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information_extraction | What are the statistics about San Francisco International Airport? | It is an international airport 13 miles south of San Francisco. It is the largest airport in San Francisco Bay Area and second largest in the state of California. It is a 7th business airport in United States and 24th in the world by passenger count. It is one of the largest hub for United Airlines. it houses the SFO Museum which was created in 1980. It is owned and operated by the city and county of San Francisco | San Francisco International Airport (IATA: SFO, ICAO: KSFO, FAA LID: SFO) is an international airport in an unincorporated area of San Mateo County, 13 miles (21 km) south of Downtown San Francisco. It has flights to points throughout North America and is a major gateway to Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Oceania.
SFO is the largest airport in the San Francisco Bay Area and the second-busiest in California, after Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). In 2017, it was the seventh-busiest airport in the United States and the 24th-busiest in the world by passenger count. It is the fifth-largest hub for United Airlines, which operates out of Terminal 3 and the International Terminal. SFO functions as United's primary transpacific gateway. Additionally, SFO is a major maintenance hub for United Airlines and houses the SFO Museum that was created in 1980, the first museum in an international airport. It also serves as a hub for Alaska Airlines, which operates in Terminal 2.
The airport is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco and lies in a ZIP code assigned to San Francisco. However, it is located outside of San Francisco in unincorporated San Mateo County. Between 1999 and 2004, the San Francisco Airport Commission operated city-owned SFO Enterprises, Inc., to oversee its business purchases and operations of ventures. |
closed_qa | What are the features offered by Github Copilot? | GitHub Copilot includes assistive features for programmers, such as the conversion of code comments to runnable code and autocomplete for chunks of code, repetitive sections of code, and entire methods and/or functions. | When provided with a programming problem in natural language, Codex is capable of generating solution code. It is also able to describe input code in English and translate code between programming languages.
According to its website, GitHub Copilot includes assistive features for programmers, such as the conversion of code comments to runnable code and autocomplete for chunks of code, repetitive sections of code, and entire methods and/or functions. GitHub reports that Copilot’s autocomplete feature is accurate roughly half of the time; with some Python function header code, for example, Copilot correctly autocompleted the rest of the function body code 43% of the time on the first try and 57% of the time after ten attempts.
GitHub states that Copilot’s features allow programmers to navigate unfamiliar coding frameworks and languages by reducing the amount of time users spend reading documentation. |
information_extraction | Based on this passage, how many siblings did Hearst have? | Hearst had one brother and one sister. | Hearst was born near present-day Sullivan, Missouri, to William G. Hearst and Elizabeth Collins, who were of Scots-Irish ancestry. Hearst, one of three children — two boys and a girl – was raised in a log cabin on his family's farm in rural Franklin County. His father operated three small farms, all of which were mortgaged. William Hearst sold his products in his own local general store. George Hearst grew up before public education was widely available in Missouri, meaning his elementary education was inconsistent and fragmented. Becoming interested in mining, Hearst supplemented the gaps in his formal education by observing the local mines, reading information about minerals from books owned by his family doctor, Silas Reed, and mining in his free time. |
closed_qa | Who is the best surfer in the world | Kelly Slater | Robert Kelly Slater (born February 11, 1972) is an American professional surfer, best known for being crowned World Surf League champion a record 11 times. Slater is widely regarded as the greatest professional surfer of all time, and holds 56 Championship Tour victories. Slater is also the oldest surfer still active on the World Surf League, winning his 8th Billabong Pipeline Masters title at age 49. |
closed_qa | Given these paragraphs about Natural hydrogen, what is another name for it that distinguishes from other forms of hydrogen? | White hydrogen | Natural hydrogen (known as white hydrogen), is naturally occurring molecular hydrogen on or in Earth (as opposed to hydrogen produced in the laboratory or in industry). The name white hydrogen distinguishes it from green hydrogen, which is produced from renewable energy sources, and from grey, brown or black hydrogen, which is obtained from fossil sources or from the electrolysis of water. Natural hydrogen may be renewable, non-polluting and allows for lower cost operation compared to industrial hydrogen. Natural hydrogen has been identified in many source rocks in areas beyond the sedimentary basins where oil companies typically operate.
Origin of natural hydrogen
There are several sources of natural hydrogen:
- degassing of deep hydrogen from the Earth's crust and mantle;
- reaction of water with ultrabasic rocks (serpentinisation);
- contact of water with reducing agents in the Earth's mantle;
- interaction of water with freshly exposed rock surfaces (weathering);
- decomposition of hydroxyl ions in the structure of minerals;
- Natural radiolysis of water;
- decomposition of organic matter;
- biological activity
- Extraction
- Natural hydrogen is extracted from wells, mixed with other gases such as nitrogen or helium.
Several sources have been identified in France. Geologists Alain Prinzhofer and Eric Derville have demonstrated the existence of large reservoirs in a dozen countries, including Mali and the United States. However, their potential remains difficult to assess.
Numerous emanations on the ocean floor have been identified but are difficult to exploit. The discovery of a significant emergence in Russia in 2008 suggests the possibility of extracting native hydrogen in geological environments.
Geology
Natural hydrogen is generated continuously from a variety of natural sources. There are many known hydrogen emergences on mid-ocean ridges. Another of the known reactions, serpentinisation, occurs under the sea floor (in the oceanic crust).
Diagenetic origin (iron oxidation) in the sedimentary basins of cratons, notably in Russia. Other sources are being explored, such as mantle hydrogen, or hydrogen from radiolysis (natural electrolysis) or from bacterial activity. In France, the Alps and Pyrenees are suitable for exploitation. New Caledonia has hyperalkaline sources that show dihydrogen emissions. A large accumulation of natural hydrogen was discovered in Bourakebougou (Mali).
Characteristics
Dihydrogen is very soluble in fresh water, especially at depth (solubility increases with pressure).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_hydrogen |
summarization | Summarize disruptive innovation in two paragraphs | In business theory, disruptive innovation is innovation that creates a new market and value network or enters at the bottom of an existing market and eventually displaces established market-leading firms, products, and alliances. The concept was developed by the American academic Clayton Christensen and his collaborators beginning in 1995,[full citation needed] and has been called the most influential business idea of the early 21st century. Lingfei Wu, Dashun Wang, and James A. Evans generalized this term to identify disruptive science and technological advances from more than 65 million papers, patents and software products that span the period 1954–2014. Their work was featured as the cover of the February 2019 issue of Nature and was included among the Altmetric 100 most-discussed work in 2019.
Not all innovations are disruptive, even if they are revolutionary. For example, the first automobiles in the late 19th century were not a disruptive innovation, because early automobiles were expensive luxury items that did not disrupt the market for horse-drawn vehicles. The market for transportation essentially remained intact until the debut of the lower-priced Ford Model T in 1908. The mass-produced automobile was a disruptive innovation, because it changed the transportation market, whereas the first thirty years of automobiles did not.
Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and entrepreneurs in startups, rather than existing market-leading companies. The business environment of market leaders does not allow them to pursue disruptive innovations when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from sustaining innovations (which are needed to compete against current competition). Small teams are more likely to create disruptive innovations than large teams. A disruptive process can take longer to develop than by the conventional approach and the risk associated to it is higher than the other more incremental, architectural or evolutionary forms of innovations, but once it is deployed in the market, it achieves a much faster penetration and higher degree of impact on the established markets. | disruptive innovation is innovation that creates a new market and value network or enters at the bottom of an existing market and eventually displaces established market-leading firms, products, and alliances.The concept was developed by the American academic Clayton Christensen and his collaborators and has been called the most influential business idea of the early 21st century.
Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and entrepreneurs in startups, rather than existing market-leading companies. The business environment of market leaders does not allow them to pursue disruptive innovations when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from sustaining innovations |
summarization | What is the height of the Domtoren in Utrecht. | The Dom Tower (Cathedral Tower, Dutch: Domtoren) of Utrecht is the tallest church tower in the Netherlands, at 112.5 metres (368 feet) in height.The Dom Tower was one of the largest towers constructed in Europe during the fourteenth century, and it was planned to show the power of the church in Utrecht. | The Dom Tower (Cathedral Tower, Dutch: Domtoren) of Utrecht is the tallest church tower in the Netherlands, at 112.5 metres (368 feet) in height. It is considered the symbol of Utrecht. The tower was part of St. Martin's Cathedral, also known as the Dom Church, and was built between 1321 and 1382, to a design by John of Hainaut. The cathedral was never fully completed due to lack of money. Since the unfinished nave collapsed in 1674, the Dom tower has been a freestanding tower. The tower stands at the spot where the city of Utrecht originated almost 2,000 years ago.
Design and construction
The Dom Tower was one of the largest towers constructed in Europe during the fourteenth century, and it was planned to show the power of the church in Utrecht.[citation needed] Its construction led preacher Geert Groote to protest against the vanity of such an immense project, suggesting it was too tall, too expensive and all but aesthetic.
The tower consists of two square blocks, topped by a much lighter lantern. One of the most striking features is the absence of visible buttresses. Its particular shape and original architecture had a large influence on many other towers in the Netherlands, including the Martinitoren in Groningen.[citation needed] Upon completion in 1382 the tower stood 109 metres tall. However the height was increased during the restorations in 1910, to its present height of 112.5 metres.
The Dom tower was a multifunctional building. In addition to being a belfry, it contained a private chapel of the Bishop of Utrecht on the first floor. It also served as a watchtower; the tower guard was housed on the second floor of the lower square block. |
closed_qa | What position did Manis Lamond play? | Manis Lamond was a striker | Manis Lamond (born 14 September 1966) is a retired soccer player from Papua New Guinea. An international who played as a striker, Lamond played professionally in Australia for Canberra City, Sydney United, A.P.I.A. Leichhardt Tigers, Wollongong City, Marconi Stallions and Newcastle United and in Singapore for Sembawang Rangers. |
closed_qa | Why did the Prix Lupin not take place from 1915 to 1918? | Due to the first World War | The event was established in 1855, and it was originally called the Prix de l'Empereur. It was initially held at the Champ de Mars, and was transferred to Longchamp in 1857. It was cancelled due to the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, and was renamed the Grande Poule des Produits in 1872.
The race was one of several trials for the Prix du Jockey Club collectively known as the Poules des Produits. The others (listed by their modern titles) were the Prix Daru, the Prix Hocquart, the Prix Noailles and the Prix Greffulhe. Unlike those races, the Grande Poule des Produits had no restrictions based on the nationality of a horse's sire or dam.
The event was renamed in memory of Auguste Lupin (1807–1895), a successful owner-breeder, in 1896.
The Prix Lupin was abandoned throughout World War I, with no running from 1915 to 1918. It was cancelled once during World War II, in 1940. It was run at Le Tremblay over 2,150 metres in 1943, and at Maisons-Laffitte in 1944.
The present system of race grading was introduced in 1971, and the Prix Lupin was classed at Group 1 level.
The race was last run in 2004. It was discontinued after France Galop restructured its Group 1 programme for three-year-olds in 2005. |
information_extraction | From the passage provided, extract where Thomas finished high school. | Thomas finished high school at John Muir High School in Pasadena, California. | Thomas attended the local Medicine Lodge school through the 11th grade, the last grade the school offered. He moved to Pasadena, California and finished high school at John Muir High School. He attended Pasadena Junior College for two years and then obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in Forestry in February, 1941, from the University of Idaho, at Moscow, Idaho.
In 1950, he enrolled in Texas A&M University, at College Station, Texas, where he obtained a MS degree in Wildlife Management in 1951 and a Ph.D in Wildlife Management in 1954 (called Range Management then). |
summarization | What principles does conversion rate optimization share with direct response marketing? | They are both marketing approaches that emphasize tracking, testing, and on-going improvement. Direct response marketers also practice A/B split-testing, response tracking, and audience testing to optimize mail, radio, and print campaigns. | Online conversion rate optimization (or website optimization) was born out of the need of e-commerce marketers to improve their website's performance in the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, when technology companies started to be more aware about their spending, investing more in website analytics. After the burst, with website creation being more accessible, tons of pages with bad user experience were created. As competition grew on the web during the early 2000s, website analysis tools became available, and awareness of website usability grew, internet marketers were prompted to produce measurables for their tactics and improve their website's user experience.
In 2004, new tools enabled internet marketers to experiment with website design and content variations to determine which layouts, copy text, offers, and images perform best. Testing started to be more accessible and known. This form of optimization accelerated in 2007 with the introduction of the free tool Google Website Optimizer. Today, optimization and conversion are key aspects of many digital marketing campaigns. A research study conducted among internet marketers in 2017, for example, showed that 50% of respondents thought that CRO was "crucial to their overall digital marketing strategy".
Conversion rate optimization shares many principles with direct response marketing – a marketing approach that emphasizes tracking, testing, and on-going improvement. Direct marketing was popularized in the early twentieth century and supported by the formation of industry groups such as the Direct Marketing Association, which was formed in 1917 and later named Data & Marketing Association and acquired by the Association of National Advertisers following the announcement on May 31, 2018.
Like modern day conversion rate optimization, direct response marketers also practice A/B split-testing, response tracking, and audience testing to optimize mail, radio, and print campaigns. |
information_extraction | How many points did Jaromír Jágr score in the 1995-1996 season? | In 1995-1996 season, Jaromír Jágr scored 149 points, which set the record for the most points by a European born player. | In the 1994–95 season, Jágr won his first Art Ross Trophy after finishing the regular season with the most points in the NHL; he tied Eric Lindros with 70 points but won based on his 32 goals to Lindros' 29. The next year, Jágr set a record for most points, 149, by a European-born player. Both his 62 goals and 87 assists from that season still stand as career-highs. His 1995–96 totals for assists and points stand as the records for right-wingers in those categories. After the 1997–98 season, Penguins captain Ron Francis signed with the Carolina Hurricanes, leaving Jágr the Penguins' captaincy. From 1997–98 to 2000–01, Jágr would win four-straight NHL scoring titles. In 1999, he would win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player, as well as the Lester B. Pearson Award. In 1998, he led the Czech Republic to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics. |
closed_qa | When was the Tesla Model 3 unit one million sold? | June 2021 | The Tesla Model 3 became the world's all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020, and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales. Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, electric cars form a future mobility vision called Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Mobility. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Patrick James Mara, tell me what he was known for. | Patrick James Mara was most known for being a political adviser to Taoiseach Charles Haughey and serving as Press Secretary and Government Press Secretary. | Patrick James Mara (1 February 1942 – 15 January 2016) was an Irish public affairs consultant and politician who served as Senator from July 1981 to October 1981 and May 1982 to December 1982. He was most renowned for being the political adviser to former Taoiseach Charles Haughey. He also served as Press Secretary to Fianna Fáil from 1983 to 1987 and Government Press Secretary from 1987 to 1992.
He was appointed the Fianna Fáil Director of Elections for the 1997, 2002, and 2007 general elections. He was a member of the board of Digicel, the company founded by Denis O'Brien to build mobile networks in the Caribbean.
He was regularly lampooned on the satirical Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) radio sketch show Scrap Saturday, which ran from 1989 to 1991. |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph, which highs school did Drake Maye attend? | Based on this text, Drake Maye attended Myers Park High School in Charlotte, North Carolina. | Drake Maye was born on August 30, 2002, in Charlotte, North Carolina. He attended and played high school football for Myers Park High School in Charlotte, where he was named MaxPreps North Carolina player of the year. He was a four-star prospect and originally committed to Alabama before flipping to North Carolina. |
closed_qa | How old was Pukeiti when he died? | 64 years old. He was born in 1948 and died in 2012, so 2012 - 1948 = 64. | Pukeiti Pukeiti (c. 1948 - 18 October 2012) was a Cook Islands politician and Member of the Cook Islands Parliament. He was a member of the Cook Islands Party. He represented the electorate of Tamarua.
Pukeiti was elected to Parliament in the 2009 Tamarua by-election following the death of MP Mii Parima. He was re-elected at the 2010 election. |
summarization | Based on this passage, give a bulleted overview of the components of the lean startup methodology. | Lean startup is a business and product development methodology
The aim is to shorten product development cycles
The approach is to test business hypotheses
The experiments involve iterative product releases and learning from customer feedback | Lean startup is a methodology for developing businesses and products that aims to shorten product development cycles and rapidly discover if a proposed business model is viable; this is achieved by adopting a combination of business-hypothesis-driven experimentation, iterative product releases, and validated learning. Lean startup emphasizes customer feedback over intuition and flexibility over planning. This methodology enables recovery from failures more often than traditional ways of product development. |
information_extraction | List the people who voiced Yogi Bear in the 1980s. | Daws Butler voiced Yogi Bear until 1988. Greg Burson took over for the rest of the 1980s. | From the time of the character's debut until 1988, Yogi was voiced by voice actor Daws Butler. Butler died in 1988; his last performance as Yogi was in the television film Yogi and the Invasion of the Space Bears.
In 1983, a Yogi Bear balloon made its first appearance in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, becoming the final balloon that year. That same year, he appeared on a float named A Hanna-Barbera Christmas alongside many other Hanna-Barbera characters, as they cleaned up the streets of Broadway. The performance was bookended with animated segments featuring Yogi and Boo-Boo, voiced by Mel Blanc and Butler, respectively.
After Butler's death in 1988, Greg Burson stepped in to perform the role; Butler had taught Burson personally how to voice Yogi as well as his other characters. Worsening alcoholism and a legal incident led to Burson's firing in 2004 and eventually his death in 2008.
Yogi's current voice actor is Jeff Bergman. Bergman and Billy West also performed the character throughout the 1990s and early to mid-2000s for various Cartoon Network and Boomerang commercials and bumpers. |
summarization | Where did Adlai Stevenson II spend his early life? | Adlai Stevenson II was born in Los Angeles, California but raised in Bloomington, Illinois. After high school he moved to Normal, Illinois then went to boarding school in Connecticut. For college he went to Princeton then briefly attended Harvard Law School. After leaving Harvard he returned to Bloomington but attended classes at Northwestern University School of Law during the week. | Adlai Ewing Stevenson II was born in Los Angeles, California, in a neighborhood that is now designated as the North University Park Historic District. His home and birthplace at 2639 Monmouth Avenue has been designated as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument. He was a member of a prominent Illinois political family. His grandfather and namesake Adlai Stevenson I was Vice President of the United States under President Grover Cleveland from 1893 to 1897. His father, Lewis Stevenson, never held an elected office, but was appointed Illinois Secretary of State (1914–1917) and was considered a strong contender for the Democratic vice-presidential nomination in 1928. A maternal great-grandfather, Jesse W. Fell, had been a close friend and campaign manager for Abraham Lincoln in his 1858 US Senate race; Stevenson often referred to Fell as his favorite ancestor. Stevenson's eldest son, Adlai E. Stevenson III, became a U.S. Senator from Illinois (1970–1981). His mother was Helen Davis Stevenson, and he had an older sister, Elizabeth Stevenson Ives, an author who was called "Buffie". Actor McLean Stevenson was a second cousin once removed. He was the nephew by marriage of novelist Mary Borden, and she assisted in the writing of some of his political speeches.
Stevenson was raised in the city of Bloomington, Illinois; his family was a member of Bloomington's upper class and lived in one of the city's well-to-do neighborhoods. On December 30, 1912, at the age of twelve, Stevenson accidentally killed Ruth Merwin, a 16-year-old friend, while demonstrating drill technique with a rifle, inadvertently left loaded, during a party at the Stevenson home. Stevenson was devastated by the accident and rarely mentioned or discussed it as an adult, even with his wife and children. However, in 1955 Stevenson heard about a woman whose son had experienced a similar tragedy. He wrote to her that she should tell her son that "he must now live for two", which Stevenson's friends took to be a reference to the shooting incident.
Stevenson left Bloomington High School after his junior year and attended University High School in Normal, Illinois, Bloomington's "twin city", just to the north. He then went to boarding school in Connecticut at The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall), where he played on the tennis team, acted in plays, and was elected editor-in-chief of The Choate News, the school newspaper. Upon his graduation from Choate in 1918, he enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve and served at the rank of seaman apprentice, but his training was completed too late for him to participate in World War I.
He attended Princeton University, becoming managing editor of The Daily Princetonian, a member of the American Whig-Cliosophic Society, a member of the Quadrangle Club, and received a B.A. degree in 1922 in literature and history. Under prodding from his father he then went to Harvard Law School, but found the law to be "uninteresting", and withdrew after failing several classes. He returned to Bloomington where he wrote for the family newspaper, The Daily Pantagraph, which was founded by his maternal great-grandfather Jesse Fell. The Pantagraph, which had one of the largest circulations of any newspaper in Illinois outside the Chicago area, was a main source of the Stevenson family's wealth. Following his mother's death in 1935, Adlai inherited one-quarter of the Pantagraph's stock, providing him with a large, dependable source of income for the rest of his life.
A year after leaving Harvard, Stevenson became interested in the law again after talking to Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. When he returned home to Bloomington, he decided to finish his degree at Northwestern University School of Law, attending classes during the week and returning to Bloomington on the weekends to write for the Pantagraph. Stevenson received his J.D. degree from Northwestern in 1926 and passed the Illinois state bar examination that year. He obtained a position at Cutting, Moore & Sidley, one of Chicago's oldest and most prestigious law firms. |
closed_qa | Given the following paragraph about politicians, who was the last surviving person to have been a member of the Irish House of Commons? | Sir Thomas Staples, 9th Baronet | Sir Thomas Staples, 9th Baronet (31 July 1775 – 14 May 1865) was an Anglo-Irish politician and lawyer. He was the last surviving person to have been a member of the Irish House of Commons, albeit only having been in the House for a short time. |
information_extraction | List the sweet culinary specialities of New Orleans from this provided passage | The sweet culinary specialities of New Orleans include:
- Beignets: Square shaped fried dough similar to donuts
- Praline: A candy made with sugar, cream and pecans | New Orleans is known for specialties including beignets (locally pronounced like "ben-yays"), square-shaped fried dough that could be called "French doughnuts" (served with café au lait made with a blend of coffee and chicory rather than only coffee); and po' boy and Italian muffuletta sandwiches; Gulf oysters on the half-shell, fried oysters, boiled crawfish and other seafood; étouffée, jambalaya, gumbo and other Creole dishes; and the Monday favorite of red beans and rice (Louis Armstrong often signed his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours"). Another New Orleans specialty is the praline locally, a candy made with brown sugar, granulated sugar, cream, butter, and pecans. The city offers notable street food including the Asian inspired beef Yaka mein. |
closed_qa | What is Milky Way? | Milky Way is the galaxy that includes Solar System in which our planet Earth is located. | The Milky Way is the galaxy that includes the Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλακτικὸς κύκλος (galaktikòs kýklos), meaning "milky circle". From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Doust Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies. |
information_extraction | Extract the age when Brendon Small began to learn how to play Guitar | 14 | Brendon Small (born February 15, 1975) is an American actor, stand-up comedian, animator, writer, director, producer, and musician known for co-creating the animated series Home Movies (1999–2004, with Loren Bouchard) and Metalocalypse (2006–13, with Tommy Blacha). He also writes the music, and is the main performer for the virtual melodic death metal band Dethklok, which began as the subject of Metalocalypse but has taken on a life of its own, with four albums and an occasional live touring band, headed by Small. Small has also released two albums under his own name, in a similar musical style to Dethklok.
Small was born in Illinois in 1975. He moved to California as a child. Small started learning guitar at the age of 14 after a kid in his neighborhood began teaching him about guitar and music. At his first public performance, his hands shook so wildly that he had trouble controlling the guitar. It would be another ten years before he was comfortable performing in public. He graduated from Palma High School in Salinas, California. He graduated from Berklee College of Music in 1997. During his music studies, he took several writing and comedy classes at Emerson College. After graduating, he felt that the rock music genre was fading in popularity, so decided to try his hand at stand-up comedy. |
summarization | Without quoting directly from the text give me a summary of the differences between Iyengar Yoga and other yoga practices. | Based on the given text, Iyengar yoga differs from other types of yoga in the following points:
By focusing on precision and alignment, Iyengar yoga gives you precise instructions and continuously explains and corrects the misalignments and errors. It also prioritizes the quality of the postures over the intensity of doing them.
It also keeps the practitioners in the postures for a longer time in comparison to other yoga styles.
Also the practitioners are provided with different props like belts, blocks and blankets that they can use freely to help themselves to perform the asanas correctly. | According to the Iyengar Yoga Institute, unlike more experiential approaches where students are encouraged to independently "find their way" to the asanas by imitating the teacher, an Iyengar Yoga class is precise, with misalignments and errors actively explained and corrected. It states that the style "emphasizes precision and alignment", and prioritizes correct movement over quantity, i.e. moving a small amount in the right direction is preferred to moving more but in other directions. Postures are held for a relatively long period of time compared to other schools of yoga; this allows the muscles to relax and lengthen, and encourages awareness in the pose. Props including belts, blocks and blankets are freely used to assist students in correct working in the asanas. |
closed_qa | In which city is this high school located? | Madrid | The Instituto de Enseñanza Secundaria Lope de Vega (IES Lope de Vega) is a public high school in Madrid, Spain. It is located in the calle de San Bernardo. It is operated by the regional administration of the Community of Madrid. |
information_extraction | List all the Formula 1 teams that Sergio Perez has driven for | - Sauber
- McLaren
- Force India
- Racing Point
- Red Bull Racing | Sergio Michel "Checo" Pérez Mendoza (Spanish: [ˈseɾxjo ˈpeɾes] (listen); born 26 January 1990), is a Mexican racing driver who races in Formula One for Red Bull Racing, having previously driven for Sauber, McLaren, Force India, and Racing Point. He won his first Formula One Grand Prix at the 2020 Sakhir Grand Prix, breaking the record for the number of starts before a race win at 190. He also earned his first Formula One pole position at the 2022 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, breaking the record for the most races before a first pole position at 215. Pérez has a contract with Red Bull Racing until the end of the 2024 season. |
information_extraction | List all the organisations mentioned in this paragraph on the history of the Java programming language, as a comma separated list. | GitHub, Sun Microsystems, Oracle | Java is a high-level, class-based, object-oriented programming language that is designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is a general-purpose programming language intended to let programmers write once, run anywhere (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need to recompile. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is similar to C and C++, but has fewer low-level facilities than either of them. The Java runtime provides dynamic capabilities (such as reflection and runtime code modification) that are typically not available in traditional compiled languages. As of 2019, Java was one of the most popular programming languages in use according to GitHub,[citation not found] particularly for client–server web applications, with a reported 9 million developers.
Java was originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems. It was released in May 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The original and reference implementation Java compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were originally released by Sun under proprietary licenses. As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun had relicensed most of its Java technologies under the GPL-2.0-only license. Oracle offers its own HotSpot Java Virtual Machine, however the official reference implementation is the OpenJDK JVM which is free open-source software and used by most developers and is the default JVM for almost all Linux distributions.
As of March 2023, Java 20 is the latest version, while Java 17, 11 and 8 are the current long-term support (LTS) versions. |
summarization | Provide a summary of Oliver Cromwell Applegate's career and later years. | Oliver spent his early career as a teacher at the Ashland school as well as a member of the Mountain Rangers. He quickly rose through the ranks starting as a private and moved to captain in 3 years.
In 1865, Oliver was appointed assistant to the United States Indian Agent, who also happened to be his father. From there, Oliver spent several years working under multiple agency administrations which allowed him to gain influence over the tribes of southeastern Oregon. The influence he gained would proved to be beneficial when the Modoc outbreak in 1872 happened. This led to the conversion of the most resistant Indian Tribes to farmers and stockmen.
In 1876, friends of Oliver Applegate wanted him to use his experience, from working with Indian affairs, to be appointed general Indian Agent for Oregon. In 1989, Applegate became the United States Indian Agent of the Klamath Reservation until Congress discontinued the position 5 years later.
In 1878, Applegate started a position as Editor of the Ashland Tidings and married Miss Ella Anderson. Oliver Applegate had 6 kids between 1879 and 1896. | Captain Oliver Cromwell Applegate (June 11, 1845 – October 11, 1938) was an American politician, newspaper editor, and Indian agent in the U.S. state of Oregon. A member of the Applegate family that helped open the Applegate Trail, he was raised in Southern Oregon where he later was in charge of the Klamath Indian Reservation. He worked as a scout during the Modoc War, was an Indian agent for all of Oregon, and was editor of the Ashland Tidings and the Klamath Republican.
Early years
Oliver Applegate was born in a log cabin in Yamhill District, in what is now Polk County, Oregon, on June 11, 1845. At the time the area was part of the Oregon Country, but in 1848 became part of the Oregon Territory. He was the sixth son and seventh child of the well-known pioneer, Lindsay Applegate, a native of Kentucky, and his wife, Elizabeth (Miller) Applegate, who was born in Tennessee in 1816. Lindsay Applegate was one of the leaders of the Great Migration of 1843 which Americanized Oregon and was prominent in the early Indian wars, and as an explorer.
When Oliver Applegate was five years old, the family moved to the Yoncalla Valley in middle western Oregon; there were only three or four other families in that region at that time besides the Applegate contingent, which consisted of the brothers, Charles, Lindsay and Jesse, and their families.
The system of common schools was rudimentary then, and their continuity could not be depended upon for more than a few weeks or months in each year. The Applegate families were fairly well supplied with books, however, to supplement the otherwise meager opportunities for education, and as a rule the scions of these strong frontiersmen availed themselves of every opportunity offered to inform their minds, as well as to become accomplished horsemen, efficient in the use of the rifle and otherwise prepared for the border wars which were liable to occur at any time with the aboriginal inhabitants of the country.
In 1860 the family removed to the Siskiyou Mountains near the California boundary, Lindsay Applegate having become owner of the toll road over the mountains, and in 1862, removed to Ashland, Oregon, which continued to be the family home for many years.
Career
During the winter of 1862, Oliver attended the district school in Ashland, and the next spring received a certificate and in the ensuing fall became the teacher, and for four successive winters, conducted the Ashland school. In the spring of 1863, he became a member of an independent military company, the only one in Southern Oregon, a cavalry company known as the "Mountain Rangers," to which many of the leading citizens of the country belonged. He served as a private in this company the first year, the second year as a sergeant and in the third year was chosen captain, receiving his commissions before he had reached his twentieth year from Addison C. Gibbs, the old war governor of Oregon.
In 1865, his father was appointed United States Indian Agent over the Klamaths and Modocs at Fort Klamath. According to the treaty of 1864, the Indians were to be gathered on the Klamath Reservation. The fort was the only place east of the Cascades in that immediate region where there were any white people . The younger Applegate was appointed assistant to the agent, and that was the beginning of a service that lasted for several years, under various agency administrations, during which time he gained influence over the tribes of southeastern Oregon, which he used to good advantage later when the Modoc outbreak of 1872 occurred. This influence probably more than any other agency resulted finally in the conversion of the most resistant of the Indian tribes into farmers and stockmen.
When 21 years of age, Applegate had charge of a unique company of scouts, called the "Ax and Rifle Company," because every man carried an ax as well as a rifle. This company consisted of fifty men, the captain the only white man, while different chiefs of the various tribes ranked as lieutenants and sergeants. They cleared the way through the pine forests for a great wagon train of provisions and beef cattle that came down to the Klamath agency from The Dalles, marking the first step in the commencement of operations under the treaty of 1864 for the benefit of the southeastern tribes of Oregon. This was during the war with the Snake or Paiute Indians.
For some time before the Modoc outbreak of 1872, Applegate had charge of Yainax sub-agency, forty miles west of the headquarters' agency, then under supervision of Agent Laroy S. Dyar. Near Yainax was located the main band of the Modocs. under the famous old Chief Schonchin, and with him were to be domiciled the turbulent bands under the Modoc chieftain, Captain Jack. The story of how Captain Jack and his band refused to come onto the reservation, and the subsequent events, make up the history of the Modoc War. Applegate played a prominent part in the bloody drama.
In 1873, he became a U.S. Commissioner with jurisdiction committed against the federal law locally.
In 1876, some of Applegate's friends asked to have him appointed general Indian agent for Oregon, assuming that in such a way his unusual experience in the management of Indian affairs could be used to good purpose in promoting progressive conditions to the several agencies in the state. Ex-Senator Nesmith, who was himself a Democrat, was an ardent advocate of the plan and wrote as follows, to Hon. Zach Chandler, Grant's Secretary of the Interior, with whom he had served in the U.S. Senate: "Mr. Applegate is a gentleman of culture and ability, and, unlike myself, he is a prominent Republican and is as honest as is possible for a man to be possessing his perverted political notions. You will pardon me, I know, for proposing appointments to an administration which I do not indorse, but I do so in order to promote the reforms which you have so happily inaugurated." In 1898, Applegate took charge of the Klamath Reservation as United States Indian agent, and served as such for five years. Congress then discontinued the position of agent and he was appointed bonded superintendent of the agency and training school, a position which he resigned after serving two years.
During this period of seven years he helped establish Indian claims to over half a million dollars for lands excluded from the reservation by erroneous boundary surveys, and developed comprehensive plans for irrigation and drainage, which added to the wealth of the reservation, an area approximating in size the state of Delaware.
He was identified with various enterprises looking to the development of southern Oregon, and had a reputation as a writer of both prose and verse.
Later years and family
Applegate served as editor of the Ashland Tidings starting in 1878, and later edited the Klamath Republican.
In 1878, Applegate was married to Miss Ella Anderson, a daughter of Rev. Jesse Marion Anderson, a pioneer Methodist minister, who was widely known in southern Oregon as a man of ability and worth. The bride, like the groom, was a native of Oregon, having been born in the territory in 1855. They had three sons and three daughters. Frank Lindsay, the oldest, was born October 10, 1879; Annie Elizabeth, September 13, 1881; Laroy Gilbert, August 19, 1885; Rachel Emma, November 23, 1887; Jennie Margaret, April 5, 1894; and Oliver C., Jr., July 5, 1896. As of 1912, Applegate resided at Klamath Falls, Klamath County, Oregon. In politics, he was a Republican and a delegate to the Republican National Convention at Chicago in 1892. Oliver C. Applegate died on October 11, 1938, at the age of 93. He is the namesake of Applegate Peak in Crater Lake National Park. |
information_extraction | From the passage identify the domains in which Hermes is considered a God. Display the results in a comma separated format. | boundaries, travel, trade, communication, language, writing, cunning,thieves | Hermes (Ἑρμῆς, Hērmês)
God of boundaries, travel, trade, communication, language, writing, cunning and thieves. Hermes was also responsible for protecting livestock and presided over the spheres associated with fertility, music, luck, and deception. The son of Zeus and Maia, Hermes is the messenger of the gods, and a psychopomp who leads the souls of the dead into the afterlife. He was depicted either as a handsome and athletic beardless youth, or as an older bearded man. His attributes include the herald's wand or caduceus, winged sandals, and a traveler's cap. His sacred animals include the tortoise. His Roman counterpart is Mercury. |
closed_qa | According to this paragraph, did Frederic Foley hold the patent to the Foley catheter? | According to this paragraph, Frederic Foley applied for the patent but it was ultimately awarded to Paul Riache instead. | Foley first described the use of a self-retaining balloon catheter in 1929, to be used to achieve hemostasis after cystoscopic prostatectomy. He worked on development of this design for use as an indwelling urinary catheter, to provide continuous drainage of the bladder, in the 1930s. His design incorporated an inflatable balloon towards the tip of the tube which could be inflated inside the bladder to retain the catheter without external taping or strapping. He demonstrated this to the American Urologists Society in 1935, and published a paper describing it in 1937. While he was still developing his catheter, a patent was issued to Paul Raiche of the Davol Rubber Company of Providence, Rhode Island in 1936. Four months later, in October 1936, Foley applied for the patent, and was awarded this after appearing before the patent office Board of Appeals. Raiche appealed this decision in court, and it was overturned, returning the patent to Raiche. A further request for a hearing made by Foley was refused, and so the patent stayed with Raiche.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Foley |
information_extraction | What is the highest-grossing film worldwide? | Avatar is the highest-grossing film worldwide, grossing over $2.9B. It was written and directed by James Cameron, and was released in 2009. | With a worldwide box-office gross of over $2.9 billion, Avatar is proclaimed to be the "highest-grossing" film, but such claims usually refer to theatrical revenues only and do not take into account home video and television income, which can form a significant portion of a film's earnings. Once revenue from home entertainment is factored in it is not immediately clear which film is the most successful. Titanic earned $1.2 billion from video and DVD sales and rentals, in addition to the $2.2 billion it grossed in theatres. While complete sales data are not available for Avatar, it earned $345 million from the sale of sixteen million DVD and Blu-ray units in North America, and ultimately sold a total of thirty million DVD and Blu-ray units worldwide. After home video income is accounted for, both films have earned over $3 billion each. Television broadcast rights will also substantially add to a film's earnings, with a film often earning as much as 20–25% of its theatrical box office for a couple of television runs on top of pay-per-view revenues; Titanic earned a further $55 million from the NBC and HBO broadcast rights, equating to about 9% of its North American gross. |
summarization | From the given paragraph, write some points on Church. | 1. A church, church building, or church house is a structure used for Christian religious activities such as worship ceremonies.
2. A home church that was established between 233 and 256 is the earliest known Christian congregation.
3. In Western Europe, there was a wave of church building from the 11th through the 14th centuries.
4. The word "church" is occasionally used as an analogy for the structures of other religions.
5. The word "church" is also used to refer to the global body of Christian believers as well as the Christian religious community as a whole. | A church, church building or church house is a building used for Christian worship services and other Christian religious activities. The earliest identified Christian church is a house church founded between 233 and 256. From the 11th through the 14th centuries, there was a wave of church construction in Western Europe.
Sometimes, the word church is used by analogy for the buildings of other religions. Church is also used to describe the Christian religious community as a whole, or a body or an assembly of Christian believers around the world. |
information_extraction | What is Growing Season? | Season extension in agriculture is any method that allows a crop to be grown beyond its normal outdoor growing season and harvesting time frame, or the extra time thus achieved. | A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the amount of daylight. The growing season is that portion of the year in which local conditions (i.e. rainfall, temperature, daylight) permit normal plant growth. While each plant or crop has a specific growing season that depends on its genetic adaptation, growing seasons can generally be grouped into macro-environmental classes. |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph about time travel, how practical is it | Yes, time travel is indeed a real thing. But it's not quite what you've probably seen in the movies. Under certain conditions, it is possible to experience time passing at a different rate than 1 second per second. And there are important reasons why we need to understand this real-world form of time travel. | Time travel is the concept of movement between certain points in time, analogous to movement between different points in space by an object or a person, typically with the use of a hypothetical device known as a time machine. Time travel is a widely recognized concept in philosophy and fiction, particularly science fiction. The idea of a time machine was popularized by H. G. Wells' 1895 novel The Time Machine. |
closed_qa | Who is Evelyn Quan Wang in the move "Everything Everywhere All at Once"? | Evelyn Quan Wang is a middle-aged Chinese American immigrant who runs a laundromat with her husband, Waymond. | Evelyn Quan Wang is a middle-aged Chinese American immigrant who runs a laundromat with her husband, Waymond; two decades earlier, they eloped to the United States and had a daughter, Joy. The laundromat is being audited by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Waymond is trying to serve Evelyn divorce papers in an attempt to get her attention so they can talk things out regarding their marriage, Evelyn's demanding father (referred to as Gong Gong, Cantonese for 'grandfather') is visiting for her Chinese New Year party, and Evelyn is reluctant to accept Joy's lesbian relationship with her non-Chinese girlfriend Becky (only introducing Becky to Gong Gong as Joy's "very good friend"). |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph, which was built first Disneyland or Disney World? | According to this text, Disneyland was built first in 1955, with Disney World construction starting later in 1967 and first opening in 1971. | Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the complex was developed by Walt Disney in the 1960s. "The Florida Project", as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of attractions. Walt Disney's original plans also called for the inclusion of an "Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow" (EPCOT), a planned community intended to serve as a testbed for new city-living innovations. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, during the initial planning of the complex. After his death, the company wrestled with the idea of whether to bring the Disney World project to fruition; however, Walt's older brother, Roy O. Disney, came out of retirement to make sure Walt's biggest dream was realized. Construction started in 1967, with the company instead building a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning the experimental concepts for a planned community. The Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex, in 1971, followed by Epcot (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (1989), and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998). It was Roy who insisted the name of the entire complex be changed from Disney World to Walt Disney World, ensuring that people would remember that the project was Walt's dream. |
information_extraction | Which movie won the Best Picture award at 95th Academy Awards? | Everything Everywhere All at Once won the award for Best Picture at the 95th Academy Awards. Additionally, this movie also won Best Director and Best Original Screenplay for Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert, and three of the four acting awards. | The 95th Academy Awards was a ceremony held by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) on March 12, 2023, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. It honored films released in 2022.
The event was televised in the U.S. by ABC and was produced by Ricky Kirshner and Glenn Weiss. Weiss was also the director. Comedian and late-night talk show host Jimmy Kimmel hosted the show for the third time, after emceeing the 89th and 90th editions of the ceremony in 2017 and 2018, respectively.
Everything Everywhere All at Once led the ceremony with eleven nominations and seven wins, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Screenplay for Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert, and three of the four acting awards. Other winners included All Quiet on the Western Front with four awards, The Whale with two, and Avatar: The Way of Water, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio, Navalny, RRR, Top Gun: Maverick, and Women Talking each with one. Short film winners included The Boy, the Mole, the Fox and the Horse, The Elephant Whisperers, and An Irish Goodbye. |
closed_qa | What is I Liq Chuan? | I Liq Chuan is a style of martial art founded by Chin Lik Keong from Malaysia that is also known as the "Martial Art of Awareness". | Sam F.S. Chin (Chin Fan Siong, 曾帆祥, born August 1, 1954) is the Grandmaster and Gatekeeper of the martial art called I Liq Chuan, and also known as "the Martial Art of Awareness". Chin developed the grading system for this system.
Chin was trained since childhood by his father, Chin Lik Keong, founder of I Liq Chuan, and in 1978, he won the state heavy weight kickboxing championships of Selangor (Malaysia). In August 2009 Chin was officially named the Gate Keeper and Lineage Holder of the I Liq Chuan. He is also the founder and President of Chin Family I Liq Chuan Association that supports the martial art's growth.
Chin has taught workshops worldwide , written two books on his family's martial art, co-authored articles, and produced a series of DVDs. Chin was interviewed by Jess O'Brien for his 2007 book "Nei Jia Quan: Internal Martial Arts".
In August 2009, Chin was also recognized by the USA Wushu Kung-Fu Federation as a Hall of Fame Outstanding Master. In 2014, he was written about by Ashe Higgs in Kung Fu Tai Chi Magazine "Finding the Center: I Liq Chuan’s Three Essential Qualities for Offense and Defense as One". Chin was also the subject of the 2016 CCTV Documentary "Kung Fu Abroad: I Liq Chuan 中央电视台《功夫在外》纪录片".
On November 15, 2017 Sam Chin became an honorary professor at the University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria in recognition of his lifetime of achievement in spreading I Liq Chuan. |
information_extraction | When do schools close and reopen from summer holidays in India? | In India, school ends in late April and resumes in early or mid-June. | Schools and universities typically have a summer break to take advantage of the warmer weather and longer days. In almost all countries, children are out of school during this time of year for summer break, although dates vary. Many families will take holidays for a week or two over summer, particularly in Southern Hemisphere Western countries with statutory Christmas and New Year holidays.
In the United States, public schools usually end in late May in Memorial Day weekend, while colleges finish in early May. Public school traditionally resumes near Labor Day, while higher institutions often resume in mid-August.
In England and Wales, school ends in mid-July and resumes again in early September. In Scotland, the summer holiday begins in late June and ends in mid-to late-August. Similarly, in Canada the summer holiday starts on the last or second-last Friday in June and ends in late August or on the first Tuesday of September, with the exception of when that date falls before Labour Day, in which case, ends on the second Tuesday of the month. In Russia the summer holiday begins at the end of May and ends on 31 August.
In the Southern Hemisphere, school summer holiday dates include the major holidays of Christmas and New Year's Day. School summer holidays in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa begin in early December and end in early February, with dates varying between states. In South Africa, the new school year usually starts during the second week of January, thus aligning the academic year with the Calendar year. In India, school ends in late April and resumes in early or mid-June. In Cameroon and Nigeria, schools usually finish for summer vacation in mid-July and resume in the later weeks of September or the first week of October. |
information_extraction | From the passage identify the various products and services which are provided by HDFC Bank including the digital products. Display the results in comma separated format. | wholesale banking, retail banking, treasury, auto loans, two-wheeler loans, personal loans, loans against property, consumer durable loan, lifestyle loan , credit cards, Payzapp, SmartBUY | HDFC Bank Limited (also known as HDB) is an Indian banking and financial services company headquartered in Mumbai. It is India's largest private sector bank by assets and world's 10th largest bank by market capitalisation as of April 2021. It is the third largest company by market capitalisation of $127.16 billion on the Indian stock exchanges. It is also the fifteenth largest employer in India with nearly 150,000 employees.
HDFC Bank was incorporated in 1994 as a subsidiary of the Housing Development Finance Corporation, with its registered office in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Its first corporate office and a full-service branch at Sandoz House, Worli were inaugurated by the then Union Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh.
As of 30 June 2022, the bank's distribution network was at 6,378 branches across 3,203 cities. It has installed 430,000 POS terminals and issued 23,570,000 debit cards and 12 million credit cards in FY 2017. It has a base of 1,52,511 permanent employees as of 30 June 2022.
HDFC Bank provides a number of products and services including wholesale banking, retail banking, treasury, auto loans, two-wheeler loans, personal loans, loans against property, consumer durable loan, lifestyle loan and credit cards. Along with this various digital products are Payzapp and SmartBUY. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Kostas Georgakis, when did he go to Italy and what did he do there? | Kostas Georgakis went to Genoa, Italy in 1967 to study geology. | Kostas Georgakis (Greek: Κώστας Γεωργάκης) (23 August 1948 – 19 September 1970) was a Greek student of geology, who in the early hours of 19 September 1970, set himself ablaze in Matteotti square in Genoa in a fatal protest against the dictatorial regime of Georgios Papadopoulos.
Early life
Georgakis grew up in Corfu in a family of five. His father was a self-employed tailor of modest means. Both his father and grandfather distinguished themselves in the major wars that Greece fought in the 20th century. He attended the second lyceum in Corfu where he excelled in his studies. In August 1967, a few months after the 21 April coup in Greece, Georgakis went to Italy to study as a geologist in Genoa. He received 5,000 drachmas per month from his father and this, according to friends' testimony, made him feel guilty for the financial burden his family endured so that he could attend a university. In Italy he met Rosanna, an Italian girl of the same age and they got engaged. In 1968 Georgakis became a member of the Center Union party of Georgios Papandreou. |
closed_qa | What is a Roth 401(k)? | Roth 401(k) is a type of 401(k) where accounts, contributions, and withdrawals have no impact on income tax. The benefit of the Roth account is that the capital gains are tax-free.
In the United States, a 401(k) plan is an employer-sponsored, defined-contribution, personal pension (savings) account, as defined in subsection 401(k) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. Periodical employee contributions come directly out of their paychecks and may be matched by the employer. | In the United States, a 401(k) plan is an employer-sponsored, defined-contribution, personal pension (savings) account, as defined in subsection 401(k) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. Periodical employee contributions come directly out of their paychecks, and may be matched by the employer. This legal option is what makes 401(k) plans attractive to employees, and many employers offer this option to their (full-time) workers.
There are two types: traditional and Roth 401(k). For Roth accounts, contributions and withdrawals have no impact on income tax. For traditional accounts, contributions may be deducted from taxable income and withdrawals are added to taxable income. There are limits to contributions, rules governing withdrawals and possible penalties.
The benefit of the Roth account is from tax-free capital gains. The net benefit of the traditional account is the sum of (1) a possible bonus (or penalty) from withdrawals at tax rates lower (or higher) than at contribution, and (2) the impact on qualification for other income-tested programs from contributions and withdrawals reducing and adding to taxable income, minus the consequences of capital gains being taxed at regular income rates. |
summarization | Who bred the famous Gone West racehorse? | Gone West was bread by William O. Reed, the son of the influential sire Mr. Prospector. | Gone West (March 10, 1984 – September 7, 2009) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse. Bred by William O. Reed, he was a son of the influential sire Mr. Prospector. His dam, Secrettame, was a daughter of 1973 U.S. Triple Crown winner Secretariat.
Purchased by Alice du Pont Mills and raced under her Hickory Tree Stable banner, Gone West was conditioned for racing by U.S. Racing Hall of Fame trainer Woody Stephens. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Ihor Lapin, tell me what he did before the war. | Before the war, Ihor Lapin was a lawyer and a member of the Bar Qualification-Disciplinary Commission. | Ihor Lapin (born 28 May 1969 in Ivanychi) is a Ukrainian lawyer and politician who is a former (2014-2019) Member of the Parliament of Ukraine.
During the War in Donbass (eastern Ukraine) he was commander of the 2nd assault squadron "West" of the 24th Battalion of Territorial Defense "Aidar" of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, formed mainly from volunteers from Volyn Region.
In the Russian-Ukrainian war, he was the commander of the Special Forces Battalion of the First Separate Special Forces Brigade, named after Ivan Bohun.
Before the war, he worked as a lawyer, and was a member of the Bar Qualification-Disciplinary Commission of Volyn Region. |
information_extraction | Extract and list the names of characters a player can control in The Last of Us mentioned in the paragraph. Also describe relationships between those characters. | In the Last of Us, a player can control Joel, Ellie (who is being escorted by Joen acress the United States), and Sarah (who is Joel's daughter). | The Last of Us is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player traverses post-apocalyptic environments such as towns, buildings, forests, and sewers to advance the story. The player can use firearms, improvised weapons, hand-to-hand combat, and stealth to defend against hostile humans and cannibalistic creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus. For most of the game, the player takes control of Joel, a man tasked with escorting a young girl, Ellie, across the United States. The player also controls Ellie throughout the game's winter segment and briefly controls Joel's daughter, Sarah, in the opening sequence. |
information_extraction | What is the likelihood of the Cascadia Earthquake ocurring in the next 50 years and how bad will it be? | Geologists predict a 37% chance of a magnitude 8.2+ earthquake caused by subduction of the Cascadia plate in the next 38 years, and a 10% - 15% of a magnitude 9+ earthquake in the same time frame. This data is from a 2010 study. Source: https://web.archive.org/web/20100527090117/http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/node/13426 | The geological record reveals that "great earthquakes" (those with moment magnitude 8 or higher) occur in the Cascadia subduction zone about every 500 years on average, often accompanied by tsunamis. There is evidence of at least 13 events at intervals from about 300 to 900 years with an average of 570–590 years. Previous earthquakes are estimated to have been in AD 1310, AD 810, AD 400, 170 BC and 600 BC.[citation needed]
Cascadia earthquake sources
As seen in the 1700 quake, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, subduction zone earthquakes can cause large tsunamis, and many coastal areas in the region have prepared tsunami evacuation plans in anticipation of a possible future Cascadia earthquake. However, the major nearby cities, notably Seattle, Portland, Vancouver, Victoria, and Tacoma, which are located on inland waterways rather than on the coast, would be sheltered from the full brunt of a tsunami. These cities do have many vulnerable structures, especially bridges and unreinforced brick buildings; consequently, most of the damage to the cities would probably be from the earthquake itself. One expert asserts that buildings in Seattle are vastly inadequate even to withstand an event of the size of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, let alone any more powerful one.
Kenneth Murphy, who directs FEMA's Region X, the division responsible for Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska, put it quite dramatically: "Our operating assumption is that everything west of Interstate 5 will be toast."
Recent findings conclude that the Cascadia subduction zone is more complex and volatile than previously believed. In 2010, geologists predicted a 37% chance of an M8.2+ event within 50 years, and a 10 to 15% chance that the entire Cascadia subduction zone will rupture with an M9+ event within the same time frame. Geologists have also determined the Pacific Northwest is not prepared for such a colossal quake. The tsunami produced could reach heights of 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 m).
A 2004 study revealed the potential for relative mean sea level rise (caused by subsidence) along the Cascadia subduction zone. It postulated that cities on the west coast of Vancouver Island, such as Tofino and Ucluelet, are at risk for a 1–2 m subsidence, relative to mean sea level. |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph about magnesium, what is the atomic number of magnesium? | The atomic number of magnesium is 12. | Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 of the periodic table) it occurs naturally only in combination with other elements and it almost always has an oxidation state of +2. It reacts readily with air to form a thin passivation coating of magnesium oxide that inhibits further corrosion of the metal. The free metal burns with a brilliant-white light. The metal is obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine. It is less dense than aluminium and is used primarily as a component in strong and lightweight alloys that contain aluminium. |
summarization | Give me a summary of why an abstract is useful in academic literature? | An abstract is useful in academic research because it conveys the complex research in a concise way by acting as a stand-alone summary. Therefore, it is usually used by many organizations as a base for selecting research. Moreover, abstracts are usually provided free of charge by many bibliographic databases which makes the research works more accessible. In addition, researchers can understand if the work is relevant to their research just by reading the abstract. | Academic literature uses the abstract to succinctly communicate complex research. An abstract may act as a stand-alone entity instead of a full paper. As such, an abstract is used by many organizations as the basis for selecting research that is proposed for presentation in the form of a poster, platform/oral presentation or workshop presentation at an academic conference. Most bibliographic databases only index abstracts rather than providing the entire text of the paper. Full texts of scientific papers must often be purchased because of copyright and/or publisher fees and therefore the abstract is a significant selling point for the reprint or electronic form of the full text. The abstract can convey the main results and conclusions of a scientific article but the full text article must be consulted for details of the methodology, the full experimental results, and a critical discussion of the interpretations and conclusions. An abstract allows one to sift through copious numbers of papers for ones in which the researcher can have more confidence that they will be relevant to their research. Once papers are chosen based on the abstract, they must be read carefully to be evaluated for relevance. It is generally agreed that one must not base reference citations on the abstract alone, but the content of an entire paper. |
information_extraction | From the passage below, please extract the most recent country to join NATO. | Russia's invasion of Ukraine prompted Finland and Sweden to apply for NATO membership in May 2022. Finland officially joined NATO on April 4, 2023. | NATO is a military alliance of twenty-nine European and two North American countries that constitutes a system of collective defense. The process of joining the alliance is governed by Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which allows for the invitation of "other European States" only and by subsequent agreements. Countries wishing to join must meet certain requirements and complete a multi-step process involving political dialog and military integration. The accession process is overseen by the North Atlantic Council, NATO's governing body. NATO was formed in 1949 with twelve founding members and has added new members nine times. The first additions were Greece and Turkey in 1952. In May 1955, West Germany joined NATO, which was one of the conditions agreed to as part of the end of the country's occupation by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, prompting the Soviet Union to form their own collective security alliance (commonly called the Warsaw Pact) later that month. Following the end of the Franco regime, newly-democratic Spain chose to join NATO in 1982.
In 1990, the negotiators reached an agreement that a reunified Germany would be in NATO under West Germany's existing membership. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 led many former Warsaw Pact and post-Soviet states to initiate discussions about joining NATO. Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic became NATO members in 1999, amid much debate within NATO itself and Russian opposition. NATO then formalized the process of joining the organization with "Membership Action Plans", which aided the accession of seven Central and Eastern Europe countries shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Two countries on the Adriatic Sea—Albania and Croatia—joined on 1 April 2009 before the 2009 Strasbourg–Kehl summit. The next member states to join NATO were Montenegro on 5 June 2017, North Macedonia on 27 March 2020 and Finland on 4 April 2023.
Russia's invasion of Ukraine prompted Finland and Sweden to apply for NATO membership in May 2022, and the ratification process for Sweden is in progress. Finland officially joined on 4 April 2023. Ukraine applied for NATO membership in September 2022 after Russia claimed to annex part of its territory. Two other states have formally informed NATO of their membership aspirations: Bosnia and Herzegovina and Georgia. Kosovo also aspires to join NATO. Joining the alliance is a debate topic in several other European countries outside the alliance, including Austria, Ireland, Malta, Moldova, and Serbia. |
closed_qa | Given these paragraphs about Large language models, what are some examples of emergent abilities? | Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs. | A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. LLMs emerged around 2018 and perform well at a wide variety of tasks. This has shifted the focus of natural language processing research away from the previous paradigm of training specialized supervised models for specific tasks.
Properties
Though the term large language model has no formal definition, it often refers to deep learning models having a parameter count on the order of billions or more. LLMs are general purpose models which excel at a wide range of tasks, as opposed to being trained for one specific task (such as sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or mathematical reasoning). The skill with which they accomplish tasks, and the range of tasks at which they are capable, seems to be a function of the amount of resources (data, parameter-size, computing power) devoted to them, in a way that is not dependent on additional breakthroughs in design.
Though trained on simple tasks along the lines of predicting the next word in a sentence, neural language models with sufficient training and parameter counts are found to capture much of the syntax and semantics of human language. In addition, large language models demonstrate considerable general knowledge about the world, and are able to "memorize" a great quantity of facts during training.
Hallucinations
Main article: Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.
Emergent abilities
On a number of natural language benchmarks involving tasks such as question answering, models perform no better than random chance until they reach a certain scale (in this case, measured by training computation), at which point their performance sharply increases. These are examples of emergent abilities.
Unpredictable abilities that have been observed in large language models but that were not present in simpler models (and that were not explicitly designed into the model) are usually called "emergent abilities". Researchers note that such abilities "cannot be predicted simply by extrapolating the performance of smaller models". These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed. Hundreds of emergent abilities have been described. Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.
Architecture and training
Large language models have most commonly used the transformer architecture, which, since 2018, has become the standard deep learning technique for sequential data (previously, recurrent architectures such as the LSTM were most common). LLMs are trained in an unsupervised manner on unannotated text. A left-to-right transformer is trained to maximize the probability assigned to the next word in the training data, given the previous context. Alternatively, an LLM may use a bidirectional transformer (as in the example of BERT), which assigns a probability distribution over words given access to both preceding and following context. In addition to the task of predicting the next word or "filling in the blanks", LLMs may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the data distribution such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear side-by-side in the training corpus.
The earliest LLMs were trained on corpora having on the order of billions of words. The first model in OpenAI's GPT series was trained in 2018 on BookCorpus, consisting of 985 million words. In the same year, BERT was trained on a combination of BookCorpus and English Wikipedia, totalling 3.3 billion words. In the years since then, training corpora for LLMs have increased by orders of magnitude, reaching up to hundreds of billions or trillions of tokens.
LLMs are computationally expensive to train. A 2020 study estimated the cost of training a 1.5 billion parameter model (1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art at the time) at $1.6 million.
A 2020 analysis found that neural language models' capability (as measured by training loss) increased smoothly in a power law relationship with number of parameters, quantity of training data, and computation used for training. These relationships were tested over a wide range of values (up to seven orders of magnitude) and no attenuation of the relationship was observed at the highest end of the range (including for network sizes up to trillions of parameters).
Application to downstream tasks
Between 2018 and 2020, the standard method for harnessing an LLM for a specific natural language processing (NLP) task was to fine tune the model with additional task-specific training. It has subsequently been found that more powerful LLMs such as GPT-3 can solve tasks without additional training via "prompting" techniques, in which the problem to be solved is presented to the model as a text prompt, possibly with some textual examples of similar problems and their solutions.
Fine-tuning
Main article: Fine-tuning (machine learning)
Fine-tuning is the practice of modifying an existing pretrained language model by training it (in a supervised fashion) on a specific task (e.g. sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or part-of-speech tagging). It is a form of transfer learning. It generally involves the introduction of a new set of weights connecting the final layer of the language model to the output of the downstream task. The original weights of the language model may be "frozen", such that only the new layer of weights connecting them to the output are learned during training. Alternatively, the original weights may receive small updates (possibly with earlier layers frozen).
Prompting
See also: Prompt engineering and Few-shot learning (natural language processing)
In the prompting paradigm, popularized by GPT-3, the problem to be solved is formulated via a text prompt, which the model must solve by providing a completion (via inference). In "few-shot prompting", the prompt includes a small number of examples of similar (problem, solution) pairs. For example, a sentiment analysis task of labelling the sentiment of a movie review could be prompted as follows:
Review: This movie stinks.
Sentiment: negative
Review: This movie is fantastic!
Sentiment:
If the model outputs "positive", then it has correctly solved the task. In zero-shot prompting, no solve examples are provided. An example of a zero-shot prompt for the same sentiment analysis task would be "The sentiment associated with the movie review 'This movie is fantastic!' is".
Few-shot performance of LLMs has been shown to achieve competitive results on NLP tasks, sometimes surpassing prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Examples of such NLP tasks are translation, question answering, cloze tasks, unscrambling words, and using a novel word in a sentence. The creation and optimisation of such prompts is called prompt engineering.
Instruction tuning
Instruction tuning is a form of fine-tuning designed to facilitate more natural and accurate zero-shot prompting interactions. Given a text input, a pretrained language model will generate a completion which matches the distribution of text on which it was trained. A naive language model given the prompt "Write an essay about the main themes of Hamlet." might provide a completion such as "A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied to submissions received after March 17." In instruction tuning, the language model is trained on many examples of tasks formulated as natural language instructions, along with appropriate responses. Various techniques for instruction tuning have been applied in practice. OpenAI's InstructGPT protocol involves supervised fine-tuning on a dataset of human-generated (prompt, response) pairs, followed by reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), in which a reward function was learned based on a dataset of human preferences. Another technique, "self-instruct", fine-tunes the language model on a training set of examples which are themselves generated by an LLM (bootstrapped from a small initial set of human-generated examples).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model |
information_extraction | From the passage provided, when was the home version of Pong released? | The home version of Pong was released in 1975. | The first video game consoles were produced in the early 1970s. Ralph H. Baer devised the concept of playing simple, spot-based games on a television screen in 1966, which later became the basis of the Magnavox Odyssey in 1972. Inspired by the table tennis game on the Odyssey, Nolan Bushnell, Ted Dabney, and Allan Alcorn at Atari, Inc. developed the first successful arcade game, Pong, and looked to develop that into a home version, which was released in 1975. The first consoles were capable of playing only a very limited number of games built into the hardware. Programmable consoles using swappable ROM cartridges were introduced with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976, though popularized with the Atari 2600 released in 1977. |
information_extraction | From the passage provided, extract the number of Naruto: Shippuden episodes. | There are 500 episodes of Naruto: Shippuden. | Naruto was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1999 to 2014, with its chapters collected in 72 tankōbon volumes. The manga was adapted into an anime television series produced by Pierrot and Aniplex, which broadcast 220 episodes from 2002 to 2007; the English dub of the series aired on Cartoon Network and YTV from 2005 to 2009. Naruto: Shippuden, a sequel to the original series, premiered in 2007, and ended in 2017, after 500 episodes. The English dub was broadcast on Disney XD from 2009 to 2011, airing the first 98 episodes, and then switched over to Adult Swim's Toonami programming block in January 2014, starting over from the first episode. The English dub is still airing weekly on Adult Swim to this day. Viz Media began streaming the anime series on their streaming service Neon Alley in December 2012 on 99 episodes, and ended in March 2016, after 338 episodes. Besides the anime series, Pierrot has developed eleven movies and twelve original video animations (OVAs). Other Naruto-related merchandise includes light novels, video games, and trading cards developed by several companies. |
closed_qa | Does Grigorievna Nazarenko live in Moscow? | Yes, she lives in Moscow | Professor Tatyana Grigorievna Nazarenko is one of the leading Russian contemporary painters who has set new directions in Russian Art and Painting starting from the 1970s. She was born in Moscow where she still lives and works. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about the Falcons, how many Super Bowls have they won in their history? | Although the falcons have been to two Super Bowl games in their history, they have not won a Super Bowl yet. | The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta. The Falcons compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The Falcons were founded on June 30, 1965, and joined the NFL in 1966 as an expansion team, after the NFL offered then-owner Rankin Smith a franchise to keep him from joining the rival American Football League (AFL).
In their 55 years of existence, the Falcons have compiled a record of 379–487–6 (369–473–6 in the regular season and 10–14 in the playoffs), winning division championships in 1980, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2012, and 2016. The Falcons have appeared in two Super Bowls, the first during the 1998 season in Super Bowl XXXIII, where they lost to the Denver Broncos 34–19, and the second 18 years later, a 34–28 overtime loss to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LI.
The Falcons' current home field is Mercedes-Benz Stadium, which opened for the 2017 season; the team's headquarters and practice facilities are located at a 50-acre (20 ha) site in Flowery Branch, northeast of Atlanta in Hall County. |
information_extraction | Extract the key dates and events in the life of Albert Einstein in a bulleted list in the format {date} - {event} | 1895 - Moved to Switzerland
1897 - Enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich
1900 - Graduated from the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school
1901 - Became a Swiss citizen
1903 - Started a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern
1905 - Awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich
1914 - Moved to Berlin to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin
1917 - Became the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics
1917 - Became a German citizen again
1933 - Settled in the United States
1940 - Became an American citizen | Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, Einstein became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time Prussian.
In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein, as a Jew, objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons. |
summarization | What is the process by which utilities rates are set in the US | The price of a utility's products and services will affect its consumption. As with most demand curves, a price increase decreases demand. Through a concept known as rate design or rate structure, regulators set the prices (known as "rates" in the case of utilities) and thereby affect the consumption. With declining block rates, the per-unit price of utility consumption decreases as the energy consumption increases. Typically a declining block rate is offered only to very large consumers. If conservation is the goal, regulators can promote conservation by letting prices rise. A third possible rate design is a flat rate which charges the same price for all consumption. | Utility ratemaking is the formal regulatory process in the United States by which public utilities set the prices (more commonly known as "rates") they will charge consumers. Ratemaking, typically carried out through "rate cases" before a public utilities commission, serves as one of the primary instruments of government regulation of public utilities. |
summarization | What is Sim racing | Sim Racing is simulating car racing as accurately as possible using racing game software and hardware. To be competitive, drivers need to understand all aspects of car handling and setup. This creates a high level of complexity, which differentiates sim racing from arcade racing-style games. | Simulated racing or racing simulation, commonly known as simply sim racing, are the collective terms for racing game software that attempts to accurately simulate auto racing, complete with real-world variables such as fuel usage, damage, tire wear and grip, and suspension settings. To be competitive in sim racing, a driver must understand all aspects of car handling that make real-world racing so difficult, such as threshold braking, how to maintain control of a car as the tires lose traction, and how properly to enter and exit a turn without sacrificing speed. It is this level of difficulty that distinguishes sim racing from arcade racing-style driving games where real-world variables are taken out of the equation and the principal objective is to create a sense of speed as opposed to a sense of realism.
Jann Mardenborough, a sim racer became a professional Nissan racing driver by playing Gran Turismo.
Due to the complexity and demands of mimicking real-life driving, racing sims require faster computers to run effectively, as well as a steering wheel and pedals for the throttle and brakes for the immersion.
Many cars are digitally recreated for sim racing like this BMW Z4 GT3 from Assetto Corsa.
While using a simple gamepad, joystick or even a mouse and keyboard may suffice for most arcade-style driving games on home systems, it won't provide the same level of immersion and realism as using a racing wheel and pedals. In recent years, many sim racing experiences have been developed for consoles, such as the PlayStation and Xbox. While these games can be played with a controller, it is recommended that players invest in a racing wheel and pedals. With the development of online racing, the ability to drive against human opponents and computer AI offline is the closest many will come to driving cars on a real track. Even those who race in real-world competition use simulations for practice or for entertainment. With continued development of the physics engine software that forms the basis of these sims, as well as improved hardware (providing tactile feedback), the experience has become more realistic.
In general, sim racing gameplay style applied in several video games like iRacing, Assetto Corsa and Assetto Corsa Competizione, Gran Turismo, among others. |
information_extraction | From the passage provided about sports articles, extract total number of articles categorized as good and calculate the percentage of good articles | 37625 articles are categorized as good and percentage of good articles is approximately 0.57 | Currently, out of the 6,639,824 articles on Wikipedia, 37,625 are categorized as good articles (about 1 in 177), most of which are listed below. An additional 6,245 are listed as featured articles (about 1 in 1,070) and 4,089 as featured lists (about 1 in 1,630). Because articles are only included in one category, a good article that has been promoted to featured status is removed from the good articles category. Adding good and featured articles and lists together gives a total of 47,959 articles (about 1 in 139). A small plus sign inside a circle (This symbol designates good articles on Wikipedia.) in the top-right corner of an article's page indicates that the article is good |
information_extraction | what's the average airspeed velocity of an unladen swallow | This is a popular line from a Monte Pyton film, Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where the correct answer to the answer is yet another question "African or European", which tricks the Bridgekeeper into a wrong answer of "I don't know that". | Later, at the Bridge of Death, the Bridgekeeper asks Arthur his third question. "What is the airspeed velocity of an unladen swallow?" When Arthur asks the old man whether he means an African or European swallow, the Bridgekeeper is unable to answer, and is thus launched into The Gorge of Eternal Peril. When Sir Bedevere asks how Arthur knows so much about swallows, he replies, "You have to know these things when you're king." |
closed_qa | What is Sensory processing disorder? | Sensory processing disorder (SPD, formerly known as sensory integration dysfunction) is a condition in which multisensory input is not adequately processed to provide appropriate responses to the demands of the environment. Sensory processing disorder is present in many people with autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Individuals with SPD may inadequately process visual, auditory, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch), vestibular (balance), proprioception (body awareness), and interoception (internal body senses) sensory stimuli. | Sensory processing disorder (SPD, formerly known as sensory integration dysfunction) is a condition in which multisensory input is not adequately processed in order to provide appropriate responses to the demands of the environment. Sensory processing disorder is present in many people with autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Individuals with SPD may inadequately process visual, auditory, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch), vestibular (balance), proprioception (body awareness), and interoception (internal body senses) sensory stimuli.
Sensory integration was defined by occupational therapist Anna Jean Ayres in 1972 as "the neurological process that organizes sensation from one's own body and from the environment and makes it possible to use the body effectively within the environment".Sensory processing disorder has been characterized as the source of significant problems in organizing sensation coming from the body and the environment and is manifested by difficulties in the performance in one or more of the main areas of life: productivity, leisure and play or activities of daily living.
Sources debate whether SPD is an independent disorder or represents the observed symptoms of various other, more well-established, disorders.SPD is not included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended in 2012 that pediatricians not use SPD as a stand-alone diagnosis. |
summarization | what is the indian subcontinent | The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia, situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are often used interchangeably to denote the region, although the geopolitical term of South Asia frequently includes Afghanistan, which may otherwise be classified as Central Asian. | The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia, situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. |
information_extraction | What awards did Tendulkar receive based on the above passage? Use the format ‘Award name (year)’ in a comma separated list to present the result. | Arjuna Award (1994), Khel Ratna Award (1997), Padma Shri (1998), Padma Vibhushan (2008), Bharat Ratna, Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy (2010) | Tendulkar has received several awards from the government of India: the Arjuna Award (1994), the Khel Ratna Award (1997), the Padma Shri (1998), and the Padma Vibhushan (2008). After Tendulkar played his last match in November 2013, the Prime Minister's Office announced the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award. He was the first sportsperson to receive the reward, and as of 2021, he is the youngest recipient and was the first sportsperson to receive the award. In 2012, Tendulkar was nominated to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India.
In 2010, Time included Tendulkar in its annual list of the most influential people in the world. Tendulkar was awarded the Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy for cricketer of the year at the 2010 International Cricket Council (ICC) Awards.
Having retired from ODI cricket in 2012, he retired from all forms of cricket in November 2013 after playing his 200th Test match. Tendulkar played 664 international cricket matches in total, scoring 34,357 runs. In 2013, Tendulkar was included in an all-time Test World XI to mark the 150th anniversary of Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, and he was the only specialist batsman of the post–World War II era, along with Viv Richards, to get featured in the team. In 2019, he was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about the Battle of Baghaur, tell me who was in the battle and who won. | The Sikh forces defeated Baghaur forces in the Battle of Baghaur. | The Battle of Baghaur was fought between the Sikh forces led by Guru Gobind Singh and the Baghaur forces led by Shiv Partap at Rajasthan.
Background
Daya Singh and Dharam Singh were sent to the embassy of Aurangzeb to send a letter written by Guru Gobind Singh called the Zafarnama. Aurangzeb was moved by the letter and invited the Guru. At Baghaur in Rajasthan, Daya Singh and Dharam Singh met the guru. There he also heard the news that Aurangzeb had died in his camp at Ahmadnagar. The residents were, for some unknown reason, scared from the Guru and planned to attack him. They were mainly terrified of the Guru's caravan which is what made the Guru store it somewhere for a few days. A few days had passed and the Sikhs went on to check the caravan camels. They had gone missing. They had consumed orchard trees, which made a gardener confiscate them. He further beat up the camel driver and took him hostage.
Battle
After the camel incident, 15 Sikhs went in and attempted to negotiate the release of the camels and the driver. The gardener refused and the Sikhs fought. This led to state soldiers launching a counterattack and a battle ensued which lasted 2 days long. Many casualties occurred during this period of time. The Sikhs had successfully plundered the city but the fort still remained. As the fight entered the third day, Dharam Singh with the Sikhs made a dash and kept fighting and killing everyone. Peace was proclaimed but on the day the Raja arrived, the hostilities continued. Dharam Singh killed the rajas command-in-chief while the guru finished the raja himself. The Raja's force made a complete surrender which resulted in a Sikh victory. |
summarization | Is Gloomhaven on Steam worth buying? | Gloomhaven on steam is not worth buying. While the gameplay is very good, it lacks the polish of other games at its cost. Players report frequent disconnects, softlocks, and other bugs that detract from the gameplay experience. Some even report certain secenarios being "unplayable" due to technical limitations in the game. Overall, IGN gives this a score of 6.5/10, as "there's something in it for everyone." | Gloomhaven is a cooperative board game for one to four players designed by Isaac Childres and published by Cephalofair Games in 2017. It is a campaign-based dungeon crawl game including a narrative campaign, 95 unique playable scenarios, and 17 playable classes. Since its introduction the game has been acclaimed by reviewers, and has been described as one of the best board games ever made. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Janne Mortil, tell me what she is most known for. | Janne Mortil is likely best known for her roles as Madeleine Astor in the movie "Titanic", Michelle Dupont in the TV show "Side Effects", and Detective Tricia Kelsey in "Street Justice". | Janne Mortil (born December 14, 1967) is a Vancouver-based Canadian-American actress probably best known for playing Madeleine Astor in Titanic (1996) and Michelle Dupont in the television series Side Effects, for which she was nominated for a Gemini, and Detective Tricia Kelsey in Street Justice (1991–1993).
Career
Janne Mortil began her career with a 1973 appearance in The Beachcombers at the age of five. She was a regular in the 1970s soap opera House of Pride. She performed on stage in the 1979 Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company's production of The Innocents and appeared in 1980 in Huckleberry Finn and His Friends television series.
Her movie roles include Sally Moffat in Little Women (1994). In 1996, she played Madeleine Astor in the television movie Titanic, opposite Catherine Zeta-Jones. In 2003, she played Sergeant Kibble in Hitcher 2.
Her television credits include 21 Jump Street, The X-Files, Poltergeist: The Legacy and Cold Squad. In 1992 she provided narration for the CBC documentary mini-series The Valour and the Horror. She played also Detective Tricia Kelsey on Street Justice (1991-1992) and Michelle Dupont, the clinic's receptionist in Side Effects (1994-1996). For the latter role, she was nominated for a 1996 Gemini Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series. |
closed_qa | Can Penguins fly? | Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds. | Penguins (order Sphenisciformes /sfɪˈnɪsəfɔːrmiːz/, family Spheniscidae /sfɪˈnɪsɪdiː, -daɪ/) are a group of aquatic flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere: only one species, the Galápagos penguin, is found north of the Equator. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage and flippers for swimming. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sea life which they catch with their bills and swallow whole while swimming. A penguin has a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey. |
closed_qa | In which European country is this school located? | Spain | The Instituto de Enseñanza Secundaria Lope de Vega (IES Lope de Vega) is a public high school in Madrid, Spain. It is located in the calle de San Bernardo. It is operated by the regional administration of the Community of Madrid. |
information_extraction | What is Adventures of Tintin? | Adventures of Tinting is a very popular comic book series created by Belgian cartoonist Georges Remi who wrote under the pen name Herge'. It is a series of 24 comic books that have been published in 70 languages with sales of 200 million copies. | The Adventures of Tintin (French: Les Aventures de Tintin [lez‿avɑ̃tyʁ də tɛ̃tɛ̃]) is a series of 24 bande dessinée albums created by Belgian cartoonist Georges Remi, who wrote under the pen name Hergé. The series was one of the most popular European comics of the 20th century. By 2007, a century after Hergé's birth in 1907, Tintin had been published in more than 70 languages with sales of more than 200 million copies, and had been adapted for radio, television, theatre, and film. |
information_extraction | As per the passage what are the four names of the Vedas? | Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda | In the most generic context, a Samhita may refer to any methodical collection of text or verses: Any shastra, sutra, or Sanskrit Epic, along with Vedic texts, might be referred to as a Samhita.Samhita, however, in contemporary literature typically implies the earliest, archaic part of the Vedas. These contain mantras – sacred sounds with or without literal meaning, as well as panegyrics, prayers, litanies and benedictions petitioning nature or Vedic deities. Vedic Samhita refer to mathematically precise metrical archaic text of each of the Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Brahmanas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Aranyakas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The Samhitas are sometimes identified as karma-khanda (कर्म खण्ड, action / ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-khanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge / spirituality-related section). The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial karma-khanda, other times (or parts of them) as the jnana-khanda.The Vedic Samhitas were chanted during ceremonies and rituals, and parts of it remain the oldest living part of Hindu tradition.A collective study of Vedas and later text suggests that the compendium of Samhitas and associated Vedic texts were far larger than currently available. However, most have been lost at some point or over a period of Indian history. |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph about the Grammy Awards, who has the most Grammys of all time? | The current record holder for most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is Beyoncé. | The record for the most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is held by Beyoncé, an American singer, songwriter, and dancer, who has won 32. It was previously held by Georg Solti, a Hungarian-British conductor, who won 31. |
summarization | When was the 68th Division of People's Republic of China deactivated? | The 68th Division of People's Republic of China was deactivated in 1952. | The 68th Division (Chinese: 第68师) was created in February 1949 under the Regulation of the Redesignations of All Organizations and Units of the Army, issued by Central Military Commission on November 1, 1948, basing on the 11th Division, 4th Column of the Huadong Field Army. Its history can be traced to the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division of Huadong Field Army, formed in October 1946.
The division was a part with 23rd Corps. It took part in several major battles during the Chinese Civil War, including the Lunan Campaign, the Laiwu Campaign, the Menglianggu Campaign, the Yudong Campaign, the Huaihai Campaign and the Shanghai Campaign. During the last phase of Huaihai campaign the division captured General Du Yuming, the deputy commander-in-chief of Suppression General Headquarters of Xuzhou Garrison.
The division was composed of 202nd, 203rd and 204th Infantry Regiments.
In August 1952 the division was inactivated:
Headquarters, 68th Division and Headquarters, 202nd Infantry Regiment were transferred to the People's Liberation Army Air Force;
202nd Infantry Regiment was transferred to 67th Division as 199th Infantry Regiment;
Headquarters, 203rd Infantry Regiment was transferred to the People's Liberation Army Navy. |
information_extraction | What's the "Bean" in Chicago? | The "Bean" is a nickname for a public sculpture installed in Millennium Park in Chicago during 2004 and 2006. The formal name for the sculpture is "Cloud Gate." The sculpture is fluid-looking with a highly polished exterior and no visible seams. It's design was inspired by liquid mercury and it's reflective surface is a popular photo opportunity for visiting tourists. | Cloud Gate is a public sculpture by Indian-born British artist Anish Kapoor, that is the centerpiece of AT&T Plaza at Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. The sculpture and AT&T Plaza are located on top of Park Grill, between the Chase Promenade and McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink. Constructed between 2004 and 2006, the sculpture is nicknamed "The Bean" because of its shape, a name Kapoor initially disliked, but later grew fond of. Made up of 168 stainless steel plates welded together, its highly polished exterior has no visible seams. It measures 33 by 66 by 42 feet (10 by 20 by 13 m), and weighs 110 short tons (100 t; 98 long tons).
Kapoor's design was inspired by liquid mercury and the sculpture's surface reflects and distorts the city's skyline. Visitors are able to walk around and under Cloud Gate's 12-foot (3.7 m) high arch. On the underside is the "omphalos" (Greek for "navel"), a concave chamber that warps and multiplies reflections. The sculpture builds upon many of Kapoor's artistic themes, and it is popular with tourists as a photo-taking opportunity for its unique reflective properties. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about a George Orwell, tell me when and where they were born, what books they wrote, and what their most famous accomplishment were. | Eric Arthur Blair, better known by his pen name George Orwell, was born in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, British India on June 25th, 1903. Raised and educated in England, Orwell fought in the Spanish Civil War, worked as a journalist for the BBC during World War 2 and went on to author a number of literary classics such as Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty Four which lead to him being named among the top 50 greatest British writers. | Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is characterized by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitarianism, and support of democratic socialism.
Orwell produced literary criticism, poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945) and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). His non-fiction works, including The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), documenting his experience of working-class life in the industrial north of England, and Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences soldiering for the Republican faction of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), are as critically respected as his essays on politics, literature, language and culture.
Blair was born in India, and raised and educated in England. After school he became an Imperial policeman in Burma, before returning to Suffolk, England, where he began his writing career as George Orwell—a name inspired by a favourite location, the River Orwell. He lived from occasional pieces of journalism, and also worked as a teacher or bookseller whilst living in London. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, his success as a writer grew and his first books were published. He was wounded fighting in the Spanish Civil War, leading to his first period of ill health on return to England. During the Second World War he worked as a journalist and for the BBC. The publication of Animal Farm led to fame during his lifetime. During the final years of his life he worked on Nineteen Eighty-Four, and moved between Jura in Scotland and London. It was published in June 1949, less than a year before his death.
Orwell's work remains influential in popular culture and in political culture, and the adjective "Orwellian"—describing totalitarian and authoritarian social practices—is part of the English language, like many of his neologisms, such as "Big Brother", "Thought Police", "Room 101", "Newspeak", "memory hole", "doublethink", and "thoughtcrime". In 2008, The Times ranked George Orwell second among "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945". |
summarization | Give me a summary of the early history of snowboarding | In the early days snowboarding was founded by Tom Sims and Jake Burton. Jake Burton went on to found the popular snowboarding brand, Burton Snowboards. The first instance of snowboarding was in February 1968. In the 60's an eighth grader from Haddonfield, New Jersey. The first snowboard was made from a single piece of wood and an aluminum sheet attached to the bottom. The first commerial snowboards were produced in the mid-70's. | Modern snowboarding was pioneered by Tom Sims and Jake Burton Carpenter, who both contributed significant innovations and started influential companies. In February 1968, Poppen organized the first snurfing competition at a Michigan ski resort that attracted enthusiasts from all over the country. One of those early pioneers was Tom Sims, a devotee of skateboarding (a sport born in the 1950s when kids attached roller skate wheels to small boards that they steered by shifting their weight). In the 1960s, as an eighth grader in Haddonfield, New Jersey, Sims crafted a snowboard in his school shop class by gluing carpet to the top of a piece of wood and attaching aluminum sheeting to the bottom. He produced commercial snowboards in the mid-70s. Others experimented with board-on-snow configurations at this time, including Welsh skateboard enthusiasts Jon Roberts and Pete Matthews developed their own snowboards to use at their local dry ski slope. |
summarization | Provide a bulleted overview of the components of GDP by expenditure | The following are the five components of GDP by expenditure:
- Consumption: Private expenditures in the economy
- Investment: Includes business investments, but not exchanges of assets
- Government Spending: Sum of government spend on goods and services
- Exports: Gross exports
- Imports: Gross imports | Components of Gross Domestic Product by Expenditure
Here is a description of each GDP component:
C (consumption) is normally the largest GDP component in the economy, consisting of private expenditures in the economy (household final consumption expenditure). These personal expenditures fall under one of the following categories: durable goods, nondurable goods, and services. Examples include food, rent, jewelry, gasoline, and medical expenses, but not the purchase of new housing.
I (investment) includes, for instance, business investment in equipment, but does not include exchanges of existing assets. Examples include construction of a new mine, purchase of software, or purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory. Spending by households (not government) on new houses is also included in investment. In contrast to its colloquial meaning, "investment" in GDP does not mean purchases of financial products. Buying financial products is classed as 'saving', as opposed to investment. This avoids double-counting: if one buys shares in a company, and the company uses the money received to buy plant, equipment, etc., the amount will be counted toward GDP when the company spends the money on those things; to also count it when one gives it to the company would be to count two times an amount that only corresponds to one group of products. Buying bonds or companies' equity shares is a swapping of deeds, a transfer of claims on future production, not directly an expenditure on products; buying an existing building will involve a positive investment by the buyer and a negative investment by the seller, netting to zero overall investment.
G (government spending) is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes salaries of public servants, purchases of weapons for the military and any investment expenditure by a government. It does not include any transfer payments, such as social security or unemployment benefits. Analyses outside the USA will often treat government investment as part of investment rather than government spending.
X (exports) represents gross exports. GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for other nations' consumption, therefore exports are added.
M (imports) represents gross imports. Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms G, I, or C, and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign supply as domestic.
Note that C, I, and G are expenditures on final goods and services; expenditures on intermediate goods and services do not count. (Intermediate goods and services are those used by businesses to produce other goods and services within the accounting year.) So for example if a car manufacturer buys auto parts, assembles the car and sells it, only the final car sold is counted towards the GDP. Meanwhile, if a person buys replacement auto parts to install them on their car, those are counted towards the GDP.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is responsible for calculating the national accounts in the United States, "In general, the source data for the expenditures components are considered more reliable than those for the income components [see income method, above]."
Encyclopedia Britannica records an alternate way of measuring exports minus imports: notating it as the single variable NX.[23 |
information_extraction | Extract from the text the list of actors and the characters they play. List answer as bullet list in in format: {actor name}: {character name} | - Pedro Pascal: Mandelorian
- Katee Sackhoff: Bo-Katan Kryze | The Mandalorian is an American space Western television series created by Jon Favreau for the streaming service Disney+. It is the first live-action series in the Star Wars franchise, beginning five years after the events of Return of the Jedi (1983), and stars Pedro Pascal as the title character, a lone bounty hunter who goes on the run to protect the Force-sensitive child Grogu. Starting in the third season, Katee Sackhoff also stars as Mandalorian Bo-Katan Kryze, following her appearance in the second season. |
summarization | Is figure skating a hard sport? | Figure skating is one of the most difficult sports due to a number of reasons, including the precision needed to execute tricks, talent for performing required, and the costs involved in competing. The skill needed to perform tricks like the axel or double axel is already very high and on top of that, figure skaters need to be good at performing their routines. In addition, the costs for practicing, buying good figure skates, and tailoring competition costumes can add up quickly. | Figure skating is a sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform on figure skates on ice. It was the first winter sport to be included in the Olympic Games, when contested at the 1908 Olympics in London. The Olympic disciplines are men's singles, women's singles,[note 1] pair skating, and ice dance; the four individual disciplines are also combined into a team event, first included in the Winter Olympics in 2014. The non-Olympic disciplines include synchronized skating, Theater on Ice, and four skating. From intermediate through senior-level competition, skaters generally perform two programs (the short program and the free skate), which, depending on the discipline, may include spins, jumps, moves in the field, lifts, throw jumps, death spirals, and other elements or moves.
Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior) at local, regional, sectional, national, and international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates international figure skating judging and competitions. These include the Winter Olympics, the World Championships, the World Junior Championships, the European Championships, the Four Continents Championships, the Grand Prix series (senior and junior), and the ISU Challenger Series.
The sport is also associated with show business. Major competitions generally conclude with exhibition galas, in which the top skaters from each discipline perform non-competitive programs. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice shows, which run during the competitive season and the off-season. |
closed_qa | What is the meaning of "tidal coupling"? | Tidal coupling or synchronous rotation is what causes one astronomical object's face to be fixed pointing to another, just as the Moon's visible face is always pointing to the Earth. A coupled object takes the same amount of time to rotate about its axis as it does to translate around its companion. This synchronous rotation, also known as captured rotation or synchronous rotation, causes one hemisphere to point continuously toward the companion object. Normally, only the satellite couples around a larger planet, but if the mass difference between the two bodies and the distance between them is small, both objects may have a reciprocal tidal coupling, as Pluto and Charon do. | Nomadism is a way of life in which people don't have a permanent place to live. Instead, they move around a certain area in search of food and grazing land. |
summarization | Please give me a short bulleted list of what happened in the 2023 Covenant School shooting incident | Hale, 28, a former student killed three children and three adults as part of a mass shooting that occurred at The Covenant School, a private Presbyterian Church in America parochial school in the Green Hills neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. | On March 27, 2023, a mass shooting occurred at The Covenant School, a private Presbyterian Church in America parochial school in the Green Hills neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. Local resident and former student of the school Aiden Hale (formerly Audrey Elizabeth Hale) killed three children and three adults. Hale, 28, was killed by two Metropolitan Nashville Police Department officers responding to the incident.
Hale was initially reported to be a woman and referred to by his birth name by police. Later, it was confirmed that Hale was a trans man who went by the name Aiden and used he/him pronouns.
Hale drove a Honda Fit to the school, arriving at 9:54 a.m. CDT and parking it in the lot. At 9:57, Hale sent an Instagram message to an old friend saying an earlier post he made was "basically a suicide note" and that he planned to die that day. His friend called a crisis hotline before contacting the Davidson County Sheriff's Office at 10:13.
At 10:11, Hale shot through a set of glass side doors and entered the building. He was armed with two rifles and a pistol. At 10:13, police received a call about an active shooter. He walked across the second floor of the school before opening fire. He fired into several classrooms; no one in the classrooms was injured because the teachers had fortified doors and sheltered the students. The police first arrived at the school at 10:24. A teacher told an officer that the students were in lockdown and two were missing.
Officers entered the building at 10:25 and they searched each room for Hale. They heard gunshots coming from the second floor. Five Metro Nashville police officers went upstairs and saw him in a lobby area, firing through a window at arriving police vehicles. Two of the officers fired four times each killing him at 10:27, 14 minutes after the initial 911 call was made |
information_extraction | What are the names of four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610? | Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. | Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, and slightly less than one one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky after the Moon and Venus, and it has been observed since prehistoric times. It was named after Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion.
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen, followed by helium, which constitutes a quarter of its mass and a tenth of its volume. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Because of its rapid rotation rate of 1 rotation per 10 hours, the planet's shape is an oblate spheroid: it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm which has been observed since at least 1831.
Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and has a powerful magnetosphere. The planet's magnetic tail is nearly 800 million kilometres (5.3 astronomical units; 500 million miles) long. Jupiter has 95 known moons and probably many more, including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury. Callisto is the second largest; Io and Europa are approximately the size of Earth's moon.
Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter, making its closest approach to the planet in December 1973. Jupiter has since been explored by multiple robotic spacecraft, beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979. The Galileo orbiter arrived in orbit around Jupiter in 1995. In 2007, New Horizons visited Jupiter for a gravity assist to increase its speed and bend its trajectory on the way to Pluto. The latest probe to visit Jupiter, Juno, entered its orbit in July 2016. Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include its moon Europa, which probably has an ice-covered liquid ocean which scientists think could sustain life. |
summarization | What is Chichen Itza? | Chichén Itzá was one of the largest Maya cities which was a major focal point around AD 900. It is now one of the most visited archeological sites in Mexico. | Chichén Itzá (often spelled Chichen Itza in English and traditional Yucatec Maya) was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Mexico.
Chichén Itzá was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) through the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) and into the early portion of the Postclassic period (c. AD 900–1200). The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.
Chichén Itzá was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred to in later Mesoamerican literature. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.
The ruins of Chichén Itzá are federal property, and the site's stewardship is maintained by Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History). The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, when it was purchased by the state of Yucatán.
Chichén Itzá is one of the most visited archeological sites in Mexico with over 2.6 million tourists in 2017. |
closed_qa | What are artificial neural networks? | Neural networks are computer systems inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains | Artificial neural networks (ANNs), usually simply called neural networks (NNs) or neural nets, are computing systems inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit a signal to other neurons. An artificial neuron receives signals then processes them and can signal neurons connected to it. The "signal" at a connection is a real number, and the output of each neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections are called edges. Neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Neurons may have a threshold such that a signal is sent only if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold.
utomatically generate identifying characteristics from the examples that they process.Typically, neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer), to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. |
closed_qa | Who wrote Ready Player One? | Ready Player One is a 2011 science fiction novel written by American author Ernest Cline. | Ready Player One is a 2011 science fiction novel, and the debut novel of American author Ernest Cline. The story, set in a dystopia in 2045, follows protagonist Wade Watts on his search for an Easter egg in a worldwide virtual reality game, the discovery of which would lead him to inherit the game creator's fortune. Cline sold the rights to publish the novel in June 2010, in a bidding war to the Crown Publishing Group (a division of Random House). The book was published on August 16, 2011. An audiobook was released the same day; it was narrated by Wil Wheaton, who was mentioned briefly in one of the chapters.Ch. 20 In 2012, the book received an Alex Award from the Young Adult Library Services Association division of the American Library Association and won the 2011 Prometheus Award. |
summarization | What is CAP theorem in computer science? | The CAP theorem, also named Brewer's theorem, states that distributed data stores can provide only two of three guarantees: consistency, availability, and partition tolerance. When a network partition fails, it must be decided whether to cancel the operation or proceed with the operation. Eric Brewer argues that the "two out of three" concept can be misleading. | In theoretical computer science, the CAP theorem, also named Brewer's theorem after computer scientist Eric Brewer, states that any distributed data store can provide only two of the following three guarantees:
Consistency
Every read receives the most recent write or an error.
Availability
Every request receives a (non-error) response, without the guarantee that it contains the most recent write.
Partition tolerance
The system continues to operate despite an arbitrary number of messages being dropped (or delayed) by the network between nodes.
When a network partition failure happens, it must be decided whether to do one of the following:
cancel the operation and thus decrease the availability but ensure consistency
proceed with the operation and thus provide availability but risk inconsistency.
Thus, if there is a network partition, one has to choose between consistency or availability. Note that consistency as defined in the CAP theorem is quite different from the consistency guaranteed in ACID database transactions.
Eric Brewer argues that the often-used "two out of three" concept can be somewhat misleading because system designers need only to sacrifice consistency or availability in the presence of partitions, but that in many systems partitions are rare. |
information_extraction | List the name of the games in Prince of Persia series along with their publication year. List the results in comma separated format. | Prince of Persia (1989), Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame (1993), Prince of Persia 3D (1999), Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2003), Prince of Persia: Warrior Within (2004), Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones (2006), Prince of Persia (2008), Prince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands (2010) | Prince of Persia is a video game franchise created by Jordan Mechner. It is built around a series of action-adventure games focused on various incarnations of the eponymous Prince, set in ancient and medieval Persia.
The first two games in the series, Prince of Persia (1989) and Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame (1993), were published by Broderbund. Prince of Persia 3D (1999), named for being the first installment to use 3D computer graphics, was developed by Red Orb Entertainment and published by The Learning Company on PC; The Dreamcast version was developed by Avalanche Software and published by Mattel Interactive. Ubisoft bought the rights to the franchise in 2001 and rebooted it with Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2003). Ubisoft has since developed and published four additional entries in the series: Prince of Persia: Warrior Within (2004), Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones (2006), Prince of Persia (2008), and Prince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands (2010), as well as a number of spin-offs and games for mobile devices.
Outside of the games, the franchise also includes a film adaptation based on The Sands of Time, written in part by Mechner, and released by Walt Disney Pictures in 2010; a graphic novel; and the Lego Prince of Persia toyline. Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed franchise is considered to be the spiritual successor to the series. |
information_extraction | List all the school districts in the following paragraph in a bullet list. | Sure, that paragraph references these school districts:
- Sunflower County Consolidated School District
- Drew School District
- Sunflower County School District
Note that "Sunflower County School District" may be a duplicate of "Sunflower County Consolidated School District", but it is unclear from the context of this paragraph | The City of Drew is served by the Sunflower County Consolidated School District. Elementary school students attend A. W. James Elementary School in Drew and middle school students attend Drew Hunter Middle School in Drew. High school students attend Thomas E. Edwards, Sr. High School (formerly Ruleville Central High School) in Ruleville.
Residents were previously zoned to the Drew School District. Children attended A.W. James Elementary School and Drew Hunter High School in Drew. Prior to the 2010-2011 school year the Drew School District secondary schools were Hunter Middle School and Drew High School. As of July 1, 2012, the Drew School District was consolidated with the Sunflower County School District. Drew Hunter's high school division closed as of that date, with high school students rezoned to Ruleville Central High School.
Mississippi Delta Community College has the Drew Center in Drew. Sunflower County Library System operates the Drew Public Library in Drew. |
information_extraction | Summarize the argument and tell me who won | Crosby and the sponsor, Woodbury Soap, argued over what theme tune should be used. Woodbury Soap and its agency, Lennon & Mitchell, argued that ‘Loveliness’ should be chosen because it had always been used for Woodbury programs. Crosby disagreed and insisted that "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)" would be better given that the song had been identified with him ever since he had been on the air.
In the end, Crosby won the argument as Woodbury conceded to the singer. | There was a dispute between Crosby and the sponsor over what theme tune should be used. Woodbury Soap and its agency, Lennon & Mitchell, considered that the tune ‘Loveliness’ which had always been the theme of the Woodbury programs should continue. Crosby argued that the logical theme for the stanza was "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)", on the grounds that the song had been identified with him ever since he had been on the air. Eventually Woodbury conceded to the singer. Other problems arose with Dale Winbrow, who had been sent out to the West coast from New York by the Lennon & Mitchell agency to resolve the theme tune argument and supervise the show. Winbrow listened to the program that Crosby and Lennie Hayton had prepared for the next broadcast and was very critical of it. “The flare up that was provoked from Crosby wound up with the warbler and Hayton declaring themselves out of the show. The baritone’s management later prevailed upon him to hold on while the situation was being straightened out with the agency on the New York end.” |
summarization | What are some noteworthy facts from Gabriel García Márquez present on the text? | Gabriel García Márquez was born in Colombia and is recognized as one of the most significant authors of the 20th century. He won a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. His work's literary style known as magic realism brought him critical acclaim and commercial success. Some of his works used places of his live as inspiration, and most of them explore the theme of solitude. He is the most-translated Spanish-language author. He was called "the greates Colombian who ever lived"by the president of Colombia at the time of his death. | Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez (American Spanish: [ɡaˈβɾjel ɣaɾˈsi.a ˈmaɾkes] (listen); 6 March 1927 – 17 April 2014) was a Colombian novelist, short-story writer, screenwriter, and journalist, known affectionately as Gabo ([ˈɡaβo]) or Gabito ([ɡaˈβito]) throughout Latin America. Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century, particularly in the Spanish language, he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature. He pursued a self-directed education that resulted in leaving law school for a career in journalism. From early on he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics. In 1958, he married Mercedes Barcha Pardo; they had two sons, Rodrigo and Gonzalo.
García Márquez started as a journalist and wrote many acclaimed non-fiction works and short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967), Chronicle of a Death Foretold (1981), and Love in the Time of Cholera (1985). His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a literary style known as magic realism, which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations. Some of his works are set in the fictional village of Macondo (mainly inspired by his birthplace, Aracataca), and most of them explore the theme of solitude. He is the most-translated Spanish-language author.
Upon García Márquez's death in April 2014, Juan Manuel Santos, the president of Colombia, called him "the greatest Colombian who ever lived." |
closed_qa | Given this paragraph about ferrets, do they spend the majority of the time sleeping in a 24 hour day? | Yes, ferrets sleep 14 to 18 hours per day. | Ferrets spend 14–18 hours a day asleep and are most active around the hours of dawn and dusk, meaning they are crepuscular. If they are caged, they should be taken out daily to exercise and satisfy their curiosity; they need at least an hour and a place to play. Unlike their polecat ancestors, which are solitary animals, most ferrets will live happily in social groups. They are territorial, like to burrow, and prefer to sleep in an enclosed area. |
closed_qa | Given the referenced text, what Roman Emperor gave Roman Citizenship to all free men? | Emperor Caracalla gave Roman Citizenship to all free men in the Roman Empire. | The third century AD showed some remarkable development for the empire as well as a potential decline and collapse. Emperor Caracalla's edict in 212 AD known as the Antoninian constitution delivered Roman citizenship to every free man in the empire, starting the decline of the importance of the city of Rome and indeed of Roman Italy for the Roman Empire. By the mid-third century AD, Pax Romana had come to an end, and several crises hit the empire simultaneously in a period known to history as the Crisis of the third century. This period saw the empire exposed to rampant inflation, natural disasters, secession and civil wars taking places over several decades. The secessions ended with emperor Aurelian’s conquest of the secessionist Palmyrene Empire and Gallic Empire in 273 and 274 AD, as Aurelian unified a splintered empire which, according to many historians, should have been doomed. However, Aurelian was assassinated in 276 AD, sparking additional civil wars. The crisis came to an end only through the ascension of emperor Diocletian to the throne. The West suffered more heavily from these decades of crisis due to this distinction between the established and more prosperous Hellenised East and the younger colonized and Romanized West that had persisted. This cultural division of the Roman Empire into an eastern Greek and western Latin part became increasingly important in later centuries, leading to a gradual estrangement of the two Roman worlds.
Emperor Diocletian created the administrative system known as the Dominate to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his empire. The dominate was in comparison with the principate, a huge imperial bureaucracy, which laid the foundations for the power structure of the later Eastern Roman Empire. With this came a redistricting and reduction of Roman provinces. Diocletian scrapped any pretense of republican rule as the emperor moved away from formally being merely "Princeps" to being "Dominus" - Lord and master. Diocletian also formally finished the process of restructuring the empire, from being a colonial-styled empire ruled by Rome and Roman Italians in the first century AD to a larger imperial entity where the emperor's court was not bound to the city of Rome or Italy, now only one Roman imperial province among many. The norm of emperors being Roman Italians was first broken by emperor Trajan who came from Hispania. By the time of the Severan dynasty, most emperors were originating from outside of Italy. When Diocletian introduced his reforms, this had the effect of the Roman Senate formally lost its already declining imperial influence and became a de facto regional body of decision-making.
An early instance of the partition of the empire into East and West occurred in 286, when Emperor Diocletian appointed Maximian as augustus of the West. In 293 AD, the empire went through a devolution under Diocletian known as the Tetrarchy. The empire was split into four, with the two most prominent parts of the empire each ruled by one emperor (Augustus). Each co-emperor then appointed a young colleague as caesar to be a subordinate emperor with control over his own territory. The Caesar shared power with and would eventually succeed the senior partner. Each tetrarch was in charge of a part of the empire, with the divisions based on geographic regions. This devolution outlines the coming split 100 years later when the empire was permanently divided into an eastern and western empire. The tetrarchy however only lasted 20 years, as emperors quickly began fighting each other for power. The whole empire was eventually reunited by Constantine the Great in 324 after he ended the last of these civil wars. |
closed_qa | Who was Beethoven? | Beethoven was a German composer and pianist known for his famous symphonies such as Moonlight Sonata. | Ludwig van Beethoven[n 1] (baptised 17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. Beethoven remains one of the most admired composers in the history of Western music; his works rank among the most performed of the classical music repertoire and span the transition from the Classical period to the Romantic era in classical music. His career has conventionally been divided into early, middle, and late periods. His early period, during which he forged his craft, is typically considered to have lasted until 1802. From 1802 to around 1812, his middle period showed an individual development from the styles of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and is sometimes characterized as heroic. During this time, he began to grow increasingly deaf. In his late period, from 1812 to 1827, he extended his innovations in musical form and expression. |
closed_qa | What new economies developed because of the anti-slave treaties? | Instead of exporting slaves, Africa began exporting palm oil, cocoa, timber, and gold. | In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars. |
closed_qa | Given these paragraphs about Large language models, what is hallucination? | In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data. | A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. LLMs emerged around 2018 and perform well at a wide variety of tasks. This has shifted the focus of natural language processing research away from the previous paradigm of training specialized supervised models for specific tasks.
Properties
Though the term large language model has no formal definition, it often refers to deep learning models having a parameter count on the order of billions or more. LLMs are general purpose models which excel at a wide range of tasks, as opposed to being trained for one specific task (such as sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or mathematical reasoning). The skill with which they accomplish tasks, and the range of tasks at which they are capable, seems to be a function of the amount of resources (data, parameter-size, computing power) devoted to them, in a way that is not dependent on additional breakthroughs in design.
Though trained on simple tasks along the lines of predicting the next word in a sentence, neural language models with sufficient training and parameter counts are found to capture much of the syntax and semantics of human language. In addition, large language models demonstrate considerable general knowledge about the world, and are able to "memorize" a great quantity of facts during training.
Hallucinations
Main article: Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.
Emergent abilities
On a number of natural language benchmarks involving tasks such as question answering, models perform no better than random chance until they reach a certain scale (in this case, measured by training computation), at which point their performance sharply increases. These are examples of emergent abilities.
Unpredictable abilities that have been observed in large language models but that were not present in simpler models (and that were not explicitly designed into the model) are usually called "emergent abilities". Researchers note that such abilities "cannot be predicted simply by extrapolating the performance of smaller models". These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed. Hundreds of emergent abilities have been described. Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.
Architecture and training
Large language models have most commonly used the transformer architecture, which, since 2018, has become the standard deep learning technique for sequential data (previously, recurrent architectures such as the LSTM were most common). LLMs are trained in an unsupervised manner on unannotated text. A left-to-right transformer is trained to maximize the probability assigned to the next word in the training data, given the previous context. Alternatively, an LLM may use a bidirectional transformer (as in the example of BERT), which assigns a probability distribution over words given access to both preceding and following context. In addition to the task of predicting the next word or "filling in the blanks", LLMs may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the data distribution such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear side-by-side in the training corpus.
The earliest LLMs were trained on corpora having on the order of billions of words. The first model in OpenAI's GPT series was trained in 2018 on BookCorpus, consisting of 985 million words. In the same year, BERT was trained on a combination of BookCorpus and English Wikipedia, totalling 3.3 billion words. In the years since then, training corpora for LLMs have increased by orders of magnitude, reaching up to hundreds of billions or trillions of tokens.
LLMs are computationally expensive to train. A 2020 study estimated the cost of training a 1.5 billion parameter model (1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art at the time) at $1.6 million.
A 2020 analysis found that neural language models' capability (as measured by training loss) increased smoothly in a power law relationship with number of parameters, quantity of training data, and computation used for training. These relationships were tested over a wide range of values (up to seven orders of magnitude) and no attenuation of the relationship was observed at the highest end of the range (including for network sizes up to trillions of parameters).
Application to downstream tasks
Between 2018 and 2020, the standard method for harnessing an LLM for a specific natural language processing (NLP) task was to fine tune the model with additional task-specific training. It has subsequently been found that more powerful LLMs such as GPT-3 can solve tasks without additional training via "prompting" techniques, in which the problem to be solved is presented to the model as a text prompt, possibly with some textual examples of similar problems and their solutions.
Fine-tuning
Main article: Fine-tuning (machine learning)
Fine-tuning is the practice of modifying an existing pretrained language model by training it (in a supervised fashion) on a specific task (e.g. sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or part-of-speech tagging). It is a form of transfer learning. It generally involves the introduction of a new set of weights connecting the final layer of the language model to the output of the downstream task. The original weights of the language model may be "frozen", such that only the new layer of weights connecting them to the output are learned during training. Alternatively, the original weights may receive small updates (possibly with earlier layers frozen).
Prompting
See also: Prompt engineering and Few-shot learning (natural language processing)
In the prompting paradigm, popularized by GPT-3, the problem to be solved is formulated via a text prompt, which the model must solve by providing a completion (via inference). In "few-shot prompting", the prompt includes a small number of examples of similar (problem, solution) pairs. For example, a sentiment analysis task of labelling the sentiment of a movie review could be prompted as follows:
Review: This movie stinks.
Sentiment: negative
Review: This movie is fantastic!
Sentiment:
If the model outputs "positive", then it has correctly solved the task. In zero-shot prompting, no solve examples are provided. An example of a zero-shot prompt for the same sentiment analysis task would be "The sentiment associated with the movie review 'This movie is fantastic!' is".
Few-shot performance of LLMs has been shown to achieve competitive results on NLP tasks, sometimes surpassing prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Examples of such NLP tasks are translation, question answering, cloze tasks, unscrambling words, and using a novel word in a sentence. The creation and optimisation of such prompts is called prompt engineering.
Instruction tuning
Instruction tuning is a form of fine-tuning designed to facilitate more natural and accurate zero-shot prompting interactions. Given a text input, a pretrained language model will generate a completion which matches the distribution of text on which it was trained. A naive language model given the prompt "Write an essay about the main themes of Hamlet." might provide a completion such as "A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied to submissions received after March 17." In instruction tuning, the language model is trained on many examples of tasks formulated as natural language instructions, along with appropriate responses. Various techniques for instruction tuning have been applied in practice. OpenAI's InstructGPT protocol involves supervised fine-tuning on a dataset of human-generated (prompt, response) pairs, followed by reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), in which a reward function was learned based on a dataset of human preferences. Another technique, "self-instruct", fine-tunes the language model on a training set of examples which are themselves generated by an LLM (bootstrapped from a small initial set of human-generated examples).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Alberto Michán Halbinger, in what olympics did he compete? | Alberto Michán Halbinger competed in the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics. | Alberto Michán Halbinger (born 2 December 1978) is an Israeli-Mexican Olympic horse rider. Born in Mexico, he competes for Israel. He qualified to represent Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.
Biography
Michan was born in Mexico; his family comes from Israel.
He was a finalist at the FEI World Cup Jumping in 2006 and 2007.
He competed in the 2006 and 2014 World Equestrian Games.
He competed for Mexico at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, both in individual jumping (coming in 29th) and in team jumping (coming in 8th).
He earned a bronze medal in Team Jumping at the 2011 Pan American Games in Guadalajara, Mexico.
At the 2012 Summer Olympics, he tied with Scott Brash and Nick Skelton, both of the team-gold medal-winning United Kingdom, for 5th in individual jumping. He was part of the Mexican team for team jumping, which finished in fifth place.
He qualified to represent Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. |
information_extraction | What are the examples of quantum tunneling processes? | proton emission, alpha decay, and cluster decay. | Apart from fission induced by a neutron, harnessed and exploited by humans, a natural form of spontaneous radioactive decay (not requiring a neutron) is also referred to as fission, and occurs especially in very high-mass-number isotopes. Spontaneous fission was discovered in 1940 by Flyorov, Petrzhak, and Kurchatov in Moscow, in an experiment intended to confirm that, without bombardment by neutrons, the fission rate of uranium was negligible, as predicted by Niels Bohr; it was not negligible.
The unpredictable composition of the products (which vary in a broad probabilistic and somewhat chaotic manner) distinguishes fission from purely quantum tunneling processes such as proton emission, alpha decay, and cluster decay, which give the same products each time. Nuclear fission produces energy for nuclear power and drives the explosion of nuclear weapons. Both uses are possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by fission neutrons, and in turn emit neutrons when they break apart. This makes a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction possible, releasing energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid, uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.
The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very dense source of energy. The products of nuclear fission, however, are on average far more radioactive than the heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and remain so for significant amounts of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem. However, the seven long-lived fission products make up only a small fraction of fission products. Neutron absorption which does not lead to fission produces Plutonium (from 238
U) and minor actinides (from both 235
U and 238
U) whose radiotoxicity is far higher than that of the long lived fission products. Concerns over nuclear waste accumulation and the destructive potential of nuclear weapons are a counterbalance to the peaceful desire to use fission as an energy source. The thorium fuel cycle produces virtually no plutonium and much less minor actinides, but 232
U - or rather its decay products - are a major gamma ray emitter. All actinides are fertile or fissile and fast breeder reactors can fission them all albeit only in certain configurations. Nuclear reprocessing aims to recover usable material from spent nuclear fuel to both enable uranium (and thorium) supplies to last longer and to reduce the amount of "waste". The industry term for a process that fissions all or nearly all actinides is a "closed fuel cycle". |
summarization | Based on the below Wikipedia content, what is OLTP? | OLTP stands for "online transaction processing" and refers to information systems that process transactional data. The applications generating such data often require a high volume of transactions -- such as being used concurrently by hundreds of users. An example of a commercial transaction processing application is an automated teller machine (ATM). OLTP is often contrasted with OLAP (online analytical processing) which is typically characterized by more complex queries but with much smaller volume (for example, for business intelligence reporting). | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In online transaction processing (OLTP), information systems typically facilitate and manage transaction-oriented applications. This is contrasted with online analytical processing.
The term "transaction" can have two different meanings, both of which might apply: in the realm of computers or database transactions it denotes an atomic change of state, whereas in the realm of business or finance, the term typically denotes an exchange of economic entities (as used by, e.g., Transaction Processing Performance Council or commercial transactions.): 50 OLTP may use transactions of the first type to record transactions of the second.
OLTP has also been used to refer to processing in which the system responds immediately to user requests. An automated teller machine (ATM) for a bank is an example of a commercial transaction processing application. Online transaction processing applications have high throughput and are insert- or update-intensive in database management. These applications are used concurrently by hundreds of users. The key goals of OLTP applications are availability, speed, concurrency and recoverability (durability). Reduced paper trails and the faster, more accurate forecast for revenues and expenses are both examples of how OLTP makes things simpler for businesses. However, like many modern online information technology solutions, some systems require offline maintenance, which further affects the cost-benefit analysis of an online transaction processing system.
OLTP is typically contrasted to OLAP (online analytical processing), which is generally characterized by much more complex queries, in a smaller volume, for the purpose of business intelligence or reporting rather than to process transactions. Whereas OLTP systems process all kinds of queries (read, insert, update and delete), OLAP is generally optimized for read only and might not even support other kinds of queries. OLTP also operates differently from batch processing and grid computing.: 15
In addition, OLTP is often contrasted to OLEP (online event processing), which is based on distributed event logs to offer strong consistency in large-scale heterogeneous systems. Whereas OLTP is associated with short atomic transactions, OLEP allows for more flexible distribution patterns and higher scalability, but with increased latency and without guaranteed upper bound to the processing time. |
information_extraction | Using this passage, extract all the years associated with the area. | 1872, 1874, 1893, 1909 | In 1872 the Boundary Commission travelled through this area while surveying the border between Canada and the United States. During the 1874 March West trek of the North-West Mounted Police, the force established its first camp (called Short Creek Camp) at this location. The community began being served by the Soo Line in 1893, permitting the coal mines in the region to become operational. Roche Percée incorporated as a village on January 12, 1909. |
closed_qa | Given a reference text about Michał Rozenfeld, tell me what he did before the war and where he's buried. | Michał Rozenfeld studied psychology before being sent to the Warsaw Ghetto during the war. He is buried at the Jewish Cemetery on Okopowa Street in Warsaw. | Michał Rozenfeld (born 1916, died September 2, 1943, in Krawcowizna) – a Jewish resistance activist during the Second World War, participant of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, partisan of the Mordechai Anielewicz Unit of the People's Guard.
Before the outbreak of the war, he studied psychology with, among others, Tadeusz Kotarbiński. After the outbreak of World War II, Rozenfeld was sent to the Warsaw Ghetto, where he worked as a teacher. He belonged to the Polish Workers' Party and was a member of the Main Command of the Jewish Combat Organization. He stayed in a bunker with Mordechai Anielewicz at 18 Miła Street. On May 18, 1943, together with a group of Jewish fighters, he got through the sewers to Prosta Street.
After the fall of the uprising, Rozenfeld took refuge in forests near Wyszków, where he fought in a unit of the People's Guard. Together with his companions he was handed over to the Germans by a forest ranger from Krawcowizna. Twelve partisans, including Michał Rozenfeld, were killed at that time.
In 1945 he was posthumously awarded the Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari.
Rozenfeld is buried in a mass grave of the People's Guard partisans in the Jewish cemetery on Okopowa Street in Warsaw (quarter 31, row 3). |
summarization | Besides his expeditions, what was Shackleton's life like? | Despite being considered today a role model for leadership in extreme circumstances, Shackleton was largely forgotten for decades after his death. He was focused on and participated in several get rich quick schemes but they all ended in failure. Shackleton died heavily in debt. | Away from his expeditions, Shackleton's life was generally restless and unfulfilled. In his search for rapid pathways to wealth and security, he launched business ventures which failed to prosper, and he died heavily in debt. Upon his death, he was lauded in the press but was thereafter largely forgotten, while the heroic reputation of his rival Scott was sustained for many decades. Later in the 20th century, Shackleton was "rediscovered", and became a role model for leadership in extreme circumstances. |
summarization | Please give me a short bulleted list of the key discoveries from Gallo’s lab. | Successfully growing T lymphocytes in culture for the first time
Interleukin-2 (IL-2)
Human T-cell leukemia virus
The first human retrovirus | After listening to a talk by biologist David Baltimore and further stimulation from his virologist colleague, Robert Ting, concerning the work of the late Howard Martin Temin, Gallo became interested in the study of retroviruses, and made their study the primary activity of his lab. In 1976, Doris Morgan, a first year post-doctoral fellow in Gallo's lab, was asked by Gallo to examine culture fluid of activated lymphocytes for the possible production of growth factors. Soon she was successful in growing T lymphocytes. Gallo, Morgan and Frank Ruscetti, another researcher in Gallo's lab, coauthored a paper in Science describing their method. The Gallo group identified this as T-cell growth factor (TCGF). The name was changed in 1978 to IL-2 (interleukin-2) by the Second International Lymphokine Conference (which was held in Interlaken, Switzerland). Although earlier reports had described soluble molecules with biologic effects, the effects and biochemistry of the factors were not well characterized. One such example was the report by Julius Gordon in 1965, which described blastogenic transformation of lymphocytes in extracellular media. However, cell growth was not demonstrated and the affected cell type was not identified, making the identity of the factor(s) involved unclear and its natural function unknown.
The discovery of IL-2 allowed T cells, previously thought to be dead end cells, to be grown significantly in culture for the first time, opening research into many aspects of T cell immunology. Gallo's lab later purified and biochemically characterized IL-2. This breakthrough also allowed researchers to grow T-cells and study the viruses that affect them, such as human T-cell leukemia virus, or HTLV, the first retrovirus identified in humans, which Bernard Poiesz, another post-doctoral fellow in Gallo's lab played a key role in its isolation. HTLV's role in leukemia was clarified when Kiyoshi Takatsuki and other Japanese researchers, puzzling over an outbreak of a rare form of leukemia, later independently found the same retrovirus, and both groups showed HTLV to be the cause. At the same time, a similar HTLV-associated leukemia was identified by the Gallo group in the Caribbean. In 1982, Gallo received the Lasker Award: "For his pioneering studies that led to the discovery of the first human RNA tumor virus [the old name for retroviruses] and its association with certain leukemias and lymphomas." |