces and support a scheme of maneuver or movement within an AO. An entirely new section of road may need to be constructed, for example, to bypass a known obstacle (natural or manmade). This may include the bypass of a densely populated location. The maneuver commander may also order an unusable road upgraded or a trail created to permit the passage of his forces. This combat construction could be a stand-alone mission to open or reopen a necessary route, or it may be part of a larger mobility operation; for example, a river crossing operation that may require access and egress roads. Construction and maintenance of combat roads and trails is a tactical task to enhance maneuver but is not the road construction mission performed by horizontal construction units within the general engineering function. Combat roads and trails include a requirement for a combination of route and area reconnaissance to gather the required technical information. 4-32. Thorough reconnaissance is essential in the selection of combat roads or trails. It normally starts with a study of available maps and aerial photos. Aerial reconnaissance provides much valuable information.

Detailed information, however, is obtained only by ground reconnaissance. The types of reconnaissance and their applicability to combat roads and trails include

z
Route reconnaissance. A route reconnaissance (chapter 3) is one of the three forms of tactical reconnaissance. It should not be confused with a route classification which can be included as
part of the route reconnaissance (below and in chapter 5) or a road reconnaissance which is a
technical component of the route classification.
z
Route classification. A route classification is assigned to a route using factors of minimum
width and worst route type; least bridge, raft, or culvert military load classification; and
obstructions to traffic flow. Reconnaissance collects information about roads, bridges, tunnels,
fords, waterways, and other natural terrain features that may affect the desired traffic flow. Information obtained in a hasty route classification may be adequately recorded on a simple sketch or overlay. Because of the greater detail obtained in a deliberate route classification, the overlays discussed in Chapter 5 along with specifically designed report formats (appendix B) are used.
z
Road reconnaissance. ERTs conduct road reconnaissance as a component of route classification while assessment teams conduct road reconnaissance as the primary focus of technical reconnaissance support. The ERTs are primarily interested in the road as it impacts a route's trafficability. The assessment team is interested in the engineering details of the road to support its upgrade or repair. (Road reconnaissance is described in detail in chapter 5, and DA Form 1248 is included in appendix B.)
z
Area reconnaissance. New road construction is avoided whenever possible to save time and labor. When a new road is necessary, however, the first step is area reconnaissance. This requires a specific type of area reconnaissance in which all possible route layouts are included to ensure selection of the best route. Its main objective is to locate a new road or trail in an area that will hold up under anticipated traffic and meets mission requirements.
4-33. ERTs conduct route reconnaissance to determine trafficability of the selected route and its components. Typically a route classification is included as a specified task for the ERT as part of an assigned route reconnaissance. The route classification describes the traffic-bearing capabilities and condition of selected route and supports decisions on improvements needed before a route can carry the proposed traffic. Route classification is classified as either hasty or deliberate. The way in which route reconnaissance is performed depends upon the amount of detail required, the time available, the terrain problems encountered, and the tactical situation. Hasty route classification determines the immediate military trafficability of a specified route. It is limited to critical terrain data necessary for route classification. The results are part of the mobility input to the COP. Information concerning the route is updated with additional reports as required by the situation and/or the commander's guidance. A deliberate route classification (including road, bridge, tunnel, and other technical components) is conducted when sufficient time and qualified technical personnel are available. Deliberate route classification is usually conducted when operational requirements are anticipated to cause heavy, protracted use of the road and may follow the conduct of a hasty route reconnaissance. An overlay is made as described in chapter 5 and, along with attachments, describes the route, its components, and pertinent terrain features in detail. 4-34. The ERT is briefed as to the anticipated traffic (wheeled, tracked, or a combination) and the anticipated traffic flow. Single flow traffic allows a column of vehicles to proceed while individual oncoming or overtaking vehicles pass at predetermined points. Double flow traffic allows two columns of vehicles to proceed simultaneously in the same or in opposite directions. The reconnaissance team may also be asked to determine the grade and alignment, horizontal and vertical curve characteristics, and the nature and location of obstructions. Obstructions are defined as anything that reduces the road classification below what is required to support the proposed traffic efficiently. Obstructions include

z
Restricted lateral clearance, including traveled way width such as bridges, built-up areas, rock falls or slide areas, tunnels, and wooded areas.
z
Restricted overhead clearance, including overpasses, bridges, tunnels, wooded areas, built-up areas.
z
Sharp curves.
z
Excessive gradients.
z
Poor drainage.
z
Snow blockage.
z
Unstable foundation.
z
Rough surface conditions.
4-35. Other obstacles include CBRN contamination, roadblocks, craters, explosive hazards (to include mines and other UXOs and IEDs), cultural sites, and environmental restrictions. Existing bridging may require special attention, as it is often a weak link. It may be necessary to conduct a bridge reconnaissance and classification computations. 4-36. Information collected can be digitally transmitted in near real or real time via the DRS. When available, an automated route reconnaissance kit (ARRK) can provide engineer units with an automated reconnaissance package that allows the reconnaissance element to collect and process reconnaissance information. Use of the ARRK assists the ERT by tracking location, speed, curve, and slope of roads and obstacles encountered along the route. (The ARRK is described in detail in appendix H.) 4-37. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance when shortfalls are identified and the need to move or maneuver cannot be supported by the existing road or trail network. With their understanding of force mobility requirements in the forward area, the ERT can quickly evaluate the terrain for possible cross-country movement. The ERT can also evaluate and collect preliminary information on the potential for combat road or trail construction creation. Typically, the decision to construct combat roads or trails can be made with the technical information collected in the area reconnaissance. For more permanent new construction, an assessment or survey team will typically conduct specific site investigations to collect the detailed technical information required for planning a road network. Site investigation requires a thorough knowledge of soils engineering, hydrology, and technical design requirements. A detailed site investigation will serve as the foundation behind the design of a new road and/or the upgrade, repair, and maintenance of an existing road. 4-38. Periodic reconnaissance is especially important during frozen, wet, or unusually dry weather to determine the effects of these conditions on the roads and trails. During winter months in cold environments, this will include the feasibility of snow roads for off-route traffic or ice roads across lakes and streams. Maintenance requirements based on periodic reconnaissance (to include basic snow removal) must be coordinated with the units using the roads. This ensures that engineer effort will not be spent on roads that are no longer needed and that engineer crews will not interfere with the movement of critical convoys.

## Forward Aviation Combat Engineering

4-39. Airfields and heliports are built, upgraded, repaired, and maintained to meet mission and operational requirements. FACE prepares or repairs LZs, FARPs, landing strips, or other aviation support sites in the forward combat area and is considered combat engineering tasks focused on providing support to tactical combat maneuver forces. (See FM 3-34.2.) All other airfield and heliport construction is considered general engineering tasks. 4-40. Airfields and heliports are classified by their degree of permanence and type of aircraft they are designed to support. They are essential for controlling aircraft, either fixed wing and/or rotary wing. These controlling aircraft, or aircraft combination, are identified for each kind of facility to establish limiting airfield and/or heliport geometric and surface strength requirements. Army airfields and heliports are divided into six classes (see Unified Facilities Criteria [UFC] 3-260-01):

z
Class I. Helipads-heliports with aircraft 25,000 pounds (11,340 kilograms) or less. The controlling aircraft is a UH-60 aircraft at a 16,300-pound (7,395 kilograms) operational weight.
z
Class II. Helipads-heliports with aircraft over 25,000 pounds (11,340 kilograms). The controlling aircraft is a CH-47 aircraft at a 50,000-pound (22,680 kilograms) operational weight.
z
Class III. Airfields with Class A runways. The controlling aircraft combination is a C-23 aircraft
at a 24,600-pound (11,158 kilograms) operational weight and a CH-47 aircraft at a
50,000-pound (22,680 kilogram) operational weight. Class A runways are primarily intended for small aircraft such as C-12s and C-23s.

z
Class IV. Airfields with Class B runways. The controlling aircraft is a C-130 aircraft at a 155,000-pound (70,307 kilograms) operational weight or a C-17 aircraft at a 580,000-pound
(263,084 kilograms) operational weight. Class B runways are primarily intended for high
performance and for large, heavy aircraft such as C-130s, C-17s, and C-141s.
z
Class V. Contingency operations heliport or helipads supporting Army assault training missions. The controlling aircraft is a CH-47 aircraft at a 50,000-pound (22,680 kilograms) operational weight.
z
Class VI. Assault landing zones for contingency operations airfields supporting Army training missions that have semiprepared or paved surfaces (also known as forward landing strips). The controlling aircraft is a C-130 aircraft at a 155,000-pound (70,307 kilograms) operational weight or a C-17 aircraft at a 580,000-pound (263,084 kilograms) operational weight.
4-41. Air Force airfields are classified into six mission categories. A controlling aircraft or combination of controlling aircraft has been designated for each category to establish limiting airfield, geometric, and surface strength requirements. These airfield categories include (see UFC 3-260-01)

z
Light - F15, C-17.
z
Medium - F-15, C-17, B-52.
z
Heavy - F-15, C-5, B-52.
z
Modified Heavy - F-15, C-17, B-1.
z
Auxiliary - F-15.
z
Assault Landing Zone - C-130, C-17.
4-42. A bare base airfield is a site with a usable runway, taxiway, parking areas, and a source of water that can be made potable. It must be capable of supporting assigned aircraft and providing other mission-essential resources, such as a logistical support and services infrastructure composed of people, facilities, equipment, and supplies. This concept requires modular, mobile facilities, utilities, and support equipment packages that can be rapidly deployed and installed. A bare base airfield forms the baseline for contingency operations airfield planning. 4-43. On normal operational airfields, pavements are grouped into the following four traffic areas based on the intended use and design load:

z
Type A. Those traffic areas that receive concentrated traffic and the full design weight of the aircraft. These traffic areas require a greater pavement thickness than other areas on the airfield and include all airfield runways and, in some cases, taxiways as well. All airfield pavement structures on contingency operations airfields are considered type A traffic areas.
z
Type B. Those traffic areas that receive a more even traffic flow and the full design weight of
the aircraft. These traffic areas include parking aprons, pads, and hardstands.
z
Type C. Those traffic areas with a low volume of traffic or the applied weight of the operating aircraft is generally less than the design weight. These traffic areas include secondary taxiways and washrack pavements.
z
Type D. Those traffic areas with an extremely low volume of traffic and/or the applied weight of the operating aircraft is considerably lower than the design weight.
4-44. An airfield can also be described based on its location within the AO:
z
Forward airfields intended to provide focused logistics support and/or support combat missions of short-range aircraft such as attack helicopter and UASs during contingency operations. These airfields are designed to initial or temporary contingency operations standards depending on the mission and operational requirements and may be paved or semiprepared. These may be initially prepared or repaired as FACE tasks.
z
Intermediate airfields intended to provide general logistics support, support combat missions of longer-range aircraft during contingency operations, and/or training. These airfields are designed to temporary or semipermanent standards depending on mission and operational
requirements. Normally these airfields are paved. These airfields provide a link between forward tactical airfields and sustainment level airfields.

z
Airfields intended to provide logistics support forward from fixed, secure bases to support combat operations of long-range aircraft and/or training. These airfields are designed to be
semipermanent or permanent facilities.
4-45. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to collect technical information required to support FACE. This information can also provide the base level information for planning follow-on assessments and/or general engineering airfield support and a survey if necessary. The ERT focuses on collecting the minimum information required for the intended use of the facility. The ERT employs the appropriate components of the full airfield assessment as discussed in chapter 6 to understand the information required by the FACE mission. Additional technical expertise can augment the ERT when the information required exceeds the ERT resident capability. The focus of reconnaissance in support of FACE may include any or all of the following:

z
Site drainage system structure.
z
Design and condition of runways, taxiways, and hardstands.
z
Availability of soils and other materials and their usefulness for improving subgrade.
z
Type and thickness of the base course.
z
Type and thickness of the surface course.
z
Information on related facilities, including access and service roads, ammunition and POL storage areas, navigation aids, maintenance aprons, warm-up aprons, corrosion control facilities, control towers, airfield lighting, and other facilities.
z
Environmental considerations to include applicable force health protection intelligence.

## Support To Countermobility Operations

4-46. Countermobility operations involve constructing reinforcing obstacles integrated with fires to inhibit the maneuver of an enemy force, increase the time for target acquisition, and increase weapon effectiveness. Commanders integrate obstacle planning into the MDMP, integrate obstacles into the concept of operations (primarily through proper siting), and maintain integration through obstacle turnover, protection, and tracking. The force constructs, emplaces, or detonates tactical and protective obstacles to reinforce existing obstacles. Tactical obstacles are designed and integrated with fires to achieve a tactical effectdisrupt, fix, turn, or block. The three types of tactical obstacles are directed obstacles, situational obstacles, and reserve obstacles. They are distinguished by the differences in execution criteria. Protective obstacles are a key component of survivability operations. ERTs are employed to conduct area reconnaissance of proposed locations of obstacle complexes.

## Obstacle Placement

4-47. Terrain analysis is used to identify areas suitable for obstacles. Reconnaissance is used to determine the exact location of individual obstacles based on the enemy force (target), desired location of massed fires, tentative weapon system positions, and the intended effect (disrupt, fix, turn, or block). An area reconnaissance is conducted to verify that individual obstacles are covered by fires, note locations of fire control measures and obstacles, and record the appropriate data on range cards. (For a detailed discussion on obstacle integration and siting of obstacles, see FM 90-7.) 4-48. Terrain analysis is also used to identify areas suitable for situational obstacles. Reconnaissance is used to determine the best location on the ground for a situational obstacle based on the enemy force (target), desired location of integrated fires, tentative DP, and the intended effect (disrupt, fix, turn, or block). Area reconnaissance is conducted to verify that selected locations are suitable for SCATMINE or other situational obstacles. 4-49. The integrated obstacle plan may include the use of demolition obstacles in conjunction with other types of obstacles. Demolition obstacle planning requires detailed technical information to design the demolition attack and estimate the resources necessary. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to collect specific technical information for planning the demolition of selected targets. The ERT is given any information available on the selected target and must understand the demolition objective. This information helps the ERT to determine the best method of destroying the target and to estimate the preparation time required. For example, if the reconnaissance party knows that manpower and time are limited but explosives are plentiful, they may design demolitions requiring few men and little time but large quantities of explosives. With the information provided below, the ERT conducts reconnaissance of the target collecting and reporting the information on DA Form 2203 (*Demolition Reconnaissance Record*). (See appendix B):

z
Location and nature of the target.
z
Proposed classification of the demolition (reserved or preliminary).
z
Type of firing system desired (dual or single).
z
Economy of effort (whether the demolition must be completed in one stage or multiple stages).
z
Utility of the target during demolition operations (whether the target must remain open to traffic during demolition preparations).
z
Amount of time allowed or expected between preparation and execution of the demolition operation.
z
Amount of time allowed for changing the state of readiness (safe to armed).
z
Labor and equipment available for preparing the demolitions.
z
Types and quantities of explosives.

## Maintain Obstacle Integration

4-50. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance periodically to ensure emplaced obstacles remain integrated into the scheme of maneuver. The task includes turnover and transfer, protection, repair, and tracking of obstacles. Obstacle protection includes counterreconnaissance to prevent the enemy from gathering obstacle intelligence and enemy mobility asset destruction to ensure maximum effectiveness of obstacles. Obstacle tracking includes supervising achievement of key milestones as part of the unit's timeline (Classes IV/V forward, EA development initiated, siting completed), collation and dissemination of obstacle information, and maintenance of records.

## Support To Survivability Operations

4-51. Survivability provides cover and mitigates the effects of enemy weapons on personnel, equipment, and supplies while simultaneously deceiving the enemy regarding the intentions of the force. Survivability operations range from employing camouflage, concealment, and deception (CCD) to the hardening of facilities, C2 nodes, and critical infrastructure. Engineers may be called on to mass their skills and equipment to augment combat units in developing defensive positions into fortifications or strong points and improving defensive positions (see FM 5-103). More often, however, engineers participate in and provide staff advice on CCD (see FM 20-3) measures and the hardening of facilities to resist the destruction of C2 facilities (as part of integrated plans), air and missile defense weapons systems, and support structures within the communications zone. Within a missile threat environment, engineers provide field fortification support to harden key assets against missile attacks. Protection includes survivability engineering applications to HN facilities and United States (U.S.)-operated facilities as protective measures against terrorist or extremist groups that threaten U.S. forces or national interests. Survivability also includes providing concealment and protective shelter from the effects of enemy weapons. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to collect the technical information required to plan survivability operations.

## Fighting Positions

4-52. The creation of company- and battalion-sized BPs involves constructing numerous fighting and protective positions to meet the commander's intent for those particular sites. Although engineers assist with design and prioritization within the commander's guidance, the maneuver unit is responsible for siting each position and developing the BP. The maneuver unit representative (typically the unit first sergeant or XO) and the ERT conduct an area reconnaissance to design primary, alternate, and supplementary fighting positions and decide correct placement to maximize terrain effectiveness. The ERT also collects information necessary to estimate the survivability effort required. 4-53. Within the battle position, protective obstacles provide friendly forces with close-in protection and are part of their protection plan. During the area reconnaissance to design the BP, the ERT assists with design of close-in protection by identifying appropriate locations to employ protective obstacles.

## Protective Positions

4-54. A protective position is one that has been specifically modified and enhanced to repel or minimize enemy weapons effects against personnel, equipment, facilities, or battle functions. The supported force uses protective positions (natural or artificial), measures, or equipment to reduce the effects of enemy weapons systems. These positions may require the construction of checkpoints and entry control points, especially if constructed in support of stability operations. Protective positions provide cover and concealment for personnel, systems, equipment, supplies, and other materiel not directly involved in fighting, including medical patients. These positions reduce the risks associated with all forms of enemy contact, such as direct and indirect fires, enemy observations, employment of CBRN weapons, and so forth.

4-55. ERTs conduct area reconnaissance
z
To design protective positions for personnel, systems, equipment, supplies, and other materiel not directly involved in fighting and to decide correct placement to maximize terrain
effectiveness.
z
To design protective earth walls, berms, and revetments for personnel, systems, equipment, supplies, and other materiel not directly involved in fighting and to decide correct placement to maximize terrain effectiveness.
z
To identify vulnerabilities to buildings that could leave personnel, operations, and equipment
unprotected based on identified threats. Existing and/or temporary buildings may be used to house troops, operations, and equipment. Protecting conventionally constructed and temporary buildings from threats, which can include large explosives and indirect- and direct-fire threats, is an engineering challenge. The buildings may have to be strengthened, hardened, or shielded. They should be located away from perimeters, roadways, and vantage points.
z
To plan or revise the plan to employ bridge protective systems of river approaches to selected bridges. Protective systems for an existing floating bridge or river crossing site protect the bridge/site from waterborne demolition teams, floating mines, or floating debris. The three types of floating protective systems are antimine booms, impact booms, and antiswimmer nets.

## Support To Other Combat Operations

4-56. ERTs conduct zone, area, and route reconnaissance with a reconnaissance focus linked directly to answering the CCIR but with a specified additional focus on the required technical information. While the basic principles associated with engineer reconnaissance support is similar in support of M/CM/S operations, there are specific considerations that apply only to certain other types of combat operations. This section provides considerations for tactical engineer reconnaissance support to urban operations, search operations, tunnels and subsurface operations, as well as operations in complex terrain. This section also includes brief discussions on both environmental and infrastructure reconnaissance in support of tactical operations.

## Urban Operations

4-57. ERTs support tactical reconnaissance operations in urban terrain with route, area, and zone reconnaissance integrated closely with tactical reconnaissance elements. In urban operations, the preferred means of employment is to task organize ERTs directly to maneuver battalion scouts or reconnaissance squadron troops to augment those units during tactical reconnaissance operations. Engineers teamed directly with dedicated reconnaissance assets add required technical skills to the team which can increase the tempo and effectiveness of the reconnaissance mission. But in urban operations, the ERT must be familiar with planning considerations unique to the urban environment. This discussion focuses on the following elements of planning for urban reconnaissance operations:

z
Collect and analyze existing intelligence.
z
Determine reconnaissance and surveillance objectives.
z
Plan infiltration and exfiltration routes.
z
Synchronize aerial and ground reconnaissance plans.
z
Develop communications and sustainment plans.
z
Coordinate for support.
z
Continue to improve the urban operations sketch.

## Collect And Analyze Existing Intelligence

4-58. The reconnaissance squadron conducts collaborative planning with the BCT/RCT. Tactical reconnaissance elements collect information to allow the BCT/RCT commander to gain an understanding of the AO and select the most advantageous COA. Because of their complex nature, urban operations (UO)
require time for development of SU. HUMINT and signal intelligence (SIGINT) will be major contributors of the required information; however, time requirements for locating sources and corroborating information must be taken into consideration. 4-59. Crucial in the planning of urban reconnaissance operations is urban IPB (see FM 3-06 for detailed information). Urban IPB will involve numerous agencies, some of which are not only external to the Department of Defense (DOD) but also to the U.S. government as wellincluding nongovernmental organizations (NGO) and international agencies. The MI company has the technical capability and operational expertise to use multisource information and to conduct fusion, rapid analysis, and dissemination of intelligence down to the lowest possible level in the chain of command. The staff identifies all relevant forces, their strengths and critical vulnerabilities, and the critical nodes of the urban areas that, if controlled, may provide leverage. The IPB process must also take into account special considerations of urban infrastructure components, such as cultural mapping in the social component and the location of industrial or other sites that may have implications in terms of hazardous materials (HAZMAT) or weapons of mass destruction. Aerial sensors will prove vital in this effort; however, there will be extensive requirements for ground reconnaissance and HUMINT efforts to collect and/or corroborate information. 4-60. Urban IPB must consider the impact of noncombatants, whose presence in the urban area may be substantial and dynamic. Determining the ethnic and religious composition of the populace and, if possible, their intentto flee or remain in the urban areasmay prove crucial. 4-61. Tactical reconnaissance operations focus efforts on collecting information about the urban area that supports the BCT/RCT commander's designated COA. This information may be directly linked to the CCIR or may support triggers established in the COA (targeting lethal and nonlethal effects). 4-62. The development and dissemination of standardized urban mapping products can enhance the success of urban reconnaissance operations. Most commonly, these products are based on aerial photographic products from UAS reconnaissance overflights or satellite imagery. Using digital systems, these products can be enhanced with graphic overlays showing unit/element sectors, building numbering systems, and key buildings, sites, and terrain features. They can then be distributed through hard copy reproduction or digital broadcasting. When tactically and technically feasible, units should gain access to city planner or civil engineer maps, which will provide detailed information on the urban area. 4-63. The UO sketches will include a reference system to identify buildings and streets. Naming conventions should be simple, allowing for ease of navigation and orientation in the urban environment (for example, odd-numbered buildings on the left side of streets, even numbers on the right). Street names should not be used as references because signs can be missing or can be changed to confuse friendly forces.

4-64. Units conduct initial map and/or aerial photograph reconnaissance to pinpoint key terrain and other important locations that can be identified in the AO. These areas include the following:

z
Safe havens, including

Hospitals.

Police stations.

Embassies.

Other (friendly) facilities.
z
Hazardous areas, including

Construction sites.

Industrial areas.

Dangerous intersections.

Bridges.

Criminal areas.
z
Major terrain features, including

Historical, cultural, or religious sites.

Parks.

Airports and train stations.

## Determine Reconnaissance And Surveillance Objectives

4-65. From the understanding gained through analysis of existing intelligence, the staff begins to identify reconnaissance objectives based on the mission assigned by the BCT/RCT commander. 4-66. The IR identified by the staff may be complex, detailed, and extensive. The ability of the BCT/RCT commander to understand the AO/OE and accurately assess information regarding the terrain and the presence of friendly, threat, and noncombatant personnel is vital in developing reconnaissance objectives.

Note. Tactical reconnaissance elements not only answer the IR of the BCT/RCT but also those of higher level commanders (such as for a JTF or Army forces) as well.

4-67. The considerations for IR development in the urban environment are unique, placing greater demand on HUMINT and imagery intelligence (IMINT) sources. In developing objectives, the staff must weigh the assigned IR against the time available to accomplish the mission. The following are samples of IR that can help define reconnaissance objectives:

z
What is the threat's most likely/most dangerous COA?
z
Where are the threat's critical C2 nodes located?
z
What is the status of the key LOCs leading into and within the urban area?
z
What are the likely threat withdrawal routes and choke points?
z
Are there obstacles impeding movement along the routes to and from assembly areas?
z
Would isolation cause the threat to withdraw from the urban area?
z
Has the deployed threat force had any training in UO?
z
What are the potential vulnerabilities to the infrastructure facilities?
z
Where are cross-mobility corridors located within the urban area?
z
Where are cultural, political, or symbolic facilities located?
z
How do locals (by faction) view friendly forces and U.S. efforts in general?
z
What are the locations of diplomatic embassies and missions in the urban area?
z
What are the locations of U.S. citizens (if any) within the urban area?
z
Is the threat indigenous to the urban area or from the outside the area?
4-68. These IR examples demonstrate the need for detailed information collection planning. The key to successful urban reconnaissance is gathering information from outside the urban area and refining objectives as reconnaissance elements approach the area. Though time-consuming, this layered reconnaissance approach"peeling back the onion"will significantly increase the commander's and staff's ability to gain SU while reducing potential threats to Soldiers and Marines and assets.

## Plan Infiltration And Exfiltration Routes

4-69. When tactically feasible, tactical reconnaissance elements enter the urban area using infiltration techniques that allow orientation on the reconnaissance objective without having to engage the threat or fight through prepared defenses. Elements will infiltrate to establish urban OPs and conduct surveillance or target acquisition on NAIs or targeted areas of interest (TAIs). Because reconnaissance teams may be required to remain during BCT/RCT operations, these elements must carefully select positions for them as well as exfiltration routes if they are to leave the area during the conduct of the operation. A general rule of thumb is to exfiltrate on routes different from those used for infiltration. Parent and/or controlling units must also develop a plan to support the infiltrated teams.

## Synchronize Aerial And Ground Reconnaissance Plans

4-70. During UO, it is most effective to task organize UAS assets to the lowest possible level. This will allow the company and troop commanders on the scene to control the employment of UAS and keep its use synchronized with reconnaissance operations. If the BCT/RCT chooses to maintain control of the UAS assets, it must ensure that the employment of the UAS supports the actions of the tactical reconnaissance elements and that these elements have direct access to the information being collected.

## Develop Communication And Sustainment Plans

4-71. Communications in the urban environment require detailed planning that will allow units freedom of movement while maintaining C2 with elements dispersed within the urban environment. To communicate effectively and continuously, leaders must minimize limitations imposed by the urban environment and maximize the advantages of existing civil communications. Tactical reconnaissance elements must plan for redundant communications because of the limiting effects of urban terrain. 4-72. To ensure effective communications, the staff must identify terrain along the approach route and in the urban AO that supports line-of-sight communications. They then coordinate to establish retransmission sites on supporting terrain or structures to facilitate C2 during the units' initial entry into the urban area. 4-73. In developing a sustainment plan to support the urban reconnaissance, the staff should identify potential logistics release points (LRP) that can be secured by limited forces. Stadiums, warehouse facilities in industrial transportation areas, and schools in dispersed residential areas are examples of possible LRPs. If the reconnaissance elements are tasked to conduct sustained operations or transition to stability operations, LRPs can be expanded into logistical sites or operating bases. Because of security considerations and the limited support vehicles and supplies available, casualty evacuation and vehicle recovery are the main logistical functions that should occur within the urban area.

## Coordinate For Fire Support

4-74. The staff must consider numerous factors when coordinating and planning targets that will support operations in an urban environment. The most likely mission that must be planned entails identifying targets to support disengagement from unexpected contact. Examples of fire support considerations for UO include the following:

z
Do the ROE support the use of lethal fires within the urban area?
z
Who controls each fire support asset?
z
Has the fire plan been exchanged with adjacent units?
z
Has the observer plan been developed, including OPs in buildings, location of laser designators, and overwatch of trigger points?
z
Have locations of hazardous sites been identified? This includes both above- and below-ground sites (such as fuel and industrial storage tanks and gas distribution lines) and any other areas where incendiary effects of detonating artillery and mortar rounds could start structure fires.
z
Has the general construction or composition of buildings and road surfaces been identified? This
may affect the type of munitions used.
z
Where do buildings, overhead power lines, or towers mask or degrade GPS devices and compasses?
z
Will obscurants and illumination favor friendly or threat units?
z
Will buildings or structures require fire support personnel to carry/use equipment not normally on hand (for example, field expedient antennas, climbing ropes, wire gloves, axes, or sledgehammers)?
z
What are the requirements for radar coverage? Should radar zones be established? If so, where? For how long?
4-75. In addition to conventional munitions, the use of precision guided munitions (PGM) must also be carefully considered. The biggest consideration for using PGMs is that some sort of laser or infrared designator equipment must be available. In the event these assets are not available, augmentation may be required from the BCT/RCT. 4-76. Reconnaissance elements may be supported by a variety of attack helicopters. The increased risk of small arms, rocket propelled grenade, and man-portable air defense system engagements means aviation forces normally support UO by operating away from built-up areas. If the risk analysis determines that the payoff is higher than the risk, however, aviation forces can be employed in and around the urban area. The most common missions assigned to attack helicopters in UO are the following:

z
Reconnaissance.
z
Security of friendly locations.
z
Isolation of urban objectives.
z
Precision engagement of hardened point targets.
z
Interdiction and destruction of threat armored vehicles moving against friendly forces.
4-77. In addition to these missions, aviation assets may be called on to perform additional, more nontraditional roles during UO. This is particularly true during stability operations in urban areas. Additional missions may include the following:

z
Providing limited relay of radio messages from isolated ground units.
z
Videotaping and/or photographing routes or objectives for later analysis by ground commanders.
z
Assisting, for limited periods, in the control and coordination of fires with the maneuver of
ground forces.
z
Marking or identifying specific buildings and areas by smoke, fires, or targeting lasers.
z
Providing navigational and directional assistance to ground units.
z
Providing countersniper and countermortar armed reconnaissance patrols around friendly unit locations.
4-78. Reconnaissance elements may be supported by a variety of assault or lift helicopters. These assets can be crucial for the flexible and responsive movement of troops and supplies and for C2. The most common missions assigned to assault/lift helicopters in the urban environment are the following:

z
Air assault.
z
CASEVAC and medical evacuation.
z
Air movement of troops and supplies.
z
Emplacement of LRPs.
z
C2 operations.
z
Noncombatant evacuation operations.
z
Electronic warfare operations.
z
Combat search and rescue. (Marines perform tactical recovery of aircraft and personnel vice combat search and rescue.)
z
Emplacement of volcano mines.
4-79. The need to deliver hovering fires from temporary BP may require the aircraft to carry less than a full load of munitions or fuel. This is especially true in hot climates and high altitudes. Reduced loads mean more frequent trips to FARP and less time on station. Long route distances during air movements may require the establishment of FARPs along the route prior to operations. Climate will also affect the number of troops or amount of supplies the aircraft can transport. 4-80. From the ground unit perspective, helicopters are most effective when they operate under the OPCON of the ground unit commander closest to the threat; therefore, company commanders and platoon leaders must be proficient in directing attack helicopter fires. At the same time, because ground reconnaissance leaders can direct the efforts of only a few aircraft at a time, it may be more effective for the aviation unit to retain control of its individual aircraft. They then operate by continuously rotating attack helicopter elements into the battle area where they then coordinate their attacks with the ground commander's maneuver.

## Improving The Urban Operations Sketch

4-81. Because individual vehicles and sections execute urban reconnaissance operations, every Soldier and Marine must have an understanding of the sketch and reference system. In addition, sketches are critical to C2; they facilitate control in tracking units with greater detail and in obtaining precise location updates throughout operations. 4-82. The staff confirms and updates urban sketches during planning and execution of UO and continues to add more detail throughout the operation. Specifically, reconnaissance elements assess entry routes that the BCT/RCT could use in support of operations. Because most maps do not provide the necessary level of detail to meet these important operational considerations, selected reconnaissance elements will usually have to create overlays to enhance SU. Included with the sketches are overlays that categorize sections of the urban area by ethnicity, religious affiliation, and other prevailing characteristics that could affect operations. The consolidated sketches and overlays are used to create an urban map with overlays for the BCT/RCT.

## Search Operations

4-83. ERTs support military search operations by collecting technical information on the potential target of the search. The information collected through route, zone, or area reconnaissance supports the planning and targeting for subsequent search operations. While the ERT and search team are distinct and mission specific organizations, the ERT can be augmented by a military search advisor to ensure that the information collected is relevant to planned search operations. Each team has the potential to enable the other team. 4-84. Military search is the application of systematic procedures at every level of command to locate specified targets in support of military or civil police operations. Specified targets include people, information, and material resources employed by an adversary. (Military search operations are discussed in detail in FM 3-34.210.) They include six standard search procedures:

z
Person searches.
z
Vehicle searches, incorporating deliberate vehicle checkpoints.
z
Area searches.
z
Route searches.
z
Nondisruptive building searches (occupied).
z
Disruptive building searches (unoccupied).
4-85. The reconnaissance conducted in support of planned search operations will include collection of information on terrain and likely hazard locations. For example, a route reconnaissance in support of a planned route search could focus on collecting information on the cover and concealment potential and vulnerable points along the route (such as the location of culverts and drainage ditches that may be employed to conceal hazards) and the amount of debris found along the route that could be employed to conceal hazards. Similarly, a reconnaissance in support of a force/venue protection would allow the identification of locations such as mortar base plates and attack routes into and away from fixed sites. For planned search operations, a search advisor must provide specific focus for the tactical engineer reconnaissance support required.

## Tunnels And Subsurface Operations

4-86. This section discusses reconnaissance to collect information on the use of tunnels, natural caves, or underground facilities by enemy forces. Caves and underground facilities can be used for command and control centers, logistics staging areas, hospitals, or fortifications. The larger underground facilities can be quite complex. They can be wired for electricity and communications and can have pumping stations for supplying air to lower levels. Caves can have many large chambers connected by passageways. Also, tunnel systems can have many large rooms joined by interconnecting tunnels. Search operations include a specified target, whereas the reconnaissance objective is to collect specified information. Search team organization and the reconnaissance team organization may differ significantly as well.

Note. This section should not be confused with the discussion on reconnaissance of tunnels on routes which is included in chapter 5. Reconnaissance support involving tunnels and subsurface operations should not be confused with engineer support for military search operations (see FM 34.210).

## Tunnel Uses

4-87. Tunnels can be dug with zigzags and sumps to reduce the effects inside them of small-arms fire, explosives, and gas. Some tunnels, rooms, passageways, or chambers can contain concealed exits to allow an enemy to hide or escape if the complex or cave is penetrated. Other tunnels can be booby-trapped to kill intruders. Tunnels and caves are hard to detect from the air or ground. Their construction can make them impossible to destroy with conventional ammunition. Tunnels can also be dug in the basement of safe houses for use as escape routes if a house is compromised. Tunnel entrances are normally covered by fire from another point on the complex. 4-88. An enemy can use tunnels in penetration operations to gain access to restricted areas. In built-up areas, they can infiltrate through sewers, or they can tunnel to their target from the basement of a nearby building, subway tunnel, or sewer. When insurgents are below the target, they can either build an exit and penetrate the target from below or fill the tunnel with explosives and destroy the target.

4-89. Tunnels are used for approach and escape and for access to caves and underground bunkers for firing positions and for protection against indirect fires. They are also used as a common method for storing food and materials in underground caches. If large enough, some tunnel complexes can house underground hospitals and base camps.

## Tunnel Detection

4-90. The first step in detecting or locating tunnels is to reduce a large geographical area of interest to a smaller area of interest, to a smaller area of probable locations. This can be accomplished by studying indications of probable tunnel locations. Some indicators that tunnels are being employed by insurgent forces include

z
Movement of insurgents in a specific direction after being spotted by aircraft.
z
Sniper fire occurring from areas where there are no obvious avenues of withdrawal.
z
Vegetable gardens far from places of habitation.
z
Operations where insurgents inflict casualties at relatively long range and disappear without making close contact or being detected by friendly forces.
z
The smell of burning wood or food cooking in an area lacking habitation.
4-91. Conventional aerial photography produces results if the appearance of the surface and vegetation is changed from the normal. This requires skilled personnel to interpret photographs. In a jungle environment, aerial photography may be prohibited since dense vegetation, such as double or triple canopy jungle, obscures the ground. 4-92. Once determined that a certain area may contain a tunnel system, several indicators can be helpful in detecting tunnels. Visual inspections often disclose the general area of a tunnel but not its precise location. The key to finding a tunnel system is applying common sense to the situation. A platoon or company should be assigned a small search area (never larger than a 1,000-meter grid square). These small areas are chosen based on intelligence reports or on past actions of the insurgent force. The unit searches every square meter of the area. Some visual indicators usually found include

z
Worn places on trees that the insurgent uses as handholds.
z
A small trail, much like a game trail, through brush into a clump of small trees.
z
Cut treesnot a sure indicator.
z
Limbs tied near the treetop to conceal the use of a tunnel from aircraft.
z
Slight depression in or around a group of small trees.
z
Air holessure indicators.
z
A lone individual, mainly a female, in the area.
z
Freshly cooked food with no one attending the site.
z
Fresh human feces in the area.
4-93. These are all good indicators. However, they can vary depending on the area. The places to look for indicators are in the corners of hedgerows and trails and streams. The enemy often hides in these places in order to see without being seen. Also, hiding in these places allows those who finished the camouflage to escape undetected. The insurgents are aware of the danger of setting a pattern. However, they must have a location that provides observation as well as concealment. Soldiers and Marines should look for OPs that allow the insurgent to move into or out of an area undetected. 4-94. Sometimes, the exact location of a tunnel can be obtained by questioning the local populace or prisoners, who may have occupied or helped dig the system. Due to compartmentalization, they may not be able to locate an entrance or exit unless they have seen or used the completed tunnel.

## Tunnel Reconnaissance

4-95. Entering an area where a tunnel complex is located requires a methodical approach. Security to the flanks and rear is imperative. The size of the objective area of operations determines the strength of the unit assigned the search mission. The unit, company, or platoon is task organized for tunnel operations.

z
Security elementplus headquarters element to cordon search area.
z
Search elementto search the immediate area for tunnels. The search element is subdivided into search and security teams.
z
Reserve elementto assist in cordon and reinforce as needed.
4-96. The techniques of deliberate search are centered on the rifle squad. Each squad is divided into a security and a search team. A slow methodical search is conducted in the area of operations. Once assigned a search area, the squad systematically searches every square meter. The security element moves toward the limits of the search area. Once a hole (tunnel) is discovered, the security element surrounds the area while the search team prepares to destroy or neutralize the hole (tunnel). 4-97. The reconnaissance element may require the following special items to perform tunnel operations:

z
Mine detector used to detect ammunition and weapon caches.
z
Grenadesfragmentary, smoke, white phosphorus, and concussion types. Grenades should not be used after friendly forces have entered a tunnel.
z
Demolitionsused to destroy tunnel systems. Due to the complexity of charges needed to destroy some tunnel complexes, an engineer team should support the search unit. Also, the large amount of demolitions required for some operations can present unique logistics problems, mainly in a jungle environment. (See FM 3-06.11 for information on the urban environment).
z
Air generatorused to force smoke into tunnel complex.
z
Flashlightsto search tunnels.
z
WeaponsPistols should be used inside tunnels. The pistol has good stopping power and is effective at close range.
z
Loudspeakerused to call the enemy from tunnels.

## Tunnel Destruction

4-98. The destruction of a tunnel is a four-step process:

z
Step 1. A Soldier and Marine fires one or two magazines from a rifle into the tunnel entrance. This discourages the enemy from staying close to the entrance. After gaining the attention of the insurgents, the insurgents are told to vacate the hole or tunnel or be killed. They may surrender without a fight, saving not only the efforts of killing but also of excavating the hole or tunnel for
weapons and documents.
z
Step 2. If step 1 fails, breaching operations are used. A grenade is placed on the entrance cover to gain access. The entrance cover is removed in this manner to reduce the effects of any attached booby traps.
z
Step 3. Once the entrance cover has been destroyed, the following measures are used (depending on the situation):
 Insert grenades (fragmentary or concussion) to kill or incapacitate the enemy.  Insert smoke grenades to reveal the locations of other entrances or exits.
z
Step 4. Soldiers and Marines then enter to ensure that all weapons and documents are recovered and all enemy (dead or wounded) are removed. The hole or tunnel is searched for small compartments built to hide weapons and ammunition. If a tunnel complex proves to be extensive with bunkers and large rooms, it is cleared systematically. Bunkers are destroyed or occupied to prevent the enemy from reoccupying them through another tunnel. Do not clear more bunkers than friendly forces can hold.
4-99. Deliberate search techniques emphasize where to look for the enemy (locations that provide the enemy with observation, cover, concealment, and an escape route). When the Soldier and Marine learns what to look for, any of these indicators are likely to trigger a mental alert that the enemy is not far away. After searching the tunnel destroy it with explosives. 4-100. Neutralization and clearing of tunnels are slow and deliberate procedures, which can be costly in terms of casualties. Since each tunnel system differs in size and construction, different quantities and placements of explosives are needed for each type.

z
Block explosives. Using block explosives to destroy a tunnel system has a disadvantage and advantages:
 Disadvantage: All the explosive power is concentrated at one point. Thus, the destruction is
localized, and often portions of the tunnel are unaffected. However, a large (10- to 12-pound) block of explosive tamped against the ceiling may cause an entire tunnel to collapse.
 Advantages: The ease of emplacement, ease of procurement, and feasibility of aerial
resupply. Also, block or satchel charges are effective in destroying bunkers, sunken living quarters, underground rooms, and short tunnels. Cratering charges are also effective for underground rooms.
z
Shaped charge. The shaped charge in tunnel destruction is effective in certain circumstances. A shaped charge placed underground in the middle of a tunnel complex and aimed downward destroys the area around and above the charge. Also, a shaped charge placed in a deep complex and aimed upward results in extensive destruction.
z
Bangalore torpedoes. Another effective method of tunnel destruction uses bangalore torpedoes placed throughout the tunnel length (regardless of depth). The constant length of explosives throughout the tunnel ensures complete destruction. The bangalore (5 feet long) adapts to the twists and turns in tunnels. A disadvantage of a bangalore torpedo is the logistics problems
arising from its size and weight. Resupply may be a problem if large quantities are used to
destroy a tunnel system.

## Complex Terrain

4-101. Tactical reconnaissance will require engineer support in all types of terrain and climate. Each environment's advantages and disadvantages are considered in the planning and conduct of ERT operations. ERTs conduct route, zone, and area reconnaissance in jungles, mountainous areas, deserts, cold regions, and employ specialized knowledge, skills, techniques, and equipment for each of these areas. This section presents characteristics of four environments which impact tactical engineer reconnaissance support and their associated considerations.

## Jungles

4-102. Jungles are humid, tropic areas with a dense growth of trees and vegetation. Visibility is typically less than 100 feet, and areas are sparsely populated. Mounted infantry and armor operations are limited in jungle areas, and jungle vegetation provides excellent concealment from air and ground observation. Vegetation does not provide adequate cover from small caliber direct-fire and artillery indirect-fire fragments. Adequate cover is available using the natural ravines and gullies produced by erosion from the area's high annual rainfall. Few natural or locally procurable materials are available in jungle areas. Other considerations are high water tables, dense undergrowth, and tree roots (often requiring aboveground level protective construction). 4-103. The focus of engineer reconnaissance support in jungle terrain is influenced by the engineer tasks typically conducted. The following discussion highlights common M/CM/S tasks requiring engineer reconnaissance in jungle terrain. 4-104. The construction and maintenance of roads/tracks/trails are the initial means of improving mobility. Heavy rainfall, the clearance of vegetation, drainage, and the movement of equipment and materials all combine to make this a long and painstaking task. Once constructed, routes will need regular maintenance. Landing sites and drop zones will also need to be constructed to enhance the ability to move troops and stores by air transport and helicopters. However, with training and advice, other nonengineer troops should also be able to take on some of these tasks. Crossing obstacles, such as large rivers, may require engineer advice, support and, possibly, equipment; but once suitable material for the construction of boats, rafts, and small bridges has been provided, other troops will often be able to complete the task.

Bridging of obstacles to allow vehicle passage normally requires special equipment and should remain an engineer task. Minefields in the jungle are likely to be of the nuisance or protective variety and will remain an engineer task for clearance. Engineers may also be required to breach enemy defensive positions and to clear booby traps and other EHs. 4-105. The main countermobility tasks for engineers will be to block roads/tracks/trails, lay mines and booby traps (where ROE permit), and to carry out demolitions. Blocking roads/tracks/trails is always particularly effective to provide opportunities for counteraction, such as ambush or air strike.

Countermobility tasks may also assist in developing a deception planprovided it is coordinated at the highest appropriate level. 4-106. Engineers may be required to construct defensive positions, field fortification (including artillery gun positions), and protective locations for combat supplies. 4-107. Engineers will have a large variety of other tasks and commitments which will demand their advice and attention. In the early states of a deployment, the engineers are more likely to be concerned with establishing a secure base.

## Mountainous Areas

4-108. Characteristics of mountain ranges include rugged and poorly trafficable terrain, steep slopes, and altitudes greater than 1,600 feet. Irregular mountain terrain provides numerous places for cover and concealment. Because of rocky ground, it is difficult and often impossible to dig below ground positions;
therefore, boulders and loose rocks are used in aboveground construction. Construction materials used for both structural and shielding components are most often indigenous rocks, boulders, and rocky soil. Often, rock formations are used as structural wall components without modification. Conventional tools are inadequate for preparing individual and crew-served weapons fighting positions in rocky terrain. Engineers assist with light equipment and tools (such as pneumatic jackhammers) delivered to mountain areas by helicopter. Explosives and demolitions are used extensively for positions requiring rock and boulder removal. (FM 3-97.6 provides detailed information on mountain operations.) 4-109. The focus of engineer reconnaissance support in mountainous terrain is influenced by the engineer tasks typically conducted. The following discussion highlights common M/CM/S tasks in mountainous terrain. 4-110. Mobility support is likely to be the major task, particularly the construction, improvement, and maintenance of routes. Main supply routes may be vulnerable particularly where they run through defiles. The provision of drainage and bridging is likely to be required because of the large number of mountain streams and their susceptibility to flash flooding. New bridges may be required to cross streams, replace weak bridges, and cross gorges. Constructing new routes is likely to involve major engineering work especially excavation and fill. Because of the shortage of routes and restricted access, the following mobility tasks will also assume particular significance:

z
Obstacle clearance.
z
Construction of passing and parking areas.
z
Snow clearance.
z
Helicopter landing sites.
z
Tasks related to resupply by air.
4-111. As routes are restricted, the effect of obstacles will be greatly enhanced. Blocking roads and passes, destroying tunnels, and laying mines are particularly effective in rugged terrain. Care must be taken not to restrict the movement of your own forces. All obstacles may have to be coordinated at a higher formation level than for normal operations. 4-112. Digging in may be difficult even when using explosive means. It is likely that defensive positions will largely be based on raised fortifications and sangars. The construction of defensive positions remains an all arms/branches responsibility but engineers may be called upon to provide advice and enhanced engineer capabilities to support their efforts. Some measure of tunneling may even be required. Irregular mountain terrain provides many opportunities for cover and concealment. Light engineer equipment transported by helicopters can provide valuable assistance in protecting maneuver units. There may also be the need to construct support bases for indirect-fire weapons. 4-113. Other common engineer tasks may include

z
Construction and operation of aerial ropeways.
z
Construction of logistic facilities.
z
Antihelicopter measures.
z
Support to remote signals sites.
z
Geographic and survey support.

## Deserts And Extremely Hot Conditions

4-114. Deserts are extensive, arid, treeless, suffer from a severe lack of rainfall, and possess extreme daily temperature fluctuations. The terrain is sandy with boulder-strewn areas, mountains, dunes, deeply eroded valleys, areas of rock and shale, and salt marshes. Effective natural barriers are found in steep slope rock formations. Wadis and other dried up drainage features are used extensively for protective position placement. Camouflage and concealment, as well as light and noise discipline, are important considerations in desert terrain. Target acquisition and observation are relatively easy in desert terrain. (FM 90-3 provides detailed information on the considerations associated with desert operations.) 4-115. The focus of engineer reconnaissance support in desert terrain is influenced by the engineer tasks typically conducted. The following discussion highlights common M/CM/S tasks in desert terrain.

4-116. The vastness of the desert makes mobility a prime concern. Cross-country mobility may be poor in soft sand, rocky areas, and salt flats. Greater engineer reconnaissance effort will be needed to identify routes, existing obstacles, and minefield locations. Engineer tasks may include

z
Assisting maneuvers by reducing slopes, smoothing rock steps, and maintaining routes.
z
Providing dry-gap crossings including those required to traverse oil pipelines.
z
Increasing weight-bearing capacity through soil stabilization to provide good roads or sites for aircraft landing strips or helicopter landing zones.
z
Suppressing dust using, for example, diesel fuel or oil mixtures.
z
Obscuring enemy lines of sight during breaching operations.
4-117. A minefield, to be of any tactical value in the desert, must usually cover a relatively large area, so mechanical means are best suited for employment. SCATMINEs may also be widely used. Since there are often too many avenues of approach to be covered with mines, it is usually best to employ tactical minefields to cover any gaps between units, especially for night defense. Target-oriented obstacles may often be the best choice to reduce the enemy's mobility. Terrain dependent obstacles may be extensive and must be used in conjunction with each other and with any natural obstacles. All should support EAs. 4-118. Sand is effective in covering mines. However, shifting sand creates potential problems such as exposing the mines (causing them to malfunction) or accumulating excessive sand (degrading performance). Shifting sand can also cause mines to drift. Antitank ditches require extensive preparation time and may require extensive maintenance. Caution must be exercised to prevent the ditch from identifying a defensive front or flank and to deny their use as protection for enemy infantry. 4-119. Deserts provide little cover and concealment from ground-based observers and even less from aircraft. Because of the lack of concealment, camouflage must often be used. Hull and turret defilade positions for tactical vehicles may be important. Dispersion and frequent moves are other survivability techniques. Preparation of fortifications in the desert is difficult. Sandy soil requires revetments, while rocky plains or plateaus may be impossible to dig in. To counter this problem, emplacements are built up with rocks and depressions are used whenever possible. Hardening of logistics facilities, C2 nodes, and upgrades to or construction of forward landing strips and main supply routes are important in desert operations. A safety inspection of construction works is likely to be required daily, after any heavy rain, and after receiving direct or indirect fire.

4-120. Other engineer tasks that may be applicable in these conditions include analyzing terrain, providing water and fuel, and erecting sun shelters for equipment and personnel. Bridging may also be required for wadis or other gaps.

## Arctic And Cold Regions

4-121. Cold regions of the world are characterized by deep snow, permafrost, seasonally frozen ground, frozen lakes and rivers, glaciers, and long periods of extremely cold temperatures. Digging in frozen or semifrozen ground is difficult with equipment and virtually impossible for the Soldier and Marine with an entrenching tool. Fighting and protective position construction in snow or frozen ground takes up to twice as long as positions in unfrozen ground. Operations in cold regions are affected by wind and the possibility of thaw during warming periods. An unexpected thaw causes a severe drop in the soil strength which creates mud and drainage problems. Positions near bodies of water, such as lakes or rivers, are carefully located to prevent flooding damage during the spring melting season. Wind protection greatly decreases the effects of cold on both Soldiers and Marines and equipment. (FM 3-97.11 provides detailed information on the considerations associated with arctic and cold region operations.)
4-122. The focus of engineer reconnaissance support in cold regions is influenced by the engineer tasks typically conducted. The following discussion highlights common M/CM/S tasks in cold regions.

4-123. Mobility will be impeded by snow, ice-covered terrain, weather, and long hours of darkness.
z
Increased engineer effort will be necessary for the construction, improvement, and maintenance
of forward airstrips, helicopter landing sites and roads, especially LOC roads, which are likely to
be high priority targets.
z
Roads and tracks may quickly become impassable to wheeled and tracked vehicles in heavy snowfalls. Snow clearance and route maintenance equipment must always be available.
z
The LOC will often follow river valleys and cross many bridges which may make the gaps they cross become impossible to bypass if they are destroyed. There may be a major requirement for new bridges, overbridging, rafting, and/or ferrying. Improvisation is possible using ice and snow. (Technical Manual [TM] 5-349 provides a detailed discussion on the improvised use of ice in bridge operations.) Equipment bridging can be used but the following should be considered:

It must be used with care as light alloy and cast metal can become brittle at low temperatures.

Construction times are increased (normally doubled).

An adequate reserve of spare parts is required.
z
Heating equipment and warming/drying facilities should be readily available.
4-124. Countermobility tasks are likely to concentrate on the limited routes available. Route denial, demolitions, and off-route mines will be particularly important. Minefields may also be used but the following must be considered in planning and laying:

z
The effect of cold on materials.
z
The reduced work rates in arctic and cold weather conditions.
z
The variable performance of equipment and systems in deep snow conditions, especially SCATMINEs.
z
The need for subsequent adjustment to be made after a fresh fall of snow or a sudden thaw.
4-125. Shelter is essential to survival. Preserving your own shelters and destroying the enemy's become important ends in themselves, which can influence the outcome of the battle. Measures to increase chances of survival from enemy action and from the hostile environment will include

z
Constructing field defensessnow and ice fortifications with overhead protection using either improvised or equipment shelters and snow/ice concrete.
z
Providing advice and assistance with countersurveillance plans and works.
4-126. Other engineer support includes increased resources for water supply and facilities for shelter with heating and lighting.

## Other Types Of Reconnaissance

4-127. Other types of engineer reconnaissance are generally intended to support a survey by more technical elements. Both the environmental assessment and infrastructure assessments tend to be linked to urban operations although not exclusively.

## Environmental Assessment

4-128. If the tactical situation permits, commanders conduct or direct an EBS before occupying the AO in conjunction with an environmental health site assessment (EHSA). An EBS is typically performed by or with support from and centered on general engineer elements supported by other technical specialties. An EHSA is performed by a team centered on preventive medicine personnel and supported by other technical specialties. ERTs may need to perform an initial site assessment to gather information for an EBS and/or the engineer portion of the EHSA with or without assistance from general engineers. (Chapter 6 discusses environmental reconnaissance in detail while appendix D provides detailed EBS guidance and an example.)

## Infrastructure Assessment

4-129. Infrastructure reconnaissance is accomplished in stages; the infrastructure assessment and the infrastructure survey. (The assessment and survey are in detail in chapter 6.) Since it is most likely that combat engineer units will be on site first, an ERT can be expected to conduct the initial assessment along with whatever other technical expertise is available in the unit it is supporting. The ERT uses a series of smartcards (see appendix C) to provide the initial infrastructure rating and assessment to be forwarded to more qualified personnel who follow in later stages of the mission. As operations continue, general engineer and other supporting technical support elements will be available to provide teams that are more qualified to perform an infrastructure survey. The infrastructure survey teams use the infrastructure assessments from the ERTs to prioritize categories and parts of the infrastructure to be reassessed in more detail via an infrastructure survey. (See appendix C and FM 5-104 for more information.)

## Chapter 5 Technical Reconnaissance - Route Classification

The art of war is, in the last result, the art of keeping one's freedom of action.

Xenophon, Greek Historian (c. 430-355 BC)
ERTs and engineer assessment and survey teams collect technical information to determine a route classification for specified routes. The *route classification* is assigned to a route using factors of minimum width and worst route type; least bridge, raft, or culvert military load classification; and obstructions to traffic flow. The classification is displayed using a classification formula and route symbols on an overlay. The information collected is assembled and retained as supporting data for the formula and graphical representation. This data is also useful in planning and designing repairs and upgrades along the route. While ERTs provide a degree of technical expertise in many if not all of the route classification components, they operate as an integrated part of an overall tactical reconnaissance operation at the BCT/RCT level and below. The ERT would typically conduct a route reconnaissance, the tactical task, with a specified additional focus on collecting information required to assign the classification. Technical augmentation to ERTs adds to the degree of technical expertise available to collect more detailed information on specific route components: roads, bridges, tunnels, and so forth. Assessment and survey teams employ a routinely high degree of technical expertise and are focused nearly exclusively on detailed technical information required for design of repairs or upgrades along the route. The capabilities in both cases overlap substantially and could be conducted in phases. An ERT could conduct an initial route reconnaissance collecting only the technical information necessary to assign an overall classification. An augmented ERT could then be tasked to conduct an area reconnaissance to collect more detailed information on limiting factors along the route. Finally, using both the initial classification information and the subsequent information on limiting factors, an assessment or survey could be conducted to gather details necessary to design an upgrade. This chapter discusses the technical information required for a route classification, with the exception of bridges and other gap crossings discussed in chapter 6.

## Route Classification

5-1. Route classification results from collecting detailed technical information on various components of a designated routesuch as the road network, the bridges along a selected route, any underpasses and/or overpasses, and so forth. Route classification provides a graphical display of both the load-carrying capacity and rate of travel capacity of the selected route. In a route classification, the designated route components are reconnoitered and a classification formula is determined. The resulting formula along with graphical information from the classification components are displayed as a route classification overlay, which may be included directly on the COP, and is supplemented by the components reports that were generated to determine the classification. 5-2. In a general sense, route classification is based on technical information collected on the various components of the selected route. In application, a route classification may include only the most critical detailssuch as if the route includes bridges with limited crossing capacity, underpasses with low overhead clearance, or critical sections of poorly maintained road. These components would be the determining components and possible sole components of a route classification. A route classification may also include alternate roads on which movement can be made and what type of vehicle and traffic load the alternate or bypass can handle. The route classification as discussed in this section includes a full menu of components that may be based on each situation critical to determining a route classification. 5-3. During combat operations, only the necessary and essential facts about a route are gathered as quickly and safely as possible from a route reconnaissance. ERTs are most likely employed to collect the required technical information, and the results of the ERT's route reconnaissance may or may not provide the detailed information necessary to determine a full route classification. Their tempo of operations will generally be dictated by the tempo of the reconnaissance element with which they are traveling. As the primary concern along a route shifts to tactical sustainment, the reconnaissance focus may shift to collecting information necessary to assess improvements along the route. ERTs may again be employed, but more likely a supporting general engineer element will be tasked to conduct the necessary assessment.

During stability operations or as the primary concern along a route again shifts to operational sustainment, detailed route classification missions including a broader selection of the route components are performed to obtain in-depth information for upgrade or maintenance missions of, or along, the route. 5-4. Routes are classified by obtaining the most pertinent information concerning trafficability and applying it to the route classification formula as described in this chapter. DA Form 1248, Road Reconnaissance Report; DA Form 1249, *Bridge Reconnaissance Report*; DA Form 1250, Tunnel Reconnaissance Report; DA Form 1251, Ford Reconnaissance Report; and DA Form 1252, Ferry Reconnaissance Report, help organize the collected reconnaissance information. (These forms are covered in detail in appendix B.)

## Route Classification Overlay

5-5. A route classification overlay graphically depicts a route's network of roads, bridge sites, and other components. The route components are reconnoitered and the data recorded as support documentation for the complete route. A route classification overlay gives specific details on what obstructions will slow down a convoy or maneuver force along a route. The following information is included on the route classification overlay (see figure 5-1):

z
The route classification formula.
z
The name, rank, and Social Security number (SSN) of the person in charge of performing the classification.
z
The unit conducting the classification.
z
The date-time group (DTG) that the classification was conducted.
z
The map name, edition, and scale. Ensure that a North arrow and grid reference marks are indicated on the overlay.
z
Any remarks necessary to ensure complete understanding of the information on the overlay. Include a route name in this section when applicable. Include a legend for any nonstandard symbols used on the overlay.

## Bypasses

5-6. Bypasses are detours along a route allowing traffic to avoid an obstruction. Bypasses limited to specific vehicle types, such as those capable of swimming or deep-water fording, are noted on the reconnaissance report. Bypasses are classified as easy, difficult, or impossible. Each type of bypass is represented symbolically on the arrow extending from the tunnel, ford (see chapter 6), bridge (see chapter 6), or overpass symbol to the map location (see table 5-1 on page 5-4).

Bypass easy. Use when the obstacle can be crossed in
the immediate vicinity by a U.S. 5-ton truck without work to improve the bypass.
Bypass difficult. Use when the obstacle can be crossed in the immediate vicinity, but some work to improve the bypass is necessary (the estimation of time, troops, and equipment necessary to prepare the bypass is included on the reconnaissance report). Bypass impossible. Use when the obstacle can be
crossed only by repairing the existing or constructing a
new bridge or tunnel or by constructing a detour.

## Route Classification Formula

5-7. The route classification formula is derived from information gathered during the route reconnaissance and/or reconnaissance of key components of the route. The formula is recorded on the route classification overlay (see figure 5-1 on page 5-5) and consists of the following:

z
(1) Route width, in meters.
z
(2) Route type (based on ability to withstand weather).
z
(3) Lowest military load classification (MLC).
z
(4) Lowest overhead clearance, in meters.
z
(5) Obstructions to traffic flow (OB), if applicable.
z
(6) Special conditions, such as snow blockage (T) or flooding (W).

in (1) / (2) / (3) / (4) (5) (6) format
5.5 / Y / 30 / 4.6 (OB) (T or W)

## (1) Route Width

5-8. The route width is the narrowest width of traveled way on a route (see figure 5-2). This narrow width may be the width of a bridge, a tunnel, a road, an underpass, or other constriction that limits the traveled-way width. The number of lanes is determined by the traveled-way width. The lane width normally required for

z
Wheeled vehicles is 3.5 meters.
z
Tracked vehicles is 4.0 meters.
5-9. According to the number of lanes, a road or route can be classified as follows:

z
Limited accessPermits passage of isolated vehicles of appropriate width in one direction only.
z
Single lanePermits use in only one direction at any one time. Passing or movement in the opposite direction is impossible.
z
Single flowPermits the passage of a column of vehicles and allows isolated vehicles to pass or
travel in the opposite direction at predetermined points. It is preferable that such a route be at least 1.5 lanes wide.
z
Double flowPermits two columns of vehicles to proceed simultaneously. Such a route must be
at least two lanes wide.

## (2) Route Type

5-10. The route type is determined by its ability to withstand weather. It is determined by the worst section of road on the entire route and is categorized as follows:

z
Type XAn all-weather route that, with reasonable maintenance, is passable throughout the year to a volume of traffic never appreciably less than its maximum capacity. This type of route is normally formed of roads having waterproof surfaces and being only slightly affected by rain, frost, thaw, or heat. This type of route is never closed because of weather effects other than snow or flood blockage.
z
Type YA limited, all-weather route that, with reasonable maintenance, is passable throughout the year but at times having a volume of traffic considerably less than maximum capacity. This type of route is normally formed of roads that do not have waterproof surfaces and are considerably affected by rain, frost, thaw, or heat. This type of route is closed for short periods (up to one day at a time) by adverse weather conditions during which heavy use of the road would probably lead to complete collapse.
z
Type ZA fair-weather route passable only in fair weather. This type of route is so seriously affected by adverse weather conditions that it may remain closed for long periods. Improvement of such a route can only be achieved by construction or realignment.

## (3) Military Load Classification

5-11. A route's MLC is a class number representing the safe load-carrying capacity and indicating the maximum vehicle class that can be accepted under normal conditions. Usually, the lowest bridge MLC
(regardless of the vehicle type or conditions of traffic flow) determines the route's MLC. If there is not a bridge on the route, the worst section of road will determine the route's overall classification. (Appendix E
provides additional discussion of the MLC.) 5-12. In cases where vehicles have a higher MLC than the route, an alternate route may be sought or an additional reconnaissance of the roads within the route may be necessary to determine whether a change in traffic flow (such as single-flow crossing of a weak point) will permit heavier vehicles on the route. When possible, ensure that the route network includes a number of heavy-traffic roads, as well as average-traffic roads. This helps staff planners manage heavy-traffic loads to decrease the bottleneck effect. 5-13. The entire network's class is determined by the minimum load classification of a road or a bridge within the network. The broad categories are

z
Class 50average-traffic route.
z
Class 80heavy-traffic route.
z
Class 120very heavy-traffic route.

## (4) Overhead Clearance

5-14. The lowest overhead clearance is the vertical distance between the road surface and any overhead obstacle (power lines, overpasses, tunnels, and so forth) that denies the use of the road to some vehicles. Use the infinity symbol () for unlimited clearance in the route classification formula. (Points along the route where the minimum overhead clearance is less than 4.3 meters are considered an obstruction).

## (5) Route Obstructions

5-15. Route obstructions restrict the type, amount, or speed of traffic flow. They are indicated in the route classification formula by the abbreviation "OB." If an obstruction is encountered, its exact nature must be depicted on the route classification overlay. Obstructions include

z
Overhead obstructions such as tunnels, underpasses, overhead wires, and overhanging buildings with a clearance of less than 4.3 meters.
z
Reductions in traveled-way widths that are below the standard minimums prescribed for the type of traffic flow (see table 5-2). This includes reductions caused by bridges, tunnels, craters, lanes through mined areas, projecting buildings, or rubble.
z
Slopes (gradients) of 7 percent or greater.
z
Curves with a radius of 25 meters and less. Curves with a radius of 25.1 to 45 meters are not
considered an obstruction; however, they must be recorded on the route classification overlay.
z
Ferries.
z
Fords.

| Limited Access       | Single Lane    | Single Flow    | Double Flow    |
|----------------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
| Wheeled              |                |                |                |
| At least 3.5 m       | 3.5 to 5.5 m   | 5.5 to 7.3 m   | Over 7.3 m     |
| Tracked and          |                |                |                |
| combination vehicles |                |                |                |
| At least 4.0 m       | 4.0 to 6.0 m   | 6.0 to 8.0 m   | Over 8 m       |

## (6) Snow Blockage And Flooding

5-16. In cases where snow blockage is serious and blocks traffic on a regular and recurrent basis, the symbol following the route classification formula is "T." In cases where flooding is serious and blocks traffic on a regular and recurrent basis, the symbol following the route classification formula is "W."
5-17. The following are examples depicting the use of the route classification formula:

z
6.1m/Z/40/A fair-weather route (Z) with a minimum traveled way of 6.1 meters and an MLC of 40. Overhead clearance is unlimited () and there are no obstructions to traffic flow.
This route, based on its minimum traveled-way width, accommodates both wheeled and tracked, single-flow traffic without obstruction.
z
6.1m/Z/40/ (OB)A fair-weather route (Z) similar to the previous example, except there is an obstruction. This obstruction could consist of overhead clearances of less than 4.3 meters, grades of 7 percent or greater, curves with a radius of 25 meters and less, or fords and ferries. A traveled way of 6.1 meters limits this route to one-way traffic without a width obstruction. If the route is used for double-flow traffic, then 6.1 meters of traveled way is considered an obstruction and is indicated in the formula as an obstruction.
z
7m/Y/50/4.6 (OB)A limited, all-weather route (Y) with a minimum traveled way of 7 meters, an MLC of 50, an overhead clearance of 4.6 meters, and an obstruction. This route width is not suitable for double-flow traffic (wheeled or tracked). This width constriction is indicated as OB in the route classification formula if the route is used for double-flow traffic.
z
10.5m/X/120/ (OB) (W)An all-weather route (X) with a minimum traveled-way width of 10.5 meters, which is suitable for two-way traffic of both wheeled and tracked vehicles; an MLC of 120; unlimited overhead clearance; an obstruction; and regular, recurrent flooding.

## Curve Calculations

5-18. The speed at which vehicles move along a route is affected by sharp curves. Curves with a radius of 25 meters or less are obstructions to traffic and are indicated by the abbreviation "OB" in the route classification formula and identified on DA Form 1248 (see appendix B). Curves with a radius between 25.1 and 45 meters are recorded on the overlay but are not considered obstructions.

## Measuring Methods

5-19. Several methods are used to measure curves: the tape-measure, triangulation, and formula methods.

## Tape-Measure Method

5-20. A quick way to estimate the radius of a sharp curve is by using a tape measure to find the radius (see figure 5-3, page 5-8). Imagine the outer edge of the curve as the outer edge of a circle. Find (estimate) the center of this imaginary circle and then measure the radius using a tape measure. Start from the center of the circle and measure to the outside edge of the curve. The length of the tape measure from the center of the imaginary circle to its outer edge is the curve's radius. This method is practical for curves located on relatively flat ground and having a radius up to 15 meters.

## Triangulation Method

5-21. You can determine a curve's approximate radius by "laying out" right triangles (3:4:5 proportion) at the point of curvature (PC) and point of tangency (PT) locations (see figure 5-4). The intersection (o), which is formed by extending the legs of each triangle, represents the center of the circle. The distance (R)
from point o to either point PC or PT represents the curve's radius.

## Formula Method

5-22. Another method of determining the curve's radius (see figure 5-5) is based on the following formula (all measurements are in meters):
Note. When conditions warrant, set M at 2 meters from the centerline and then measure C2
meters from the centerline. Use this method when there is a time limitation or because natural or manmade restrictions prevent proper measurements.

The result of this calculation R = (225/16) + 1 solve as R = 15.06 would be an obstruction to traffic flow, and "OB" would be placed in the route classification formula.

## Curve Symbol

5-23. Sharp curves with a radius of 45 meters or less are symbolically represented on maps or overlays by a triangle that points to the curve's exact map location. In addition, the measured value (in meters) for the radius of curvature is written outside the triangle (see figure 5-6, page 5-10). All curves with a radius of 45 meters are reportable and need to be noted on DA Form 1248 (see appendix B).

## Series Of Sharp Curves

5-24. A series of sharp curves is represented by two triangles, one drawn inside the other. The outer triangle points to the location of the first curve. The number of curves and the radius of curvature for the sharpest curve of the series are written to the outside of the triangle (see figure 5-6).

## Slope Estimation

5-25. The rise and fall of the ground is known as the slope or gradient (grade). Slopes of 7 percent or greater affect the movement speed along a route and are considered an obstruction. The percent of slope is used to describe the effect that inclines have on movement rates. It is the ratio of the change in elevation (the vertical distance to the horizontal ground distance) multiplied by 100 (see figure 5-7). It is important to express the vertical distance and the horizontal in the same unit of measure. Report all slopes greater then 5 percent on the route classification overlay.

## Percent Of Slope

5-26. The following paragraphs discuss the methods used to determine the percent of slope.

## Clinometer Method

5-27. A clinometer is an instrument that directly measures the percent of slope. It can be found in engineer survey units, as part of an artillery compass, and as part of an engineer platoon sketch set. (In some kits, the clinometer has been replaced by a surveying level. Follow the instructions included with the instrument.)

## Map Method

5-28. Use a large-scale map (such as 1:50,000) to estimate the percent of slope quickly. After identifying the slope on the map, find the difference in elevations between the top and bottom of the slope by reading the elevation contours or spot elevation. Then, measure and convert the horizontal distance (usually road distance) to the same unit of measurement as the elevation difference. Substitute the vertical and horizontal distances in the percent-of-slope formula and compute the percent of slope. (See figure 5-8.)

## Pace Method

5-29. The pace method is a quick way to estimate percent of slope. Determine, accurately, the height and pace of each Soldier and Marine for each member of a reconnaissance team before using this method. As a rule of thumb, the eye level of the average Soldier and Marine is 1.75 meters above the ground. The pace of the average Soldier and Marine is 0.75 meter.

5-30. Perform the following procedures for the pace method:
z
Stand at the bottom of the slope with head and eyes level.
z
Sight a spot on the slope. This spot should be easily identifiable. If it is not, another member of the team should go forward to mark the location.
z
Walk forward and stand on the marked spot. Record the number of paces. Repeat this procedure
until you reach the top of the slope (estimate fractions of an eye level).
z
Compute the vertical distance by multiplying the number of sightings by the eye-level height (1.75 meters). Compute the horizontal distance by totaling the number of paces and converting them to meters by multiplying by 0.75 (or the known pace-to-meter conversion factor).
z
Calculate the percent of slope by substituting the values into the percent-of-slope formula (see figure 5-9). Because this method considers horizontal ground distance and incline distance as equal, you can obtain reasonable accuracy only for slopes less than 30 percent. This method requires practice to achieve acceptable accuracy. A line level and string can be used to train this method.

## Angle-Of-Slope Method

5-31. The angle-of-slope method is a quick way to estimate the percent of slope. The angle of slope is first measured by using an elevation quadrant, an aiming circle, an M2 compass, or binoculars with a standard reticle. If the instrument used to take the angle of measurement is mounted above ground level, the height difference must be compensated for by sighting above the slope a corresponding, equal distance. (The corresponding distance is the distance the instrument is above the ground). You must conduct the angle of measurement at the base of the slope. Once you obtain the angle of measurement, refer to table 5-3 and enter the column corresponding to the measured angle of slope. You can read the percent of slope directly from table 5-3 (see figure 5-10).

|   Degrees of Slope  | Mils of Slope    |   Percent of Slope  |
|---------------------|------------------|---------------------|
|                  1  | 18               |                 1.7 |
|                  2  | 36               |                 3.5 |
|                  3  | 53               |                 5.2 |
|                  4  | 71               |                 7   |
|                  5  | 89               |                 8.7 |
|                 10  | 175              |                17.6 |
|                 15  | 267              |                26.7 |
|                 20  | 356              |                36.4 |
|                 25  | 444              |                46.6 |
|                 30  | 533              |                57.7 |
|                 35  | 622              |                70   |
|                 40  | 711              |                83.9 |
|                 45  | 800              |               100   |
|                 50  | 889              |               108.7 |
|                 55  | 978              |               117.6 |
|                 60  | 1,067            |               126.7 |

## Slope Symbol

5-32. Most vehicles negotiating slopes of 7 percent or greater for a significant distance will be slowed. Such slope characteristics must be accurately reported. The symbols illustrated in figure 5-11, page 5-14, are used to represent various slopes.

## Description Of Slope Symbols

5-33. A single arrowhead along the trace of a route pointing in the uphill direction indicates a grade of at least 5 but less than 7 percent. Two arrowheads represent a grade of at least 7 but less than 10 percent. Three arrowheads represent a grade of at least 10 but less than 14 percent. Four arrowheads represent a grade of 14 percent or more. A symbol is not required for slopes less than 5 percent. 5-34. The percent of slope is written to the right of the arrow (see figure 5-11). When the map scale permits, the length of the arrow shaft will be drawn to map scale to represent the approximate length of the grade.

Note. Slopes of 7 percent or greater are obstructions to traffic flow and are indicated by the abbreviation "OB" in the route classification formula.

## Constrictions

5-35. Reductions traveled-way widths (constrictions) include narrow streets in built-up areas, drainage ditches, embankments, and war damage. These constrictions may limit vehicle movement; therefore, the physical dimensions of the vehicles that will be using the route must be known and considered when conducting the route classification. 5-36. Constrictions in the traveled-way width below minimum requirements are depicted on maps and overlays by two opposing shaded triangles. The width of the usable traveled way (in meters) is written next to the left triangle. The length of the constriction (in meters) is written next to the right triangle (see figure 5-12).

Note. Constrictions of traveled-way widths below the minimum standard for the type and flow of traffic are obstructions and are indicated by the symbol "OB" in the route classification formula.

## Underpasses

5-37. An underpass is depicted on a map or overlay by a symbol that shows the structure's ceiling. It is drawn over the route at the map location. The width (in meters) is written to the left of the underpass symbol, and the overhead clearance (in meters) is written to the right of the underpass symbol (see figure 5-13).

5-38. If sidewalks permit emergency passage of wider vehicles, the sidewalks are symbolically represented. This information should be noted on DA Form 1250 (see appendix B). The traveled-way width is recorded first, followed by a slash, and then the structure's total width, including sidewalks.

## Caution

Items such as arched ceilings or irregularities in ceilings that result in a decrease in overhead clearance must be noted. In such cases, an extension of width may not mean that the structure will accommodate wider vehicles.

5-39. Both minimum and maximum overhead clearances, if different, will be recorded. The minimum will be recorded first, followed by a slash, and then the maximum overhead clearance.

## Tunnels On Routes

5-40. A tunnel on a route is an artificially covered (such as a covered bridge or a snowshed) or an underground section of road along a route. A tunnels reconnaissance determines essential information such as the serial number, location, type, length, width (including sidewalks), bypasses, alignment, gradient, and cross section. Tunnel reconnaissance is reported on DA Form 1250 (see appendix B). A tunnel consists of a bore, a tunnel liner, and a portal. Common shapes of tunnel bores (see figure 5-14) are semicircular, elliptical, horseshoe, and square with an arched ceiling.

5-41. Basic tunnel information is recorded on maps or overlays using symbols (see figure 5-15). The location of the tunnel entrance is shown on a map or overlay by an arrow from the symbol to the location of the entrance. For long tunnels (greater than 30.5 meters), both tunnel entrance locations are indicated.

5-42. For later reference, a serial number is assigned to each tunnel. (Check for an existing fixed serial number on the actual tunnel or map sheet; if it does not have a serial number, assign a number based on the unit's SOP.) Serial numbers are not duplicated on any one map sheet, overlay, or document. The number is recorded inside the symbol. The traveled-way width is shown in meters and is placed below the symbol. 5-43. If sidewalks permit the emergency passage of wider vehicles, then the sidewalks are symbolically represented and the traveled-way width is written first, followed by a slash, and then the total width including the sidewalks.

## Caution

Structures with arched or irregular ceilings will decrease overhead clearance. An extension of width does not always mean that the structure will accommodate wider vehicles.

5-44. Overhead clearance is the shortest distance between the surface of a traveled way and any obstruction vertically above it. The measurement of overhead clearance must be accurate. Obtain the measurements shown in figure 5-16 (page 5-18) and figure 5-17 (page 5-19) and record them on DA Form
1250 (see appendix B).

(portals) look like and the composition. The portal view information and sketch are recorded (see figure

## Road Reconnaissance Procedure

5-46. A road reconnaissance collects detailed technical information on the engineering characteristics and trafficability of a road or road section within a route. Report results of a road reconnaissance on DA Form 1248 (see appendix B). 5-47. In general, a road consists of a road surface, base course, and subgrade (see figure 5-19).

## Soil Types And Characteristics

5-48. Identifying the soil type used in road construction is a critical component of the road reconnaissance. Soils, stabilized when necessary, form the subgrade and base course for the vast majority of roads. Soils are considered according to type, characteristics, and allowable foundation bearing pressure. See table 5-4
(page 5-22) and table 5-5 (page 5-23). Soil types (table 5-4) range from gravel and sandy soils to clay and silty soils. The principal soil type described in table 5-4 is further analyzed in table 5-5 including an allowable bearing pressure. The allowable bearing pressure is expressed as a California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and which is then used in determining the load-bearing capacity of a flexible road surface.
Note. The CBR is a measure of the shearing resistance of soil under controlled density and moisture conditions (figure 5-20, page 5-26). It is expressed as a ratio of the unit load required to force a piston into the soil to the unit load required to force the same piston the same depth into standard crushed stone.

| Name                                                                                                     | Description                                                                                      |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Gravel                                                                                                   | A mass of detached rock particles, generally water worn, which passes a 3-inch sieve and is      |
| retained on a No. 4 sieve (0.187 inches).                                                                |                                                                                                  |
| Sand                                                                                                     | Granular material composed of rock particles which pass a No. 4 sieve (0.187 inches) and are     |
| retained on a No. 200 sieve (0.0029 inches). It is difficult to distinguish sand from silt when the      |                                                                                                  |
| particles are uniformly small. Dried sand, however, differs from silt in that it has no cohesion and     |                                                                                                  |
| feels grittier.                                                                                          |                                                                                                  |
| Silt                                                                                                     | A fine, granular material composed of particles which pass the No. 200 sieve (0.0029 inches). It |
| lacks plasticity and has little dry strength. To identify, prepare a pat of wet soil and shake it        |                                                                                                  |
| horizontally in the palm of the hand. With typical inorganic silt, the shaking action causes water to    |                                                                                                  |
| come to the surface of the sample, making it appear glossy and soft. Repeat tests with varying           |                                                                                                  |
| moisture contents. Squeezing the sample between the fingers causes the water to disappear from           |                                                                                                  |
| the surface and the sample quickly stiffens and finally cracks or crumbles. Allow sample to dry, test    |                                                                                                  |
| its cohesion, and feel by crumbling with the fingers. Typical silt shows little or no dry strength and   |                                                                                                  |
| feels only slightly gritty in contrast to the rough grittiness of fine sand.                             |                                                                                                  |
| Clay                                                                                                     | Extremely fine-grained material composed of particles which pass the No. 200 sieve (0.0029       |
| inches). To identify, work a sample with the fingers, adding water when stiffness requires. Moist        |                                                                                                  |
| sample is plastic enough to be kneaded like dough. Test further by rolling ball of kneaded soil          |                                                                                                  |
| between palm of hand and a flat surface. Clay can be rolled to a slender thread, about 1/4 inch in       |                                                                                                  |
| diameter, without crumbling; silt crumbles, without forming a thread. Measure hardness of dry clay       |                                                                                                  |
| by finger pressure required to break a sample. It requires much greater force to break dry clay than     |                                                                                                  |
| dry silt. Clay feels smooth in contrast to the slight grittiness of silt.                                |                                                                                                  |
| Organic                                                                                                  | Soil composed of decayed or decaying vegetation, sometimes mixed with fine-grained mineral       |
| sediments such as peat or muskeg. It is identified by coarse and fibrous appearance and odor. Odor       |                                                                                                  |
| may be intensified by heating. Plastic soils containing organic material can be rolled into soft, spongy |                                                                                                  |
| threads.                                                                                                 |                                                                                                  |
| Major Divisions                    | Letter                        | Name                            |
|------------------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| 60-80                              | GW                            | Well-graded gravels or gravel-  |
| sand mixtures, little or no fines  |                               |                                 |
| 25-60                              |                               |                                 |
| GP                                 | Poorly graded gravels or      |                                 |
| gravel-sand mixtures, little or    |                               |                                 |
| no fines                           |                               |                                 |
| Gravel and                         |                               |                                 |
| gravelly soils                     |                               |                                 |
| 40-80                              |                               |                                 |
| GM                                 |                               |                                 |
| d                                  |                               |                                 |
| 1                                  |                               |                                 |
| Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt    |                               |                                 |
| mixtures                           |                               |                                 |
| u                                  |                               |                                 |
| 2                                  |                               |                                 |
| 20-40                              |                               |                                 |
| 20-40                              | GC                            | Clayey gravels, gravel-sand     |
| clay mixtures                      |                               |                                 |
| Coarse-grained                     |                               |                                 |
| soils                              |                               |                                 |
| 20-40                              | SW                            | Well-graded sands or gravelly   |
| sands, little or no fines          |                               |                                 |
| 10-25                              | SP                            | Poorly graded sands or          |
| gravelly sands, little or no fines |                               |                                 |
| Sand and                           |                               |                                 |
| sandy soils                        |                               |                                 |
| SM                                 | d                             |                                 |
| 1                                  |                               |                                 |
| Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures    | 20-40                         |                                 |
| u                                  |                               |                                 |
| 2                                  |                               |                                 |
| 10-20                              |                               |                                 |
| 10-20                              | SC                            | Clayey sands, sand-clay         |
| mixtures                           |                               |                                 |
| 5-15                               |                               |                                 |
| ML                                 | Inorganic silts and very fine |                                 |
| sands, rock flour, silty or clayey |                               |                                 |
| fine sands, or clayey silts with   |                               |                                 |
| slight plasticity                  |                               |                                 |
| 5-15                               |                               |                                 |
| Silts and                          |                               |                                 |
| clays (liquid                      |                               |                                 |
| limits <50)                        |                               |                                 |
| Fine-grained                       |                               |                                 |
| soils                              |                               |                                 |
| CL                                 | Inorganic clays of low to     |                                 |
| medium plasticity, gravelly        |                               |                                 |
| clays, sandy clays, silty clays,   |                               |                                 |
| lean clays                         |                               |                                 |
| 4-8                                | OL                            | Organic silts and organic silt- |
| clays of low plasticity            |                               |                                 |
| 4-8                                |                               |                                 |
| Silts and clays                    |                               |                                 |
| (liquid limits >50)                |                               |                                 |
| MH                                 | Inorganic silts, micaceous or |                                 |
| diatomaceous fine sandy or         |                               |                                 |
| silty soils, elastic silts         |                               |                                 |
| 3-5                                | CH                            | Inorganic clays of high         |
| plasticity, fat clays              |                               |                                 |
| 3-5                                | OH                            | Organic clays of medium to      |
| high plasticity, organic silts     |                               |                                 |
| Highly organic soils               | Pt                            | Peat and other highly organic   |
| soils                              |                               |                                 |

Note. Division of GM and SM groups into suddivisions of d and u are for roads and airfields only; subdivision is basis of Atterberg limits.

1 Indicates liquid limit is 28 or less, and plasticity index is 6 or less. 2 Indicates liquid limit is 28 or greater.

## Base Course And Subgrade

5-49. The base course and subgrade are the intermediate fill under the traveled surface of the roadway. Base courses are usually composed of gravel or crushed rock. Subgrade soils are typically more silts and clay soils. Table 5-6, page 5-24, cross-references various engineering properties of soils to the soil letter designator.

Value as
Value as
Base
Potential Frost
Drainage
Letter
Foundation
when Not
Directly
Under
Action4
Compressibility
and Expansion
Characteristics
Subject to Frost
Action3
Bituminous
Pavement
GW
Excellent
Good
None to very slight
Almost none
Excellent
GP
Good to excellent
Poor to fair
None to very slight
Almost none
Excellent
d1
Good to excellent
Fair to good
Slight to medium
Very slight
Fair to poor
GM
u2
Good
Poor
Slight to medium
Slight
Poor to
practically
impervious
GC
Good
Poor
Slight to medium
Slight
Poor to practically impervious
SW
Good
Poor
None to very slight
Almost none
Excellent
SP
Fair to good
Poor to not suitable
None to very slight
Almost none
Excellent
d1
Good
Poor
Slight to high
Very slight
Fair to poor
SM
u2
Fair to good
Not suitable
Slight to high
Slight to medium
Poor to practically impervious
SC
Fair to good
Not suitable
Slight to high
Slight to medium
Poor to practically impervious
CL
Fair to poor
Not suitable
Medium to high
Medium
Practically impervious
OL
Poor
Not suitable
Medium to high
Medium to high
Poor
MH
Poor
Not suitable
Medium to high
High
Fair to poor
CH
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
High
Practically impervious
OH
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
High
Practically impervious
Pt
Not suitable
Not suitable
Slight
Very high
Fair to poor

1 Indicates liquid limit is 28 or less, and plasticity index is 6 or less. 2 Indicates liquid limit is 28 or greater. 3 Values are for subgrades and base courses except for base courses directly under bituminous pavement. 4 Indicates whether these soils are susceptible to frost.

## Road Capacity And Computations

5-50. The load-bearing capacity of a road is its ability to support traffic and is expressed by a military load classification (MLC). The load-bearing capacity of a road with a flexible surface describes its ability to support traffic and is expressed initially as a maximum allowable wheel load and then converted to an equivalent MLC. After determining the type of subgrade material using tables 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6 (pages 5 21 through 5-24), an accurate estimation of the load-bearing capacity of a road for wheeled vehicles can be made by measuring the combined thickness of the surface and base course and using figure 5-20, page 5-5
26, to obtain the corresponding load bearing capacity in pounds. Note that some pavement sections may include a SP (sand) subbase material between the base course and a silt or clay subgrade, the thickness of SP can be included in the calculations for combined thickness in inches of pavement and base in Figure 5 20. The load-bearing determined in Figure 5-20 is expressed as a maximum allowable wheel load in pounds. See Table 5-7 to convert the bearing capacity in pounds to an equivalent MLC.

Note. That road classification for tracked vehicles is not normally assigned. Other factors such as wear and tear on the roads surface by track action usually determines the road's capacity to support track vehicles.

| Classification number    | Maximum single wheel load (pounds)     |
|--------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| 4                        | 2,500                                  |
| 8                        | 5,500                                  |
| 12                       | 8,000                                  |
| 16                       | 10,000                                 |
| 20                       | 11,000                                 |
| 24                       | 12,000                                 |
| 30                       | 13,500                                 |
| 40                       | 17,000                                 |
| 50 - 150                 | 20,000                                 |

5-51. If the MLC of the road is greater than the classification of the weakest bridge on the route, the bridge classification determines the capacity of the route.

5-52. After determining the type of subgrade material, an accurate estimation of the load-bearing capacity of a road for wheeled vehicles can be made by measuring the combined thickness of the surface and base course and using figure 5-20 to obtain the corresponding load-bearing capacity in pounds. Note that some pavement sections may include a sand (depicted as SP) subbase material between the base course and a silt or clay subgrade. The thickness of SP can be included in the calculations for combined thickness in inches of pavement and base in figure 5-20. (See appendix E to convert the bearing capacity in pounds to an equivalent MLC).

## Road Classification Formula

5-53. The road classification formula is a systematic description of the limiting section of a road. Do not confuse it with the route classification formula. Recorded information from the road classification formula is included in the route classification formula. The following paragraphs describe each portion of the formula shown below:

z
(1) Limiting characteristics. Prefix the formula with "A" if there are no limiting characteristics
and "B" if there are one or more limiting characteristics. Represent an unknown or undetermined characteristic by a question mark, together with the feature to which it refers. In the example above, the letter g indicates steep gradients and the letter s indicates a rough surface
(see table 5-8).
z
(2) Minimum traveled-way width. Express this width in meters followed by a slash and the combined width of the traveled way and the shoulders. In the example above, the minimum traveled way is 4 meters and the combined width is 5 meters.
z
(3) Road surface material. Express this with a letter symbol. The formula above describes the surface material as r, meaning water-bound macadam. Use the symbols listed in table 5-9 (page 5-28); they are further related to the X, Y, and Z route types of the route classification described
earlier in route reconnaissance procedures.
z
(4) Road length. Express the road length in kilometers and place in parentheses.
z
(5) Obstructions. Indicate any obstructions along a road by placing the symbol "OB" after the road length, as shown in the example above. Details of the obstructions are not shown in the formula; they are reported separately by appropriate symbols on accompanying maps or overlays or on DA Form 1248 (see appendix B). Report the following obstructions:

Overhead obstructions (less than 4.3 meters over the route).

Constrictions in traveled-way widths less than 6 meters for single-flow traffic or less than 8 meters for double-flow traffic (tracked or combination vehicles [see table 5-2, page 5-6]).

Slopes of 7 percent or greater.

Curves with a radius of less than 25 meters (report curves of 25.1 to 45 meters).
z
(6) Blockage. If blockage is regular, recurrent, and serious, the effects of snow blockage and flooding are indicated in the road classification formula. The symbol for snow blockage is "T" and the symbol for frequent flooding is "W."

| Limiting Characteristics                                               | Criteria                                                                |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Sharp curves                                                           |                                                                         |
| Sharp curves with a radius of 25 meters or less (82 feet) are reported |                                                                         |
| as obstructions.                                                       |                                                                         |
| c                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Steep gradients                                                        |                                                                         |
| Steep gradients, 7 percent or steeper; such gradients are reported as  |                                                                         |
| obstructions.                                                          |                                                                         |
| g                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Poor drainage                                                          |                                                                         |
| Inadequate ditches, crown or camber, or culverts; culverts and ditches |                                                                         |
| blocked or otherwise in poor condition.                                |                                                                         |
| d                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Weak foundation                                                        | Unstable, loose, or easily displaced material.                          |
| f                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Rough surface                                                          | Bumpy, rutted, or potholed to an extent likely to reduce convoy speeds. |
| s                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Excessive camber or                                                    |                                                                         |
| superelevation                                                         |                                                                         |
| Falling away so sharply as to cause heavy vehicles to skid or drag     |                                                                         |
| toward shoulders.                                                      |                                                                         |
| j                                                                      |                                                                         |
| Symbol                                                          | Material                                               | Route Type                        |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| K                                                               | Concrete                                               | Type X; generally heavy duty      |
| kb                                                              | Bituminous (asphaltic) concrete (bituminous plant mix) | Type X; generally heavy duty      |
| P                                                               | Paving brick or stone                                  | Type X or Y; generally heavy duty |
| Pb                                                              | Bituminous surface on paving brick or stone            | Type X or Y; generally heavy duty |
| rb                                                              |                                                        |                                   |
| Bitumen-penetrated macadam, water-bound macadam with            |                                                        |                                   |
| superficial asphalt or tar cover                                |                                                        |                                   |
| Type X or Y; generally medium duty                              |                                                        |                                   |
| r                                                               |                                                        |                                   |
| Water-bound macadam, crushed rock or coral or stabilized        |                                                        |                                   |
| gravel                                                          |                                                        |                                   |
| Type Y; generally light duty                                    |                                                        |                                   |
| L                                                               | Gravel or lightly metaled surface                      | Type Y; generally light duty      |
| nb                                                              |                                                        |                                   |
| Bituminous surface treatment on natural earth, stabilized soil, |                                                        |                                   |
| sand-clay, or other select material                             |                                                        |                                   |
| Type Y or Z; generally light duty                               |                                                        |                                   |
| b                                                               |                                                        |                                   |
| Used when type of bituminous construction cannot be             |                                                        |                                   |
| determined                                                      |                                                        |                                   |
| Type Y or Z; generally light duty                               |                                                        |                                   |
| n                                                               |                                                        |                                   |
| Natural earth stabilized soil, sand-clay, shell, cinders,       |                                                        |                                   |
| disintegrated granite, or other select material                 |                                                        |                                   |
| Type Z; generally light duty                                    |                                                        |                                   |
| V                                                               | Various other types not mentioned above                |                                   |
| Classify X, Y, or Z depending on                                |                                                        |                                   |
| the type of material used (indicate                             |                                                        |                                   |
| length when this symbol is used).                               |                                                        |                                   |

## Examples Of The Road Classification Formula

5-54. A sample DA Form 1248 is shown in appendix B. The following are examples of the road classification formula:

z
A 5.0/6.2kroad with no limiting characteristics or obstructions, a minimum traveled way of 5.0 meters, a combined width of traveled way and shoulders of 6.2 meters, and a concrete surface.
z
B g s 4/5 1 (OB)road with limiting characteristics of steep gradients and a rough surface, a minimum traveled way of 4 meters, a combined width of 5 meters, gravel or lightly metaled
surfaces, and obstructions.
z
B c (f?) 3.2/4.8 p (4.3km) (OB) (T)road with limiting characteristics of sharp curves and
unknown foundation, a minimum traveled way of 3.2 meters, a combined width of 4.8 meters, paving brick or stone surface, obstructions, and 4.3 kilometers long subject to snow blockage.

## Notes.

1. Where rockslides are a hazard or poor drainage is a problem, include information on a written enclosure or legend.

2. Ensure that a new classification formula is entered on the DA Form 1248 each time the road changes significantly.

## Chapter 6 Technical Reconnaissance - Assessments And Surveys

Bring war material with you from home, but forage on the enemy...use the conquered foe to augment one's own strength.

Sun Tzu, The Art of War Engineer assessments span the overlap area from tactical to technical on the range of engineer reconnaissance capabilities. ERTs conduct tactical reconnaissance but may include all or key portions of an assessment as part of the specified focus of technical information. General engineers may augment the ERT, form an ERT, or form an assessment team as the situation requires. Assessments may be conducted as an integrated requirement in the tactical reconnaissance operation or may be in support of IR at the operational level. Engineer surveys are typically conducted at the operational level and in support of the general engineer function. While ERTs may provide the degree of technical expertise required for an assessment, they operate as an integrated part of an overall tactical reconnaissance operation at the BCT/RCT level and below. Even when conducting an assessment, the ERT retains a significant tactical reconnaissance focus. Operational level assessments and survey teams employ a routinely high degree of technical expertise and are focused nearly exclusively on the technical requirements of the reconnaissance support mission. The capabilities in both cases overlap substantially, but the overall nature of the engineer reconnaissance support is distinct. This chapter discusses the assessment and/or survey capabilities typically provided by general engineer elements, and those assessment capabilities available as necessary from ERTs. Technical capabilities included in this chapter are often augmented with robust support from other Services, OGAs, contractors, host-nation support (HNS), and reach-back support through FFE and similar capabilities found in other Services. Regardless of the level of reconnaissance support integration, when operating within assigned maneuver AOs, the assessment or survey team must fully coordinate their activity with the maneuver unit.

## Bridge Reconnaissance

6-1. A bridge reconnaissance is conducted to collect detailed technical information on selected bridges. The bridge reconnaissance is conducted as part of a route or road classification or as separate mission focused on the selected bridge. Based on the situation, the reconnaissance may be conducted by an ERT, an augmented ERT, an assessment team, or a survey team. The level of detail of the information collected will increase in the progression from ERT to survey team. In every case, the information collected can be used to determine the bridge load-carrying capacity (see appendix F for a detailed discussion on bridge classification) and to estimate resources for repair or upgrade of the bridge. ERTs also conduct bridge reconnaissance to collect information to enable the planning and estimation of the materials required for a bridge demolition. (See FM 3-34.214 for additional information on bridge demolition requirements). DA Form 1249 (see appendix B) is used to report the information collected from a bridge reconnaissance. 6-2. Appendix F of this manual provides the procedure for applying the information collected in the bridge reconnaissance to determine the hasty bridge load classification. This assessment provides the basic MLC information necessary for the commander to plan for the use of the bridge. Refer to FM 3-34.343 for a complete discussion of bridge classification procedures. The method of bridge load classification covered in appendix F is adequate for most applications.) 6-3. Large, multilane highway bridges are common in the common operational environment (COE).

These bridges with steel girders or prestressed concrete beams may be difficult to classify using the procedure in appendix F. Damaged bridges will also present a challenge for classification resulting from the damage as well as for repair options to mitigate the damage. The USACE has developed specific expertise to assist in assessing bridges that present a challenge to reconnaissance elements in the field. The assistance is available through reach-back support as discussed under FFE in this chapter and in appendix H.

## Bridge Span Types And Components

6-4. The most common span types for nonstandard bridges include
z
Timber or steel trestle bridge with timber deck (including steel truss type highway bridges).
z
Steel-stringer bridge with concrete deck (including steel multigirder and two-girder highway bridges).
z
Concrete steel-stringer bridge.
z
Concrete T-beam bridge with asphalt surface (including reinforced concrete and prestressed highway bridges).
z
Masonry arch bridge.
6-5. Ice bridging is a type of nonstandard bridge that may be encountered where appropriate climate conditions exist. Ice bridges typically reinforce an already present ice cover on large bodies of water, streams, and rivers allowing the passage of heavier load classifications that would otherwise be supported by the existing ice. Reconnaissance should focus on determining whether the initial ice span is stable and not simply a floating ice mass (see TM 5-349 and TM 5-852-1).

6-6. Based on the type of span, basic components including the following:
z
Approaches (the portions of a route leading to a bridge). Approaches may be mined or booby-trapped, requiring thorough investigation during a reconnaissance.
z
Substructure (lower part of a bridge). The substructure consists of the abutments and intermediate supports that transfer the bridge's load to the ground. It is important to measure all aspects of an abutment, including its height, width, and length; the abutment wings; and the intermediate support.
z
Superstructure (the upper part of a bridge). The superstructure consists of the following components (see figure 6-1):

Stringers rest on and span the distance between the intermediate supports or abutments. Stringers are the superstructure's main load-carrying members. They receive the load from the flooring and the vehicles and transfer it to the substructure.

The flooring system often consists of both decking and tread. The decking is laid directly over the stringers at right angles to the centerline of the bridge. The tread is laid parallel to the centerline of the bridge and between the curbs.

Curbs are placed at both edges of the flooring to guide the vehicles. A vehicle with an axle that is wider than the traveled-way width (between the curbs) cannot cross the bridge. Most bridges, however, allow for vehicular overhang beyond the normal traveled area. This allowance is called horizontal clearance above the curbs and is a safety factor.

Railings along the bridge are built to guide drivers and to protect vehicular and foot traffic.

Trusses are used in some bridge superstructures, either above or below the traveled way, to increase the load-carrying capacity. A truss is a structural element made of several members joined together to form a series of triangles.

The number of members in each span is noted where applicable (for example, stringer bridges and concrete T-beam bridges). Exact dimensions of specific bridge members are taken as outlined later in this chapter.

The span length is measured from center to center of the supports. The bridge's
classification is usually based on the weakest span. If the weakest span is apparent, no other
spans need to be examined. However, if the weakest span is difficult or impossible to locate, all spans must be classified. Even if several spans look identical, actual measurements should be taken to prevent error.

The traveled-way width is measured between the inside faces of the curbs. However, the
horizontal clearance on a truss bridge is measured from a point 1.21 meters above the roadway.

## Bridge Condition

6-7. The reconnaissance team collects general information and assesses the bridge's general condition, paying particular attention to evidence of damage from natural causes (rot, rust, and deterioration) or combat action. Classification procedures presume that a bridge is in good condition. If the bridge is in poor condition, the classification obtained from mathematical computations must be reduced according to the classifier's judgment.

## Bridge Symbol

6-8. The reconnaissance team collects the specific bridge information necessary to fill out the full North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) bridge symbol (see figure 6-2) on a map or overlay. This symbol is different from an on-site bridge classification sign as shown in appendix G; do not confuse the two. The information necessary for the full bridge symbol includes the

z
Bridge serial number.
z
Geographic location.
z
Bridge's MLC.
z
Overall length.
z
Traveled-way width.
z
Overhead clearance.
z
Available bypasses.
6-9. A bridge serial number is assigned for future reference and is recorded in the symbol's lower portion (assign a number according to the unit's SOP). For proper identification, do not duplicate serial numbers within any one map sheet, overlay, or document.

6-10. The bridge's geographic location is shown by an arrow extending from the symbol to the exact map location. The bridge's MLC number is shown in the symbol's top portion. This number indicates the bridge's carrying capacity; classifications for both single- and double-flow traffic are included. In those instances where dual classifications for wheeled and tracked vehicles exist, both classifications are shown. 6-11. The bridge's overall length is the distance between abutments, measured along the bridge's centerline. This figure is placed to the right of the circle and is expressed in meters.

6-12. The minimum lane width is the clear distance between curbs. Place this figure below the symbol and express it in meters. Bridges may be obstructions to traffic flow because the traveled-way width of the overall route may be reduced on the bridge to below the minimum standards prescribed in table 6-1. 6-13. The overhead clearance is the minimum distance between the bridge's surface and any obstruction above it. This figure is shown (in meters) to the left of the symbol. Underline any overhead clearance less than the minimum required by the bridge classification number (see table 6-1). Unlimited overhead clearance is indicated by the symbol . Often a telltale or other warning device is placed before the bridge to indicate overhead-clearance limitations (see figure 6-3). Report any overhead clearance less than 4.3
meters as an obstruction in the route classification formula. A question mark is used to indicate information that is unknown or undetermined and is included as part of the bridge reconnaissance symbol. (See appendix G for signs used to mark roads and bridges.)

| Bridge Classification    | Minimum Overhead Clearance    |
|--------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Up to 70                 | 4.3 meters                    |
| Above 70                 | 4.7 meters                    |

6-14. The reconnaissance team may be interested in railway bridges which could be used by road vehicles in an emergency. The team conducts a bridge reconnaissance and makes an overall assessment of the adaptability of the railway bridge for road traffic indicating "use easy" or "use difficult" on the bridge symbol. (A sample of the full NATO bridge symbol used to indicate a railway bridge can be found in appendix B.)
Note. A railroad bridge is considered easy to adapt for use if it can be adapted in less than 4
hours with 35 Soldiers and Marines and the appropriate resources.

## Bridge Dimensions

6-15. The reconnaissance team collects specific bridge dimensions if the information will be necessary to determine the hasty bridge load classification (see appendix F). The dimensions required vary for each of the seven basic bridge types. (Table F-1 on page F-2 F-2 summarizes the dimensions that the reconnaissance team must collect if the information will be used to classify the bridge. Entries in the table correspond to figures F-1 through F-6 on pages F-4 through F-9 as indicated in parenthesis under the span type.)

## Other Gap Crossing Sites

6-16. Like bridges, the range of engineer reconnaissance capabilities is employed to collect detailed technical information on gap crossing sites where bridges are not present. Also like bridge reconnaissance, these missions are typically conducted as part of a route or road classification, or as a separate mission focused on the selected site. Based on the situation, the reconnaissance may be conducted by an ERT, an augmented ERT, an assessment team, or a survey team. The level of detail of the information collected increases in the progression from ERT to survey team. The information collected is used to determine the route classification and to estimate resources for repair or upgrade of the site or for construction of a bridge at the site. The various gap crossing reconnaissance capabilities and their corresponding report forms (instruction for reporting for each are included in appendix B) are

z
Ford Reconnaissance (use DA Form 1251).
z
Ferry Reconnaissance (use DA Form 1252).
z
River Reconnaissance (use DA Form 7398, *River Reconnaissance Report*).
z
Underwater Reconnaissance (also uses DA Form 7398).

## Fords

6-17. A ford is a location in a water barrier where the current, bottom, and approaches allow personnel and vehicles and other equipment to cross and remain in contact with the bottom during crossing. Fords are obstructions to traffic flow and are shown by the abbreviation "OB" in the route classification formula for ford information on DA Form 1251 (see appendix B). 6-18. During high-water periods, low-water bridges are easily confused with paved fords because both are completely submerged. It is important to know the difference between this type of bridge and a paved ford because of corresponding military load limitations. 6-19. Fords are classified according to the crossing potential (or trafficability) for pedestrians or vehicles. Fordable depths for vehicular traffic can be increased by suitable waterproofing and adding deepwater fording kits. These kits permit fording depths up to an average of 4.3 meters. Check vehicle TMs for further fording information. 6-20. Record the composition of the approaches. They may be paved or covered with mat or trackway, but they are usually unimproved. The composition and the slope of the approaches to a ford should be carefully noted to determine the trafficability after fording vehicles saturate the surface material of the approaches.

Identify the ford's left and right approaches when looking downstream. 6-21. Record the current velocity and the presence of debris to determine the effect, if any, on the ford's condition and passability. Estimate the current as

z
Swift (more than 1.5 meters per second).
z
Moderate (1 to 1.5 meters per second).
z
Slow (less than 1 meter per second).
6-22. The ford's stream-bottom composition largely determines its trafficability. It is important to determine whether the bottom is composed of sand, gravel, silt, clay, or rock and in what proportions. Record whether the ford's natural river bottom has been improved to increase the load-bearing capacity or to reduce the water depth. Improved fords may have gravel, macadam, or concrete surfacing; layers of sandbags; metal screening or matting; or timber (corduroy) planking. Note if there is material nearby that may be used to improve the ford. Record limited ford information (such as the following) on maps or overlays using a symbol as shown in figure 6-4.

z
The ford's geographic location is shown by an arrow from the symbol to the ford location on a map or overlay. The symbol is drawn on either side of the stream.
z
A serial number is assigned to each ford for reference (if the map sheet has a preassigned serial number, use it). Follow the unit's SOP in assigning serial numbers. They must not be duplicated within any one map sheet, overlay, or document.
z
The type of ford is determined by bottom conditions, width, and water depth. Use the letters "V" for vehicular or "P" for pedestrian to show the ford type. Approaches are not considered in determining the ford type.
z
The stream's normal velocity is expressed in meters per second. Seasonal limiting factors follow the stream velocity notation and are shown by the following letters:

X = no seasonal limitations except for sudden flooding of limited duration (such as flash floods).

Y = serious, regular, or recurrent flooding or snow blockage.
Note. If the Y symbol is used, the route type in the route classification formula automatically becomes type Z.

z The length of the ford, expressed in meters, is the distance from the near to far shores. The width of the ford is the traveled-way width of the ford's bottom.

z
The nature of the bottom is indicated by the most appropriate letter symbol:

M = mud.

C = clay.

S = sand.

G = gravel.

R = rock.

P = artificial paving.
z
The normal depth is the depth of water at the deepest point, expressed in meters. During a hasty reconnaissance, the actual water depth is used.
z
A stream's left and right banks are found by looking downstream. Imagine yourself in the middle of the stream and looking downstream. Your left arm would indicate the left bank and the right arm the right bank. In drawing this portion of the symbol, pay attention to the direction of the stream flow. A difficult approach is shown by irregular lines placed on the corresponding
side of the basic symbol.
6-23. All elements of the ford symbol are separated by slashes. If you do not know or cannot determine any item of the ford symbol, substitute a question mark for the required information.

## Ferry Reconnaissance

6-24. Ferries are considered obstructions to traffic flow and are indicated by the abbreviation "OB" in the route classification formula. Ferryboat construction varies widely and ranges from expedient rafts to ocean going vessels. Ferries differ in physical appearance and capacity depending upon the water's width, depth, and current and the characteristics of the traffic to be moved. Ferries may be propelled by oars; cable and pulleys; poles; the stream current; or steam, gasoline, or diesel engines. Detailed ferry reconnaissance information is recorded on DA Form 1252 (see appendix B). 6-25. Usually, the capacity of a civil ferryboat is expressed in tons and total number of passengers. In addition, it is often assigned an MLC number. Ensure that you record the capacity of each ferry when more than one is used at a given site. The ferries may vary in capacity. 6-26. Ferry slips (or piers) are usually provided on each shore to permit easy loading of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. The slips may range from simple log piers to elaborate terminal buildings. A distinguishing characteristic of a ferry slip is often the floating pier that adjusts, with changes in the water depth, to the height of the ferryboat. 6-27. Approach routes to ferry installations have an important bearing on using the ferry. Reconnoitering and recording the conditions of the approaches (including the load-carrying capacity of landing facilities) is very important. 6-28. Limiting characteristics of ferry sites that should be considered are the

z
Width of the water barrier from bank to bank.
z
Distance and time required for the ferryboat to travel from one bank to the other.
z
Depth of the water at each ferry slip.
z
Ease in which each landing site can be defended.
6-29. Climatic conditions affect ferry operations. Fog and ice substantially reduce the total traffic-moving capacity and increase the hazard of the water route. Therefore, you must consider data on tide fluctuations, freezing periods, floods, excessive dry spells, and those effects on ferry operations. 6-30. Record limited ferry information (such as the following) on maps or overlays by using the symbol shown in figure 6-5. Figure 6-6 gives examples of completed ferry symbols.

z
The geographic location of the ferry is shown by an arrow from the symbol to the location of the ferry on a map or overlay. The symbol may be drawn on the map or overlay on either side of the stream.
z
A serial number is assigned to each ferry, for later reference. Numbers must not be duplicated within any one map sheet, overlay, or document. Some maps will already show a ferry serial number. Use this number for your reconnaissance. If you do not find a number, record a number according to the unit's SOP.
z
The type of ferry (V for vehicular and P for pedestrian) is shown after the serial number. If the ferry can haul vehicles, it can also haul pedestrians.
z
The deck's MLC is placed in the bottom left box of the symbol. Most ferries have this
information on the data plate.
z
The dead-weight capacity of the ferry is the MLC plus the actual weight of the ferry, in short tons.
z
The turnaround time is shown by the number of minutes required to cross the water obstacle, unload, and return.
6-31. When drawing the approach-condition portion of the symbol, pay attention to the direction of stream flow. Left and right banks are determined by looking downstream. Approach conditions are determined in the same manner as for fords. A difficult approach is shown by irregular lines placed on the corresponding side of the basic symbol. A question mark is substituted for unknown or undetermined information.

## River Reconnaissance

6-32. River reconnaissance may be conducted to collect technical information used to locate and report suitable sites for military rafting or bridging operations. River reconnaissance is also useful for identifying sites suitable for amphibious or vehicle swimming operations. Desirable site characteristics are

z
Current velocity between 0 and 1.6 meters per second.
z
Banks that permit loading without a great deal of preparation.
z
Approaches that permit easy access and egress.
z
Strong, natural anchorage or holdfasts.
z
Sites with no shoals, sandbars, or snags.
z
Sites clear of obstacles immediately downstream.
z
Sites clear of mines and booby traps.
z
Sites with enough depth to prevent grounding the raft during loading and unloading operations or when crossing.
z
Suitable raft-construction sites (depends on the type of raft).
z
Holding areas for vehicles awaiting passage.
z
A suitable road network to support crossing traffic.
Note. Refer to FM 90-13 for wet and dry gap crossing operations.

6-33. Units complete a river reconnaissance report to transmit important information about the river's location, nearshore and far shore characteristics, and river characteristics. The information is recorded on DA Form 7398 as shown in appendix B. Some confusion may exist regarding the use of the Ferry Reconnaissance Report and the River Reconnaissance Report. The Ferry Reconnaissance Report includes a section to record information about an existing ferry operating at the site targeted for reconnaissance. The River Reconnaissance Report is appropriate when no existing crossing meanssuch as ferry, ford, bridge, and so forthare present. 6-34. Identify and report locations that permit smooth traffic flow and reduce route obstructions as much as possible. When conducting a river reconnaissance, record the river's depth, width, approaches, velocities, and natural and manmade obstacles (see figure 6-7).

6-35. Stream depth is usually measured using field-expedient devices such as poles or weighted ropes. Measure the depth every 3 meters along the planned stream-crossing route. Recheck depths and currents frequently during inclement weather. As a result of sudden, heavy rainfall, a sluggish stream or river may become a torrent very quickly, particularly in tropical and arid regions. Monitor weather reports of the surrounding area. Storms occurring miles away can cause flash flooding. Always consider the importance of upstream dams and locks that may cause elevated levels or flooding when opened or destroyed.

Note. The actual depth you measure is recorded as normal depth when there is little time to reconnaissance.

6-36. Determine the stream width by using the compass method; an aiming circle, azimuth indicator, or alidade; or a GPS, or by taking a direct measurement.

z
Compass method. Determine stream width by using a compass to take an azimuth from a point on the nearshore and close to the water's edge to a point on the opposite shore and close to the water's edge. (See figure 6-8, page 6-12). On the nearshore, establish another point that is on a line and at a right angle to the azimuth selected. The azimuth to the same point on the far shore is  45 degrees (800 mils) from the previous azimuth. Measure the distance between the two points on the nearshore. This distance is equal to the distance across the stream.
z
Aiming circle, azimuth indicator, or alidade. Use an aiming circle, azimuth indicator, or alidade to measure the angle between two points that are a known distance apart on the nearshore and a third point directly across the river from one of these points. (See figure 6-9). Using trigonometric relationships, compute the distance across the stream.
z
Global positioning system. Calculate the distance using two known grid points (from the GPS).
z
Direct measurement. Measure short gaps with a tape measure or a dark rope that is marked and accurately measured.
6-37. Current velocities vary in different parts of a stream. Velocity is usually slower near the shore and faster in the main channel. Perform the following procedure to determine stream velocity:

z
Measure a distance along a riverbank.
z
Throw a light floating object (not affected by the wind) into the stream.
z
Record the time of travel it takes the object to travel the measured distance. Repeat the procedure at least three times. Use the average time of the test in the following formula (see figure 6-10) to determine the stream's velocity:
Stream velocity, in meters per second = measured distance, in meters/average time, in seconds.

6-38. Gently sloping stream approaches are desirable for fording and swimming operations. Slope is expressed in percent. Ensure that the slope-climbing capability is considered for the vehicles that are expected to ford/swim the stream. This information is found on the vehicle's data plate or dash plate or in the vehicle's TM. When considering slope-climbing capability, consider the degrading effects of weather, the condition of the vehicle's tires or tracks, and the condition of the ground surface of both sides of the stream. When bank improvements are necessary, include the amount and type of work on DA Form 1711. (See appendix B for further details on DA Form 1711.)

6-39. Consider the following obstacles during river reconnaissance:
z
High, vertical banks.
z
Mines and booby traps that are located at the entrance and exit or at likely approaches, submerged, or attached to poles and floating logs.
z
Debris and floating objects such as logs and brush, poles, or floating logs with wire attached (which will foul propellers and suspension systems).
z
Ice crusts.

## Underwater Reconnaissance

6-40. In deeper water, divers may have to determine bottom conditions. Diving teams trained and equipped for underwater reconnaissance select deepwater fording sites. When the divers cannot easily span the distance between banks, inflatable combat rubber reconnaissance craft or bridge-erection boats enter the water at a selected entrance and drop off teams at regular intervals. Unless the area is under enemy fire or observation, the craft remain in the water during the reconnaissance and pick up divers when the operation has been completed. Helicopters may be used to drop teams in the water or place teams on the far shore if the situation permits. Engineer light diving teams routinely conduct river reconnaissance at night. 6-41. To assist underwater reconnaissance teams in maintaining direction, weighted lines (transverse lines) may be placed across the bottom of the water obstacle. Buoys or other floating objects are attached to the lines to indicate the survey area for the underwater reconnaissance team(s). When the current is greater than 1.3 meters per second, underwater reconnaissance personnel will have difficulty maintaining a position along the line selected. To assist divers, another transverse line, parallel to the original line and with lateral lines connecting both lines, may be placed upstream. 6-42. Bottom conditions are easily determined during periods of good visibility and when the water is clear. However, under blackout conditions or when the water is murky, the reconnaissance is much slower because swimmers must feel their way across. If the tactical situation permits, divers may use underwater lanterns. 6-43. Environmental conditions (such as depth, bottom type, tides and currents, visibility, and temperature) have an effect on divers, diving techniques, and equipment. The length of time that divers can remain underwater depends on water depth, time at depth, and equipment used. When conducting a reconnaissance in a current, swimmers expend more energy, tire more easily, and use their air supply more quickly. In water temperatures between 73 degrees and 85 degrees Fahrenheit, divers can work comfortably in their swimsuits but will chill in one to two hours if not exercising. In water temperatures above 85 degrees Fahrenheit, the divers overheat. The maximum water temperature that can be endured, even at rest, is 96
degrees Fahrenheit. At temperatures below 73 degrees Fahrenheit, unprotected divers will be affected by excessive heat loss and become chilled within a short period of time. In cold water, the sense of touch and the ability to work with the hands are affected. Air tanks vary in size and govern how long divers can operate. Extra tanks should be available for underwater reconnaissance teams, and the facilities to recharge equipment should be located close enough to respond to team requirements.

## Engineer Resource Assessment

6-44. ERTs, augmented ERTs, and assessment teams conduct an engineer resource assessment to assess the availability of materials and resources in an AO that may be useful or necessary to engineer support. ERTs will typically include an assessment of engineer resources as part of an area reconnaissance, while an assessment team may be nearly exclusively focused on collecting specific engineer resource information. FM 5-170, superseded by this manual, used the term "engineer recon" (DA Form 1711) to describe a "general engineer reconnaissance to gather engineer information of a broad nature within the AO. It considers material, resources, and terrain features having engineer applications." This manual changes the designation of this task to an engineer resource assessment but retains the engineer resource assessment as a valid, relevant task employed by engineer elements in support of their operations. 6-45. The reconnaissance focus of an engineer resource assessment is to collect detailed technical information on the resources that may be useful or necessary to engineer support. An assessment team will typically be assigned to collect information on a more narrowly focused area or specified list of resources. The team assesses the availability of materials (aggregates, Portland cement, fill materials, and construction materials), terrain features that impact material availability or requirements (quarry sites, timber stands, water sources, and other significant features) as well as local engineering and/or construction capabilities (labor, equipment, contractors and firms, and other capabilities). The assessment can be conducted in conjunction with other reconnaissance operations or as a stand-alone mission but must be fully coordinated with maneuver forces in the targeted area. (Appendix B provides instructions for completing the resource assessment report, DA Form 1711.) The assessment report is also used to report engineer IR not adequately covered by any of the other reconnaissance capabilities.

## Infrastructure Reconnaissance

6-46. *Infrastructure reconnaissance* is focused on gathering technical information on the status of the large-scale public systems, services, and facilities of a country or region that are necessary for economic activity. (See the complete definition in the glossary.) A common memory aid (SWEAT-MSO)
reminds users of categories included or of concern within the infrastructure. (See figure C-1, page C-1, for a concise summary of the infrastructure reconnaissance categories.) However, several additional categories within the infrastructure have since been identified as areas of concern. Because this memory aid attempts to make it valid for all possible infrastructure requirements, the last letter is simply "O" to ensure we consider other aspects that may not be otherwise identified by the memory aid. Military commanders are increasingly concerned about infrastructure issues, the quality of the local infrastructure or problems within it, and how those infrastructure issues impact military operations. 6-47. Infrastructure reconnaissance is a multidiscipline task conducted by a base team augmented as necessary with additional expertise. The engineer will likely be responsible for coordinating infrastructure reconnaissance but should rely on other branches for help depending on the category or required expertise. The base infrastructure reconnaissance team includes expertise from at least engineer, CA, preventive medicine, and military police disciplines. Augmentation from additional disciplines is provided when possible. Table 6-2 lists the infrastructure reconnaissance categories and corresponding base and augmented teams that inspect those categories of the local infrastructure.

| Infrastructure Category                 | Base Team        | Augmented Team                     |
|-----------------------------------------|------------------|------------------------------------|
| Sewage                                  | Engineer         | FFE                                |
| Water                                   | Engineer         | FFE                                |
| Electricity                             | Engineer         | Prime Power                        |
| Academics                               | Civil Affairs    |                                    |
| Trash                                   | Engineer         | Quartermaster                      |
| Medical                                 | Medical Services | Civil Affairs, Veterinary Corps    |
| Safety                                  | MP               |                                    |
| Other: Roads and Railroads              | Engineer         | FFE                                |
| Other: Bridges and Waterways            | Engineer         | FFE                                |
| Other: Airports                         | Engineer         | Transportation, Aviation/Air Force |
| Other: Housing                          | Engineer         | Quartermaster                      |
| Other: Communications                   | Engineer         | Signal                             |
| Other: Food Supply                      | Civil Affairs    | Veterinary Corps                   |
| Other: Socio/Government                 | Civil Affairs    |                                    |
| Other: Cultural/ Historical/: Religious | Civil Affairs    | Historian                          |
| Other: Hazardous Materials              | Engineer         | CBRN, Ordnance/Medical             |
| Other: Attitude                         | All              |                                    |

6-48. Infrastructure reconnaissance is accomplished in stagesthe infrastructure assessment and the infrastructure survey. The assessment and survey are not clearly distinguishable but rather, as shown in figure 6-11, page 6-16, the stages overlap and vary according to METT-T[C]. Initially, especially during an offensive mission, it is most likely that combat engineer units will be on site first. Accordingly, it would be expected that those combat engineer units (and available discipline representatives organic or attached to the BCT/RCT) will have an extremely limited number of personnel with the training and experience to do a thorough analysis of the infrastructure (such as infrastructure survey). Therefore a sample infrastructure assessment (see appendix C) can be used to assist the ERT (and any other available discipline representatives) conducting this initial assessment. The ERT provides the initial infrastructure rating and assessment to be forwarded to more qualified personnel who follow in later stages of the mission. As operations continue, general engineer and other supporting technical support elements will become available to provide teams more qualified for infrastructure survey. The infrastructure survey teams use the infrastructure assessments from the ERTs to prioritize categories and parts of the infrastructure to be reassessed in more detail via an infrastructure survey. A series of smartcards (see appendix C) are available to assist with the more detailed infrastructure survey.

6-49. As the commander becomes concerned about infrastructure issues and how those issues impact the military operation, demand for infrastructure information becomes a priority. Common questions of interest regarding the infrastructure include

z
Has the infrastructure been maintained?
z
Who built that component of the infrastructure?
z
Are repair parts and equipment available?
z
Will the infrastructure be targeted by the HN?
z
Will HN employees return to the site after hostilities?
z
Is the infrastructure protected or can it be?
6-50. A systematic way of prioritizing infrastructure is needed to support this part of the commander's information priorities. The commander may establish a project coordination cell (PCC) within the staff to supervise the gathering of information and development of priorities. The PCC is responsible for resourcing, prioritizing, and executing civil-military operations (CMO) to achieve the commander's desired effects. Project nominations come to the PCC from subordinate TF commanders and the effects working group (EWG). The PCC then resources projects and provides the brigade commander with a staff recommendation for prioritization approval. Once a project is resourced and approved by the commander, the PCC brings them into the synchronization meeting for inclusion in the next effects tasking order (ETO). 6-51. The PCC manages projects by setting priorities. The first priority is the basic life support requirements of the population. (Secondary priorities are focused on as time and resources become available.) An infrastructure hierarchy is shown in figure 6-12, page 6-17. The highest priority infrastructure categories provide the foundationbasic human needs such as food, water, health care, safety, and so forth. Without them, the local populace may be forced to take extreme measures to see that their needs are met (such as stealing, rioting, demonstrating, committing terrorist acts, and so forth). Without meeting these basic needs, work on the other infrastructure categories may be ineffective or compromised. Once the basic human needs are met, the categories of electricity, water, trash, and sewage should be assessed. As time progresses and success is found on basic human needs, priorities shift to the upper tier categories of infrastructure.

6-52. In some infrastructure reconnaissance cases and typically with assessments, the assessment team will be required to collect information on or to inspect infrastructure categories without significant knowledge of the systems being inspected. The results will have significant gaps but should be adequate to help prioritize and plan further reconnaissance. Smartcards are employed to focus collection within each infrastructure category on the major technical components of the systems. The smartcards have the following objectives:

z
Assist the inspector in identifying and inventorying the primary components of the system.
z
Indicate what types of damage the inspector should be looking for and reporting.
z
Provide guidance for collecting the information visually or from operators and locals workers.
6-53. Infrastructure reconnaissance smartcards are provided in appendix C. Specific situations may not require inspection and inventory of all the components covered in each smartcard. In general, the first part of the smartcard provides a brief overview of the infrastructure category; how it works, and some of the major components in the system. The second part is the form that the inspector uses to collect inventory and inspection information. In addition to the relevant smartcards, the assessment team should consider the following tools to assist in collecting information.

z
Gerber knife.
z
Flashlight.
z
Hammer.
z
GPS receiver.
z
Digital camera.
z
Safety equipment.
z
Tape measure.
z
Measuring wheel.
z
Binoculars.
6-54. The assessment team may be required to determine an overall status for each infrastructure category. Color coding is a common status indicator. Table 6-3 provides guidance for the status color coding of each infrastructure category.

| Area                         | Green              |
|------------------------------|--------------------|
| Sewage                       |                    |
| Sewage system works          |                    |
| consistently                 |                    |
| Sewage system works          |                    |
| but treatment status         |                    |
| undetermined                 |                    |
| No sewage observed and       |                    |
| no odor                      |                    |
| No sewage observed but       |                    |
| odor present and/or          |                    |
| system damaged               |                    |
| Operational in 100% of       |                    |
| public facilities            |                    |
| Operational in 50% or        |                    |
| more of public facilities    |                    |
| Water                        |                    |
| Water distribution works     |                    |
| at 100% capacity             |                    |
| Water distribution works     |                    |
| at 50% or more of            |                    |
| capacity/some leaks          |                    |
| Appears clean, no smell      |                    |
| and local populace           |                    |
| states that it is clean      |                    |
| Tested as clean and/or       |                    |
| local populace is            |                    |
| consuming                    |                    |
| Running water in 100% of     |                    |
| public facilities            |                    |
| Running water in 50% or      |                    |
| more of public facilities    |                    |
| Power distribution           |                    |
| system works; blackouts      |                    |
| unplanned                    |                    |
| Electricity                  |                    |
| Power distribution system    |                    |
| works; blackouts are         |                    |
| planned                      |                    |
| Electric lines are 100%;     |                    |
| no damage/no power loss      |                    |
| Electric lines are 50%;      |                    |
| some minor damage/           |                    |
| undetermined power loss      |                    |
| Power grid station intact;   |                    |
| secure                       |                    |
| Power grid station           |                    |
| operational; unsecure        |                    |
| Building is adequate;        |                    |
| utilities operate over       |                    |
| 50%; not secure              |                    |
| Academics                    |                    |
| Building is serviceable; all |                    |
| utilities operational;       |                    |
| secure                       |                    |
| Academic resources           |                    |
| available to all students    |                    |
| Academic resources           |                    |
| available to 50% or more     |                    |
| Trash                        |                    |
| Formal trash collection      |                    |
| system is operational        |                    |
| Formal trash collection      |                    |
| system exists but is         |                    |
| limited                      |                    |
| Unknown central trash        |                    |
| collection area              |                    |
| Trash collection is in a     |                    |
| central area that does not   |                    |
| present a health hazard      |                    |
| No trash buildup in public   |                    |
| facilities                   |                    |
| Limited trash in public      |                    |
| facilities; relatively clean |                    |
| Medical facilities are       |                    |
| useable; no backup           |                    |
| power; some equipment        |                    |
| shortages; not secure        |                    |
| Medical                      |                    |
| Medical facilities are       |                    |
| functional; backup power;    |                    |
| minimal equipment            |                    |
| issues; secure               |                    |
| Emergency services           |                    |
| exist; ground transport      |                    |
| only                         |                    |
| Emergency services           |                    |
| including multiple           |                    |
| ambulatory services          |                    |
| available                    |                    |
| Veterinary  services         | Limited veterinary |
No sewage treatment system, destroyed
No treatment observed but treatment plant exists
Sewage observed and odor present
Presence of raw sewage is a public health issue No operational sewage in public facilities
Operational in less than 50% of public facilities Water distribution does not work
No water distribution system, destroyed
Tested nonpotable and/or appears contaminated and has bad odor
Does not appear clean and local populace states that it is not clean
No running water in public facilities
Running water in less than 50% of public facilities
No power distribution system, destroyed
Power distribution system is unreliable; frequent blackouts
Electric lines are all down; hot wires exposed; significant power loss
Electric lines are less than 50%; major damage/ noticeable power loss
Power grid station stripped; destroyed
Power grid station nonoperational; unable to secure
Building is not useable; utilities are nonfunctional
Building is useable; utilities operate less than 50%; not secure
Extremely limited academic resources
Academic resources available to less than 50%
No trash collection
No formal trash collection system Central trash collection area presents a possible health hazard
Trash is consolidated in an area that presents a health hazard
Public facilities have no means to remove trash
Public facilities have excess trash
Medical facilities are unsanitary; significant equipment/supply shortages
Medical facilities are not useable due to damage and unsanitary conditions; looted No emergency services
No emergency services; ground transport without medically trained personnel
On-call veterinary
No veterinary
| Area                         |
|------------------------------|
| available; animal holding    |
| area                         |
| services available;          |
| inadequate holding area      |
| Safety                       |
| Police department            |
| functional; secure           |
| building; equipment          |
| available and operational    |
| Police department            |
| functional a minimum of      |
| 50%; building securable;     |
| equipment available and      |
| operational >50%             |
| Fire department              |
| functional; secure           |
| building; equipment          |
| available and operational    |
| Fire department              |
| functional a minimum of      |
| 50%; building securable;     |
| equipment available and      |
| operational more than        |
| 50%                          |
| Other                        |
| Considerations:              |
| Minimum of a Class C         |
| road; can be upgraded;       |
| no visible damage            |
| Minimum of a Class D         |
| road; damage/upgrade         |
| requirements will impact     |
| traffic flow                 |
| Roads and                    |
| Railroads                    |
| Operational railroad         |
| system                       |
| Railroad is damaged but      |
| resources to repair are      |
| available; jacks available   |
| Bridges are trafficable; no  |
| visible damage               |
| Other                        |
| Considerations:              |
| Bridges are trafficable;     |
| damage to spans;             |
| supports intact              |
| Bridges and                  |
| Waterways                    |
| MLC calculated but not       |
| verified due to damage       |
| MLC verified through         |
| ERDC or other structural     |
| engineer                     |
| Inspection/evaluation        |
| determines strength          |
| support issues               |
| Inspection/evaluation        |
| shows original strength      |
| assessment valid             |
| Other                        |
| Considerations:              |
| Airport can support          |
| limited military traffic; no |
| visible damage               |
| Airports                     |
| Runway serviceable but       |
| taxiway and parking          |
| limited; C130/C17 only       |
| Airport capable of           |
| supporting military and      |
| civilian traffic             |
| concurrently; no visible     |
| damage                       |
| Runway/taxiway/parking       |
| aprons are serviceable;      |
| working and parking          |
| maximum aircraft on the      |
| ground (MOG) greater         |
| than or equal to 2           |
| (military)                   |
| Other                        |
| Considerations:              |
| Housing                      |
| Residences are               |
| structurally sound and       |
| offer protection from the    |
| environment                  |
| Utilities are working and    |
| reliable                     |
| Residences are               |
| damaged and need             |
| structural evaluation;       |
| offer limited protection     |
| from the environment         |
| Utilities are working over   |
| 50%; not reliable            |
| services                  |
|---------------------------|
| area                      |
| Police department is      |
| nonfunctional;            |
| building is not           |
| useable; no               |
| equipment                 |
| Police department         |
| functional less than      |
| 50%; unable to secure     |
| building; limited         |
| equipment available       |
| Fire department is        |
| nonfunctional;            |
| building is not           |
| useable; no               |
| equipment                 |
| Fire department           |
| functional less than      |
| 50%; unable to secure     |
| building; limited         |
| equipment available       |
| Road is not trafficable   |
| Minimum of a Class E      |
| road; upgrade             |
| requirements are          |
| significant; materials    |
| not readily available     |
| Railroad system did       |
| exist but now has         |
| extensive damage to       |
| both track and trains     |
| Railroad damage is        |
| extensive; resources to   |
| repair are not readily    |
| available                 |
| Bridges are not           |
| trafficable and are       |
| impassable                |
| Bridges are not           |
| trafficable for military; |
| risky for civilians;      |
| damage to spans and       |
| supports                  |
| MLC is ineffective due    |
| to damage                 |
| Construction repair       |
| required before MLC       |
| can be determined         |
| Inspection/evaluation     |
| determines bridge         |
| cannot support weight     |
| Inspection/evaluation     |
| determines minimal        |
| supportable strength      |
| No working airport        |
| Airport damaged;          |
| utilities and structures  |
| are not reliable or safe  |
| Runway is not             |
| serviceable; can repair   |
| with available            |
| resources                 |
| Runway is not             |
| serviceable;              |
| dimensions will not       |
| support military          |
| aircraft; major repair    |
| and upgrades              |
| required                  |
| Residences are            |
| destroyed                 |
| Utilities are             |
| nonoperational            |
| Residences are            |
| damaged and               |
| structurally unsafe; no   |
| protection from the       |
| environment               |
| Utilities work less than  |
| 50%; require significant  |
| repairs                   |
| Area                        | Green                   |
|-----------------------------|-------------------------|
| Telephone system            |                         |
| operational and reliable in |                         |
| public facilities           |                         |
| Other                       |                         |
| Considerations:             |                         |
| Communications              |                         |
| Telephone hookups           |                         |
| available; some             |                         |
| equipment available;        |                         |
| somewhat reliable           |                         |
| Postal system is            |                         |
| operational and reliable    |                         |
| Postal system is slow;      |                         |
| over 50% of mail            |                         |
| delivered                   |                         |
| One form of media           |                         |
| exists, is operational,     |                         |
| available, and reliable     |                         |
| Media - television (TV),    |                         |
| Internet, Radio,            |                         |
| Newspaper operational,      |                         |
| available, and reliable     |                         |
| Other                       |                         |
| Considerations:             |                         |
| Hazardous                   |                         |
| Materials                   |                         |
| Some hazardous              |                         |
| materials/hazardous         |                         |
| waste not properly          |                         |
| segregated, stored, or      |                         |
| labeled                     |                         |
| Hazardous                   |                         |
| materials/hazardous         |                         |
| waste properly              |                         |
| segregated, stored, and     |                         |
| labeled.                    |                         |
| Containers adequate for     |                         |
| the material                |                         |
| Containers not generally    |                         |
| adequate, but limited       |                         |
| corrosion or damage         |                         |
| Inadequate safety           |                         |
| measures and secondary      |                         |
| containment                 |                         |
| Safety measures/            |                         |
| secondary containment in    |                         |
| place                       |                         |
| Hazards communications      |                         |
| system in place             |                         |
| Limited hazards             |                         |
| communications system       |                         |
| No leaks or spills          | Potential for leaks and |
| spills                      |                         |
| Limited spill prevention    |                         |
| and cleanup measures        |                         |
| available                   |                         |
| Spill prevention and        |                         |
| cleanup measures in         |                         |
| place/ available            |                         |
| Other                       |                         |
| Considerations:             |                         |
| Attitude                    |                         |
| Community leaders are       |                         |
| neutral; religious centers  |                         |
| are damaged but             |                         |
| securable                   |                         |
| Community leaders not       |                         |
| hostile; religious centers  |                         |
| are intact; supportive of   |                         |
| general engineering effort  |                         |
| No ethnic tension           | Distinct ethnic groups  |
| within AO; supportive of    |                         |
| general engineering         |                         |
| effort if equal among       |                         |
| groups                      |                         |
| Unemployment is less        |                         |
| than 50%                    |                         |
| Unemployment is greater     |                         |
| than 50%; willing and       |                         |
| able to work to support     |                         |
| general engineering         |                         |
| effort                      |                         |
| No formal paramilitary      |                         |
| threat                      |                         |
| Paramilitary threat         |                         |
| briefed at the BCT/RCT      |                         |
| level                       |                         |

Note. Food Supply and Cultural/Historical/Religious are still under development.

No telephone hookups or
equipment No postal system
No form of media
Limited telephone hookups and
equipment available; not reliable Postal system exists; extremely slow; less than 50% of mail delivered
One form of media exists but has limited availability and reliability
Hazardous materials/hazardous waste not segregated, stored, or
labeled.
Hazardous materials/hazardous waste not properly segregated, stored, or
labeled Containers inadequate, corroded, and leaking
Containers inadequate, corroded, and leaking
No safety measures or secondary containment
No safety measures or secondary containment No hazards communications system
No hazards communications system Some leaks and spills already present. Contaminants may enter air, soil, groundwater, or water courses
No ability to prevent or cleanup spills
Gross contamination present; contaminants have entered air, soil, ground water, and water courses
No ability to prevent or cleanup spills
Community leaders hostile; religious centers destroyed; do not want general
engineering assistance
Community leaders are negative; religious centers are damaged and not securable; skeptic of general
engineering support
Ethnic violence occurs; one group extremely dominant; general engineering effort would increase ethnic tension
Distinct ethnic groups within AO; one group dominant; general engineering tasks cannot be accomplished for all groups
Unemployment is a serious issue; unwilling to support general engineering work effort
Unemployment is greater than 50%; unable to support general engineering work effort
Paramilitary threat a concern at echelons above BCT/RCT level
Paramilitary threat a concern at BCT/RCT level

6-55. Infrastructure protection may be another element of the infrastructure reconnaissance process that would commonly be addressed as part of the survey stage. This may be important to maintaining the status quo of the infrastructure evaluated during the survey or in providing security while identified repairs are implemented. Infrastructure protection may also be necessary for a time after the infrastructure elements are in full operation to ensure continuing operation. Considering infrastructure protection in the survey phase requires identifying threats to the infrastructure elements, identifying vulnerabilities associated with those threats, and developing courses of action for mitigating those vulnerabilities. Those courses of action could involve hardening components of infrastructure elements, identifying forces to protect them, and identifying redundancies that make protection of individual elements unnecessary.

## Environmental Reconnaissance

6-56. Environmental reconnaissance is focused on collecting technical information on existing environmental conditions and identifying areas that are environmentally sensitive or of relative environmental concern. The information collected is used to assess both the impact of military operations on the environment as well as to identify potential environmental impacts on safety and protection. Military commanders are increasingly aware of the linkage from environmental concerns to local or regional instabilities. Commanders are equally aware of the potential threats from environmental hazards. With adequate information on both the risks from environmental hazards and the potential for damage to environmentally sensitive areas, planners can mitigate the impact of environmental concerns on the operation. 6-57. Like infrastructure reconnaissance, environmental reconnaissance is a multidiscipline task conducted by a base team augmented as necessary with additional expertise. The engineer will likely be responsible for coordinating environmental reconnaissance but should rely on other branches (CBRN, medical, CA, and EOD) for help depending on expected areas of concern and required expertise. 6-58. Many operations require fixed facilities, structures, or other real property as logistics, command and control, administration, communications, billeting, base camp, or other mission purposes. If the tactical situation permits, commanders conduct or direct an EBS before occupying any of these sites. An EBS is typically performed by or with support from general engineer elements. However, ERTs may need to perform an initial site assessment prior to an EBS with or without assistance from general engineers. (Appendix D provides detailed EBS guidance and an example. Ideally the EBS is conducted in conjunction with an EHSA conducted by a medical base team that is also augmented with other specialties [engineer, chemical, and perhaps others]. For more information see FM 3-100.4.) 6-59. The initial site assessment gathers information which assists in determining whether a parcel of land is acceptable for military use. This assessment is only as detailed as the situation permits and is focused on determining whether the site is healthy for Soldiers and Marines. The paragraph below lists areas that are addressed by the site assessment and EBS. An EBS documents the proposed site's existing environmental conditions and the likelihood of past or ongoing activities that may have created environmental, safety, or health problems. These problems include contamination of air, soil, groundwater, and surface water by toxic substances or POL. 6-60. An EBS should address the following areas:

z
Property description and condition.
z
Soil type and land cover.
z
Water supply and source.
z
Air quality.
z
Signs of contamination.
z
Presence of drums or containers.
z
Biological and biomedical hazards (medical wastes).
z
Lead-based paint.
z
Unexploded ordnance.
z
Other environmental and health hazards.
z
Adjacent land use.
z
Topographic, hydrologic, and geologic features.
z
Sanitary waste disposal.
z
Solid waste and hazardous waste (HW) presence.
z
Presence of storage tanks.
z
Heating and ventilation.
z
Electrical-associated hazards.
z
Fire protection systems.
z
Presence of asbestos-containing materials.
z
Radiological hazards.
6-61. An environmental reconnaissance is conducted to collect the data and information necessary for the EBS. Before conducting an initial reconnaissance, planners focus the reconnaissance effort on areas identified in a review of any available records (records indicate POL usage in buildings or hospitals on site). The environmental reconnaissance then gathers as much information as possible as described below in the site reconnaissance steps. If additional, more detailed information is required, a follow-on site survey is conducted unless an EBS can be conducted.

z
Step 1. Describe the location of the site in detail with grid coordinates and maps or sketches.
Note the following:

Topography of the site (terrain is rolling, flat, mountainous, and so forth; composition is
sandy, rocky, grassy, wooded, and so forth) and note any dramatic changes.

Soil condition (sandy, clay, and so forth.) and note any dramatic changes.
z
Step 2. List the six-digit military grid location or latitude/longitude and legal address of the
property being surveyed.
z
Step 3. Document (using words and photos) improvements to the property such as new roads or
a roof on a building. Include any damages such as damaged roads, a collapsed roof/building, abandoned storage tanks, or any other damages. Documenting these damages could prevent future liability.
z
Step 4. Describe any environmental issues. Note any obvious environmental contamination
using grid patterns or GPSs. Take as many photos as possible and include in the photo descriptions the direction the camera was facing when each picture was taken. The need for a good photographic record with descriptions of pictures taken of the initial site conditions cannot be overstated. Often times these are noted by

Areas of dead vegetation (flora) and/or wildlife (fauna) and/or insects.

Underground storage tanks and/or aboveground storage tanks (use records and interviews as
well as the site walk-through to determine locations of any storage tanks on site).

Stained areas.

Areas and/or water sources avoided by the local population.

Areas that may contain suspect materials (asbestos is typically found in roof and floor tiles
and in pipe insulation; polychlorinated biphenyls are typically found in electrical transformers).

Areas, water supplies, and so forth avoided by the local populous.
z
Step 5. Note and describe any industrial facility/activity. These may have been identified during
the planning process and records review in the EHSA or through map reconnaissance. Common facilities include

Hospitals.

Funeral homes.

Factories/buildings with smokestacks.

Maintenance area/motor pools.

Powerplants.

Fuel stations/processing.
z
Step 6. Describe each existing building and location, size, basic construction type, number of
stories, approximate age, and heating, ventilation, air conditioning systems (including fuel/power sources), and fire suppression systems.
z
Step 7. Locate and describe utilities at or that enter or leave the site. Include the following:

Sewerage.

Water.

Power source.

Transmission lines.

Phone lines.
z
Step 8. Note and describe public thoroughfares adjoining the property and describe all roads,
streets, parking areas, and walkways.
z
Step 9. List natural, geological, hydrological, and cultural/religious sites. Typical sites include

Bodies of water and groundwater sources.

Caves, mines, wells, quarries.

Cemeteries.

Churches/mosques/temples.
z
Step 10. Determine if current or past use involved hazardous material (HM) or POL and include
a detailed description or indicators of this use (55-gallon drums, buildings with warning labels, and so forth.).
z
Step 11. List limitations to the site reconnaissance such as physical obstructions, bodies of
water, weather, uncooperative occupants, and so forth.
z
Step 12. Conduct all of the above steps for adjacent properties as well, if possible.
6-62. The environmental reconnaissance can be reported on an EBS document (see appendix D). EBS documentation provides the necessary outline of information required and can serve to focus the reconnaissance team as well as provide a formatted report. The EBS and the closure report bracket the timeframe of use for each particular site/area. (Appendix D provides additional discussion on preparing the EBS.)

## Airfield Assessment

6-63. An airfield assessment is conducted to collect detailed technical information on selected airfields and heliports. It typically is preceded by the use of geospatial and other intelligence information to provide a baseline level of information and questions about the airfield before physically arriving at the airfield. The assessment is conducted as part of an infrastructure assessment or as a separate mission focused on the selected facility. Based on the situation, the assessment may be conducted by an ERT, an augmented ERT, an assessment team, or a survey team. The level of detail of the information collected increases in the progression from ERT to survey team. The highest level of survey team will often include Air Force technical participation. In every case, the information collected can be used to determine the airfield operating capacity and to estimate resources for repair or upgrade of the airfield and/or its supporting facilities. (The assessment is recorded using the airfields smartcard tool in the infrastructure reconnaissance smartcards package in appendix C.) 6-64. Contingency operation airfield and heliport planning involves much more than just the airfield layout (geometry) and pavement structure. It involves planning for all of the supporting facilities and infrastructuresuch as the air traffic control and landing system, and POL and munitions storage facilities needed to sustain airfield operations. It also involves survivability, security measures, health, safety, and environmental factors. As discussed in chapter 4, FACE prepares or repairs LZs, FARPs, landing strips, or other aviation support sites in the forward combat area, and ERTs conduct area reconnaissance to collect the information required to support FACE. All other airfield and heliport planning, design, and construction are considered general engineering tasks, and an airfield assessment team collects the technical information required for general engineer support of airfields and heliports.

6-65. Army, Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps engineers all have the capability to design, plan, construct, upgrade, repair, and maintain airfields and heliports; however, the level of expertise and organic resources vary with each of the Services. Army engineers are responsible for forcible entry airfield damage repair (combat engineering) and may assist other engineers as directed in airfield and heliport design, planning, construction, repair, and maintenance. The Army provides the following construction support to Air Force-controlled airfields:

z
Develops engineering design criteria, standard plans, and material to meet Air Force requirements.
z
Performs reconnaissance, survey, design, construction, or improvement of airfields, roads, utilities, and structures.
z
Repairs Air Force bases and facilities beyond the immediate emergency recovery requirements of the Air Force (semipermanent and permanent repair).
z
Supplies construction materials and equipment.
z
Assists in emergency repair of war-damaged air bases.
z
Assists in providing expedient facilities (force bed down).
z
Manages war damage repair and base development; supervises Army personnel. The Air Force base commander sets priorities.
z
Performs emergency and permanent repair of war damage to forward tactical airlift support facilities.
6-66. Airfields could be subjected to damage by an increasingly capable and complex array of destructive weapons, including cannon fire, rocket fire, small or large bombs, and bomblets. Explosive hazards such as UXOs (to include scatterable mines and unexploded bomblets) and IEDs, a variety of potential barriers, and other hindrances may challenge efforts to make airfields capable of supporting air traffic. The Army, USMC engineers, and Navy Seabees conduct rapid runway repair (RRR) to provide the minimal repairs necessary to facilitate the safe landing of the required sorties to establish the lodgment area. Before making these repairs, engineers must conduct a damage assessment, prepare for explosive hazards reconnaissance and removal, understand the repair quality criteria, and know the requirements for the minimum aircraft operating surface. Air Force technical experts may be included as a part of the Army combat engineer element participating in the forcible entry operation to

z
Approve the aircraft operating surface.
z
Control aircraft landing and departure.
z
Serve as liaison for follow-on RRR or airfield damage repair (ADR) with general engineer elements to take the runway and/or infrastructure associated with the airfield to a higher standard of repair after the lodgment area has been secured.
6-67. Pavement damage categories are shown in figure 6-13. Damage to the pavement includes both the apparent crater damage and the upheaval of pavement around the crater. The damage category for a given munition depends on the delivery method and extent of penetration as well as charge size. (For additional information, see UFC 3-270-07).

6-68. The branch of Service that is the primary user of the airfield or heliport has the responsibility for certifying that facility for flight operations. In most cases during airfield contingency operations, this is an Air Force responsibility. Air Force engineers may assist other Army engineers, Navy construction engineers (Seabees), or Marine Corps engineers as directed in airfield and heliport design, planning, construction, repair, and maintenance. The Air Force provides the following engineer support:

z
Performs primary emergency repair of war damage to air bases (RRR and repair of other critical operating facilities).
z
Constructs expedient facilities for Air Force units and weapon systems. This excludes responsibility for Army base development.
z
Operates and maintains Air Force facilities. Air Force engineer units perform maintenance tasks.
z
Provides crash rescue and fire suppression.
z
Provides HAZMAT response.
z
Manages emergency repair of war damage and force bed-down construction.
z
Provides infrastructure support for solid waste and hazardous waste disposal.
z
Supplies material and equipment for its own engineering mission.
z
Provides the EBS and EHSA for the airfield and its support facilities.
6-69. Airfields and heliports are classified by their degree of permanence and type of aircraft, either fixedor rotary-wing, they are designed to support. These controlling aircraft, or aircraft combination, are identified for each kind of facility to establish limiting airfield and/or heliport geometric and surface strength requirements. For information on survivability (hardening) support to include the construction of revetments for helicopters, see FM 5-103. (For information on Air Force aircraft survivability, see AFM 91-201, Category Code 141-182, Hardened Aircraft Shelters.) 6-70. A bare base airfield is a site with a usable runway, taxiway, parking areas, and a source of water that can be made potable. It must be capable of supporting assigned aircraft and providing other mission-essential resources, such as a logistical support and services infrastructure composed of people, facilities, equipment, and supplies. This concept requires modular, mobile facilities, utilities, and support equipment packages that can be rapidly deployed and installed. A bare base airfield forms the baseline for contingency operations airfield planning. 6-71. The maximum (aircraft) on the ground (MOG) is the maximum number of aircraft that can be accommodated on an airfield. There are two types of MOG:

z
Parking MOG is the total number of aircraft that can be parked at an airfield. Parking MOG is
affected by both the overall size of the airfield and by how available space is managed.
z
Working MOG refers to how many or how quickly parked aircraft can be offloaded, material
throughputted from the aerial port of debarkation, and aircraft serviced and prepared for departure.
6-72. Materials handling equipment, trucks, buses, and other surface transport vehicles, road networks, aircraft support equipment, fuel tankers, personnel, and other factors affect working MOG. Ideally, working MOG equals parking MOGwhen it does not, backlogs occur. MOG is normally expressed in terms of C-141s. A minimum of MOG 2 is desired for contingency operations airfields. (Refer to AFPAM 10-1403 for aircraft dimensions.) 6-73. Army airfields and heliports are divided into six classes:

z
Class I. Helipads-heliports with aircraft 25,000 pounds (11,340 kilogram) or less. The
controlling aircraft is a UH-60 aircraft at a 16,300-pound (7,395 kilogram) operational weight.
z
Class II. Helipads-heliports with aircraft over 25,000 pounds (11,340 kilogram Marline Myers
[sqdancer2005@gmail.com]). The controlling aircraft is a CH-47 aircraft at a 50,000-pound
(22,680 kilogram) operational weight.
z
Class III. Airfields with Class A runways. The controlling aircraft combination is a C-23
aircraft at a 24,600-pound (11,158 kilogram) operational weight and a CH-47 aircraft at a 50,000-pound (22,680 kilogram) operational weight. Class A runways are primarily intended for small aircraft such as C-12s and C-23s.
z
Class IV. Airfields with Class B runways. The controlling aircraft is a C-130 aircraft at a
155,000-pound (70,307 kilogram) operational weight or a C-17 aircraft at a 580,000-pound (263,084 kilogram) operational weight. Class B runways are primarily intended for high performance and large heavy aircraft such as C-130s, C-17s, and C-141s.
z
Class V. Contingency operations heliport or helipads supporting Army assault training missions.
The controlling aircraft is a CH-47 aircraft at a 50,000-pound (22,680 kilogram) operational weight.
z
Class VI. Assault Landing Zones for contingency operations airfields supporting Army training
missions that have semi-prepared or paved surfaces (also known as forward landing strips). The controlling aircraft is a C-130 aircraft at a 155,000-pound (70,307 kilogram) operational weight or a C-17 aircraft at a 580,000-pound (263,084 kilogram) operational weight.
6-74. Air Force airfields are classified into six mission categories. A controlling aircraft or combination of controlling aircraft has been designated for each category to establish limiting airfield, geometric, and surface strength requirements. These airfield categories include

z
Light - F15, C-17.
z
Medium - F-15, C-17, B-52.
z
Heavy - F-15, C-5, B-52.
z
Modified heavy - F-15, C-17, B-1.
z
Auxiliary - F-15.
z
Assault landing zone - C-130, C-17.
6-75. On normal operational airfields, pavements are grouped into the following four traffic areas based on their intended use and design load:

z
Type A. Those traffic areas that receive concentrated traffic and the full design weight of the
aircraft. These traffic areas require a greater pavement thickness than other areas on the airfield
and include all airfield runways and, in some cases, taxiways as well. All airfield pavement structures on contingency operations airfields are considered Type A traffic areas.

z
Type B. Those traffic areas that receive a more even traffic flow and the full design weight of
the aircraft. These traffic areas include parking aprons, pads, and hardstands.
z
Type C. Those traffic areas with a low volume of traffic or the applied weight of the operating
aircraft is generally less than the design weight. These traffic areas include secondary taxiways and washrack pavements.
z
Type D. Those traffic areas with an extremely low volume of traffic and/or the applied weight
of the operating aircraft is considerably lower than the design weight.
6-76. An airfield can also be described based on its location within the AO:
z
Forward airfields intended to provide focused logistics support and/or support combat missions of short-range aircraft such as attack helicopters and UASs during contingency operations. These airfields are designed to initial or temporary contingency operations standards depending on mission and operational requirements and may be paved or semiprepared. These may be initially prepared or repaired as FACE tasks.
z
Intermediate airfields intended to provide general logistics support, support combat missions of longer-range aircraft during contingency operations, and/or training. These airfields are designed to temporary or semipermanent standards depending on mission and operational requirements. Normally these airfields are paved. These airfields provide a link between forward tactical airfields and sustainment level airfields.
z
Airfields intended to provide logistics support forward from fixed, secure bases, support combat operations of long-range aircraft, and/or training. These airfields are designed to be semipermanent or permanent facilities.
6-77. For airfield planning and design, refer to the following manuals.
z
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013
z
FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM 32-8013
z
FM 3-34.2 (specifically regarding FACE operations)
z
TM 5-820-1
z
TM 5-820-3/AFM 88-5
z
UFC 3-260-01
z
UFC 3-260-02
z
UFC 4-141-10N

## Technical Resources And Field Force Engineering

6-78. This section discusses some of the support available for engineers conducting technical reconnaissance. Support from both the United States Army Engineer School (USAES) and the USACE is provided in the form of ad hoc (especially designed for a particular mission) teams, in modular deployable elements, or through nondeployed expertise supplied via reach-back support. This type of reach-back capability is one of the characteristics of FFE. The Air Force and Navy provide similar reach-back capabilities and support through the Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency (AFCESA) and the Naval Facilities Engineering Command  (NAVFAC). This section provides a broad overview of FFE, multi-Service, and interagency support. (Additional specific technical tools and resources are discussed in appendix H.)

## Field Force Engineering

6-79. FFE works to provide seamless general engineering (and associated geospatial) support for the warfighter by fusing the capabilities resident in USACE, USAES, the engineer command (ENCOM), public works, and civilian contractors. The mission of FFE is to support the engineer in theater by providing modular teams capable of deploying forward and focused technical engineer support through reach-back capabilities. FFE is applicable to the support of not only Army forces but also the other services and governmental agencies outside of DOD. Figure 6-14 highlights the majority of capabilities the engineer regiment offers to support contingency operations.

6-80. Modular teams are available to meet the needs for general engineering staff, planning, facilities engineering, troop construction, topographic engineering, contract construction, technical engineering, real estate, and environmental engineering. Examples of USACE modular capabilities support are listed below:

z
Forward engineer support team-main (FEST-M)deployable USACE organization that executes the USACE mission in the AO; it is usually subordinate to the senior engineer commander in the AO.
z
Forward engineer support team-advanced (FEST-A)deployable planning augmentation cell that augments the engineer staff of other organizations to include combatant commander/joint force commander/Army service component commander (ASCC)/ENCOMs. If a FEST-M is also
deployed, the FEST-A will come under the command of the FEST-M commander.
z
Contingency real estate support team (CREST)deployable 5- or 6-person real estate team and typically a component of a forward engineer support team (FEST); it can quickly execute real property (land and facilities) leases at forward locations.
z
Environmental support team (ENVST)deployable 4-person environmental team and typically a component of a FEST; it provides baseline and other environmental studies at forward locations and is staffed with environmental specialists that can provide technical expertise to staff engineers and ultimately the commander of the combined-arms force.
z
Base development teama nondeployable team that can quickly provide base development engineering and planning and facilities design for staging bases, base camps, forward operating bases, displaced persons camps, and any similar requirement.
z
Infrastructure assessment team (IAT)nondeployable team that provides engineering infrastructure assessments/surveys for military deployments and civil-military operations in forward areas. Focus areas for the IAT are infrastructure related to USACE missions and aspects
of the AO impacting contract construction to include roads, utilities, water resources, and HNS.
6-81. A partial list of potential missions performed by deployed FFE units/organizations includes

z
Project management, to include supervising work done by military engineers of all Services, logistics civilian augmentation program-type contractors, and local contractors.
z
Expertise in survivability engineering and engineering services, including areas such as
wastewater treatment, nontactical power generation, water production, snow and ice removal,
and entomology.
z
Expertise in both theater operational (for example, inland petroleum distribution system) and infrastructure pipeline construction.
z
Expertise in mining and demining.
z
Development and maintenance of base camp standards according to ASCC guidance.
z
Development of prioritized facilities requirements with supporting construction engineers.
z
Management of the installation and regional/area of responsibility (AOR) master plan
development process, such as

Developing base camp master plans.

Reviewing and approving base camp master plans developed by others.

Developing regional master plans in support of the operational support structure.
z
Base camp maintenance, to include

Structures.

Utilities.

Roads and airfields.

Provision of water.

Treatment of wastewater.

Disposal of solid waste.

Training ranges.
z
Management of base camp facilities use, to include

Environmental compliance.

Maintenance of real property records.

Plans for future expansions or contractions of base camps.

Quality control for construction projects and facilities upgrades.

Establishment of a fire prevention program and management of fire-fighting teams.

Facility engineering supplies management.
6-82. Reach-back may be used to obtain much of the specialized support required forward. One method for this is the use of the USACE TeleEngineering Emergency Operations Center (TEOC) and a forward deployed TeleEngineering Communication Suite. Reachback and TeleEngineering describe the ability to conduct engineering analysis and support using expertise (professional engineers, scientists, and technicians), as well as databases that are not resident in the theater or the AO. The source of this expertise and data is real time via secure voice and video information technology to the forward mission site. The results are faster response timesthe application of greater levels of expertise examining and solving problems and providing solution options. An additional set of benefits includes a reduced deployment footprint, associated support and protection requirements, and a general reduction in cost.

## Multi-Service Support

6-83. Engineer operations in the COE are becoming increasingly integrated efforts by engineer units, elements, and support from two or more Services. United States Air Force (USAF) civil engineering expertise coupled with Army and USMC combat engineers routinely work in concert to repair and upgrade contingency airfields. United States Navy (USN) construction engineers are routinely integrated in general support of USMC forces and have begun teaming with USAF and Army engineers to support theaterwide requirements. Each service brings extensive engineering expertise which can be useful in support of the technical reconnaissance requirement.

6-84. USAF civil engineering capabilities are organized as Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer (RED HORSE) or Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force (Prime BEEF) units. RED HORSE units are deployable worldwide and provide support to force bed down, expedient airfield and heavy construction and repair, and environmental cleanup and spill response. Prime BEEF units are also deployable and provide force bed-down support, engineering and construction management, facilities operation and maintenance (O&M), emergency repair, EOD, fire protection, and CBRN monitoring and protection. 6-85. USN civil engineer capabilities are organized under both First Naval Construction Division and the Naval Beach Groups. The First Naval Construction Division is the operational command responsible for global force management of Seabees of the Naval Construction Regiments, Naval Mobile Construction Battalions, Construction Battalion Maintenance Units, Underwater Construction Teams, and its sole Naval Construction Force Support Unit. It also has Seabee Readiness Groups to conduct training and logistical support. The common thread that is woven throughout all Seabee units is responsiveness and flexibility. Naval Mobile Construction Battalions are the Navy's primary capability and possess robust vertical construction, bridging, and heavy earthmoving capabilities. Naval Mobile Construction Battalions are deployable, self sufficient and task-organize to provide general construction and disaster relief support. They also reinforce and augment the USMC limited general engineering capability. Under the Atlantic and Pacific Naval Beach Groups, the amphibious construction battalions deploy to provide specialized construction, barge ferry, elevated piers, offshore petroleum systems, and beach camp support. Refer to FM 3-34 and NWP 4-04 for additional information on these units. 6-86. Army and USMC engineers tasked to conduct technical engineer reconnaissance should determine what USAF and/or USN engineer elements are available to potentially provide general or specialized support. In many cases, the deployed USAF and/or USN elements will possess technical expertise not available elsewhere.

## Federal Emergency Management Agency And Other Government Agencies

6-87. Throughout the Nation's history, citizens have relied on the Army to respond to their needs in disasters. In a typical year, the Corps of Engineers responds to more than 30 presidential disaster declarations, plus numerous state and local emergencies. Emergency responses usually involve cooperation with other military elements and federal agencies in support of state and local efforts. The Corps of Engineers conducts its emergency response activities under two basic authorities: the Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act (P.L. 84-99, as amended) and the Stafford Disaster and Emergency Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288, as amended). Under the Stafford Act, the Corps supports the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in carrying out the Federal Response Plan, which calls on 26 federal departments and agencies to provide coordinated disaster relief and recovery operations. Under this plan, the Army has the lead responsibility for public works and engineering missions.

6-88. Under the National Response Plan, the USACE is designated as the lead agency for Public Works and Engineering. The USACE can be authorized to provide the following assistance on a temporary basis:

z
Emergency services including supplying potable water, removing debris, conducting urban search and rescue, and providing emergency electrical power and ice.
z
Technical advice and evaluations including structural analysis.
z
Construction management and inspection.
z
Emergency contracting.
z
Emergency repair of public infrastructure and facilities such as water supply sources.
z
Real estate support.
6-89. The FEMA, a former independent agency that became part of the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in March 2003, is tasked with responding to, planning for, recovering from, and mitigating against disasters. In March 2003, FEMA joined 22 other federal agencies, programs, and offices in becoming the DHS. The new department, headed by Secretary of Homeland Security, brings a coordinated approach to national security from emergencies and disasters, both natural and manmade. FEMA is one of four major branches of DHS. About 2,500 full-time employees in the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate are supplemented by more than 5,000 standby disaster reservists. FEMA has 10 regional offices and two area offices. Each region serves several states, and the regional staffs work directly with the states to help plan for disasters, develop mitigation programs, and meet needs when major disasters occur. In response to a presidentially declared disaster, FEMA may work with up to 28 federal agencies and the American Red Cross to provide assistance. These agencies provide state and local governments with personnel, technical expertise, equipment, and other resources and assume an active role in managing the response.

6-90. To coordinate the federal efforts, FEMA recommendsand the president appointsa federal coordinating officer (FCO) for each state that is affected by a disaster. The FCO and the state response team set up a disaster field office near the disaster scene. It is from there that the federal and state personnel work together to carry out response and recovery functions. These functions are grouped into 12 emergency support functions, each headed by an agency supported by other agencies. The federal agencies that provide assistance include the following:

z
Department of Agriculture
z
Department of Commerce
z
Department of Defense
z
Department of Education
z
Department of Energy
z
Department of Health and Human Services
z
Department of Housing and Urban Development
z
Department of the Interior
z
Department of Justice
z
Department of Labor
z
Department of State
z
Department of Transportation
z
Department of the Treasury
z
Internal Revenue Service
z
Department of Veterans Affairs
z
Agency for International Development
z
American Red Cross
z
Environmental Protection Agency
z
Federal Communications Commission
z
Federal Emergency Management Agency
z
General Services Administration
z
National Aeronautical and Space Administration
z
National Communications System
z
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
z
Office of Personnel Management
z
Office of Science and Technology Policy
z
Small Business Administration
z
Tennessee Valley Authority
z
U.S. Postal Service
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## Appendix A Metric Conversion Table

A-1. When planning general engineering missions, it is often necessary to use metric units to standardize project measurements. Table A-1 is intended to serve as a basic conversion table for that purpose.

| US Units                        | Multiplied By    | Equals Metric Units    |
|---------------------------------|------------------|------------------------|
| Acres                           | 0.4947           | Hectares               |
| Acres                           | 43,560           | Square feet            |
| Acres                           | 4,047            | Square meters          |
| Bulk fuel, 55 gallon drum       | 0.17             | Stons                  |
| Cubic feet                      | 0.0283           | Cubic meters           |
| Cubic inches                    | 16.3872          | Cubic centimeters      |
| Cubic inches                    | 0.0164           | Liters                 |
| Cubic yards                     | 0.7646           | Cubic meters           |
| Feet                            | 0.3048           | Meters                 |
| Fluid ounces                    | 29.573           | Milliliters            |
| Feet per second                 | 18.288           | Meters per second      |
| Gallons                         | 0.1337           | Cubic feet             |
| Gallons                         | 0.00378          | Cubic meters           |
| Gallons                         | 3.7854           | Liters                 |
| Gallons (bulk fuel)             | 0.004            | Stons                  |
| Inches                          | 2.54             | Centimeters            |
| Inches                          | 0.0254           | Meters                 |
| Inches                          | 25.4001          | Millimeters            |
| Miles (nautical)                | 1.85320          | Kilometers             |
| Miles(statue)                   | 1.6093           | Kilometers             |
| Ounces                          | 28.349           | Grams                  |
| Pounds                          | 453.59           | Grams                  |
| Pounds                          | 0.4536           | Kilograms              |
| Square inches                   | 6.4516           | Square centimeters     |
| Square feet                     | 0.0929           | Square meters          |
| Square miles                    | 2.59             | Square kilometers      |
| Square yards                    | 0.8361           | Square meters          |
| Yards                           | 0.914            | Meters                 |
| Degrees Fahrenheit              |                  |                        |
| Subtract 32, multiply by 5, and |                  |                        |
| divide the sum by 9             |                  |                        |
| Degrees Celsius                 |                  |                        |
| Metric Units                  |   Multiplied By  | U.S. Units       |
|-------------------------------|------------------|------------------|
| Centimeters                   |          0.3937  | Inches           |
| Cubic centimeters             |          0.061   | Cubic inches     |
| Cubic meters                  |         35.3144  | Cubic feet       |
| Cubic meters                  |          1.3079  | Cubic yards      |
| Milliliters                   |          0.0338  | Fluid ounces     |
| Grams                         |          0.03527 | Ounces           |
| Kilograms                     |          2.2046  | Pounds           |
| Kilometers                    |          0.5396  | Miles (nautical) |
| Kilometers                    |          0.62137 | Miles (statute)  |
| Meters                        |          3.2808  | Feet             |
| Meters                        |         39.37    | Inches           |
| Meters                        |          1.0936  | Yards            |
| Millimeters                   |          0.03937 | Inches           |
| Square centimeters            |          0.155   | Square inches    |
| Square kilometers             |          0.3861  | Square miles     |
| Square meters                 |          1.196   | Square yards     |
| Square meters                 |         10.764   | Square feet      |
| Degrees Celsius               |                  |                  |
| By 9 and divide the sum by 5; |                  |                  |
| add 32                        |                  |                  |
| Degrees Fahrenheit            |                  |                  |

## Appendix B Reporting

This appendix is intended to provide a quick reference for reporting of engineer related technical information. The first section provides, in table format, the various symbols used to describe the results of a route classification on an overlay (as discussed in chapter 5). The second section provides examples of various report formats useful in documenting and reporting the results of technical engineer reconnaissance support. (See MCRP 3-17B for additional report formats. See FM 3-34.210 for an explosive hazard survey form and instructions. Infrastructure smartcards, which support infrastructure reconnaissance, are provided separately in appendix C. The EBS is provided separately in appendix D.)

## Route Classification Symbols

B-1. Table B-1 identifies symbols used on route classification overlays (as discussed in chapter 5).

| Symbol                                                   |
|----------------------------------------------------------|
| Bridge symbol (abbreviated). Use this symbol only        |
| when the map scale does not permit the use of the full   |
| NATO bridge symbol. Submit DA Form 1249 if this          |
| symbol is used. Draw an arrow to the map location of     |
| the bridge. Show the bridge's serial number in the       |
| lower portion of the symbol and the MLC for single-flow  |
| traffic in the upper portion. If there are separate load |
| classifications for tracked or wheeled vehicles, show    |
| the lesser classification. Underline the classification  |
| number if the width or overhead clearance is below       |
| minimum requirements.                                    |
| Bridge symbol (NATO) shows:                              |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Two-way wheeled classification, top left.                |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| One-way wheeled classification, top right.               |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Two-way tracked classification, middle left.             |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| One-way tracked classification, middle right.            |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Assigned serial number, bottom inside circle.            |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Traveled-way width, bottom outside circle.               |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Overhead clearance, outside left.                        |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Length, outside right.                                   |
| Symbol                                                    |
|-----------------------------------------------------------|
| Bridge symbol (railway). Place RL above the symbol to     |
| indicate a railway bridge. At the left of the symbol,     |
| show the overhead clearance. Show the bridge's            |
| overall length at the right of the symbol. Indicate the   |
| traveled-way width below the symbol and underline it if   |
| it is below standard for the classification. Inside the   |
| symbol, show the bridge classification in the upper half. |
| If the class is different for single- and double-flow     |
| traffic, show single flow on the left and double flow on  |
| the right. Place the railway bridge's serial number in    |
| the lower half of the symbol. Draw an arrow to the map    |
| location of the bridge. On the arrow shaft, indicate the  |
| ease of adapting the bridge for road-vehicle use. A       |
| zigzag line means it would be difficult to adapt; a       |
| straight line means it would be easy to adapt. Place the  |
| bypass symbol on the arrow shaft to indicate bypass       |
| conditions.                                               |
| Bypass, symbols shown indicate (from left to right)       |
| bypass is easy, difficult, or impossible.                 |
| Concealment. Show roads lined with trees by a single      |
| line of circles for deciduous trees and a single line of  |
| inverted Vs for evergreen trees. Show woods bordering     |
| a road by several rows of circles for deciduous trees     |
| and several rows of inverted Vs for evergreen trees.      |
| Critical points. Number (in order) and describe critical  |
| points on DA Form 1711. Use critical points to show       |
| features not adequately covered by other symbols on       |
| the overlay.                                              |
| Constriction (underpass). The number on the left          |
| shows the narrowest width of the constriction; the        |
| number on the right is the overhead clearance             |
| (minimum/maximum). Both dimensions are in meters.         |
| Constriction (width). The number on the left shows the    |
| narrowest width of the constriction; the number on the    |
| right is the overhead clearance (minimum/maximum).        |
| Both dimensions are in meters.                            |
| Symbol                                                 | Definition                 |
|--------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|
| Curve with a radius less than 45 meters. Symbol points |                            |
| toward curve location and shows actual radius of curve |                            |
| outside of triangle.                                   |                            |
| Series of sharp curves shown with a triangle drawn     |                            |
| inside another triangle. The number of curves followed |                            |
| by the radius of the sharpest curve shown outside of   |                            |
| the triangles.                                         |                            |
| Ferry symbol shows                                    |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Assigned serial number, top left.                      |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Ferry type (V, P, or both), top right.                 |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| MLC, enclosed left.                                    |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Dead-weight capacity (if known), enclosed right.       |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Ferry turnaround time, bottom bank conditions          |                            |
| shown by arrow neck and tail.                          |                            |
| Ford symbol shows                                     |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Assigned serial number, top left.                      |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Ford type (V, P or both), top 2nd from left.           |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Stream's normal velocity, top 2nd from right.          |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Seasonal limiting factors (X or Y), top right.         |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Length of ford, bottom left.                           |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Ford width, bottom 2nd from left.                      |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Nature of ford bottom, bottom 2nd from right.          |                            |
| -                                                      | normal depth, bottom right |
| Grades.                                                |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Single arrowhead pointing upindicates grade           |                            |
| between 5 - 7 percent.                                 |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Double arrowhead pointing upindicates grade           |                            |
| between 7 10 percent.                                 |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Triple arrowhead pointing upindicates grade           |                            |
| between 10 - 14 percent.                               |                            |
| -                                                      |                            |
|                                                        |                            |
| Four arrowheads pointing upindicates grade            |                            |
| over 14 percent.                                       |                            |
| Limits of sector. Show the beginning and ending of a   |                            |
| section of a route covered by reconnaissance with this |                            |
| symbol.                                                |                            |
| Symbol                                                   |
|----------------------------------------------------------|
| Parking area.                                            |
| Railroad grade crossing. Use this symbol to show a       |
| level crossing where passing trains would interrupt      |
| traffic flow. If there is a power line present, show its |
| height (in meters) from the ground. Underline the        |
| overhead clearance if it is less than 4.3 meters.        |
| Route classification formula consists of, from left to   |
| right                                                   |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Route width, in meters.                                  |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Route type (X, Y, or Z).                                 |
| -                                                        |
| Lowest MLC.                                              |
| 10.5 m/X/120/00                                          |
| 6 m/Z/30/4.1 m/(OB)                                      |
| 9 m/V/40/5 m/(OB) (W)                                    |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Lowest overhead clearance, in meters.                    |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Obstructions to traffic flow (OB).                       |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Special conditions (T or W).                             |
| Tunnel symbol shows                                     |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Minimum/maximum overhead clearance, top                  |
| left.                                                    |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Traveled-way width, bottom center.                       |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Tunnel length, top right.                                |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Assigned serial number, inside tunnel type               |
| sketch.                                                  |
| -                                                        |
|                                                          |
| Bypass type, on arrow toward tunnel.                     |
| Turnout. Use this symbol to show the possibility of      |
| driving off the road. Draw the arrow in the direction of |
| the turnout (right or left of the road). For wheeled     |
| vehicles, draw a small circle on the arrow's shaft. For  |
| tracked vehicles, draw a small square on the arrow's     |
| shaft and place the length of the turnout, in meters, at |
| the tip of the arrow. When a turnout is longer than 1    |
| kilometer, use double arrows.                            |

## Engineer Reconnaissance Reports

B-2. Table B-2 provides a summary of the various engineer reconnaissance reports and the page reference in this appendix where an example is provided.

## Table B-2. Engineer Reconnaissance Reports

| Route Classification Report, DA Form 1247      | Page B-6    |
|------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| Road Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1248       | Page B-13   |
| Bridge Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1249     | B-19        |
| Tunnel Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1250     | Page B-22   |
| Ford Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1251       | Page B-24   |
| Ferry Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1252      | Page B-26   |
| Engineer Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1711   | Page B-29   |
| Demolition Reconnaissance Record, DA Form 2203 | Page B-36   |
| River Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 7398      | Page B-41   |

## Route Classification Report

B-3. Use a Route Classification Report, DA Form 1247, to report the technical information collected during route classification. Additionally, route classification information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the route classification form as follows (see figure B-1 on pages B-6 through B-11).

## Road Reconnaissance Report

B-4. Use a Road Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1248, to report the technical information collected during road reconnaissance. Additionally, the road information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the road reconnaissance form as follows (see figure B-2 on pages B-13 and B-14).

z
There are four Date blocks on the form (3 on the front side and 1 on the back); record the same date in each.
z
Block 1a should indicate country and map name, not just the country.
z
Block 1c should indicate sheet number and edition as well as the map sheet date.
z
Block 3 requires at least a 6-digit grid coordinate.
z
In section II, record information for the most limiting characteristics of the road.
z
Section III (d) should read, "Curves with a radius of 25 meters and less. (Also record curves with a radius of 25.1 to 45 meters)."
z
In section IV, complete the Scale block as follows, Scale:_____units = _____kilometers. Include the road classification formula (see chapter 5, pages 5-25 through 5-27) for each section of road. Indicate on sketch the location of all obstructions.

## Bridge Reconnaissance Report

B-5. Use a Bridge Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1249, to report the technical information collected during a bridge reconnaissance. Additionally, when part of a route classification, the bridge information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. (For rapid classification procedures see appendix F.) Complete the bridge reconnaissance form as follows (see figure B-4 on pages B-19 through B-20).

z
Column 1. Record the assigned serial number. This number matches the serial number used in
the bridge symbol of the route classification overlay.
z
Column 2. Record the 8-digit grid coordinates, with the map identifier, of the actual bridge site.
z
Column 3. Record horizontal clearance information, in meters. Horizontal clearance is the clear
distance between the inside edges of the bridge structure, measured at a height of 0.3 meter above the surface of the traveled way and upwards. However, horizontal clearance for truss bridges is measured 1.21 meters above the traveled way. Any horizontal clearance less than the minimum required for the bridge's roadway width, as shown in table B-3, is underlined. Unlimited clearance is indicated by the symbol .

Roadway Width (meters)
Bridge Classification
One-Way
Two-Way
2.75 to 3.34
12
0
3.35 to 3.99
30
0
4 to 4.49
60
0
4.5 to 4.99
100
0
5 to 5.4
150
0
5.5 to 7.2
150
30
7.3 to 8.1
150
60
8.2 to 9.7
150
100
Over 9.8
150
150
Note. Minimum overhead clearance for all classes is 4.3 meters

z
Column 4. Record under-bridge clearance, in meters. It is the clear distance between the
underside of each span and the surface of the water. The height above the stream bed and the height above the estimated normal water level (pertaining to the appropriate bridge type) are
included in this column for each span.
z
Column 5. If the bridge is oriented more north to south, start with the northern most span and
work south. Place the letter N in column 5 before the first span in sequence. If the bridge is oriented more east to west, start with the eastern most span and work west. Place the letter E in column 5 before the first span in sequence. For each span, list a sequence number followed by a slash and the total number of spans. Columns 5, 6, 7, and 8 are completed for each span.
z
Column 6. Record the type of span construction. Refer to the numbers in table B-4, page B-16,
and the diagrams in figure B-3, page B-17, for this information.

| Span Type                        | Number                                      |
|----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Truss                            | 1                                           |
| Girder                           |                                             |
| 2                                |                                             |
| (including steel multigirder and |                                             |
| two girder spans)                |                                             |
| Beam                             |                                             |
| (including reinforced or         |                                             |
| 3                                |                                             |
| prestressed concrete and steel   |                                             |
| box beam spans)                  |                                             |
| Slab                             | 4                                           |
| Arch (closed spandrel)           | 5                                           |
| Arch (open spandrel)             | 6                                           |
| Suspension                       | 7                                           |
| Floating                         | 8                                           |
| Swing                            | 9 (specify type in additional information)  |
| Bascule                          | 10 (specify type in additional information) |
| Vertical lift                    | 11                                          |
| Other                            | 12 (specify type in additional information) |

z
Column 7. Record the type of construction material. Refer to table B-5 for this information.

| Material of Span Construction    | Letter Symbol    |
|----------------------------------|------------------|
| Steel or other metal             | a                |
| Concrete                         | k                |
| Reinforced concrete              | ak               |
| Prestressed concrete             | kk               |
| Stone or brick                   | p                |
| Wood                             | h                |
| Other (to be specified by name)  | o                |

z
Column 8. Record span length, in meters. This is a center-to-center spacing between bearings.
The sum of the span length may not equal the overall length. Spans that are not usable because of damage or destruction are indicated by the pound symbol (#), placed after the dimension of the span length. Spans that are over water are indicated by placing the letter W after the dimension of the span length (see figure B-4).
B-6. Under "Additional Bridge Information," columns are added to give the MLC, overall length, roadway width, overhead clearance, and bypass possibilities (specify use easy, use difficult, or use impossible). Indicate whether the bridge is simply supported or continuous (see figure B-4).

B-7. The bridge reconnaissance report should include a sketch as well as photographs when possible. Show as much information as possible when sketching the bridge on the backside of DA Form 1249 (see figure B-5). For bridges that present a challenge to reconnaissance elements collecting information and/or determining a classification, USACE assistance is available through reach-back support as discussed under FFE in appendix H.

## Tunnel Reconnaissance Report

B-8. Use a Tunnel Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1250, to report the technical information collected during reconnaissance of tunnels on routes. Additionally, the tunnel information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the tunnel reconnaissance form as follows
(see figure B-5 on pages B-22 through B-23).

z
Blocks 2 and 3. Record the grid coordinates for the start and end points of the route on which
the tunnel is located.
z
Block 8. Record the tunnel number found on the map sheet or on the head wall (or data plate) of
the actual tunnel. If a number is not on the map or tunnel, then assign an appropriate number based on the unit's SOP. If there is a different number on the map than on the tunnel, record both serial numbers.
z
Block 9. Record the distance and direction from the nearest town.
z
Block 13. Record the number of railroad tracks passing through the tunnel, if applicable.
z
Block 15. Record the vertical clearance (the shortest clearance from the road surface in the
tunnel to the lowest point on the ceiling above the traveled way). Also, record the distance from the sidewalk to the ceiling if traffic can travel on the sidewalks.
z
Block 15 (continued). Record the horizontal clearance. It is the roadway width or the roadway
width and sidewalks/emergency lanes (where vehicles can move through the tunnel without striking the top or sides).
z
Block 16. Record the internal tunnel grade. Record the grade of the tunnel entrances in block
27.
z
Block 17. State whether the tunnel is straight or curved. Record curves that may restrict traffic
flow.
z
Block 19. Record a description of what the tunnel entrances (portals) look like and their
composition.
z
Block 22. Mark the applicable box. Some tunnels are chambered for demolition. This means
that the tunnel has predesigned locations for placing demolitions to destroy the tunnel and deny use by the enemy.
z
Block 23. Record the date that the tunnel was constructed.
z
Block 29. Inspect the rock or soil at the tunnel's entrances. If there is a chance of a rock or mud
slide, record the location and possible solution to the problem.

## Ford Reconnaissance Report

B-9. Use a Ford Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1251, to report the technical information collected during ford reconnaissance. Additionally, when the ford reconnaissance is part of a route classification, the ford information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the ford reconnaissance form as shown in figure B-6).

## Ferry Reconnaissance Report

B-10. Use a Ferry Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1252, to report the technical information collected during ferry reconnaissance. Additionally, when the ferry reconnaissance is part of a route classification, the ferry information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the ferry reconnaissance form as shown in figure B-7).

## Engineer Reconnaissance Report

B-11. Use the Engineer Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 1711, to report the technical information collected during an engineer resource assessment. Additionally, the engineer reconnaissance report can be used to report other significant engineer information not covered by any of the other reports in this appendix. Complete the engineer reconnaissance form as follows (see figure B-8 on pages B-29 through B-33).

z
Heading. Self-explanatory.
z
Key. The key references the item of the report and its corresponding location on the map
overlay. The object's serial number (or critical point number) is entered in this column.
z
Object. Shown by a conventional symbol (see figure B-9, pages B-32 through B-33) or a brief
written description.
z
Work estimate. If a work estimate is included as part of the report, enter yes; if not, enter no.
z
Additional Remarks. In this column, report the object's location by grid coordinates followed by remarks, calculations, and sketches. Make this information as detailed as possible to alleviate the necessity for an additional reconnaissance.
z
Authentication block. This is for the company commander's signature block and signature.
z
Work estimate. The work estimate is on the back of the DA Form 1711. Each work estimate is
keyed by a serial or critical point number to the appropriate object on the reverse side of the form. Only those columns that are appropriate need be completed. Draw additional sketches when necessary (see figure B-8).

## Demolition Reconnaissance Record

B-12. Use a Demolition Reconnaissance Record, DA Form 2203, to report the technical information collected during demolition reconnaissance. This form can also be a component of a demolition target folder (see FM 3-34.214). The demolition reconnaissance is discussed in chapter 4. Complete the demolition reconnaissance record as follows (see figure B-10 pages B-36 through B-40).

## River Reconnaissance Report

B-13. Use a River Reconnaissance Report, DA Form 7398, to report the technical information collected during river reconnaissance. Additionally, when the river reconnaissance is part of a route classification, the river information is summarized on the route classification overlay as described in chapter 5. Complete the river reconnaissance form as shown in figure B-11).

## North Atlantic Treaty Organization Agreements

B-14. NATO nations have concluded a number of agreements on a wide range of engineer matters, which are regularly reviewed with more subject areas under negotiation. This section provides a summary of the standardization agreements (STANAGs) of relevance to engineer reconnaissance. The list of STANAGs relevant to engineer reconnaissance is shown below with the custodians shown in brackets.

z
STANAG 2002 - Warning Signs for the Marking of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Contaminations (JSB - NBC).
z
STANAG 2010 - *Military Load Classification Markings* (France).
z
STANAG 2017 - Orders to the Demolition Guard Commander and Demolition Firing Party
Commander (Non-nuclear) (United Kingdom).
z
STANAG 2021 - Military Load Classification of Bridges, Ferries, Rafts and Vehicles Classifications (France).
z
STANAG 2036 - *Land Mine Laying, Marking, Recording and Reporting Procedures* (United
States).
z
STANAG 2101 - *Establishing Liaison* (Military Committee Joint Standardization Board [MCJSB]).
z
STANAG 2123 - *Obstacle Folder* (Germany).
z
STANAG 2143 - *Explosive Ordnance Reconnaissance/Explosive Ordnance Disposal* (EOD).
z
STANAG 2221 - *Explosive Ordnance Disposal Reports and Messages* (Allied Explosive
Ordnance Disposal Publication [AEODP-6]) (EOD).
z
STANAG 2259 - Military Geographic Documentation - *Terrain* (International Geospatial [IGEO]).
z
STANAG 2269 - Military Geographic Documentation - *Engineer Resources* (IGEO).
z
STANAG 2282 - *Interservice EOD Operations on Multinational Deployments* (EOD).
z
STANAG 2369 - *Identification and Disposal of Surface and Air Munitions* (EOD).
z
STANAG 2370 - *Principles of Improvised Explosive Device Disposal* (AEODP-3(A) (EOD).
z
STANAG 2430 - *Land Forces Combat Engineer Messages, Reports and Returns* (AEngrP 2(B)) (United Kingdom).
z
STANAG 2929 - *Airfield Damage Repair* (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe
[SHAPE]).
z
STANAG 2989 - *Transfer of Barriers* (Spain).
z
STANAG 2991 - *NATO Combat Engineer Glossary* (Allied Administrative Publication [AAP] 19(D)) (Combined Arms).
z
STANAG 3680 - NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (AAP-6).
This page intentionally left blank.

## Appendix C Infrastructure Reconnaissance

This appendix provides a quick reference for collecting and reporting technical information from the major and several "other" categories of infrastructure. For each category, the appendix provides a smartcard with a brief overview of the infrastructure category and its component systems followed by a checklist to guide the collection of relevant information.

## Assessment

C-1. The infrastructure assessment and the infrastructure survey are two stages/levels of infrastructure reconnaissance used to gather this necessary infrastructure information. The purpose of the assessment is to provide immediate feedback concerning the status of the basic services necessary to sustain the local population. The memory aid to describe this assessment is SWEAT-MSO with each of the letters describing a major area within the assessment (see figure C-1). The model can be adapted for use at the tactical level in either stability or civil support operations. In either type of operation, the infrastructure assessment and survey model can be used during course of action development to delineate tasks, missions, and effects that support civil-military-related objectives.

C-2. The basic services or categories evaluated depend on the situation, mission, and commander's intent. While it is typically performed by engineers, it may be accomplished by others when an engineer is not available, depending on the expertise available and the desired type/quality of information required. If available, leaders should also consult military and NGO units and agencies in the area to determine if there are extenuating circumstances that may influence the outcome of the assessment. Typically, engineer planners use this information to define immediate needs and determine priorities of work. While an infrastructure assessment is designed to support the resolution of the immediate challenges, it will normally set the conditions for a successful transition. Some of the primary considerations for the assessment are

z
Sewage. What is the status of the local sewage system? What health and environmental risks
exist?
z
Water. What potable water sources are available? Are they adequate? Have they been tested?
z
Electricity. What is the status of electrical generation facilities to include availability of
generators? What is the status of the transmission infrastructure? What critical facilities to include hospitals, government buildings, and schools are not having their needs met? What is the availability of fuel for transportation, heating, and cooking? Is there an adequate system of distribution?
z
Academics. What schools are in need of repair and rebuilding?
z
Trash. Is there a system in place for removing waste? What hazardous waste streams are being
generated that may have detrimental impacts on health and the environment? What is the ultimate disposal system for trash?
z
Medical. Are medical services available and operational? Does an emergency service exist? Are
services available for animals?
z
Safety. Is there a police and fire service? Are UXO or other EHs an issue?
C-3. Other considerations. Other considerations that leaders may consider as a part of the assessment include

z
Transportation networks. Are roads, bridges, and railroads trafficable? Is the airport
operational? Do helicopter landing sites exist and are they useable? Can they sustain the local, humanitarian assistance traffic?
z
Fuel distribution. Is there a fuel distribution system available to commercial and residential
customers?
z
Housing. Are the homes structurally sound and habitable? Do they include basic utilities?
z
Explosive hazards. Are ordnance hazards observed?
z
Environmental hazards. Are environmental hazards observed?
z
Communications. Is the telephone network available and operational? Does the town have TV,
radio, and newspaper access and, if so, do they work?
z
Places of worship. Are there adequate facilities to support religious activities for all groups?
z
Attitude. Are local people and community leaders supportive? Is there ethnic tension?
C-4. Table C-1 provides an example checklist for an initial infrastructure assessment of a town or location to assist in determining the humanitarian and civic assistance needs of the town at the beginning of a stability operation. This example is not intended to be all-inclusive but rather another aid to support an assessment. The formal survey will be much more specific and in depth than the information in any assessment, and survey smartcards are provided in the second half of this appendix to support the conduct of a survey. The example uses the SWEAT-MSO model introduced in table C-2 on pages C-3 through C-5 to assist the Soldier and Marine in organizing an assessment strategy. Chapter 6 provides an infrastructure assessment rating to assist in rating each of the assessed categories. Leaders may use these resources to begin developing priorities, obtaining resources, and refining a plan. Many of the tasks derived from this process will be general engineering tasks (such as facilities construction, well drilling, power generation, and road repair).

General Engineering Requirements - Infrastructure Assessment
Town/Village/Neighborhood:
Location:
Assessor:
Local Points of Contact (Name, Location, Phone Number, etc.)
Police Chief: Fire Chief: School Administrators: NGOs:
Mayor: City Council: City Engineer: Religious Leaders: Community Leaders:
Population: Male:
Female:
Religious Breakdown:
Ethnic Breakdown:

## S  Sewage System Assessment

Status of municipal sewage system/distribution system: Status of sewage systems in commercial/residential properties: Immediate needs:

## W Water Assessment

Status of water treatment plants/distribution system: Status of potable water in commercial/residential properties: Storage capacity: Wells (location and capacity): Immediate needs:

## E Electricity Assessment

Status of electric plant/distribution system: Status of electric power in commercial/residential properties: Alternate power sources: Immediate needs:

## A Academics Assessment

Status of school building(s):
Status of teachers and supplies: Immediate needs:

## T Trash Assessment

Status of trash collection system: Status of disposal site: Immediate needs:

## M Medical Assessment

Status of hospital/clinic buildings: Status of physicians and supplies: Immediate needs:

## S Safety Assessment

Status of police/fire departments: Status of safety personnel and supplies: Immediate needs:

## O Other Considerations Transportation System Assessment

Status of road system (attach sketch if necessary): Impact on critical transportation needs: Immediate needs:

## Fuel Distribution Assessment

Status of fuel distribution system: Storage capacity: Immediate needs:
Housing Assessment
Status of structures:
Status of utilities: Immediate needs:

## Explosive Hazard Assessment

Explosive ordnance locations/type (send 9-line UXO report as required by the mission): Explosive ordnance marked (if yes, marking description): Immediate needs:

## Environmental Hazard Assessment

Do known hazards exist (if yes, describe): Are chemicals visible on the ground (if yes, describe): Abandoned manufacturing buildings (if yes, are waste products/streams contained): Immediate needs: Other Critical Considerations: Recommended Priorities:

## Survey

C-5. Infrastructure reconnaissance is accomplished in stagesthe infrastructure assessment and the infrastructure survey. As a follow-on to the assessment, the infrastructure survey provides a detailed description of the condition of major services. The primary difference between the assessment and the survey is the degree of technical information and the expertise required and available to perform the reconnaissance. The survey is normally conducted by forward USACE personnel assigned or attached to a FEST-M team and will integrate other technical specialties (medical, CA, and others) to enhance the quality of the survey. A large urban area may require more than one survey team to accomplish the necessary breadth of survey requirements. A survey may also require that the area be secure in order for it to be performed while the assessment may be performed in an area that is not secured yet. Both are best performed when other branch specialties are available to support the base engineer element. The following series of smartcards are available to assist with the more detailed infrastructure survey.

C-6. Figures C-2 through C-8 on pages C-7 through C-29 address the following:
z
Sewage (figure C-2).
z
Water (figure C-3).
z
Electricity (figure C-4).
z
Academics (figure C-5).
z
Trash (figure C-6).
z
Medical (figure C-7).
z
Safety (figure C-8).
C-7. Figures C-9 through C-18 on pages C-30 through C-67 address other considerations including:
z
Roads and railroads (figures C-9 and C-10).
z
Bridges and waterways (figure C-11).
z
Airports (figure C-12).
z
Housing (figure C-13).
z
Communications (figure C-14).
z
Food supply (figure C-15).
z
Socio/government (figure C-16).
z
Cultural/historical/religious (figure C-17).
z
Hazardous materials (figure C-18).
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## Appendix D Environmental Baseline Survey

The EBS is a multidiscipline site survey. It is conducted during the initial stage of any Service or joint operational deployment, and followed by a closeout survey when a site is returned to the HN or when joint forces depart the site. The EBS documents existing deployment area environmental conditions (to include cultural), determines the likelihood for present and past site contamination (for example, hazardous substances, petroleum products, and derivatives), and identifies potential vulnerabilities (to include occupational and environmental health risks). The closeout survey defines the conditions existing at the time of departure from a site and documents any changes/variations in conditions from the EBS. Surveys accomplished in conjunction with operational deployments that do not involve training or exercises (contingency/expeditionary operations) should be completed to the extent practicableconsistent with operational requirements for all occupations exceeding 30 days. In cases where less than 30 days of occupation are expected, an environmental assessment should still be conducted to support servicemember force health protection. The EBS is generally performed in conjunction with an EHSA.

## Preparation And Implementation Of The Survey

D-1. This appendix provides guidance for preparing the EBS (see FM 3-100.4). As discussed in chapter 6, environmental reconnaissance is conducted to collect the information necessary for the EBS. The reconnaissance is typically focused by IR identified by environmental staff planners researching the potential AO. An EBS is typically performed by or with support from general engineer elements, including an on-site visit by environmental specialists as soon as the situation permits. However, ERTs may need to perform an initial site assessment before an EBS with or without assistance from general engineers. While this appendix provides guidance to the general engineer and environmental specialist for completing a detailed EBS including the site survey, it can also guide the ERT conducting an initial assessment to begin developing the EBS.

## Preparation

D-2. The EBS addressed in this manual is focused for use during contingency/expeditionary operations where other established HN agreements or arrangements for a base campsite may not exist. (See FM 5-104 and AFDD 2-4.4 for specific planning considerations). Guidance should be provided in annex L of the joint OPORD/OPLAN to direct the conduct of surveys, especially in those situations where specific HN agreements or arrangements may not exist, or a HN government may not be operating. It may also come from appendix 2 (Environmental Considerations) to annex L (Engineer) of an OPORD/OPLAN. By using the EBS, services can maintain situational awareness, maximize combat power, and reduce and/or eliminate the negative effects of occupational health and environmental exposures. D-3. The primary purposes for an EBS are

z
The protection of service personnel (eliminating, minimizing, or mitigating environmental health risks to servicemembers).
z
Allowing for a sustainability determination of designated location (includes encroachment considerations and potential requirements to increase the population of servicemembers or their actions performed at a site).
z
Sensitivities involved with cultural or architectural considerations.
z
Minimizing any potential U.S. liability for the condition of a site at the time U.S. forces depart.
D-4. Environmental specialists initiate EBS planning and preparation during the initial planning stages of any military operation through deliberate information gathering and staff estimates. These specialists include, but are not limited to, engineer and medical expertise that incorporate medical intelligence and geospatial information into the planning process. While containing some considerations of force health protection, the EBS is not a complete medical assessment, and so it is always linked to the conduct of the EHSA and ideally accomplished in direct conjunction with this document and process. (See United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine [USACHPPM] Technical Guide 251, A
Soldiers Guide to Environmental and Occupation Field Sampling for Military Deployment (Draft),"
August 2001, for more information on the EHSA.) D-5. Researching the AO and the specific potential sites that the operational commander will want to inhabit and use for base camps, airfields, logistic sites, and a host of other relatively permanent locations in an AO are part of the staff planning process. This includes map reconnaissance with supporting geospatial products, review of medical information and intelligence about a site, and any other information obtainable (historical or current information) about proposed locations during the planning process. The respective staff estimates by the engineer, surgeon, logistician, joint staff/component/brigade or battalion civil-military operations officer (J-9/G-9/S-9) (with CA support), and others must include this assessment as a part of their normal planning process to evaluate all relevant environmental considerations. The preparation work performed at this point is not considered an EBS but rather the preparation work to minimize the likelihood of choosing poor sites from an environmental and force health protection viewpoint. If adequate information is not available on likely sites to be used, this information becomes IR that are fed into the IPB. Some of these may be critical enough to be considered PIR. All of this assessment process is a part of the predeployment work required to ultimately create an EBSs for each specific site, but does not in itself create an EBS. A physical visit of each site by environmental specialists is required for an EBS to be completed. Similarly, while research and preparation are completed to be able to perform a site closeout, a physical survey is required for one to be accomplished. D-6. The preventive aspects present through the planning of required EBSs serve as a force multiplier and mission enabler through the early identification of environmental, health, and safety conditions that may pose potential health threats to military personnel and civilians that occupy designated areas within the theater of operations. They also assist in making recommendations on a particular site by taking into consideration suitability (to include both natural and cultural considerations) and sustainability determinations for that site. It is critical to obtain an assessment of projected/sustained use for a site and a projected duration of use for a given site from the operational planners. The engineer staff officer is directly involved and uses this information in the engineering support plan (ESP) and integrates this information into staff planning.

## Implementation

D-7. Estimates from the planning process are confirmed or adjusted based upon physical site inspection during the EBS. An EBS is conducted for any base camp or similar site that will be in existence for greater than 30 days. Ideally the EBS will be accomplished in conjunction with an EHSA. This survey (and potential preceding assessment) conducted during contingency/ expeditionary operations documents environmental conditions before (or immediately after) the occupation of any base camp or related site. This serves to protect servicemembers by documenting property suitability as well as prevent the United States from receiving unfounded claims for past environmental damage. D-8. While damage claims are the primary focus for many of the other EBSs performed by the DOD, it is of secondary importance in supporting the operational commander during contingency operations. When ultimately departing from a site, a closure survey is completed using the same basic format as the EBS to provide comparative information documenting the change in conditions over the life of occupation of that site by servicemembers.

D-9. The importance of a standardized multi-Service format should be apparent. This format is intended to include adequate minimal medical considerations in the case where an EHSA is not able to be conducted in conjunction with the EBS. While each situation/site will be unique, the format for the EBS is intended to provide the standardized multi-Service framework for completing the physical survey/assessment.

Additional applicable references and tools are also listed with this template. (See table D-1 on page D-5.)
D-10. In between the timeframe of the EBS and the closure report is a requirement to periodically conduct inspections of the base camp or other similar facility to ensure environmental considerations are being actively incorporated in the life of the site. This report is called an environmental conditions report (ECR) and is focused on how well the commander of that site is applying relevant and directed environmental considerations. ECRs will be conducted for as long as the site is occupied and not less than on a quarterly basis to measure the environmental health/status of the base camp or similar site. These are ideally linked to medical survey efforts to both combine their effect and to minimize their administrative effects on the command. A standardized template is included as figure D-1 on page D-7.

## Environmental Baseline Survey Content

D-11. Ideally, an EBS will be prepared to the fullest extent possible for each site to document environmental and environmental health conditions prior to the time of servicemember arrival. This snapshot provides immediate information to the commander as well as creating a baseline record of conditions at that time. At some point it is also likely that a closure report will also be completed, but this is not the focus of the commander occupying the site. The EBS investigation is designed to provide the commander and his staff with an overview of the designated location/site using real-time field sampling, historical information, and readily available intelligence. Information sources include, but are not limited to,

z
IPB.
z z z z
Current reconnaissance reports of a given location/site. Intelligence reports. Digital information sources (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center, Defense Intelligence Agency, and others). Other geospatial information and products.
D-12. Deliberate information gathering and research for environmentally specific and historical information must be part of the investigative process in the execution of the EBS. This will include interviews with personnel having knowledge of the designated location to gain historical information about a site if possible. In some cases, this may be performed by real estate personnel before a site is ever occupied. D-13. A physical site inspection is performed by environmental specialists to obtain firsthand visual and physical information pertaining to the property to identify recognized environmental conditions and characteristics. The linkage of environmental and occupational health hazards are integrated as a part of the inspection. These inspections include the information categories contained in the EBS format. This inspection should include (as a minimum) the following:

z
Physical description and condition. Note the condition and location of facilities/improvements
(if applicable) including the presence of buildings and other structures. Also record sites of known contamination within or immediately adjacent to the property boundaries and, if possible, try to determine the contaminant(s) of concern and the media affected. Include information, if available, on any remediation efforts and sampling conducted.
z
Historical use(s) and user(s). Identify any visual and physical indications of past use(s) that
may have impacted the property through the use, treatment, storage, disposal, or generation of hazardous substances or petroleum products. Include a list of past owners, occupants, and past uses of the property where available.
z
Adjacent land use. The general type of property usage (such as residential, commercial,
industrial) should be documented. Identify any visual and physical indications (for example, soil
staining, stressed vegetations) of current and past land use practices that may be indicative of a contaminant release.

z
Soil type and land cover. Note the soil type and general types of vegetation present on the
property. Include in this paragraph any observations of stressed vegetation and potential causes
(for example, hazardous substances or petroleum product release, lack of irrigation, high traffic
area, and so forth).
z
Hydrologic and geologic features. In this portion, include hydrologic features important to
drainage such as creeks, ditches, and riverbeds.
z
Water supply. Identify any sources of potable water on the property as well as an estimated
associated capacity. Note the presence of water facilities such as pump stations, storage tanks, system age and condition, and its components. In addition, document any wastewater or other liquids discharging from the property into a drain, ditch, or stream on or adjacent to the location/property.
D-14. Typically an EBS will come upon situations that require the survey team to take samples to obtain more detailed analysis. The procedures associated with sampling, whether their focus is engineering or medical related, are very similar. (Refer to FM 3-100.4 for a discussion of these procedures.)

## Table D-1. Environmental Baseline Survey Format

| 1.                                                 | Cover page for EBS                     |
|----------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| 3.2.1.                                             | Current use of site                    |
| 1.1. Title will be "Environmental Baseline Survey" |                                        |
| 3.2.2.                                             | Historical use of site                 |
| 1.2. Location identification                       |                                        |
| 3.3. Use of adjoining properties                   |                                        |
| 1.2.1.                                             | This identification will indicate the  |
| 3.3.1.                                             | Current use of adjoining properties    |
| 3.3.2.                                             | Historical use of adjoining properties |
| 4.                                                 |                                        |
| location's recognized name or similar              |                                        |
| means of identification, such as                   |                                        |
| Logistics Staging Area Doe                         |                                        |
| Site description                                   |                                        |
| 4.1. Location. General description of the site     |                                        |
| 1.2.2.                                             | Name of city, township, or area of     |
| operation for the location of the site             |                                        |
| 1.3. Identification of lead surveyor               |                                        |
| location that will include the following           |                                        |
| information:                                       |                                        |
| 4.1.1.                                             | Detailed description of the site       |
| 1.3.1.                                             | Organization/agency with               |
| location                                           |                                        |
| responsibility for conducting EBS                  |                                        |
| 4.1.2.                                             | Organization designated for            |
| 1.3.2.                                             | Standard name line of project leader   |
| occupation of the site                             |                                        |
| 1.3.3.                                             | Period of survey                       |
| 4.1.3.                                             | Grid location of area                  |
| 1.3.3.1. Start date of survey                      |                                        |
| 4.1.4.                                             | Map series                             |
| 1.3.3.2. End date of survey                        |                                        |
| 4.2. Site and vicinity characteristics             |                                        |
| 1.3.4.                                             | DSN phone number (if available)        |
| 4.2.1.                                             | Physical setting                       |
| 2.                                                 | Executive summary (separate page)      |
| 4.2.2.                                             | Topography                             |
| 2.1. Findings. Written to provide users of the EBS |                                        |
| 4.2.3.                                             |                                        |
| 4.2.4.                                             |                                        |
| 4.2.5.                                             |                                        |
| Geology                                            |                                        |
| Soils                                              |                                        |
| Vegetation                                         |                                        |
| a broad overview of the findings regarding         |                                        |
| the designated location where the EBS was          |                                        |
| conducted. Discuss specific PIRs                   |                                        |
| addressed/evaluated in the EBS                     |                                        |
| 4.2.6.                                             | Hydrology                              |
| 2.2. Recommendations. General                      |                                        |
| 4.2.7.                                             | Raw materials                          |
| 4.3. Detailed site description                     |                                        |
| 4.3.1.                                             | Structures                             |
| recommendations to be considered by users          |                                        |
| of the EBS that addresses any controls or          |                                        |
| actions that should be addressed.                  |                                        |
| Recommendations must be supported by               |                                        |
| 4.3.2.                                             | Roads                                  |
| findings during the execution of the EBS           |                                        |
| 4.3.3.                                             | Drinking water sources                 |
| 2.3. Notes. General comments regarding             |                                        |
| 4.3.4.                                             | Waste disposal                         |
| 4.3.5.                                             | Other improvements                     |
| 4.4. Use of site                                   |                                        |
| sampling, additional testing conducted, and        |                                        |
| related items considered during the                |                                        |
| development of the recommendations in 2.2          |                                        |

3.
Introduction
5.
Information sources and supporting documents

3.1. Purpose of the EBS, include PIRs to be
addressed
3.2. Limitations of assessment in the execution of
the EBS

## Table D-1. Environmental Baseline Survey Format

6.  Information from site reconnaissance
7.  Environmental and environmental health sampling
data
6.1.  Background of location upon identification for
occupation
7.1.  Sampling and analysis plan(s) to include
justification for number, type, and location of
6.2.  Detailed analysis of information gathered
samples collected, as well as analysis to be
that includes (but not limited to)
performed on the samples collected.
6.2.1.
Presence of animals or other vectors
Sampling should be identified as either
such as insects (mosquitoes, sand flies,
confirmation or delineation
and so forth.)
7.2.  Sampling results analysis to include a
6.2.2.
Potential radioactive sources
summary table of sampling results
(present or past)
7.3.  Environmental health site assessment
6.2.3.
Hazards and health risks
summary (if applicable)
6.2.3.1. Site specific
8.  Findings and conclusions
6.2.3.2. Offset site
8.1. Identification of environmental conditions that
6.2.4.
Environmental hazards
have the potential for significant impacts to health or mission
6.2.4.1. Site specific
8.2. Detailed concerns
6.2.4.2. Offset site
9.
 Recommendations
6.2.5.
Waste disposal
9.1.
 Usability
6.2.5.1. Current status
9.2.
 Further investigation and additional
assessments required to fully address
6.2.5.2. Historical perspective 6.2.5.3. Planned Improvements or
concerns
changes
9.3.
Identify and recommend controls to address
6.2.6.
Agricultural implications
concerns where applicable
6.2.6.1. Site specific 6.2.6.2. Offset site
6.2.7.
 Identified environmental and
environmental health hazards
6.2.7.1. Historical 6.2.7.2. Present 6.2.7.3. Potential future
6.2.8.
Site assessment to include detailed
walk-through with building and
infrastructure assessments

D-15. The primary purpose for a base camp is mission support, synchronized with the overall military mission of the deployed force. To execute mission support, a base camp must provide force protection to deployed forces, resource management of critical infrastructure, training opportunities for deployed forces and permanent party, and maintenance of the facilities. Included in that mission support is the continued application of environmental considerations, to include the critical aspects of force health protection. This includes periodic, sustained site surveys/assessments similar to those performed by an installation staff. The ECR (see figure D-1) assists with that requirement.

## Appendix E Military Load Classification

The basis for MLC is the effect (load, vehicle speed, tire width, and so forth) a vehicle has on a bridge when crossing. Heavy loads, such as artillery and tanks, make vehicle classification an important factor in determining bridge capacity as well as classifying the overall trafficability of a route.

## Requirement For Classification Numbers

E-1. Classification numbers are mandatory for all self-propelled vehicles having a total weight of 3 tons or more, as well as all trailers with a payload of 1 12 tons or greater (in compliance with STANAGs 2010 and 2021). Trailers with a rated capacity of less than 1 12 tons are usually combined with their towing vehicle for classification. E-2. MLC information is found in the vehicle's TM or on the vehicle data plate. Table E-1 provides a reference list of common vehicles and their MLCs.

MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
AAV
Amphibious assault vehicle
(use 26.5
tons)
Abrams
See M1
AGS
Armored gun system
(use 24.75
tons)
ASWDS
Airborne scraper
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
19
ASWDS
Airborne water distribution system
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
19
33
ATEC
All terrain crane
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
22
All terrain lifter, army
system (ATLAS)
ATLAS with 10,000-pound
carriage
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
17
ATLAS
ATLAS with 10,000-pound and 6,000-pound carriage
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
17
ATLAS
ATLAS with 6,000-pound carriage
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
19
ATLAS
With armor protection
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
19
AVLB with M48 chassis
AVLB launcher with bridge
Tracked: vehicle
49
67
AVLB with M60 chassis
AVLB launcher with bridge
Tracked: vehicle
43
58
Breacher
Breacher at gross curb weight
Tracked: vehicle
73
Buffalo
MRAP- Cat III
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
30
(Preliminary)
Buffalo
With expedient armor
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
38
(Preliminary)
C7
Loader, scoop 2.5 cubic yards without roll cage
20
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
Caiman
Mine resistant ambush protected (MRAP) - Cat I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
15
Caiman
MRAP - Cat II
Wheeled: truck,, 3-axle
19
CB-543
Roller, motorized, vibrating
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
11
(Estimated)
CCE 130G
Grader, road
18
Cougar
MRAP - Cat I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
19
Cougar
MRAP - Cat II
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
25

Tracked: vehicle
23
Crane, crawler mounted, 12.5-ton at
12 feet
Crusader
Crusader - resupply vehicle
Tracked: vehicle
50
Crusader
Crusader - self-propelled howitzer
Tracked: vehicle
50
Deuce
Deuce, special
Tracked: vehicle
23
D4
Tractor, tracked, CaterpillarTM
Tracked: vehicle
13
D5BNS
Tractor, full tracked, air droppable, nonsectionalized
Tracked: vehicle
21
D5BS
Tractor, full tracked, air droppable, nonsectionalized
Tracked: vehicle
22
D7 dozer
With blade, with winch
23
Tracked: vehicle
34
D7F
Tractor, full tracked, diesel engine driven (DED): with ripper, rollover protective structures (ROPS), and blade
D7F
Tractor, full tracked, DED: with winch and blade
Tracked: vehicle
23
D7F
Tractor, full tracked, DED: with winch, ROPS, and blade
Tracked: vehicle
24
D7F DV29
Tractor, full tracked, DED: with
ripper and blade
Tracked: vehicle
31
D7G dozer
D7G dozer with blade, ripper, 10,000 pounds of armor
Tracked: vehicle
44
(Estimated)
D7G dozer
D7G dozer with blade, ripper, 5,000 pounds of armor
Tracked: vehicle
38
(Estimated)
D7G
D7G tractor crawler
Tracked: vehicle
32
D7G
D7G with ROPS
Tracked: vehicle
35
D7G
D7G with armor
Tracked: vehicle
40
(Preliminary)
D9 dozer
With ROPS capability and ripper, armored
Tracked: vehicle
133
(Preliminary)
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
D9R
D9R Caterpillar dozer
Tracked: vehicle
110
(Estimated)
Engineer squad vehicle (ESV)
Stryker - engineer squad vehicle with mine roller
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
20
ESV
Stryker - engineer squad vehicle with surface mine plow
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
19
FLU 419
Tractor, with excavator and front loader
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 2-axle
9
FLU 10244
Tractor, all wheel drive with hatch, high mobility entrencher
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
9
FMTV
FMTV expansible van
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
14
17
FMTV
FMTV load handling system (LHS) truck
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
20
FMTV
FMTV LHS truck and trailer
13
28
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 2-axle trailer
26
FSCS/Tracer concept
(Estimated)
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 1-axle trailer
HMEE Type III
Backhoe Loader
Loader, 2-axle
10
12
Husky
Husky
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
8
Husky
With expedient armor
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
10
Husky
Husky with trailer set
26
Wheeled, combination: 2-axle truck with >4-axle trailer
HYEX
HYEX, Type I
Tracked: vehicle
29
HYEX w/ Armor
HYEX, Type I
Tracked: vehicle
31
HYEX
HYEX, Type II
Tracked: vehicle
33
HYEX
HYEX, Type III
Tracked: vehicle
36
ICV
Stryker - infantry carrier vehicle (rifle)
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
20
 I-HMEE without armor
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
12
Interim - high mobility engineer excavator (I-HMEE) I-HMEE
I-HMEE with armor
Excavator, 2-axle
14
JD-410
Loader
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 2-axle
9
10
JERRV
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
19
Joint explosive ordnance disposal rapid response vehicle (JERRV) JERRV
JERRV with expedient armor
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
23
Light assault vehicle
Light assault vehicle
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
14
(Estimated)
LMTV
Trailer, cargo, 2.5-ton
<3
4
LRT-110
Crane, rough terrain, Type I, 7.5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
11
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
MaxxPro
MRAP - Cat I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
18
MaxxPro XL
MRAP - Cat II
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
21
Modular base petroleum laboratory
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
14
Modular base petroleum laboratory (MBPL) Mortar carrier (MC) - (B)
Stryker - mortar carrier vehicle (Version B)
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
21
Mortar carrier vehicle (MCV) A
Stryker - mortar carrier vehicle (Version A)
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
21
Medical evaluation
vehicle (MEV)
Stryker - medical evaluation
vehicle
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
20
Mobile gun system (MGS)
Stryker - mobile gun system with slat armor
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
25
MGS
Stryker - mobile gun system without slat armor
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
24
Mill unit
Mill unit, mobile pipe mill
Tracked: trailer, quadritracked
62
MK 48/17
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
20
41
Logistics vehicle system, LVS, articulated drop side cargo truck
MT 250
Crane, truck mounted, 25-ton
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
31
75
M1
Tracked, combination: vehicle
(Estimated)
Abrams towing explosive standoff minefield breacher (ESMB) trailer
M1
Abrams with minefield clearing blade
Tracked: vehicle
79
(Estimated)
M1
Abrams with mine roller (lowered)
Hybrid, combination: half track with 1-axle trailer
109
M1
Abrams at 70-short tons
Tracked: vehicle
71
M1 towing M1
Abrams towing Abrams
Tracked: quadritracked
150+
M1
Tracked: vehicle
80
Abrams with Abrams reactive
armor tile (ARAT) and belly armor
M1
Abrams with belly armor
Tracked: vehicle
77
M1 with mine roller
Abrams with mine roller (raised)
Tracked: vehicle
88
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
M1A2
Tracked: vehicle
82
Abrams with tank urban survivability kit (TUSK) and belly armor
M1A2 towing M1A2
Tracked, combination: vehicle
150+
Abrams with TUSK and belly armor towing Abrams with TUSK and belly armor
M2
Bradley, fighting vehicle, cavalry
Tracked: vehicle
21
25
M2A1
Bradley, fighting vehicle, infantry
Tracked: vehicle
23
30
M2A2
Bradley, fighting vehicle,
infantry
Tracked: vehicle
27
33
M2A3
Bradley fighting vehicle with reactive armor kit
Tracked: vehicle
36
M2A3
Bradley fighting vehicle without reactive armor
Tracked: vehicle
33
M3
Bradley, fighting vehicle, cavalry
Tracked: vehicle
21
25
M5
Landing vehicle, track personnel
Tracked: vehicle
31
43
M6
Bradley linebacker without hybrid armor
Tracked: vehicle
30
(Estimated)
M6
Bradley linebacker with hybrid armor
Tracked: vehicle
33
M7
Bradley fire support vehicle with hybrid armor
Tracked: vehicle
34
M7
Bradley fire support vehicle without hybrid armor
Tracked: vehicle
31
M9
Armored combat earthmover
Tracked: vehicle
18
36
M9
Bulldozer, earthmoving, tank mounted
Tracked: vehicle
54
8
10
M35A2 towing M200A1
Wheeled, combination:
3-axle truck with 1-axle trailer
Truck, cargo, 2.5-ton 6x6 with
trailer with mine-clearing line charge
M35A2C
Truck, cargo: 2.5-ton, 6x6, drop side, M35A2C
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
7
M48A1
Tank, combat, full tracked, 90 mm gun
Tracked: vehicle
48
54
M48A1 with bulldozer
Tank, combat, full tracked, 90 mm gun with bulldozer
Tracked: vehicle
54
62
21
30
M50 towing M2
Truck, cargo, van, 5-ton, 6x6, towing, howitzer
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 3-axle trailer
M52
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 3-axle
8
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
14
29
M52 towing M967
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch towing semitrailer, 5,000 allon, bulk haul, selfload/unload
14
30
M52 towing M969
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch towing semitrailer, 5,000 gallon, automotive fueling dispenser
15
30
M52 towing M970
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch towing semitrailer, 5,000 allon, underwing/overwing
aircraft fueling dispenser
M52A1
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 3-axle
9
M52A2
Truck-tractor, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 3-axle
8
M54
Truck, cargo, 5-ton, 6x6 with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
19
14
36
M54 towing M198A1
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 3-axle trailer
Truck, cargo, 5-ton, 6x6, towing semitrailer, tank, gasoline, 5,000 gallon
M60A1
Tank, combat, 105-mm gun
Tracked: vehicle
47
52
M60A2
Tank, combat 152-mm
Tracked: vehicle
58
M60A3
Tank, combat 105-mm
Tracked: vehicle
58
M93A1
Reconnaissance system, NBC Fox
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
18
(Estimated)
M107
Gun, 175-mm, self-propelled
Tracked: vehicle
31
M109A4/A5
Howitzer, 155-mm, self-propelled
Tracked: vehicle
28
M110A2
Howitzer, heavy, self-propelled, 8 inch
Tracked: vehicle
28
31
M113
M113
Tracked: vehicle
12
M113A1
Carrier, personnel, tracked, armored
Tracked: vehicle
12
M116
Carrier, cargo, amphibious, tracked
Tracked: vehicle
5
17
38
M123 6x6 towing 6k water trailer
Truck-tractor with 6,000-gallon water semitrailer
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
M158
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
14
Truck, firefighting: 1,000 gallons per minute, tactical type, multipurpose, M158
M172A1
Trailer, low-bed, 25-ton
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
6
36
M198
Howitzer, towed, 155-m
Wheeled: trailer, 1-axle
10
M270A1
Semitrailer, low-bed, 12-ton
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
7
17
M270/A1
MLRS
Tracked: vehicle
22
27
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
M328A2
Bridge transporter, 5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
12
22
M412 RT240
Kalmar RTCH
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
118
M54 series
Truck, cargo, 5-ton, 6x6, with winch, with equipment
9
19
M520
Truck, cargo, 8-ton
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
12
18
M548
Carrier, cargo, 6-ton
7
13
M551
Armored reconnaissance ABN vehicle
Tracked: vehicle
15
17
M553
Truck, wrecker, 10-ton
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
18
24
M559
Truck, tank, 2,500 gallon
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
12
22
M577A1
Carrier, command post
Tracked: vehicle
11
12
M578
Recovery vehicle, light
Tracked: vehicle
27
M728
Combat engineer vehicle
Tracked: vehicle
59
M747
HET semitrailer 52, 5-ton
Wheeled: semitrailer, 4-axle and higher
13
68
M88
Hercules
Tracked: vehicle
55
M88A1
Hercules
56
M88A2
Hercules
Tracked: vehicle
71
M813A1
Truck, cargo: drop side, 5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
20
M814
Truck, cargo, 5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
21
M816
Truck, tactical, 5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
18
32
14
30
M818 towing M172A1 with D7
Truck tractor 5-ton towing lowbed 25-ton trailer
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
M870
Semitrailer, low-bed, 40-ton
Wheeled: semitrailer, 3-axle
7
50
M871A1
Semitrailer, dual purpose, 22.5 ton
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
7
52
M872A1
Semitrailer, flatbed, 34-ton,
container transporter
Wheeled: semitrailer,
3-axle
8
39
M901
Combat vehicle, TOW
Tracked: vehicle
12
M911
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 4-axle
18
Truck-tractor, commercial heavy equipment transporter (C-HET)
M911 towing 604 NL
M911 towing 604 NL
82
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 4-axle semitrailer
M911 towing 635 N
M911 towing 635 N
95
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 5(>4)-axle semitrailer
M915
Line haul tractor
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 3-axle
9
17
M915 with XM 990 with XM21
Line hauler tractor and semitrailer
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck-tractor with 1-axle semitrailer
| Nomenclature                    | Name                     |   Description  |
|---------------------------------|--------------------------|----------------|
| MLC                             |                          |                |
| M915A1/A2                       | Truck-tractor            |                |
| Wheeled: truck-tractor,         |                          |                |
| 3-axle                          |                          |                |
| 8                               |                          |                |
| M915A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M872A4                          |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor towing 34-ton     |                          |                |
| semitrailer                     |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 3-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| M915A3                          | Truck-tractor, line haul |                |
| Wheeled: truck-tractor,         |                          |                |
| 3-axle                          |                          |                |
| 8                               |                          |                |
| M915A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M969                            |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, line haul towing |                          |                |
| semitrailer, 5,000 gallon,      |                          |                |
| automotive fuel dispensing      |                          |                |
| M915A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M967                            |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, line haul towing |                          |                |
| semitrailer,                    |                          |                |
| 5,000-gallon, bulk haul self    |                          |                |
| load/unload                     |                          |                |
| M916                            | Truck-tractor            |            12  |
| M916 towing 6K                  |                          |                |
| W6DS/M60 PRS                    |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| 20-ton, light equipment, 5,600  |                          |                |
| GVW, towing 6,000-gallon        |                          |                |
| water distributor               |                          |                |
| M916 towing                     |                          |                |
| M870A1                          |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 3-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| 20-ton, light equipment, 6x6    |                          |                |
| towing semitrailer, low-bed:    |                          |                |
| construction equipment          |                          |                |
| transporter                     |                          |                |
| M916A1 towing                   |                          |                |
| M870                            |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 3-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| Truck, tractor, 20-ton, 6x6,    |                          |                |
| towing semitrailer, low-bed, 40 |                          |                |
| ton                             |                          |                |
| M916A1 towing                   |                          |                |
| M172A1                          |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| 20-ton, light equipment, 6x6,   |                          |                |
| 56,000 gross vehicle weight     |                          |                |
| towing semitrailer, low-bed: 25 |                          |                |
| ton, 4 wheel                    |                          |                |
| M916A3                          | Truck-tractor,           |                |
| Wheeled: truck-tractor,         |                          |                |
| 3-axle                          |                          |                |
| 12                              |                          |                |
| M916A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M969                            |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, LET towing       |                          |                |
| semitrailer, 5,000-gallon,      |                          |                |
| automotive fuel dispensing      |                          |                |
| M916A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M967                            |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 2-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, LET towing       |                          |                |
| semitrailer, 5,000-gallon, bulk |                          |                |
| haul self-load/unload           |                          |                |
| M916A3 towing                   |                          |                |
| M1143                           |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, LET towing       |                          |                |
| semitrailer, SLOT               |                          |                |
| Wheeled, combination:           |                          |                |
| 3-axle truck-tractor with       |                          |                |
| 3-axle semitrailer              |                          |                |
| M917                            | Wheeled: truck, 4-axle   |            47  |
| Truck, dump, 20-ton, 8x6,       |                          |                |
| 75,000-pound gross vehicle      |                          |                |
| weight                          |                          |                |
| M918                            | Distributor, bituminous  |                |
| Wheeled: truck-tractor,         |                          |                |
| 3-axle                          |                          |                |
| 21                              |                          |                |
| M919                            | Wheeled: truck, 4-axle   |            43  |
| Truck, concrete, mobile, 8x6,   |                          |                |
| 75,000-pound gross vehicle      |                          |                |
| weight                          |                          |                |
| M920                            |                          |                |
| Truck-tractor, medium           |                          |                |
| equipment transport (MET)       |                          |                |
| Wheeled: truck-tractor,         |                          |                |
| 3-axle                          |                          |                |
| 14                              |                          |                |
MLC
Empty
Loaded
42
14
30
(Estimated)
(Estimated)
13
29
(Estimated)
(Estimated)
16
37
18
42
18
50
18
39
18
33
(Estimated)
(Estimated)
17
32
(Estimated)
(Estimated)
21
56
(Estimated)
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
18
39
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
Truck-tractor, 20-ton, 8x6, towing 6,000 gallon water distribution trailer
M920 towing 6K water distribution trailer
20
52
M920 towing M870A1
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 3-axle semitrailer
Truck-tractor, 20-ton, 8x6, towing semitrailer, low-bed, 40 ton
M923A1
Truck, cargo: 5-ton, 6x6, M923A1 (without winch)
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
12
11
19
M923 towing M1061A1
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 2-axle
trailer
Truck, cargo, drop side, 5-ton, 6x6, towing dolly set, lift, transportable shelter
5 14-ton
17
M923 towing M1061A1
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 2-axle trailer
Truck, cargo, drop side, 5-ton, 6x6, towing trailer, 5-ton
11
18
M923 towing M1073
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 2-axle trailer
Truck, cargo, drop side, 5-ton, 6x6, towing trailer, flatbed, 7.5-ton
M925A1
Truck, cargo: 5-ton, 6x6, M925A1 (with winch)
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
16
17
M927 with M200A1
M927 towing M200 A1 with power unit
Wheeled, combination: 3-axle truck with 1-axle trailer
M928A
Truck, cargo: 5-ton, 6x6, M928A2 (with winch)
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M929A2
Truck, dump, 5-ton, without winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
16
M930A
Truck, dump: 5-ton, 6x6, M930A2 (with winch)
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M931
Tractor, 5-ton
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
17
M966
HMMWV, TOW missile carrier
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M967
Semitrailer, 5,000-gallon, bulk
haul, self load/unload
Wheeled: semitrailer,
2-axle
6
21
M969
Semitrailer, 5,000-gallon, automotive fuel dispensing
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
7
22
M970
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
15
22
Semitrailer, 5,000-gallon underwing/overwing aircraft fuel dispensing
M977
Heavy expanded mobility tactical truck (HEMTT)

18
28
M978
HEMTT, tanker
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
25
M981
Fire support vehicle
14
14
M984
HEMTT, wrecker
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
19
24
M984A1 towing M966
HEMTT towing rear of truck, light duty, TOW missile carrier
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 1-axle trailer
M985
HEMTT, cargo
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
18
(Estimated)
28
M985 towing
HEMTT towing heavy
Wheeled, combination:
20
39
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
M989A1
expanded mobility ammunition
trailer (HEMAT) (MLRS) trailer
4-axle truck with 2-axle trailer
23
46
M985 with M1076
HEMTT with PLS trailer
(Estimated)
(Estimated)
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 3-axle trailer
M992
Carrier, ammunition (FAASV)
Tracked: vehicle
29
M997
HMMWV, ambulance
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M998
HMMWV, cargo/troop carrier
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M1000
HET trailer
18
*
M1002
Truck, tactical, wrecker, 8x8
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
21
M1028 w S-250
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
Truck, cargo: 1 14-ton, 4x4,
shelter carrier, M1028, with shelter, S-250
5
5
M1031 with PU-573
M1031 with shelter towing PU 753/M generator set
Wheeled, combination: 2-axle truck with 1-axle trailer
M1037
HMMWV, S250 shelter carrier
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M1038
HMMWV, cargo/troop carrier
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M1059
Carrier, smoke generator M157
Tracked: vehicle
13
M1068
Carrier, armored, command
Tracked: vehicle
13
M1070 with M1000
HET with trailer
31
*
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
96
M1070 towing M1000
HET carrying M1A2
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
94
M1070 towing M1000
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
HET equipped with sand mobility enhancement kit carrying M1
98
M1070 towing M1000
HET equipped with Simula Armor Kit (SAK) carrying M1
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
100
M1070 towing M1000
Unarmored HET carrying M1with TUSK and belly armor
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
M1070
HET tractor
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 4-axle
18
96
M1070 with Dolly with M1000
HET with dolly, 70-ton payload
(Estimated)
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with >5-axle semitrailer
100
(Estimated)
M1070 towing M1000
HET with relocated Abrams
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
101
M1070 towing M1000
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
HET with Simula Armor carrying 74.5-ton Abrams (similar to TUSK)
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
101
M1070 towing M1000
HET with tank with mine-clearing blade
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 5-axle semitrailer
M1074
PLS, with MHC
Wheeled: truck-tractor, >4-axle
25
41
30
62
M1074 towing M1076
PLS with MHC towing PLS trailer
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 4-axle trailer
30
59
M1074 towing M1076
PLS without MHC towing PLS trailer
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 4-axle trailer
M1075
PLS, without MHC
Wheeled: truck-tractor,
>4-axle
23
39
M1076
PLS trailer
Wheeled: trailer, 3-axle
8
26
M1078
Truck, cargo, 4x4 LMTV with equipment
9
12
M1078
LMTV cargo with winch
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
10
12
M1080
LMTV chassis
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
8
M1081
LMTV cargo, air drop
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
9
12
M1081
LMTV cargo, air drop, with winch
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
12
12
M1083
MTV cargo
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
16
M1083
MTV cargo with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
16
M1084
MTV cargo with MHE
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1085
MTV long cargo
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
16
M1085
MTV long cargo with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1086
MTV long cargo with MHE
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
12
17
M1088
MTV off-road tractor
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
18
M1088
MTV off-road tractor with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
19
M1088
MTV tractor
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
22
M1088
MTV tractor with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
22
M1089
MTV wrecker
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
13
22
M1090
MTV dump
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1090
MTV dump with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1092
MTV chassis
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
9
M1093
MTV cargo, air drop
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
10
16
M1093
MTV cargo, air drop, with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1094
MTV dump, air drop
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1094
MTV dump, air drop with winch
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
11
17
M1096
MTV long chassis
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
8
M1097
Truck, utility: HMMWV
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
<3
4
M1114
HMMWV, utility truck, uparmored
4x4 carrier
4
6
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
M1121
HMMWV utility tow carrier, 1 14-ton,
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
4
M1142
HEMTT, tactical firefighting truck
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
23*
29
M1143
Semitrailer, SLOT
Wheeled: semitrailer, 3-axle
11
56
M1975
DSB launcher
Wheeled: truck-tractor, >4-axle

41
42
M1975
DSB launcher with armor, A/C kit
Wheeled: truck-tractor, >4-axle
(Preliminary)
49
M1975 towing
M1076
DSB launcher with trailer
Wheeled, combination:
4-axle truck with 4-axle trailer
M1977
Common bridge transporter
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
27
44
M1977 and M1076
Common bridge transporter towing PLS trailer
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 3-axle trailer
NBCRV
Stryker - NBC reconnaissance vehicle (NBCRV)
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
20
NBCRV
Stryker - NBCRV with slat armor
Wheeled: truck, 4-axle
22
Power unit
Power unit, mobile pipe mill
tracked: quadritracked
50
RG-31
MRAP - Cat I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
15
RG-31 extended
MRAP - Cat II
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
17
RG-31
RG-31 MK5
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
18
RG-31
RG-31 MK5 with expedient armor
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
21
(Preliminary)
RG33
MRAP - Cat I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
20
RG33L
MRAP - Cat II
Wheeled: truck, 3-axle
31
RTCC
Crane, rough terrain, 40-ton, container
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
85
150+
RTCCS
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
87
Crane, rough terrain, 40-ton, container, service life extension program upgrade
RTCH 988F
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
105
50,000-pound rough terrain container handler (RTCH) without top handler
RTCH 988F
50,000-pound RTCH with 40 foot top handler
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
123
RTCH 988F
50,000-pound RTCH with pallet fork kit
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
107
RTCH 988F
50,000-pound RTCH with 20 foot top handler
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
115
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
150+
RTCH 988F
50,000-pound RTCH (with either 20- or 40-foot top handler carrying 50,000-pound load)
MLC
Nomenclature
Name
Description
MLC Empty
Loaded
SM54A
Roller, towed, vibrating, Raygo
Wheeled: trailer, 2-axle
1
76
Talbert Trailer
WHH with dolly with booster
(Estimated)
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with >5-axle semitrailer
Terrain crane
USMC ATC
Crane
31
45
68
Tractor 830M towing scraper 18M
Wheeled, combination: 2-axle truck-tractor with 1-axle semitrailer
Tractor, wheeled, towing scraper, earth moving 18 cubic yards
21
39
Truck-tractor with M127A2C
Truck-tractor, special RO/RO, with 40-foot semitrailer
Wheeled, combination: 2-axle truck-tractor with 2-axle semitrailer
Vibratory roller
Vibratory roller, Types I and III
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
8
Vibratory roller
Vibratory roller, Type II
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
12
WD6S water distributor
WD6S water distributor
Wheeled: semitrailer, 2-axle
24 49
XM916 towing M870
Truck-tractor, 10-ton (modified) with trailer
Wheeled, combination: 4-axle truck with 3-axle trailer
77
XM1070 towing M747
XM1070 towing M747
Wheeled, Combination: 4-axle truck-tractor with 4-axle semitrailer
613 BNS
Tractor, scraper, Type I
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
15
36
613 BWDS
Water distributor, Type II
Wheeled: truck, 2-axle
15
30
966H heavy loader
966H heavy loader (Type I and II)
Wheeled: truck-tractor, 2-axle
31

Notes.

* The MLC is determined by the equipment being hauled. Model: This field relates to the model description for a National Stock Number (NSN). Vehicles contained in the table are sorted alphabetically and numerically by their model number. MLC of the heaviest vehicle is given in the MLC column. MLC loaded estimations on actual loads were determined from calculations and not actually measured.

E-3. MLC information for allied vehicles must be provided by the vehicle's operator or on a vehicle data plate. Table E-2 provides a reference list of common allied vehicles and their MLCs.

| Model                                     | Item Description                           |   MLC  |
|-------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|--------|
| Grove All-Terrain AT635B Crane            | Crane, wheel mounted, grove                |    40  |
| CAT E200B                                 |                                            |        |
| 1                                         |                                            |        |
| Excavator multipurpose crawler, MED E200B | 24                                         |        |
| CAT E120B                                 | Excavator multipurpose crawler, MTD E120B  |    16  |
| CAT 14G                                   | Grader, road, motorized                    |    20  |
| CAT 130G                                  | Grader, road, motorized, CAT 130G          |    16  |
| CAT 920                                   | Loader, scoop type, CAT 920B               |    12  |
| CAT 950E                                  | Loader, scoop type, CAT 950                |    16  |
| CAT 966D                                  | Loader, scoop type, CAT 966D               |    20  |
| CAT 966C                                  | Tractor, wheeled, 966C                     |    20  |
| Bomag 120AD                               | Roller, motorized, BW120AD                 |     4  |
| Bomag 172D                                | Roller, motorized, BW172D                  |     8  |
| Bomag 213D                                | Roller, motorized, BW213D                  |    12  |
| Bomag 213PD                               | Roller, motorized, BW213PD                 |    12  |
| CAT D6C                                   | Tractor, full track, D6C                   |    24  |
| CAT D8N                                   | Tractor, full tracked caterpillar, D8N     |    50  |
| CAT D4E                                   | Tractor, full tracked, low speed, D4E      |    16  |
| CAT D6D                                   | Tractor, full tracked, low speed, D6D      |    24  |
| CAT D7E                                   | Tractor, full tracked, low speed, D7E      |    30  |
| CAT D8H                                   | Tractor, full tracked, CAT D8H             |    50  |
| JCB 3CX                                   |                                            |        |
| 2                                         |                                            |        |
| Tractor, wheeled, earthmoving (JCB)       | 8                                          |        |
| Pinzgauer General Service                 | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-GS                 |     5  |
| Pinzgauer Comd & Control                  | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-C2                 |     5  |
| Pinzgauer Shelter (Information Systems)   | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-S(I)               |     5  |
| Pinzgauer Shelter (Maintenance)           | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-S(M)               |     5  |
| Pinzgauer Ambulance                       | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-Amb                |     5  |
| Pinzgauer Special Ops                     | Truck, utility, NZ-Pinz-SO                 |     5  |
| Unimog U1700L                             | Truck, cargo 4-ton, GS, 4x4, Unimog U1700L |    12  |
| NZ LAV                                    |                                            |        |
| 3                                         |                                            |        |
| NZ light armoured vehicle, infantry       | 19                                         |        |
| NZ LAV-R                                  | Light armoured vehicle, recovery           |    19  |
| 1                                         |                                            |        |
| CAT - Caterpillar Inc.                    |                                            |        |
| 2                                         |                                            |        |
| JCB - JCB Co. Ltd.                        |                                            |        |
| 3                                         |                                            |        |
| NZ - New Zealand                          |                                            |        |
| Notes.                                    |                                            |        |

## Requirement For Vehicle Classification

E-4. The mathematical computation of a vehicle's MLC is beyond the scope of this manual. If a requirement to determine a vehicle's classification exists when time allows, classification is requested through reachback by supplying the dimensions of the vehicle in question and requesting computation of the MLC number. Requests for classification of vehicles should be sent directly to the U.S. Army Tank Automotive Research, Development, and Engineering Center, ATTN: AMSRD-TAR-D/BRDG MS#21, 6501 East 11 Mile Road, Warren, Michigan 48397-5000 (commercial telephone 1-800-574-5608). If not practical, you may send your requests for reachback through the TEOC or Engineering Infrastructure Intelligence Reachback Center (EI2RC) who will coordinate the classified action for you. Listed below are the appropriate e-mail, Web sites, and telephone numbers for the TEOC and EI2RC.

## Teleengineering Emergency Operations Center

z
Classified e-mail. teoc@teleengineering.army.smil.mil
z
Unclassified e-mail. teoc@usace.army.mil
z
Classified Web site. http://www.teleengineering.army.smil.mil
z
Nonclassified Web site. https://teleengineering.usace.army.mil
z
Commercial telephone. (601) 634-2735/3485 or 1-877-223-8322
z
Secure voice telephone number: (601) 634-4231
z
Defense switched network (DSN). (312) 446-2735/3485

## Engineering Infrastructure Intelligence Reachback Center

z
Classified e-mail. OrgMBoxCEEI2RC@usace.army.smil.mil
z
Unclassified e-mail. CEEI2RC@usace.army.mil
z
Classified Web site. http://ei2rc.usace.army.smil.mil
z
Nonclassified Web site. http://ei2rc.usace.army.mil
z
Classified FTP. ftp://ei2rc.usace.army.smil.mil
z
Nonclassified FTP. ftp://155.82.160.151
z
Commercial telephone number. (251) 690-2039 (STUIII)
z
DSN. (312) 457-2039 (STUDIII)
E-5. Requests for classification that do not include all of the necessary information may not be met. Some of the data may be obtained from the vehicle weight and dimension card (STANAG 2021) that is displayed by vehicles during transport. The following information must be supplied:

z
Weight (empty, loaded for cross-country, and loaded for highway).
z
Load on each axle (empty, loaded for cross country, and loaded for highway).
z
Load on lunette, pintle, or fifth wheel (empty, loaded for cross-country, and loaded for highway).
z
Tires (number per axle, size, and inflation pressure).
z
Distance between axles.
z
Distance from nearest axle(s) to pintle, lunette, or fifth wheel.
z
Outside-to-outside width of tires or tracks and inside-to-inside width of tires or tracks.
z
Length of track in contact with the ground.
z
The national stock number (NSN), if available.

## Temporary Procedures For Vehicle Classification

E-6. Temporary vehicle classification numbers may be assigned under special conditions. Sometimes military vehicles carry loads that are more than or less than their normal payloads. In this case, a temporary vehicle MLC number may need to be assigned. The classification number assigned increases or decreases by an amount equal to the overload or underload. E-7. It is sometimes necessary to classify a vehicle under field conditions. This may be done in one of two ways. A temporary MLC may be assigned either through comparison with a similarly classified vehicle or through the expedient classification procedure. In both cases the using unit must verify the classification as soon as possible.

## Vehicle Comparison

E-8. For all vehicles, a comparison of the unclassified vehicle may be made by comparing the axle loads, gross weight, and dimensions of the unclassified vehicle with those of a similar classified vehicle. If no comparable vehicle is available, then use the expedient vehicle classification.

## Expedient Vehicle Classification

E-9. This expedient procedure to estimate the MLC is available and effective when the situation requires an immediate determination. During the classification process, vehicles are divided into two categories those with trailers (vehicle combination class number [CCN]) and those without (single vehicle classification number)and calculated accordingly. E-10. When a vehicle tows another vehicle at a distance less than 30.5 meters and the vehicles are not designed to operate as one unit, the combination is referred to as a nonstandard combination. A temporary vehicle MLC number may be assigned to this combination. The classification number assigned is nine tenths the sum of the normal vehicle classification numbers if the total of both classifications is less than 60. If the sum of the two military classification numbers is 60 or over, the total becomes the MLC number for the nonstandard combination.

CCN = 0.9 (A + B) if A + B < 60  CCN = A + B if A + B > 60  where  A = class of first vehicle  B = class of second vehicle
E-11. The expedient classification for a wheeled vehicle is estimated to be 85 percent of its total weight.

Therefore, you must determine the vehicle's gross weight. Multiply the air pressure in the tires (in pounds per square inch [psi]) by the total area (in square inches) of the tires in contact with the ground. If a gauge is not available, use 75 psi as an average value. This yields an approximate weight of the vehicle in pounds.

Convert this figure to tons and find 85 percent of the weight in tons. The resulting figure is the expedient classification.

E-12. Tracked vehicles weigh about one ton per square foot of track contact with the ground. By determining the area of track in contact with the ground, the vehicle's gross weight can be assigned. The estimated classification equals the gross weight of the vehicle in tons (WT) for tracked vehicles. In the case of vehicles that weigh a fraction over whole tonnage, the next higher classification number is assigned. E-13. A wheeled vehicle MLC for a flexible surface road can be estimated using the bearing capacity determined in Chapter 5 (see figure 5-20 on page 5-26). Classification numbers and their relationship to wheel loads are shown in table 5-7 on page 5-25. Since the maximum allowable single wheel load for all vehicles from 50 to 120 is the same (20,000 pounds), the load class for roads in this range relies on a determination of the single axel load and exceeds the scope of this manual. Road classification for tracked vehicles is normally not assigned.

This page intentionally left blank.

## Appendix F Rapid Classification Of Bridge Spans

Bridge and vehicle classification allows vehicle operators to avoid bridge failure due to overloading. Vehicle operators may drive across without restrictions if their vehicles' MLC numbers are less than or equal to the bridge classification number. Appendix E provides a table of classifications for standard vehicles. This appendix provides a rapid method of estimating bridge capacity in the fieldbut only as a temporary measure. A full analytical classification must be performed as soon as possible to determine an accurate classification of the bridge (see FM 3-34.343).

## Bridge Dimensions

F-1. The reconnaissance team collects specific bridge dimensions if the information will be necessary to determine the hasty bridge load-classification. The dimensions required vary for each of the seven basic bridge types. Table F-1 on page F-2 summarizes the dimensions that the reconnaissance team must collect if the information will be used to classify the bridge. Entries in the table correspond to figures F-1 through F-6 on pages F-4 through F-9 as indicated in parenthesis under the span type.

## Classification Procedures

F-2. Table F-2 on page F-10 provides a key for the notations used in the classification worksheets shown in figures F-7 through F-11 on pages F-11 through F-15. Those classification worksheets provide the rapid classification procedure for the basic bridge types. In tables F-3 through F-9 on pages F-15 through F-34
and figures F-12 through F-16 on pages F-34 through F-38 following the worksheet figures, various properties of bridge members are provided. These properties are used to determine appropriate values in the worksheets.

| Variable                                   | Definition                                 | Variable                                      | Definition                                    |
|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| b                                          | stringer width, in inches                  | N                                             |                                               |
| 2                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| effective number of stringers for two-lane |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| traffic                                    |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| bd                                         | concrete slab width, in feet               | PLC                                           | provisional load classification               |
| be                                         | effective slab width, in feet              | R                                             | rise of arch, in feet                         |
| S                                          | section modulus, in cubic inches           | be1                                           | effective slab width for one-lane traffic, in |
| feet                                       |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| S                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| b                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| actual brace spacing, in feet              | be2                                        | effective slab width for two-lane traffic, in |                                               |
| feet                                       |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| br                                         | curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet        | S                                             |                                               |
| s                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
|                                            | center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet |                                               |                                               |
| d                                          | stringer depth, in inches                  | t                                             |                                               |
| c                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| crown thickness, in inches                 |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| df                                         | depth of fill, in inches                   | t                                             |                                               |
| d                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| deck thickness, in inches                  |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| Fy                                         | yield stress                               | t                                             |                                               |
| eff                                        |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| effective deck thickness, in inches        |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| ksi                                        | kips per square inch                       | t                                             |                                               |
| f                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| flange thickness, in inches                |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| L                                          | span length, in feet                       | t                                             |                                               |
| w                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| web thickness, in inches                   |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| Lc                                         | maximum brace spacing, in feet             | T                                             |                                               |
| 1                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| one-lane, tracked-vehicle classification   |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| m                                          | moment capacity per stringer, in ft-kips   | T                                             |                                               |
| 2                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| two-lane, tracked-vehicle classification   |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| mDL                                        | dead-load moment per stringer, in ft-kips  | v                                             | shear capacity per stringer, in kips          |
| mLL                                        | live-load moment per stringer, in ft-kips  | v                                             |                                               |
| DL                                         |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| dead-load shear per stringer, in kips      |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| MLL                                        | live-load moment per lane, in ft-kips      | V                                             |                                               |
| DL                                         |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| estimated dead-load shear of span, in      |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| kips                                       |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| v                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| LL                                         |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| Iive-load shear per stringer, in kips      | MLL1                                       | live-load moment for one-lane traffic, in ft  |                                               |
| kips                                       |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| V                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| LL                                         |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| live-load shear per lane, in kips          | MLL2                                       | live-load moment for two-lane traffic, in ft  |                                               |
| kips                                       |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| Nb                                         | number of braces                           | W                                             |                                               |
| s                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| stringer weight, in lbs/ft                 |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| NL                                         | number of lanes                            | W                                             |                                               |
| 1                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| one-lane, wheeled-vehicle classification   |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| NS                                         | number of stringers                        | W                                             |                                               |
| 2                                          |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| two-lane, wheeled-vehicle classification   |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| N1                                         | effective number of stringers for one-lane |                                               |                                               |
| traffic                                    |                                            |                                               |                                               |
| Rectangular Stringers                      | Rectangular Stringers    |
|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------|
| m                                          |                          |
| Nominal                                    |                          |
| v                                          |                          |
| (ft-kips)                                  |                          |
| 2                                          |                          |
| Size                                       |                          |
| (kips)                                     |                          |
| 3                                          |                          |
| L                                          |                          |
| m                                          |                          |
| (ft)                                       |                          |
| 4                                          |                          |
| (b x d, in)                                |                          |
| 1                                          |                          |
| 4 x 6                                      | 4.80                     |
| 4 x 8                                      | 8.53                     |
| 4 x 10*                                    | 13.33                    |
| 4 x 12*                                    | 19.20                    |
| 6 x 8                                      | 12.80                    |
| 6 x 10                                     | 20.00                    |
| 6 x 12                                     | 28.80                    |
| 6 x 14*                                    | 39.20                    |
| 6 x 16*                                    | 51.20                    |
| 6 x 18*                                    | 64.80                    |
| Round Stringers (Nominal Size is Diameter) |                          |
| 8 x 8                                      | 17.07                    |
| 8 x 10                                     | 26.70                    |
| 8 x 12                                     | 38.40                    |
| 8 x 14                                     | 52.30                    |
| 8 x 16                                     | 68.30                    |
| 8 x 18*                                    | 86.40                    |
| 8 x 20*                                    | 106.70                   |
| 8 x 22*                                    | 129.10                   |
| 8 x 24*                                    | 153.60                   |
| 10 x 10                                    | 33.30                    |
| 10 x 12                                    | 48.00                    |
| 10 x 14                                    | 65.30                    |
| 10 x 16                                    | 85.30                    |
| 10 x 18                                    | 108.00                   |
| 10 x 20                                    | 133.30                   |
| 10 x 22                                    | 161.30*                  |
| 10 x 24                                    | 192.00*                  |
| 12 x 12                                    | 57.60                    |
| 12 x 14                                    | 78.40                    |
| 12 x 16                                    | 102.40                   |
| 12 x 18                                    | 129.60                   |
| 12 x 20                                    | 160.00                   |
| 12 x 22                                    | 193.60                   |
| 12 x 24                                    | 230.00                   |
| 14 x 14                                    | 91.50                    |
| 14 x 16                                    | 119.50                   |
| 14 x 18                                    | 151.20                   |
| 14 x 20                                    | 186.70                   |
m
Nominal
v
(ft-kips)2
Size
(kips)3
Lm
(ft)4
(b x d, in)1
| Rectangular Stringers    | Rectangular Stringers    |
|--------------------------|--------------------------|
| m                        | m                        |
| Nominal                  | Nominal                  |
| v                        | v                        |
| (ft-kips)                |                          |
| 2                        |                          |
| (ft-kips)                |                          |
| 2                        |                          |
| Size                     | Size                     |
| (kips)                   |                          |
| 3                        |                          |
| (kips)                   |                          |
| 3                        |                          |
| L                        |                          |
| m                        |                          |
| (ft)                     |                          |
| 4                        |                          |
| L                        |                          |
| m                        |                          |
| (ft)                     |                          |
| 4                        |                          |
| (b x d, in)              |                          |
| 1                        |                          |
| (b x d, in)              |                          |
| 1                        |                          |
| 14 x 22                  | 226.00                   |
| 14 x 24                  | 269.00                   |
| Notes.                   |                          |

* A minimum of three lateral braces is required.

1 If d > 2b, bracing is required at the midspan and at both ends. 2 Moment capacity for rectangular stringers not listed is b(d2)/30. Moment capacity for round stringers not listed is 0.02(d)3 . 3 Shear capacity for rectangular stringers not listed is b(d)/10. Shear capacity for round stringers not listed is 0.09(d2).

4 Maximum span length for stringers not listed is 1.19d.

| Nominal    | d      | b    | m         | v      |
|------------|--------|------|-----------|--------|
| Size       | (in)   | (in) | (ft-kips) | (kips) |
| t          |        |      |           |        |
| f          |        |      |           |        |
| (in)       |        |      |           |        |
| t          |        |      |           |        |
| w          |        |      |           |        |
| (in)       |        |      |           |        |
| L          |        |      |           |        |
| m          |        |      |           |        |
| (ft)       |        |      |           |        |
| L          |        |      |           |        |
| c          |        |      |           |        |
| (ft)       |        |      |           |        |
| W          |        |      |           |        |
| s          |        |      |           |        |
| (lbs/ft    |        |      |           |        |
| )          |        |      |           |        |
| W39x211    | 39.250 | 211  | 11.750    | 1.438  |
| W37x206    | 36.750 | 206  | 11.750    | 1.438  |
| W36x300    | 36.750 | 300  | 16.625    | 1.688  |
| W36x194    | 36.500 | 194  | 12.125    | 1.250  |
| W36x182    | 36.375 | 182  | 12.125    | 1.187  |
| W36x170    | 36.125 | 170  | 12.000    | 1.125  |
| W36x160    | 36.000 | 160  | 12.000    | 1.000  |
| W36x230    | 35.875 | 230  | 16.500    | 1.250  |
| W36x150    | 35.875 | 150  | 12.000    | 0.937  |
| W36x201    | 35.375 | 201  | 11.750    | 1.438  |
| W33x196    | 33.375 | 196  | 11.750    | 1.438  |
| W33x220    | 33.250 | 220  | 15.750    | 1.250  |
| W33x141    | 33.250 | 141  | 11.500    | 0.937  |
| W33x130    | 33.125 | 130  | 11.500    | 0.875  |
| W33x200    | 33.000 | 200  | 15.575    | 1.125  |
| W31x180    | 31.500 | 180  | 11.750    | 1.312  |
| W30x124    | 30.125 | 124  | 10.500    | 0.937  |
| W30x116    | 30.000 | 116  | 10.500    | 0.875  |
| W30x108    | 29.875 | 108  | 10.500    | 0.750  |
| W30x175    | 29.500 | 175  | 11.750    | 1.312  |
| W27x171    | 27.500 | 171  | 11.750    | 1.312  |
| W27x102    | 27.125 | 102  | 10.000    | 0.812  |
| W27x94     | 26.875 | 92   | 10.000    | 0.750  |
| W26X157    | 25.500 | 157  | 11.750    | 1.250  |
| W24x94     | 24.250 | 94   | 9.000     | 0.875  |
| W24x84     | 24.125 | 84   | 9.000     | 0.750  |
| Nominal    | d      | b    |
|------------|--------|------|
| Size       | (in)   | (in) |
| t          |        |      |
| f          |        |      |
| (in)       |        |      |
| W          |        |      |
| s          |        |      |
| (lbs/ft    |        |      |
| )          |        |      |
| W24x100    | 24.000 | 100  |
| S24x120    | 24.000 | 120  |
| S24x106    | 24.000 | 106  |
| S24x80     | 24.000 | 80   |
| W24x76     | 23.875 | 76   |
| W24x153    | 23.625 | 153  |
| S24x134    | 23.625 | 134  |
| S22x75     | 22.000 | 75   |
| W21x139    | 21.625 | 139  |
| S21x112    | 21.625 | 112  |
| W21x73     | 21.250 | 73   |
| W21x68     | 21.125 | 68   |
| W21x62     | 21.000 | 62   |
| S20x85     | 20.000 | 85   |
| S20x65     | 20.000 | 65   |
| W20x134    | 19.625 | 134  |
| W18x60     | 18.250 | 60   |
| S18x86     | 18.250 | 86   |
| W18x55     | 18.125 | 55   |
| S18x80     | 18.000 | 80   |
| W18x50     | 18.000 | 50   |
| S18x55     | 18.000 | 55   |
| S18x122    | 17.750 | 122  |
| S18x62     | 17.750 | 62   |
| S18x77     | 17.750 | 77   |
| W16x112    | 16.750 | 112  |
| S16x70     | 16.750 | 70   |
| W16x50     | 16.250 | 50   |
| W16x45     | 16.125 | 45   |
| W16x64     | 16.000 | 64   |
| W16x40     | 16.000 | 40   |
| S16x50     | 16.000 | 50   |
| W16x36     | 15.875 | 36   |
| W16x110    | 15.750 | 110  |
| S16x62     | 15.750 | 62   |
| S16x45     | 15.750 | 45   |
| W15x103    | 15.000 | 103  |
| S15x56     | 15.000 | 56   |
| S15x43     | 15.000 | 43   |
| W14x101    | 14.250 | 101  |
| S14x40     | 14.250 | 40   |
| S14x51     | 14.125 | 51   |
| m         | v      |
|-----------|--------|
| (ft-kips) | (kips) |
| t         |        |
| w         |        |
| (in)      |        |
| L         |        |
| m         |        |
| (ft)      |        |
| L         |        |
| c         |        |
| (ft)      |        |
| Nominal    | d      | b    | m         | v      |
|------------|--------|------|-----------|--------|
| Size       | (in)   | (in) | (ft-kips) | (kips) |
| t          |        |      |           |        |
| f          |        |      |           |        |
| (in)       |        |      |           |        |
| t          |        |      |           |        |
| w          |        |      |           |        |
| (in)       |        |      |           |        |
| L          |        |      |           |        |
| m          |        |      |           |        |
| (ft)       |        |      |           |        |
| L          |        |      |           |        |
| c          |        |      |           |        |
| (ft)       |        |      |           |        |
| W          |        |      |           |        |
| s          |        |      |           |        |
| (lbs/ft    |        |      |           |        |
| )          |        |      |           |        |
| S14x70     | 14.000 | 70   | 8.000     | 0.937  |
| S14x57     | 14.000 | 57   | 6.000     | 0.875  |
| W14x34     | 14.000 | 34   | 6.750     | 0.437  |
| W14x30     | 13.875 | 30   | 6.750     | 0.375  |
| W14x92     | 13.375 | 92   | 11.750    | 0.875  |
| S14x46     | 13.375 | 46   | 5.375     | 0.687  |
| S13x35     | 13.000 | 35   | 5.000     | 0.625  |
| S13x41     | 12.625 | 41   | 5.125     | 0.687  |
| W12x36     | 12.250 | 36   | 6.625     | 0.565  |
| S12x65     | 12.000 | 65   | 8.000     | 0.937  |
| W12x27     | 12.000 | 27   | 6.500     | 0.375  |
| S12x50     | 12.000 | 50   | 5.500     | 0.687  |
| S12x32     | 12.000 | 32   | 5.000     | 0.562  |
| S12x34     | 11.250 | 34   | 4.750     | 0.625  |
| W11x76     | 11.000 | 76   | 11.000    | 0.812  |
| S10x29     | 10.625 | 29   | 4.750     | 0.562  |
| W10x25     | 10.125 | 25   | 5.750     | 0.437  |
| S10x40     | 10.000 | 40   | 6.000     | 0.687  |
| S10x35     | 10.000 | 35   | 5.000     | 0.500  |
| S10x25     | 10.000 | 25   | 4.625     | 0.500  |
| W10x21     | 9.875  | 21   | 5.750     | 0.312  |
| W10x59     | 9.250  | 59   | 9.500     | 0.687  |
| S9x25      | 9.500  | 25   | 4.500     | 0.500  |
| S9x50      | 9.000  | 50   | 7.000     | 0.812  |
| S8x35      | 8.000  | 35   | 6.000     | 0.625  |
| S8x28      | 8.000  | 28   | 5.000     | 0.562  |
| W8x31      | 8.000  | 31   | 8.000     | 0.437  |
| W8x44      | 7.875  | 44   | 7.875     | 0.625  |
| W7x35      | 7.125  | 35   | 7.125     | 0.562  |
| W6x31      | 6.250  | 31   | 6.250     | 0.562  |
| Profile                                               |   Factor  | Remarks                                                    |
|-------------------------------------------------------|-----------|------------------------------------------------------------|
| For span-to-rise ratio up to 4                        |         1 | For a given load, a flat arch of steeper profile (although |
| it has a very large rise) may fail due to the crown's |           |                                                            |
| action as a smaller, flatter arch.                    |           |                                                            |
| For span-to-rise ratio over 4                         |           |                                                            |
| See figure F-16,                                      |           |                                                            |
| page F-38.                                            |           |                                                            |
Material Factors
Type of Material
Factor
Granite, white stone, or built-in course masonry
1.50
Concrete or blue engineering bricks
1.20
Good limestone masonry and building bricks
1.00
Poor masonry or any kind of brickwork
0.50
Joint Factors
Type of Joint
Factor
Thin joints, 1/10 inch or less in width
1.25
Normal joints, width to 1/4 inch, pointed mortar
1.00
Normal joints, mortar unpointed
0.90
Joint over 1/4 inch, irregular good mortar
0.80
Joint over 1/4 inch, mortar with voids deeper than 1/10 of the ring thickness
0.70
Joints 1/2 inch or more, poor mortar
0.50
Deformations
Condition
Adjustment
Note
The rise over the affected
Span-to-rise ratio of affected
portion is always positive.
portion to whole arch applied.
Arch ring deformation may be due to
Distortion produces a flat
partial failure of the ring (usually
Maximum MLC = 12.
section of profile.
accompanied by a sag in the parapet) or movement at the abutment.
A portion of the ring is
Maximum MLC = 5 only if fill at
sagging.
crown > 18 inches.
Abutment Size Factors
Type of Abutment
Factor
Note
Both abutments
1.00
An abutment may be regarded as
satisfactory
inadequate to resist the full thrust of the arch if
One abutment
0.95
unsatisfactory
- The bridge is on a narrow
embankment, particularly if the
Both abutments
0.90
approaches slope steeply up to the
unsatisfactory
bridge.
Both abutments massive
0.70
- The bridge is on an embanked
but a clay fill suspected
curve.
Arch carried on one
0.90
- The abutment walls are very short
abutment and one pier
and suggest little solid fill behind the
Arch carried on two piers
0.80
arch.
| Type of Fault                                | Factor    |
|----------------------------------------------|-----------|
| Inward movement of one abutment              | 0.50      |
| Outward spread of abutments                  | 0.50      |
| Vertical settlement of one abutment          | 0.50      |
| Crack Factors                                |           |
| Type of Crack                                | Factor    |
| Longitudinal cracks within 2 feet of the     |           |
| edge of the arch; wider than 14 inch and      |           |
| longer than 1/10 of the span, in bridges.    |           |
| 1.00                                         |           |
| 0.70                                         |           |
| - Wider than 20 feet between parapets.       |           |
| - Narrower than 20 feet between              |           |
| parapets.                                    |           |
| Longitudinal cracks in middle third of the   |           |
| ridge with                                  |           |
| 1.00                                         |           |
| - One small crack under 1/8 inch wide        |           |
| and shorter than 1/10 of the span.           |           |
| 0.50                                         |           |
| - Three or more small cracks as above.       |           |
| - One large crack wider than 14 inch and      |           |
| 0.50                                         |           |
| longer than 1/10 of the span.                |           |
| Lateral and diagonal cracks less than 1/8    |           |
| inch wide and shorter than 1/10 of the arch  |           |
| width                                        |           |
| 1.00                                         |           |
| Lateral and diagonal cracks wider than 14     |           |
| inch and longer than 1/10 of the arch width: |           |
| Restrict load classification to 12 or to the |           |
| calculated classification using all other    |           |
| applicable factors, whichever is less.       |           |
| Cracks between the arch ring and             |           |
| spandrel or parapet wall greater than 1/10   |           |
| of the span due to fill spread               |           |
| 0.90                                         |           |
| Cracks between the arch ring and spandrel    |           |
| or parapet wall due to a dropped ring:       |           |
| Reclassify from the nomograph, taking the    |           |
| crown thickness as that of the ring alone.   |           |
This type of longitudinal crack is due to an outward force on the spandrel walls caused by a lateral spread of the fill. This type of longitudinal crack is due to varying amount of subsiding along the length of the abutment. Large cracks are danger signs which indicate that the arch ring has broken up into narrower, independent rings. Lateral cracks, usually found near the quarter points, are due to permanent deformation of the arch, which may be caused by partial collapse of the arch or by abutment movement. Diagonal cracks, usually starting near the sides of the arch at the springing and spreading toward the center of the arch at the crown, are probably due to subsiding at the sides of the abutment. Cracks indicate that the bridge is in a dangerous condition due to spreading of the fill pushing the wall outward or movement of a flexible ring away from a
stiff fill, so that the two act independently. The latter type of failure often produces cracks in the spandrel wall near the quarter points.
Bridge Classification
Roadway Width (meters)
One-Way
Two-Way
2.75 to 3.34
12
0
3.35 to 3.99
30
0
4 to 4.49
60
0
4.5 to 4.99
100
0
5 to 5.4
150
0
5.5 to 7.2
150
30
7.3 to 8.1
150
60
8.2 to 9.7
150
100
Over 9.8
150
150

Note. Minimum overhead clearance for all classes is 4.3 meters.

## Appendix G Signs

Posting signs at bridges and at other constrictions or key locations along a route promotes efficient traffic control and limits the impact of hazardous areas along the route. Signs are used when it is necessary to identify special controls placed on a bridge or route section, to warn vehicle operators of hazardous areas or conditions, and to identify holding areas, turnouts for parking and unloading vehicles, and checkpoints. Procedures for posting military routes are standardized for the United States and Allied Nations. However, this system may be integrated into other roadsign systems in accordance with military requirements.

Note. This appendix implements STANAG 2454 and Allied Publication AMovP-1, Road Movements and Movement Control.

## Route Signs

G-1. There are three general types of standard route signshazard, regulatory, and guide. Table G-1 on page G-2 lists the way each type may be used. The size of these signs is not prescribed; however, they must be large enough to be easily read under poor lighting conditions. Exceptions to this rule are bridge classification signs for which dimensions are specified. As a guide, signs for civil international road use usually are not less than 16 inches square.

Type
Hazard
Regulatory
Guide
No entry
Detour
Advance warning of stop signs and traffic signals Changes in road width
One way
Detour begins
Crossroad
Parking restrictions
Detour ends
Directions
Curves
Specific regulations for
vehicles
Danger or hazard
Speed limit
Distances
Dangerous corner
Stop
Information to help driver
Dips
Bridge classification
Locations
Application
Junction T
Route number
Junction Y Level railroad crossing, advance warning Men working Railroad crossing Road construction repairs Road narrows Slippery road Steep grades Steep hill Turns


## Hazard Signs

G-2. Hazard signs indicate traffic hazards and require coordination with civil authorities. Hazard signs are square and are installed in a diamond position (see figures G-1 and G-2). A military hazard sign has a yellow background with the legend or symbol inscribed in black. The wording on these signs is in the language or languages determined by the authority erecting the sign. (See FM 3-34.210 for information on explosive hazard signs.)

## Regulatory Signs

G-3. Regulatory signs regulate and control traffic. Regulatory signs include enforcement and warning signs. Warning signs are placed in advance of the enforcement sign to provide vehicle operators with advance notice of the enforcement area. Examples of regulatory signs include bridge classification signs, stop signs, no-entry signs, and signs that define the light line (the line where vehicles must use blackout lights at night). Regulatory signs have a black background on which the legend or symbol is superimposed in white.
Note. Exceptions to these rules are bridge classification signs, stop signs, no-entry signs, and signs that apply to civil as well as military traffic. Check with civilian authorities to ensure compliance when erecting signs in areas with civilian traffic.

G-4. Example regulatory signs are shown in figure G-3. Two warning signs are located, according to the terrain, prior to the enforcement sign. Locate the first warning sign 200 to 500 meters before the regulatory sign.

## Bridge And Raft Signs

G-5. All classified vehicles and bridges in the theater of operations require classification signs. Bridge signs are circular with yellow background and black inscriptions. Sign diameters are a minimum of 40 centimeters for one-lane bridges and 50 centimeters for two-lane bridges. (See figure G-4.) A two-lane bridge has two numbers, side by side, on the sign.

z
The number on the left is the bridge classification when both lanes are in use at the same time.
z
The number on the right indicates the classification if the bridge is carrying one-way traffic and the vehicles proceed along the centerline of the bridge.
G-6. For bridges with separate classifications for wheeled and tracked vehicles (dual classification), use a special circular sign that indicates both classifications (only applicable if the classification is over 50) (see the right side of figure G-4). Use a separate rectangular sign, if necessary, to show the bridge's width limitations. For one-way or two-way traffic bridges, the sign is to be a minimum of 50 centimeters.

## Rectangular Bridge Signs

G-7. Additional instructions and technical information are posted on rectangular signs, which are a minimum of 41 centimeters in height or width and have a yellow background with the appropriate letters and symbols in black. Write the figures as large as the sign permits. Theater commanders may make special arrangements to indicate vehicles of exceptional width or to indicate low overhead obstructions. Use separate signs to show width or height limitations (see figure G-6, page G-6) or technical information (see figure G-5). Width and height signs are not required on bridges where existing civilian signs are in place and sufficiently clear.

## Width And Height Restrictions

G-8. Table F-9, page F-34, lists minimum roadway width restrictions for given bridge classifications. If a one-lane bridge does not meet width requirements, post a rectangular warning sign under the classification sign showing the actual clear width (see figure G-6, page G-6). If this is a route restriction, annotate it in the route classification formula. For a two-lane bridge, downgrade the two-way classification to the highest class for which it does qualify (one-way class is not affected). Post a limited-clearance sign if the overhead

## Appendix G

clearance is less than 4.3 meters. These signs must be a minimum of 3 to 5 meters in height or width, with a yellow background, and the appropriate description in black letters. Separate rectangular signs are used if necessary to denote width limitations, height limitations, or other technical information. The same signs are used for tunnels, if applicable.

## Multilane Bridge Signs

G-9. Bridges of three or more lanes are special cases that require individual consideration; the minimum widths for respective load classifications (see table F-9, page F-34) are used. In some cases, heavier loads can be carried on a restricted lane rather than on the other lanes (see figure G-7 and figure G-8). Under such circumstances, post standard bridge-classification signs for each lane and mark the restricted lanes with barricades, painted lines, or studs.

## Bridge Sign Placement

G-10. Ensure that signs are placed properly (as listed below) to maintain uninterrupted traffic across a bridge.

z
The bridge classification sign is placed at both ends of the bridge in a position that is clearly visible to all oncoming traffic.
z
Rectangular signs, other than those indicating height restrictions, are placed immediately below
the bridge classification (circular) signs.
z
Signs that indicate height restrictions are placed centrally on the overhead obstruction.
z
Special classification numbers are never posted on standard bridge-marking signs.
z
Appropriate advance warning signals are placed on bridge approaches, as required.

## Guide Signs

G-11. Guide signs indicate direction or location. These signs consist of the military route number and the appropriate directional disk. If standard signs are not available, construct military route guide signs by

## Appendix G

placing a directional disk over a rectangular panel upon which the route number is inscribed (see figure G-9).

## Directional Disks

G-12. A directional disk consists of a fixed black arrow, with or without a bar, on a white background. Eight equally spaced holes around the edges of the circumference allow the disk to be nailed with the arrow pointing in the desired direction. These disks are no smaller than 12 inches in diameter (see figure G-10). They are used as standard guide signs to indicate military axial and lateral routes. Directional disks may be used together with unit signs to indicate direction to locations of major units (groups and above). Smaller units may not use directional disks. However, any arrow sign that provides a different shape and color from the standard direction disks can be used to indicate smaller units.

## Headquarters And Logistical Signs

G-13. Use these signs to mark a headquarters and logistical installation. Use the appropriate military symbol (see FM 1-02). The inscription is black on a yellow background. This symbol may be supplemented by national distinguishing symbols or abbreviations. For division headquarters and above, nationality is always indicated. Colors other than black or yellow are prohibited except for national distinguishing symbols.

## Casualty Evacuation Route Signs

G-14. Indicate casualty evacuation routes on rectangular signs (see figure G-11). The signs have a white background with red inscriptions of a directional arrow, a red cross (red crescent for Turkey), and a unit or subunit designation (if required). An alternate sign may be made from a white disk with four segments cut out to give an X shape. The inscriptions are shown in red.

## Unit Direction Arrow

G-15. Use temporary unit direction arrows to mark march routes (see figure G-12). In addition to the direction arrow, include the unit identification symbol as part of the inscription. Unit route signs are placed in advance of the moving column and are picked up by a trail vehicle.

## Military Detour Signs

G-16. Detour signs consist of a white arrow superimposed on a blue square. Place the sign in a diamond position (see figure G-13). Show the number of the diverted route by placing the number on the square over the arrow or placing the number on a small panel under the square.

## Road Markers In Areas Of Heavy Snow

G-17. Posting road signs in areas of heavy snowfall requires special attention. Ensure that the markers are placed evenly on both sides of the traveled way. In open country, use poles of appropriate height with direction markers, snow markers, or flags. Erect markers at least one meter off the traveled way to avoid traffic damage. If you cannot completely mark a road, erect arrow signs at prominent points to indicate road direction. Road markers and signs used for long periods of time in areas of heavy snow should be checked frequently to ensure that their positions have not altered. In areas with prolonged conditions of snow, yellow (international orange) may be substituted for white on all standard military route signs.

## Vehicle Signs

G-18. There are two types of vehicle signs: front and side.

z
Use front signs on all vehicles, except trailers, to show the classification of the laden vehicle.
z
Use side signs on towing vehicles and trailers only to show the classification of the laden towing vehicles or trailers by themselves.
G-19. Both signs are circular and marked in contrasting colors consistent with camouflage requirements. Black figures on a yellow background may be used.

z
The front sign is 23 centimeters in diameter. Place or paint the front sign on the front of the vehicle, above or on the bumper, and below the driver's line of vision. When possible, place it on the right side, facing forward. .
z
The side sign is 15 centimeters in diameter. Place or paint the side sign on the vehicle's right side facing outward.
G-20. Make the inscription on the sign as large as the sign allows.

z
The front signexcept on towing vehicles and tank transportersindicates the vehicle's laden solo class. On towing vehicles, the front sign indicates the train's combined load class. Above this number, write the letter C to distinguish the vehicle as a towing vehicle (see figure G-14).
On tank transporters and similar type vehicles, the fixed front sign shows the maximum
classification of the laden vehicle. In addition, one alternative front sign may be carried. Place it so that it covers the fixed front sign, when necessary, to show the class of the vehicle when unladen.
z
The side sign (used only by prime movers of combination vehicles and trailers) indicates the laden solo class of the prime mover or trailer.
G-21. Single vehicles (including tank transporters) carry the front sign only, towing vehicles carry both front and side signs, and trailers carry side signs only. Mark all vehicles as given above. (See appendix E for details on determining a vehicle's MLC.) Marking the following vehicles is optional:

z
Vehicles of a gross weight of 3.048 tons or less.
z
Trailers with a rated capacity of 1.524 tons or less.

## Sign Lighting

G-22. The appropriate military authority in the area specifies which signs are to be illuminated. Primary considerations go to hazard and direction signs. The system of lighting must remain operational for a minimum of 15 hours without refueling or changing batteries. Consider the following:

z
Under normal conditions, each armed force is responsible for ensuring that standard signs are visible at night and other periods of reduced visibility. Take necessary precautions in tactical
situations.
z
Under reduced lighting conditions, the positioning of the signs and the methods adopted to make them visible (illumination or reflection) must enable personnel to see them from vehicles fitted with reduced lighting or filtering devices.
z
In a blackout zone, signs are equipped with upper shields that prevent light from being directly observed from the air. The light illuminating the sign is of such low intensity that it is not possible to locate the sign from the air at altitudes greater than 150 meters by its reflection off the road surface. Illumination devices are positioned so they can be recognized by oncoming
vehicles at a road distance of 100 meters and read at a distance of 80 meter.
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## Appendix H Technical Tools And Resources

This appendix highlights some of the most useful and primary support tools for engineers performing general engineering operations. These tools include the USAES, the USACE Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC), USACE Protective Design Center (PDC), USACE TEOC, Prime Power, Water Resource Detection Team (WRDT), AARK, Defense Environmental Network and Information Exchange (DENIX), and USACHPPM. This type of reach-back capability is one of the characteristics of FFE. The Air Force and Navy provide some of the same type of capabilities and support through the AFCESA and the NAVFAC. (See FM 3-34 for further information.)

## United States Army Engineer School

H-1. The doctrine division (DD) of the USAES manages engineer doctrine within the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) doctrine development cycle. As part of this process, DD assesses, plans, develops, produces, and disseminates engineer doctrine that is synchronized with allied, multinational, joint, multi-Service, and combined arms doctrine. DD supports the development of nonengineer doctrinal products by providing subject matter expertise for review and coordination. DD also supports the Engineer Regiment by managing the Center for Engineer Lessons Learned and by providing information and analysis as needed.

## Engineer Research And Development Center

H-2. The U.S. Army ERDC is one of the most diverse engineering and scientific research organizations in the world. It consists of seven laboratories at four geographical sites in Vicksburg, MS; Champaign, IL; Hanover, NH; and Alexandria, VA; employing more than 2,000 engineers, scientists, and support personnel. H-3. ERDC research and development supports the DOD, other federal agencies, and the nation in military and civilian projects. Its primary mission areas include the following.

z
Warfighter support.
z
Installations.
z
Environment.
z
Water resources.
z
Information technology.
H-4. Research projects include facilities, airfields and pavements, protective structures, sustainment engineering, environmental quality, installation restoration (cleanup), compliance and conservation, regulatory functions, flood control, navigation, recreation, hydropower, topography, mapping, geospatial data, winter climatic conditions, oceanography, environmental impacts, and information technology.

## United States Army Corps Of Engineers Protective Design Center

H-5. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers PDC is the Army's Center of Expertise for structures hardened to resist weapons effects and in security engineering. The PDC employees are considered world-class experts in their specialties.

H-6. The PDC co-chairs the committee that wrote the DOD minimum antiterrorism construction standards and that writes many of the DOD security engineering UFC documents. These UFC present design guidance for protective systems against aggressor tactics including

z
Vehicle improvised explosive devices.
z
Indirect weapons fire.
z
Direct weapons fire.
z
CBRNE.
H-7. The PDC has experience assisting units with vulnerability assessments and using software and other tools to determine where facility hardening is required. Their engineers can identify vulnerabilities and recommend mitigating measures including vehicle barriers to achieve standoff distance and structural hardening to resist weapons effects.

## Teleengineering Operations Center Description

H-8. The TEOC provides a reach-back engineering capability that allows DOD personnel deployed worldwide to talk directly with experts in the United States when a problem in the field needs quick resolution. Deployed troops can be linked to subject matter experts (SMEs) within the USACE (or comparable Air Force and Navy organizations), private industry, and academia to obtain detailed analysis of complex problems that would be difficult to achieve with the limited expertise or computational capabilities available in the field.

## Capabilities

H-9. TEOC staff members respond to incoming information requests and provide detailed analyses of problemssuch as flooding potential due to dam breaches, load-carrying capacities of roads and bridges, field fortifications and protection, evaluation of transportation networks, and water resource data. The TEOC has access to the USACE Transportation System Center, which includes SMEs on airfields, roadways, and railroads.

## Supporting Technology

H-10. TeleEngineering communication equipment provides reach-back capability using off-the-shelf communications equipment with encryption added. Video teleconferences and data transfers can be conducted from remote sites where other similar means of communications are nonexistent or unavailable. H-11. The TeleEngineering toolkit (TETK) is a software product that provides a valuable analysis tool to personnel on the ground or going into an AO. By annotating an area of interest, a small reference file can be sent back to the SMEs to provide requests for a variety of information to include cross-country mobility analysis, flood analysis, and vegetation information. The response can then be sent back and graphically displayed using the TETK. (For more information on TeleEngineering, contact the ERDC at teoc@usace.army.mil.)

## Prime Power Operations

H-12. Engineer prime power units conduct prime power operations, a subset of the general engineering function of the engineer regiment (see FM 3-34.480). They provide an essential continuity between power from tactical generators (TACGENS) and commercial sources (see figure H-1). Prime power units provide technical assistance and staff planning to support development of electrical power solutions for military operations. Prime power units also possess a limited organic capability to provide interim contingency power to satisfy the critical electrical requirements above the capability of TACGENS and below the availability of commercial power or to augment the power available from either source. The portion of the continuum that is exclusively prime power represents power generation and distribution accomplished by prime power units with their organic equipment. The intersections of TACGENS and commercial power with prime power represent areas of shared responsibility.

H-13. Engineer prime power units support theaterwide general engineering efforts by providing advice and technical assistance on all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems in support of military operations. They are also capable of providing limited, interim contingency power generation to critical facilities. This mission statement spans the range of military operations to include combat (offense and defense), stability and support operations, and civil support operations. Prime power efforts and capabilities must be closely integrated and synchronized with the overall general engineering effort to achieve the effects intended in the theater ESP. H-14. The prime power unit performs many technical power related tasks. A minimum of a two-Soldier and Marine team is required to perform each of the tasks. These tasks include

z
Providing power related planning and staff assistance.
z
Conducting electrical load surveys.
z
Analyzing and designing distribution systems.
z
Constructing, maintaining, and repairing distribution systems.
z
Performing damage assessment of distribution systems.
z
Operating and maintaining industrial power systems and controls.
z
Providing power related technical assistance to the contracting officer's representative.
H-15. Engineer prime power units can produce large quantities of reliable power with their organic generators. Each prime power platoon is equipped with four 840-kilowatt power units, giving the platoon a 3.36-megawatt total power production capability and 2.52-megawatts of normal operating continuous power production. They can also install, operate, and maintain nonstandard, power generation equipment and operate and maintain some fixed commercial power plants. This power generation capability can be used in a variety of military base camp configurations as well as ports, airfields, C2 nodes, and other critical facilities. The units' power generation capability also allows them to

z
Provide power to locations where another source is not available or is inadequate using organic or war reserve equipment.
z
Operate, maintain, and perform damage assessments of fixed commercial diesel engine power plants.

## Water Resource Detection Team Purpose

H-16. The objective of the water resource detection team (WRDT) is to identify high-potential areas for the best quality of water, within available drilling equipment capability, to meet the water production requirements of the mission.

## Capabilities

H-17. WRDT expertise and studies are concentrated in four areas or elements: database, remote sensing, supporting specialists, and geophysics.

z
Database. TEC produces and maintains a worldwide DOD Water Resources Database (WRDB) of available water supply and hydrologic data, including ground water resources. The WRDB is derived from classified and open-source data, maps, documents, and imagery. When specific missions/requests are received for areas where data are uncertain or inconclusive, the team will
research additional sources and data unique to the area. The resulting WRDT product or report
summarizes the information critical to planning a successful wellsuch as the hydrogeology, target depth, aquifer material, expected yield, and probable water quality. Office studies, based on research and analysis of existing data, are the most cost effective and timely WRDT approach and normally take hours to days to complete.
z
Remote sensing. If databases and other supplemental information are inadequate, aerial or satellite imagery may be studied and analyzed for indications of groundwater. This source is especially useful in a hard-rock area, where siting wells on significant fractures and fracture intersections is the key to success. The acquisition and analysis of imagery increases the time and cost to complete an office study.
z
Supporting specialists. If office studies including imagery analysis are inadequate, one or more supporting specialists may be deployed to the site. These specialists contact HN groundwater experts, collect and evaluate in-country data associated with existing or historic wells, and conduct hydrogeologic field reconnaissance of specific areas prior to drilling. They may also assist with interpreting well cuttings and down-hole electric logging during drilling. Field studies generally take days to weeks to complete.
z
Geophysics. Should information gathered by supporting specialists be insufficient, additional local site investigation may be necessary using exploratory geophysics. Geophysicists may deploy to the site to conduct electrical resistivity, seismic refraction, or other on-site tests to better define the subsurface prior to drilling. Geophysical exploration and data analysis generally take weeks to complete. Costs are significantly higher than for office-based studies and are normally paid by the requester.
H-18. When activated, the WRDT does not automatically deploy to provide technical support for military operations. The starting point for each WRDT request is to identify high-potential areas by examining existing databases, followed by collecting and analyzing additional sources and imagery. In those rare cases when high-potential water sites cannot be identified from source data and imagery, teams from the supporting specialists and/or geophysics elements can be deployed for on-site investigations. This should take place before well drillers arrive. If deployed to the theater of operations, the WRDT operates as a component of the ENCOM or senior engineer organization in theater. As with any USACE capability, activation of the WRDT for deployment is not automatic; it must be requested through the supporting ENCOM in theater or through other appropriate command channels to TEC. The commander provides/arranges for the WRDT logistics and administrative support necessary for mission accomplishment.

## Automated Route Reconnaissance Kit Purpose

H-19. An automated route reconnaissance kit (ARRK) provides military units with an adaptable, easy-to use reconnaissance package that allows an ERT or other engineer reconnaissance element to rapidly collect and process reconnaissance (all types but generally route) information.

## Capabilities

H-20. The ARRK uses a field-ready laptop computer to continuously collect reconnaissance information without stopping or leaving the vehicle for routine calculations. Time, security, and accuracy issues normally associated with a route reconnaissance are reduced. The ARRK collects pictures, voice recordings, GPS locations, accelerometer, and gyroscope data streams in three dimensions. Unlike the traditional, manually recorded route reconnaissance efforts, the ARRK allows an operator with minimum training experience to collect, process, and export the route information. The ARRK accommodates a chronological, picture replay of the route and geo-referenced display of major features that affect the classification and usage of the road or route. The viewer of the data can scroll through the stored data types to instantly locate specific features along the route. Data includes automated determination of slope, radius of curvature, and ride quality. The reconnaissance data collected from the ARRK is quickly converted by the operator to a preformatted report that is according to the requirements of this manual. Planned improvements for the system include integration of a laser range finder and digital scale reference guide. The system will be developed as a stand-alone data collection tool and a fully interoperable data collection platform for dissemination and repository of route information.

## Defense Environmental Network And Information Exchange Purpose

H-21. The Defense Environmental Network and Information Exchange (DENIX) is an electronic environmental bulletin board accessible throughout the DOD that gives DOD environmental, safety, and occupational health managers a central communications platform to gain timely access to vital environmental information.

## Capabilities

H-22. DENIX (based on the Army's Defense Environmental Electronic Bulletin Board System) gives users the ability to

z
Read online environmental publications (proprietary or DOD specific).
z
Send/receive mail electronically on the DENIX host computer or across the internet.
z
Exchange environmental information via managed discussion forums based on a subject area.
z
Send/receive required reporting data through the chain of command.
z
Peruse and request environmental training courses and seminars.
z
Access the DENIX directory service database.
z
Upload and download files from DENIX to and from a personal computer.

## United States Army Center For Health Promotion And Preventive Medicine Purpose

H-23. The United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM) has a mission to provide worldwide technical support for implementing preventive medicine, public health, and health promotion/wellness services into all aspects of America's Army and the Army community. It anticipates and rapidly responds to operational needs and adapts to a changing world environment. The USACHPPM organization is headquartered at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, with subordinate commands in Landstuhl, Germany, and Sagami, Japan. USACHPPM also maintains subordinate commands at three locations in the United States: Fort Meade, MD; Fort McPherson, GA; and Fort Lewis, WA.

## Capabilities

H-24. The USACHPPM is a linchpin of medical support to combat forces and of the military managed-care system. It provides worldwide scientific expertise and services in clinical and field preventive medicine, environmental and occupational health, health promotion and wellness, epidemiology and disease surveillance, toxicology, and related laboratory sciences. It supports readiness by keeping Soldiers and Marines fit to fight, while also promoting wellness among their families and the Federal civilian workforce. Professional disciplines represented include chemists, physicists, engineers, physicians, optometrists, epidemiologists, audiologists, nurses, industrial hygienists, toxicologists, entomologists, and many others, as well as subspecialties within these professions.

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## Source Notes

This section lists sources by page number. Where material appears in a paragraph, both the page number and paragraph number are listed. Boldface indicates titles of vignettes.

1-1
"Nothing is more worthy of attention...": Niccolo Machiavelli, The Military Quotation Book, (edited by James Charlton, Thomas Dunne Books, February 2002; St. Martin's Press, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010), 87.
2-1
"Make your plans fit the circumstances.": General George S. Patton, Jr., [Online]. Available: http://www.geocities.com/heartland/fields/5248/quotes.html.
3-1
"No matter how enmeshed a commander becomes...": Sir Winston Churchill, [Online]. Available: http://www.quoteopia.com.
4-1
"Tactics are the cutting edge of strategy,...": Major General J.F.C. Fuller, The Military Quotation Book, (Thomas Dunne Books, February 2002; St. Martin's Press, 175 Fifth
Avenue, New York, New York 10010).
5-1
The art of war is, in the last result,...": Xenophon, [Online]. Available: http://www.tankmastergunner.com/quote.htm.
6-1
Bring war material with you from home,...": Sun Tzu, [Online]. Available: http://www.chinapage.com.
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## Glossary Section I - Acronyms And Abbreviations

| Acronym                                                                             |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| A                                                                                   |
| no limiting characteristics (road classification formula)                           |
| AAP                                                                                 |
| Allied Administrative Publication                                                   |
| AAV                                                                                 |
| amphibious assault vehicle                                                          |
| ACE                                                                                 |
| armored combat earthmover                                                           |
| ADR                                                                                 |
| airfield damage repair                                                              |
| AEODP                                                                               |
| Allied Explosive Ordnance Disposal Publication                                      |
| AFCESA                                                                              |
| Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency                                          |
| AGS                                                                                 |
| armored gun system                                                                  |
| AHD                                                                                 |
| antihandling device                                                                 |
| AO                                                                                  |
| area of operations                                                                  |
| AOR                                                                                 |
| area of responsibility                                                              |
| AP                                                                                  |
| antipersonnel                                                                       |
| AR                                                                                  |
| Army regulation                                                                     |
| ARAT                                                                                |
| Abrams reactive armor title                                                         |
| ARRK                                                                                |
| automated route reconnaissance kit                                                  |
| ART                                                                                 |
| Army tactical task                                                                  |
| ASCC                                                                                |
| Army service component commander                                                    |
| AT                                                                                  |
| antitank                                                                            |
| ATEC                                                                                |
| all terrain crane                                                                   |
| ATLAS                                                                               |
| all terrain lifter, Army system                                                     |
| AVLB                                                                                |
| armored vehicle-launched bridge                                                     |
| B                                                                                   |
| one or more limiting characteristics (road-classification formula)                  |
| BCT                                                                                 |
| brigade combat team                                                                 |
| bn                                                                                  |
| battalion                                                                           |
| BP                                                                                  |
| battle position                                                                     |
| BSTB                                                                                |
| brigade special troops battalion                                                    |
| C                                                                                   |
| distance from the centerline of the road to the centerline of the road at the outer |
| extremities of the curve (formula method for measuring curves)                      |
| C2                                                                                  |
| command and control                                                                 |
| CA                                                                                  |
| civil affairs                                                                       |
| CASEVAC                                                                             |
| casualty evacuation                                                                 |
| CAT                                                                                 |
| Caterpillar                                                                        |
| CBR                                                                                 |
| California Bearing Ratio                                                            |
| CBRN                                                                                |
| chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear                                     |
| CBRNE                                                                               |
| chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high yield explosives              |
CCD
camouflage, concealment, and deception
CCE
combat construction equipment
CCIR
commander's critical information requirements
CCN
combination class number
CEA
captured enemy ammunition
C-HET
commercial-heavy equipment
CMO
civil-military operations
COA
course of action
COE
common operational environment
COP
common operational picture
CP
command post
CREST
contingency real estate support team
CTOP
common topographic operating picture
DA
Department of the Army
DD
Doctrine Division
DED
diesel engine driven
DENIX
Defense Environmental Network and Information Exchange
DHS
Department of Homeland Security
DOD
Department of Defense
DP
decision point
DRS
Digital Reconnaissance System
DS
direct support
DSN
defense switched network
DTG
date-time group
EI2RC
Engineering Infrastructure Intelligence Reachback Center
EA
engagement area
EBS
environmental baseline survey
ECOA
enemy course of action
ECR
environmental conditions report
EEFI
essential elements of friendly information
EH
explosive hazard
EHSA
environmental health site assessment
EHT
explosive hazards team
EMST
essential mobility and survivability task
ENCOM
engineer command
ENCOORD
engineer coordinator
ENVST
environmental support team
EOCA
explosive hazard clearance agent
EOD
explosive ordnance disposal
ERDC
Engineer Research and Development Center
ERT
engineer reconnaissance team
ESMP
explosive standoff minefield breacher
ESP
engineering support plan
ESV
engineer squad vehicle
ETO
effects tasking order
EWG
effects working group
F
Fahrenheit
FAASV
field artillery ammunition support vehicle
FACE
forward aviation combat engineering
FARP
forward arming and refueling point
FCO
federal coordinating officer
FEMA
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FEST
forward engineer support team
FEST-A
forward engineer support team-advanced
FEST-M
forward engineer support team-main
FFE
field force engineering
FFIR
friendly force information requirement
FM
field manual
FMI
field manual interim
FMTV
family of medium tactical vehicles
FSCM
fire support coordinating measure
FSCOORD
fire support coordinator
FSCS
fire control support system
FST
fire support task
ft
feet
FTP
file transfer protocol
G-2
component intelligence staff officer
G-3
component operations staff officer
G-9
component civil-military operations officer
GEOINT
geospatial intelligence
GI&S
geospatial information and services
GIG
Global Information Grid
GPS
global positioning system
GS
general support
HAZMAT
hazardous materials
HBCT
heavy brigade combat teams
Hd
horizontal distance (determining the percent of slope )
HDSB
heavy dry support bridge
HEMAT
heavy expanded mobility ammunition trailer
HEMTT
heavy expanded mobile tactical truck
HET
heavy equipment transporter
HM
hazardous material
HMMWV
high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle
HN
host nation
HNS
host nation support
HUMINT
human intelligence
HW
hazardous waste
HYEX
hydraulic excavation
IAT
infrastructure assessment team
IBCT
infantry brigade combat teams
IED
improvised explosive device
IGEO
International Geospatial
IM
information management
IMG
international military and government
IMINT
imagery intelligence
in
inch
IP
intermediate point
IPB
intelligence preparation of the battlefield
IR
information requirements
ISM
intelligence synchronization matrix
ISR
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
J-9
civil-military operations officer
JD
John DeereTM
JERRV
joint explosive ordnance disposal rapid response vehicle
JP
joint publication
JTF
joint task force
kg
kilogram
km
kilometer
LAN
local area network
LAV
light armored vehicle
LD
line of departure
LET
light equipment transporter
LHS
load hauling system
LMTV
light to medium tactical vehicle
LOA
limit of advance
LOC
line of communications
LOGPAC
logistics package
LRP
logistics release point
LTIOV
latest time the information is of value
LZ
landing zone
m
meter
M
perpendicular distance from the center of the tape to the centerline of the road (formula method for measuring curves)
MBPL
nodular base petroleum laboratory
MC
mortar carrier
M/CM/S
mobility, countermobility, and survivability
MCJSB
Military Committee Joint Standardization Board
MCRP
Marine Corps reference publication
MCV
mortar carrier vehicle
MCWP
Marine Corps warfighting publication
MDMP
military decision-making process
MED
medium
MET
medium equipment transport
METT-T[C]
mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, [Army adds "civil considerations"]
MEV
medical evaluation vehicle
MGS
mobile gun system
MHC
material handling crane
MHE
materials handling equipment
MI
military intelligence
MLC
military load classification
MLRS
multiple launch rocket system
mm
millimeter
MOG
maximum (aircraft) on the ground
MP
military police
MRAP
mine resistant ambush protected
MRBC
multirole bridge company
MSR
main supply route
MTD
mounted
MTV
medium tactical vehicle
NAI
named area of interest
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAVFAC
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
NGO
nongovernmental organization
NSN
National Stock Number
o
intersection (triangulation method for measuring curves)
O&M
operation and maintenance
O/I
operations and intelligence
OB
obstructions to traffic flow (route-classification formula)
OBSTINTEL
obstacle intelligence
OE
operational environment
OGA
other governmental agency
OP
observation post
OPCON
operational control
OPLAN
operation plan
OPORD
operation order
PC
point of curvature (triangulation method for measuring curves)
PCC
project coordination cell
PDC
Protective Design Center
PGM
precision guided munitions
PIR
priority intelligence requirements
PL
phase line
PLC
provisional load class
PLS
palletized load system
POL
petroleum, oils, and lubricants
Prime BEEF
Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force
psi
pounds per square inch
PSYOPS
psychological operations
PT
point of tangency (triangulation method for measuring curves)
QM
quartermaster
r
surface material (road classification formula)
R
distance (triangulation method for measuring curves); radius of curve (formula method for measuring curves)
RCT
regimental combat team
RDSP
rapid decision-making and synchronization process
recon
reconnaissance
RED HORSE
Rapid Engineers Deployable Heavy Operations Repair Squadron, Engineers
RFI
request for information
RI
relevant information
ROE
rules of engagement
RO/RO
roll-on/roll-off
ROPS
Rollover protective structures
RP
release point
RRR
rapid runway repair
RTCH
rough terrain container handler
S-1
personnel staff officer
S-2
intelligence staff officer
S-3
operations staff officer
S-4
logistics staff officer
S-9
civil-military operations officer
SAK
Simula Armor Kit
SBCT
Stryker brigade combat team
SCATMINE
scatterable mine
Seabee
Navy construction engineer
SHAPE
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe
SIG
signal intelligence
SINCGARS
Single-Channel, Ground-to-Air Radio System
SIPRNET
SECRET Internet Protocol Router Network
SIR
specific information requirement
SLOT
self-load/off-load
SME
subject matter expert
SOP
standing operating procedure
SP
start point
SSN
Social Security number
STANAG
standardization agreement (NATO)
SU
situational understanding sewage, water, electricity, academics, trash, medical, safety, and other
SWEAT-MSO
considerations
T
snow blockage (route classification formula)
TACGENS
tactical generators
TAI
targeted area of interest
TEC
Topographic Engineering Center
TEOC
TeleEngineering Emergency Operations Center
TETK
TeleEngineering toolkit
TF
task force
TGD
Theater Geospatial Database
TIM
toxic industrial material
TLP
troop-leading procedure
TM
technical manual
TOC
tactical operations center
TOE
table of organization and equipment
TP
turn point
TRADOC
United States Army Training and Doctrine Command
TUSK
tank urban survivability kit
TV
television
U.S.
United States
UAS
unmanned aircraft system
UFC
Unified Facilities Criteria
UO
urban operations
USACE
United States Army Corps of Engineers
USACHPPM
United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine
USAES
United States Army Engineer School
USAF
United States Air Force
USMC
United States Marine Corps
USN
United States Navy
UXO
unexploded explosive ordnance
VBIED
vehicle-borne improvised explosive device
Vd
vertical distance (determining the percent of slope )
W
flooding (route classification formula)
WARNORD
warning order
WF
wide flange
WRDB
water resources database
WRDT
water resource detection team
X
all-weather route
XO
executive officer
Y
limited, all-weather route
Z
fair-weather route

## Section Ii - Terms Area Clearance

In land operations, the detection and if found, the identification, marking and neutralization, destruction, or removal of mines or other explosive ordnance, improvised explosive devises, and booby traps in a defined area to allow a military operation to continue with reduced risk.

## *Assessment

A judgment about something based on a technical understanding of the situation. Within the range of technical reconnaissance, an assessment takes less time and technical expertise to perform than a survey but provides less technical detail than a survey. Reconnaissance elements do not require specialized technical expertise to perform an assessment. They conduct assessments following the same basic formats a survey would use.

## Assured Mobility

Actions that give the force commander the ability to maneuver where and when desired without interruption or delay to achieve the mission. (FM 3-34)

## Booby Trap

An explosive or nonexplosive device or other material deliberately placed to cause casualties when an apparently harmless object is disturbed or a normally safe act is performed. (FM 1-02)

## Breach

(Army) A tactical mission task in which a unit employs all available means to break through or secure a passage through an enemy defense, obstacle, minefield, or fortification. (Marine Corps) The employment of any means available to break through or secure a passage through an obstacle. (FM 1-02)

## Captured Enemy Ammunition

Captured enemy ammunition is all ammunition products and components produced for or used by a foreign force that is hostile to the United States (that is or was engaged in combat against the United States) in the custody of a United States military force or under the control of a Department of Defense component. The term includes confined gaseous, liquid and solid propellants, explosives, pyrotechnics, chemical and riot-control agents, smokes and incendiaries (including bulk explosives), chemical warfare agents, chemical munitions, rockets, guided and ballistic missiles, bombs, warheads, mortar rounds, artillery ammunition, small arms ammunition, grenades, mines, torpedoes, depth charges, cluster munitions and dispensers, demolition charges, and devices and components of the above. (FM 3-34.210)

## Combined Arms

The synchronized or simultaneous application of several armssuch as infantry, armor, field artillery, engineers, air defense, and aviationto achieve an effect on the enemy that is greater than if each arm were used against the enemy in sequence. (FM 1-02)

## Command

(DOD only) The authority that a commander in the Armed Forces lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using available resources to plan for employing, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling military forces to accomplish assigned missions. It also includes responsibility for health, welfare, morale, and discipline of assigned personnel. (FM 6-0)

## Command And Control

(Army) The exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces to accomplish a mission. Commanders exercise command and control through a command and control system. (FM 6-0)

## Control

(Army) Within command and control, the regulation of forces and other battlefield operating systems to accomplish the mission in accordance with the commander's intent. It includes collecting, processing, displaying, storing, and disseminating relevant information for creating the common operational picture and using information during the operations process. (FM 6-0)

## Engagement Area

An area where the commander intends to contain and destroy an enemy force with the massed effects of all available weapons and supporting systems. Also called an EA. (FM 3-90)

## Engagement Criteria

Protocols that specify those circumstances for initiating engagement with an enemy force. (FM 3-90)

## Essential Elements Of Friendly Information

(DOD) Key questions likely to be asked by adversary officials and intelligence systems about specific friendly intentions, capabilities, and activities so they can obtain answers critical to their operational effectiveness. (Army) The critical aspects of a friendly operation that, if known by the enemy, would subsequently compromise, lead to failure, or limit success of the operation, and, therefore, must be protected from enemy detection. (FM 3-13) (Marine Corps) Specific facts about friendly intentions, capabilities, and activities needed by adversaries to plan and execute effective operations against our forces. Also called **EEFI**. (FM 1-02)

## Essential Mobility And Survivability Task

A mobility, countermobility, or survivability task identified as critical to the combined arms mission.

Like other essential tasks, these tasks are identified from the specified and implied tasks listed during mission analysis. Although the task may be executed by a combined-arms element, staff elements typically identify and propose the essential mobility and survivability tasks to the commander. Also called **EMST**. (FM 3-34)

## Explosive Hazard

Any hazard containing an explosive component. All explosive hazards currently encountered on the battlefield can be broken down into five categories: unexploded ordnance, booby traps, improvised explosive devices, captured enemy ammunition, and bulk explosives. (FM 3-34.210)

## Explosive Ordnance Disposal

(DOD, NATO) The detection, identification, on-site evaluation, rendering safe, recovery, and final disposal of unexploded ordnance. It may also include explosive ordnance which has become hazardous by damage or deterioration. Also called EOD. See FM 5-250. (FM 1-02)

## Friendly Force Information Requirements

Information the commander and staff need about the forces available for the operation. Also called FFIR. (FM 6-0)

## Improvised Explosive Device

A device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract. It may incorporate military stores but is normally devised from nonmilitary components. Also called IED.

(JP 3-07.2)

## *Infrastructure Reconnaissance

A multidiscipline variant of reconnaissance to collect technical information on various categories of the public systems, services, and facilities of a country or region. This task may take the form of either an assessment or a survey and develops the situational understanding of the local capability to support the infrastructure requirements of the local populace and/or military operations within a specific area.

## *Military Load Classification

A standard system in which a route, bridge, or raft is assigned class number(s) representing the load it can carry. Vehicles are also assigned number(s) indicating the minimum class of route, bridge, or raft they are authorized to use. Also called MLC.

## Military Search

The management and application of systematic procedures and appropriate detection equipment to locate specified targets. (FM 3-34.210)

## Neutralize

(DOD) To render safe mines, bombs, missiles, and booby traps. See FM 5-250. (FM 1-02)

## Obstacle

(DOD) Any obstruction designed or employed to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the movement of an enemy force, and to impose additional losses in personnel, time, and equipment on the enemy. Obstacles can be natural, manmade, or a combination of both. See FM 90-7. (FM 1-02)

## *Obstacle Intelligence

Those collection efforts to detect the presence of enemy (and natural) obstacles, determine their types and dimensions, and provide the necessary information to plan appropriate combined arms breaching, clearance, or bypass operations to negate the impact on the friendly scheme of maneuver. Also called OBSTINTEL.

## Operational Environment

(DOD) A composite of the conditions, circumstances, and influences which affect the employment of military forces and bear on the decisions of the unit commander. Some examples are as follows: a.

permissive environmentOperational environment in which host country military and law enforcement agencies have control as well as the intent and capability to assist operations that a unit intends to conduct. b. **uncertain environment**Operational environment in which host government forces, whether opposed or receptive to operations that a unit intends to conduct, do not have totally effective control of the territory and population in the intended operational area. c. hostile environmentOperational environment in which hostile forces have control and the intent and capability to effectively oppose or react to the operations a unit intends to conduct. See FM 3-07. (FM 1-02)

## Priority Intelligence Requirement

(Joint) Those intelligence requirements for which a commander has an anticipated and stated priority in his task of planning and decision making. Also called **PIRs**. (JP 1-02)

## Reachback

(DOD) The process of obtaining products, services, and applications, or forces, or equipment, or material from organizations that are not forward deployed. (Army/Marine Corps) The ability to exploit resources, capabilities, expertise, and so forth not physically located in the theater or a joint operations area when established. (FM 1-02)

## Reconnaissance

A mission undertaken to obtain, by visual observation or other detection methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy or to secure data concerning the meteorological, hydrographical, or geographical characteristics and the indigenous population of a particular area. (FM 3-0)

## Reconnaissance Objective

A terrain feature, geographical area, or an enemy force about which the commander wants to obtain additional information. (FM 3-90)

## Reduce

One of the five breaching fundamentals. The creation of a lane through, over, or around an obstacle. In the case of minefields, refers to destroying, neutralizing, removing, or bypassing mines. (FM 3-34.2)

## Render Safe

Those particular courses or modes of action taken by explosive ordnance disposal personnel for access to, diagnosis, rendering safe, recovery, and final disposal of explosive ordnance or any hazardous material associated with an explosive ordnance disposal incident. The render safe procedures include the portion of the explosive ordnance disposal procedures involving the application of special explosive ordnance disposal methods and tools to provide for the interruption of functions or separation of essential components of unexploded ordnance to prevent an unacceptable detonation. (FM 3-34.210)

## *Route Classification

Classification assigned to a route using factors of minimum width and worst route type; least bridge, raft, or culvert military load classification; and obstructions to traffic flow.

## Route Clearance

In land operations, the detection and if found, the identification, marking, neutralization, destruction or removal of explosive hazards and other obstacles along a defined route to allow a military operation to continue with reduced risk. (FM 3-34.2)

## Situational Understanding

The product of applying analysis and judgment to the common operational picture to determine the relationships among the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, civil considerations. (FM 3-0)

## Surveillance

(DOD, NATO) The systematic observation of airspace, surface, or subsurface areas by visual, auditory, electronic, photographic, or other means. (FM 1-02)

## *Survey

Looks at or considers something closely, especially to form a technical opinion. Within the range of technical reconnaissance, a survey requires more time and technical expertise than an assessment to perform but subsequently provides the most technical detail. Specific technical expertise is required to conduct a survey.

## Task

(Army) A clearly defined and measurable activity accomplished by individuals and organizations. Tasks are specific activities that contribute to the accomplishment of encompassing missions or other requirements. (FM 7-0)

## Unexploded Explosive Ordnance

(DOD, NATO) Explosive ordnance which has been primed, fused, armed, or otherwise prepared for action, and which has been fired, dropped, launched, projected, or placed in such a manner as to constitute a hazard to operations, installations, personnel, or material and remains unexploded either by malfunction or design or for any other cause. Also called UXO. See FM 21-16. (FM 1-02)

## Warfighting Function

A group of tasks and systems (people, organizations, information, and processes) united by a common purpose that commanders use to accomplish missions and training objectives. (FM 3-0)

## References Sources Used These Are The Sources Quoted Or Paraphrased In This Publication. Army Publications

DA forms are available on the APD web site (www.apd.army.mil).
AR 27-1. *Legal Services, Judge Advocate Legal Services*. 30 September 1996. AR 715-9. *Contractors Accompanying the Force*. 29 October 1999. CJCSI 3121.01b, Standing Rules of Engagement/Standing Rules for the Use of Force for US Forces.
13 Jun 2005. (Superceded CJCSI 3121.01A)
DA Form 1248. *Road Reconnaissance Report*. DA Form 1249. *Bridge Reconnaissance Report*. DA Form 1250. *Tunnel Reconnaissance Report*. DA Form 1251. *Ford Reconnaissance Report*.
DA Form 1252. *Ferry Reconnaissance Report*. DA Form 1711-R. *Engineer Reconnaissance Report (LRA)*. DA Form 2028. *Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms*.
DA Form 2203-R. *Demolition Reconnaissance Record (LRA)*. DA Form 7602, *Explosive Hazards Survey Report.* DA Form 7398-R. *River Reconnaissance Report (LRA)*. DOD Directive 5100.77. *Department of Defense Law of War Program*. 9 December 1998.
FM 1. *The Army*. 14 June 2005. FM 1-02. *Operational Terms and Graphics (MCRP 5-12A)*. 21 September 2004.
FM 2-0. Intelligence, 17 May 2004.
FM 3-0. *Operations*. 27 Feb 2008. FM 3-05.301*. Psychological Operations, Process Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures*.
30 August 2007.
FM 3-06 (90-10). *Urban Operations*. 26 October 2006.
FM 3-06.11 (90-10-1). *Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain*. 28 February 2002.
FM 3-07 (100-20). *Stability Operations and Support Operations*. 20 February 2003.
(To be revised as FM 3-28.)

FM 3-13 (100-6). *Information Operations: Doctrine, Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures*.
28 November 2003.
FM 3-19.1 (19.1). *Military Police Operations*. 22 March 2001. FM 3-20.96. *Cavalry Squadron (RSTA)*. 20 September 2006. FM 3-34 (5-100). *Engineer Operations*. 2 January 2004. FM 3-34.2. *Combined Arms Breaching Operations.* 31 August 2000.
(To be revised as FM 3-90.11.)
FM 3-34.210. *Explosive Hazards Operations.*27 March 2007. FM 3-34.214. *Explosives and Demolitions.* 11 July 2007. FM 3-34.221, *Engineer Operations: Stryker Brigade Combat Team.* 7 January 2005.
(To be revised as FM 3-34.22.)
FM 3-34.230 (5-105). *Topographic Operations*. 3 August 2000.

## References

FM 3-34.343. *Military Nonstandard Fixed Bridging*. 12 February 2002. FM 3-34.480. *Engineer Prime Power Operations*. 4 April 2007. FM 3-90. *Tactics*. 4 July 2001.
FM 3-90.6. *The Brigade Combat Team*. 4 August 2006.
FM 3-97.6 (90-6). *Mountain Operations.* 28 November 2000. FM 3-100.4. *Environmental Considerations in Military Operations*. 15 June 2000
(To be revised as FM 3-34.500/MCRP 4-11B.)
FM 3-100.21 (100-21). *Contractors on the Battlefield*. 3 January 2003. FM 4-0 (100-10). *Combat Service Support*. 29 August 2003.
FM 5-0. *Army Planning and Orders Production*. 20 January 2005.

FM 5-7-30. Brigade Engineer and Engineer Company Combat Operations
(Airborne, Air Assault, Light). 28 December 1994. (To be revised as FM 3-34.22.)
FM 5-71-2. *Armored Task Force Engineer Combat Operations*. 28 June 1996. (To be revised as FM 3-34.22.)
FM 5-71-3. *Brigade Engineer Combat Operations (Armored).* 3 October 1995.
(To be revised as FM 3-34.22.)
FM 5-103. *Survivability.* 10 June 1985. (To be revised as FM 3-34.300/MCWP 3-17.6). FM 5-104. *General Engineering.* 12 November 1986. (To be revised as FM 3-34.400/MCRP 3-17.8).

FM 5-170. *Engineer Reconnaissance*. 5 May 1998. FM 6-0. *Mission Command: Command and Control of Army Forces.* 11 August 2003. FM 7-0. *Training the Force*. 22 October 2002. FM 7-15. *The Army Universal Task List*. 31 August 2003. With change 2 dated 6 July 2006. FM 20-3. *Camouflage, Concealment, and Decoys.* 30 August 1999.

FM 27-100. *Legal Support to Operations*. 1 March 2000. FM 34-2. *Collection Management and Synchronization Planning*. 8 March 1994. FM 90-3. *Desert Operations*. 24 August 1993. FM 90-5. *Jungle Operations.* 16 August 1982. FM 90-7. *Combined Arms Obstacle Integration*. 29 September 1994.

With change 1 dated 10 April 2003.
FM 90-13. *River-Crossing Operations*. 26 January 1998.
(To be revised as FM 3-90.12/MCRP 3-17.1).
FMI 4-30.50. *Modular Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operations*. 31 July 2006.
FMI 5-0.1. *The Operations Process*. 31 March 2006.
GTA 05-07-013. *Rapid Field Classification Booklet*. 1 July 2006. STANAG 2002 (Ed. 10). Warning Signs for the Marking of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical
Contaminations. 28 March 2006.
STANAG 2010 (Ed 6). *Military Load Classification Markings.* 5 March 2004.
STANAG 2017 (Ed. 4). Orders to the Demolition Guard Commander and Demolition Firing Party
Commander (Non-nuclear). 28 January 1999.
STANAG 2021 (Ed 6). Military Load Classification of Bridges, Ferries, Rafts, and Vehicles.
7 September 2006.
STANAG 2036 (Ed. 6). *Land Mine Laying, Marking, Recording and Reporting Procedures.* Edition 6.
27 January 2005.
STANAG 2101/QSTAG 533 (Ed. 11). *Establishing Liaison.* 15 May 2001. STANAG 2123 (Ed. 2). O*bstacle Folder.* 30 November 1984.

STANAG 2143 (Ed. 5). Explosive Ordnance Reconnaissance/Explosive Ordnance Disposal.
       16 September 2005.
STANAG 2221 (Ed. 1). Explosive Ordnance Disposal Reports and Messages. 1 June 2001.
STANAG 2259 (Ed. 4). Military Geographic Documentation - Terrain. 12 June 1975.
STANAG 2269 (Ed. 3). Military Geographic Documentation - Engineer Resources. 14 May 1979.
STANAG 2282 (Ed. 1). Interservice EOD Operations on Multinational Deployments. 16 May 2006.
STANAG 2369 (Ed. 2). Identification and Disposal of Surface and Air Munitions. 16 February 1994.
STANAG 2370 (Ed. 1). Principles of Improvised Explosive Device Disposal. 6 February 1987.
STANAG 2430 (Ed. 3). Land Forces Combat Engineer Messages, Reports and Returns.
       18 August 2004.
STANAG 2454 (Ed 3). Road Movements and Movement Control. 27 Jan 2005
STANAG 2989 (Ed.2). Transfer of Barriers. 3 February 2007.
STANAG 2991 (Ed. 4). NATO Combat Engineer Glossary. 18 August 2004.
STANAG 3680 (Ed. 5). NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English & French).
        2 December 1998.
The SWEAT/IR Book. Infrastructure Reconnaissance, Version 2.0. 4 October 2005.
   Cited:  http://www.cecer.army.mil/td/tips/browse/publications.cfm.
TC 5-230. Army Geospatial Guide for Commanders and Planners. 28 November 2003.
TM 5-349. Arctic Construction. 19 February 1962.
TM 5-820-1. Surface Drainage Facilities for Airfields and Heliports. 20 August 1987.
TM 5-852-1. General Provisions: Arctic and Subarctic Construction.  4 September 1987.
UFC 3-130-01. General Provisions: Arctic and Subarctic Construction. 16 January 2004.
UFC 3-230-01. Surface Drainage Design. 2 February 2005.
UFC 3-230-16FA. Drainage and Erosion  Control Structures for Airfields and Heliports.
       16 January 2004.
UFC 3-260-01. Airfield and Heliport Planning and Design. 19 May 2006.
UFC 3-260-02. Pavement Design for Airfields. 30 June 2001.
UFC 3-270-07. O&M: Airfield Damage Repair. 12 August 2002.
UFC 3-535-01. Visual Air Navigation Facilities, 17 November 2005.
UFC 4-141-10N. Design: Aviation Operation and Support Facilities. 16 January 2004.

AIR FORCE PUBLICATIONS
  AFDD 2-4.4. Bases, Infrastructure, and Facilities. 13 November1999.
  AFM 91-201. Explosives Safety Standards. 18 October 2001.
  AFPAM 10-1403. Air Mobility Planning Factors. 18 December 2003.

## Marine Corps Publications Mcrp 3-17B. *Engineer Forms And Reports.* 3 October 1997. Navy Publications Nwp 4-04. Naval Civil Engineering Operations. December 2007.

JOINT PUBLICATIONS
JP 1-02. *Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.*12 April 2001.

JP 2-03. *Geospatial Intelligence  Support to Joint Operations*. 22 March 2007.

## References

JP 3-07.3. *Peace Operations*. 17 October 2007. JP 3-26. *Homeland Security*. 2 August 2005.

JP 3-34. *Joint Engineer Operations*. 12 February 2007.

MULTI-SERVICE PUBLICATIONS
FM 3-100.12/MCRP 5-12.1C/NTTP 5-03.5/ATTP(1). Risk Management for Multiservices Tactics,
Techniques, and Procedures. 15 February 2001.
FM 4-30.16/MCRP 3-17.2C/NTTP(1) 3-2.32. Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for
Explosive Ordnance Disposal in a Joint Environment. 27 October 2005.
FM 4-30.51 (FM 21-16). Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) Procedures. 13 July 2006.
FM 5-34/MCRP 3-17A. *Engineer Field Data*. 19 July 2005.
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013. Volume I, Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports
in the Theater of Operations - Road Design. 26 August 1994.
FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM 32-8013. Volume II, Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and
Heliports in the Theater of Operations - Airfield and Heliport Design. 29 September 1994.
FM 3-90.119 (FMI 3-34.119/MCIP 3-17.01). Combined Arms Improvised Explosive Device Defeat
Operations. 21 September 2007.
TM 5-820-3/AFM 88-5. Drainage and Erosion - Control Structures for Airfields and Heliports.
3 June 1991

## Documents Needed

These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

None

## Readings Recommended

These readings contain relevant supplemental information.

None

## Index A

and intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance, 3-4

Air Force airfields
   mission categories, 6-26
airfield assessment, 6-23
airfields

and reconnaissance
  methods, 3-8
and reconnaissance
  operations, 1-4

and situational
  understanding, 2-2
and the common
  operational picture, 2-1
and the engineer
  coordinator, 2-5

   pavement types, 6-26
airfields and heliports
   classes of, 4-11
area reconnaissance, 3-14
   as part of brigade combat
     team operation, 3-7
   as part of tactical
     capabilities, 1-7

intelligence, surveillance,
  and reconnaissance
  operations, 3-1

reconnaissance guidance,
  3-10

complex terrain, 4-24
   arctic and cold regions,

  4-27
deserts, 4-26
jungles and forests, 4-24
mountains, 4-25

Army airfields and heliports
   classes of, 6-26
assessment and survey
   teams, 3-18
assessment teams, 6-14
assessments and surveys,
  3-18
assured mobility
   fundamentals of, 2-4

## B

countermobility operations,
4-13
obstacle placement, 4-13

curve calculations, 5-7
formula method, 5-8 tape measure method, 5-7 triangulation method, 5-8

## Da Form 1247, B-5

bare base airfield, 6-25 breaching operation, 4-3
and large obstacles, 4-4
bridge
components of, 6-2 condition, 6-4 dimensions, 6-5, F-1 span types, 6-2 symbol, 6-4
bridge reconnaissance, 6-1
engagement criteria
defined, 3-8
engineer

## C

and warfighting functions, 1
3
reconnaissance, 1-5
engineer coordinator
and essential mobility and
survivability tasks, 2-10
tasks of the, 2-5
classification numbers, E-1 clearing operations, 4-4
area clearance, 4-5 route clearance, 4-5
combat engineer
reconnaissance tasks, 1-7
combat engineering
defined, 1-2
commander
engineer functions, 1-1
combat engineering, 1-2 general engineering, 1-2 geospatial engineering, 1-3 support of maneuver force,
1-3
engineer reconnaissance, 3-7
and assured mobility, 2-3
and command and control,
2-1
and information
management, 2-1
and essential mobility and
survivability task, 2-10

   capabilities of, 1-7
   other types, 4-28
engineer reconnaissance
  reports
   types of, B-4
engineer reconnaissance team,

2-13
dismounted element, 1-10
duties of, 1-9
formation of, 1-9
limitations of, 1-11
mounted element, 1-10
obstacle reconnaissance,

  4-2
technical augmentation of,
  1-12
training, 1-11

environmental baseline survey
   contents of, D-3
   implementation of the, D-2
   preparation of the, D-1

environmental reconnaissance,
  6-21

essential tasks for mobility,

countermobility, and
survivability task
examples of, 2-10

explosive hazard survey, 4-7
explosive ordnance clearance

## D

agent
capabilities of, 1-12 limitations of, 1-13

## F E

ferries, 6-8
forms of reconnaissance, 3-12

## G

gap crossing sites
ferry, 6-8 ford, 6-6 river, 6-10 underwater, 6-13
general engineer
capabilities, 1-12 technical capabilities, 1-8
general engineering
capabilities, 1-8 defined, 1-2
geospatial engineer team, 2-7 geospatial engineering
defined, 1-3
geospatial support, 2-6
angle-of-slope method,
I
infrastructure assessment, C-1 infrastructure protection, 6-21 infrastructure reconnaissance,
5-12
clinometer method, 5-10 map method, 5-11 pace method, 5-11
6-14, C-5
priority intelligence
requirements, 3-4
infrastructure survey, C-1 intelligence synchronization
R
considerations, 3-3
rapid decision-making and
synchronization process
five steps of, 2-9
reconnaissance
defined, 3-8 tactical, 1-7
reconnaissance guidance
engagement criteria, 3-11
focus, 3-10 tempo, 3-11
reconnaissance methods, 3-8
reconnaissance pull, 3-9 reconnaissance push, 3-9
intelligence synchronization
plan
development of, 3-5
intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance
and commander's critical
information requirements,
3-4
assets, 2-14 factors, 3-6 integration, 3-5 operations, 3-1 planning, 3-1 staff support of, 3-2
synchronization, 3-2 synchronization plan, 3-5
intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance plan
execution of, 3-7 finalized, 3-7 formation of, 3-6

## M

maintain countermobility
operations
obstacle integration, 4-14
military decision-making
process, 2-7
and essential mobility and
reconnaissance objective
defined, 3-8
reconnaissance operations,
1-4
and the engineer
coordinator, 2-5
range of, 1-5
reconnaissance techniques,
3-9
resource assessment, 6-14 road classification formula,
5-26
road reconnaissance, 5-20
base course and subgrade,
5-23
survivability tasks, 2-10
road capacity computations,
5-25
route classification, 5-1
mobility operations, 4-1
clearing operations, 4-4 combat roads and trails, 4-9 five functional areas of, 4-1 forward aviation combat
bypasses, 5-3 combat operations, 5-2 general, 5-2 overlay, 5-2 symbols, B-1
engineering, 4-11
gap crossing, 4-8 obstacle reconnaissance,
4-2
mobility, countermobility, and
route classification formula, 5-4 route reconnaissance, 3-15
control measures, 3-16 critical tasks, 3-16
survivability, 2-9
modular team, 6-28
obstacles
manmade and natural, 1-11
intelligence, surveillance,
and reconnaissance synchronization, 3-5
P
S-3
percent of slope
and intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance, 3-6
S-4
sustainment planning, 3-20
search operations, 4-20 sign lighting, G-11 slope estimation, 5-10 slope symbols, 5-13 standard route signs, G-1
guide signs, G-7 hazard, G-2 regulatory signs, G-4
surveillance
defined, 3-8
survivability operations, 4-14
fighting positions, 4-15 protective position, 4-15
sustainment operations
planning
keys of, 3-20
sustainment planners and
operators, 3-20

## T

tactical reconnaissance
mission, 3-17
technical capabilities
of general engineers, 1-8
technical reconnaissance
capabilities, 1-8
terrain analysis
definition of, 2-6
topographic company, 2-6 tunnel, 5-16
destruction, 4-23 detection, 4-22
reconnaissance, 4-22
tunnels, 4-21

## U

underpass, 5-15 underwater reconnaissance,
6-13
urban operations, 4-16
vehicle signs, G-10 zone reconnaissance tasks,
3-13

By order of the Secretary of the Army:
Official:
JOYCE E. MORROW
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
0806402

## Distribution:

Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the initial distribution number (IDN) 115747, requirements for FM 3-34.170/MCWP 3-17.4. Marine Corps PCN: 14300015600