ERIC VAN BEMMEL Turning now to Brazil and independence, indeed they became independent from Portugal in 1822 and they started out as a monarchy and eventually forming a republic established in 1889.  Now, at that time, what was the Brazilian population and what did it look like? MARSHALL EAKIN Interestingly enough, if you look at the Americas, the United States, which takes shape at the end of the eighteenth century, and Brazil have roughly the same population, about 3.5 million people.  By the end of the nineteenth century, the United States has experienced a population explosion, it's an enormous country, Brazil has about 15 million people.  But what's fundamentally different about those two places, that population explosion in the United States is both internal in growth but also European immigration, largely white.  If you look at Brazil in the nineteenth century, it's not until the very end of the nineteenth century that kind of massive wave of European immigration takes place and it's much smaller than United States.So the population in Brazil towards the end of the nineteenth century, until 1888 and slavery is abolished.  People who are in slavery, who are largely born in Africa, in other cases who are the children of Africans who've been brought over in slavery.  Then you have a large poor population of racially mixed background and then you have a smaller portion of the population which is, by European standards, white.  So if you look at Brazil in roughly, let's say, 1890, the