AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Oil shale retorting:  Part 3, a correlation of shale oil 1-alkene/n-alkane ratios with yield

Shale oil obtained by pyrolyzing oil shale in an autogeneous or inert gas environment was analyzed by high-resolution gas chromatography. It was found that ratios of l-alkenes to n-alkanes in the liquid oil correlate linearly with the percent of oil yield.

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Handbook of gasifiers and gas treatment systems. Final report, task assignment No. 4

The intent of this handbook is to provide a ready reference on gasifiers and gas-treatment systems that are or may be applicable to coal conversion technology. The handbook contains sections on 22 gasifiers and 20 gas-treatment systems, including those presently available in the commercial market as well as those currently under development. Each section of the handbook has been reviewed and approved for publication by the supplier. The handbook is comprised of objective information collected from various sources and includes data, such as: the state of development, a description of the process, capacity, products, by-products, utilities and environmental considerations. The handbook is not intended as a comparative evaluation, but rather as an impartial reference on the current technology.

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Gas flood efficiency improvement by polymer injection. [Use of polyacrylamide]

The Bureau of Mines investigated the use of dilute polymer in brine solutions to increase the efficiency of air in gas flooding model oil reservoirs. Slugs (0.23 pore volume) of 500 ppm polyacrylamide were injected into a model, consisting of a high-and a low-permeability core, that had been previously gas flooded to residual oil. Gas flooding was then resumed. Of the total gas volume injected, the percentage entering the high-permeability zone was greatly reduced after polymer injection but remained unchanged when slugs of water without polymer were used.

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Study of true in situ oil shale technology

This study is a technical review and economic analysis of current true in situ oil shale technology. Three techniques are compared involving different fracturing methods, focusing on the technical and economic variables common to the technique. The key variables identified and investigated include air compression, drilling depth, drill hole diameter and pattern geometry, shale grade, shale bed thickness, and explosives requirement. In addition, engineering R and D needs related to the variables are identified and documented. The appropriate variables, process systems, and process steps defined for each fracturing technique are scaled up to a 64,000-bbl/day facility and costed to provide a basis for evaluating relative economic feasibility. Capital investment capital depreciation, annual operating, and crude shale oil costs are estimated and compared based on the scale-up scenarios. The economic evaluation reveals that the choice of fracturing technique does not have any significant effect on the crude oil shale price estimated for the scaled-up facilities. The combination of hydraulic fracturing and explosive rubblization is postulated to have the best potential for improvement. High costs associated with compression of the injection gas and drilling may strongly influence process economics. The actual amount of oil recovered or extracted from the shale is also a major economic factor. The study concludes that the logistics of a commercial operation and the inability to create adequate permeability and surface area by each of the three fracturing techniques evaluated appear to be limiting factors.

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Challenge of efficiently retorting very nonuniform beds of oil shale rubble

Recent experimental pilot scale retort work has shown significant declines in oil recovery yield as the size of the shale block increases. Current analyses of the problem are reviewed, together with experimental evidence for the key fluid mechanical, heat transfer and mass transfer processes that cause these lower yields. It is found that loss in retort oil yield is dominated by the flow patterns in the matrix material around the large blocks and by the thermal transient characteristics within the blocks. The principal mechanism appears to be burning and cracking of the produced oil in the gas phase near the larger shale blocks. The use of process control methods involving air/steam ratio, total flow, and flow variations coupled with monitored exit gas composition appears feasible to maximize oil production.

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Combustion retorting of oil shale at low void volumes

Geometries of stacked oil shale bricks, with overall void volumes ranging from 12% to 15%, were combustion retorted in a batch, pilot scale sized retort. Experimental parameters were total void volume, richness of shale, particle size, and retorting gas flow rate and composition. A "base case" of experimental conditions was chosen to be in the region of commercial interest and the experimental parameters were varied one at a time from that base case. Oil yield was the dependent variable. Results indicate retorting of oil shale at very low voids is possible and efficient but pressure drops would be relatively high. Particle size change was the only parameter that affected oil yield significantly in the range of void volume investigation.

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Investigation of the Geokinetics horizontal in-situ oil-shale-retorting process. Quarterly report, April, May, June 1982

The Retort No. 25 burn was terminated on June 15, 1982. Total oil production for the second quarter was 6506 barrels during a 76 day production period. Final oil production for Retort No. 25 was 20,956 barrels. Final oil recovery was calculated to be 59% of the total in-place oil. Fugitive emissions, stack and process gas data indicated that all Retort No. 25 pollutants, except NO/sub x/, were below the allowable PSD limits. The Retort No. 25 process water characterization study was completed in April to determine the changes in retort produced water as the retort burn progressed. Results of the study are pending the completion of laboratory analysis. Retort No. 26 was prepared for ignition during the second quarter. Process manifolding and instrumentation were being completed so that ignition might occur shortly after the termination of the Retort No. 25 burn. Post blast core drilling and analysis was completed on Retort No. 27 during early April. The core samples indicated improved fracturing over previous retorts, especially near the bottom. Increasing the size of Retort No. 27 from one acre to two acres showed an increase in blast efficiency based on the criteria of fragmentation, quantity of explosives used per volume of void induced and percent void when compared with Retort No. 24. In June initial site preparation began on Retort No. 28 for blast hole drilling which will start in July. 17 figures, 16 tables.

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Development of oil-shale resources undertaken by U. S. Bureau of Mines. [1944 Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act passage and program]

In 1943, Senate bill S. 1243 was introduced during the first session of the 78th Congress by Senator O'Mahoney of Wyoming"authorizing the construction and operation of demonstration plants to producce synthetic liquid fuels from coal and other substances, in order to aid the prosecution of the war, to conserve and increase the oil resources of the nation and for other purposes". Hearings before a special subcommittee were held in Washington, D. C., Pittsbugh, Pa., Salt Lake City, Utah, and Sheridan, Wyo. Testimony was given by 77 witnesses on the extent of national fuel reserves and methods of processing, and opinions were offered as to the need for augmenting natural liquid fuels with synthetic liquid fuels.

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Horizontal low-void retorting of eastern and western oil shale

Horizontal in situ retorting processes have been developed to recover oil from thin, shallow oil shale deposits. To date the most successful field tests have been conducted in Green River oil shale located in Utah. Consideration is being given to applying this technology to the New Albany oil shales in Indiana. Western Research Institute (WRI) conducted two horizontal in situ oil shale experiments using eastern oil shale and the results are compared with results obtained from a similar experiment using Green River oil shale. The objectives of the three experiments were to simulate the horizontal retorting process and determine oil yield, retorting zone profiles and product characteristics using alternative operating conditions for eastern and western oil shales. The tests proved that horizontal retorting could be simulated in the laboratory. However, air bypass problems occurred in the experiments, which probably reduced oil recovery compared with recovery from field tests. During the eastern oil shale tests plugging was encountered in the gas recovery system because of the production of a solid material containing sulfur compounds. This plugging could be a potential problem for future laboratory and field experimentation. The oil produced from eastern oil shale has different properties from western shale oil. The oil is highly aromatic and when hydrogenated may yield a prototype high density jet fuel. 10 refs., 8 figs., 11 tabs.

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Electrochemical reduction of coal. [Reduction of benzene ring]

A method for the electrochemical reduction of the benzene ring was developed and applied to the electrochemical reduction of coal. Successive electrochemical reductions of a vitrain from low-volatile bituminous coal is ethylenediamine saturated with lithium chloride resulted in the addition of 53 hydrogens per 100 carbon atoms. Ultimate analyses and pyridine solubility of the vitrain recovered after each reduction showed that hydrogen added at the beginning has a much greater effect on solubility than hydrogen added at a later stage. Surprisingly, the removal of sulfur from the vitrain takes place only after the more reactive aromatic rings are reduced.

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Properties of shale-oil asphalts from Colorado oil shale

Shale-oil obtained by retorting oil shale from the Green River formation in Colorado contains an appreciable amount of asphaltic material. This paper describes a preliminary laboratory study of this material. Series of asphaltic products of different consistencies were prepared experimentally by various petroleum refining processes, such as vacuum distillation, cracking, air blowing, and propane precipitation. The properties of these products were then measured by common asphalt tests, and the results were compared with those obtained for corresponding products from petroleum. In general, the study showed that asphaltic products of different consistencies can be prepared from Colorado shale oil. As might be expected, the properties of these shale-oil asphalts were somewhat different from those of asphalts from petroleum, particularly with respect to solubility, distillation, ductility, temperature susceptibility, and possibly wax content. To obtain products that meet specifications for petroleum, particularly with respect to solubility, distillation, ductility, temperature susceptibility, and possibly wax content. To obtain products that meet specification for petroleum asphalts, it would be necessary to adjust or alter several properties of the shale-oil asphalts. No attempt was made in this study to prepare shale-oil asphalts or roads oils that meet current specifications for products from petroleum or to determine the performance of the shale-oil asphalts under service conditions.

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Thiophenes in shale-oil naphtha. [Isolation and identification of 17 thiophenes]

Almost 80% of the sulfur in shale oil naphtha occurs in thiophenic compounds.  Isolation and identification of individual members of this group of compounds provide fundamental data for solving processing problems caused by them.  A method was developed for the isolation and identification of thiophenes.  Seventeen thiophenes were identified form a naphtha distilled from Colorado shale oil.  Quantitative estimates were made of the contents of most of these.  The 17 thiophenes represent about two thirds of the thiophenic sulfur in the naphtha.  Isolation of the thiophenes was accomplished by fractional distillation , adsorption and derivative formation.  Their identification was based on a combination of mass spectral, mercuric acetate derivative, methylation and hydrogenation data.  The quantitative identification of this group of thiophenes from a single source permits establishing a pattern of their occurrence.  From these data, mechanisms for the formation of thiophenes may be postulated.

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Study of reverse osmosis for treating oil-shale in-situ wastewaters. Final report

The results of a study to determine the feasibility of using reverse osmosis for the treatment of the three major wastewater streams evolved during modified in-situ oil shale processing: gas condensate, retort water and excess mine drainage water, are presented in this report. Data was obtained from laboratory tests on real wastewaters treated with composite reverse osmosis membranes. It was found that reverse osmosis can be used to treat retort waters to a quality suitable for reuse within the plant while it can be used to treat excess mine drainage waters for discharge to a receiving stream. Furthermore, although reverse osmosis is also a feasible process for the treatment of gas condensate, a better treatment appears to be steam stripping which alone can produce a water of a quality suitable for plant reuse. The annual operating costs of treating mine drainage waters range from $2.00 to $2.30 per 1000 gallons of permeate while the costs of treating retort waters range from $2.70 to $2.90 per 1000 gallons of permeate, exclusive of the costs of concentrate disposal. The major uncertainty in the use of reverse osmosis for treating oil shale wastewaters is membrane lifetime. Recommendations are made for a field test program to determine the long term susceptibility of composite membranes to fouling and/or degradation.

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Study of aerobic oxidation and allied treatments for upgrading in-situ retort waters. Final report

This study concerns the treatment of retort water from a modified in-situ shale retort. The water contains organic and inorganic contamination. An oil water separator was designed but tests were not made and are recommended. A steam stripper for ammonia was designed. A thorough experimental investigation of biological oxidation was made. Experiments were made on air and oxygen activated sludge with and without the addition of powdered activated carbon, on a rotating biological contactor and on sequenced equipment. The BOD (initially 4000 mg/1) could be 90% removed from undiluted wastewater preferably using oxygen activated sludge. COD (initially 10,000 mg/1) was not removed in excess of BOD unless carbon was used. The sequence RBC-PAC-AS removed 85% of the BOD and 66% of the COD but is expensive. Solvent extraction and resin adsorption proved unsatisfactory as follow-on treatments to biological treatment. Activated carbon is satisfactory but expensive. Reverse osmosis proved an excellent alternative to biological oxidation and a separate study, not reported here, was made. Tests on the alternative of raising dirty steam from untreated retort matter were strongly recommended.

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Environmental control technology for shale oil wastewaters

This report summarizes the results of studies conducted at Pacific Northwest Laboratory from 1976 to 1982 on environmental control technology for shale oil wastewaters. Experimental studies conducted during the course of the program were focused largely on the treatment and disposal of retort water, particularly water produced by in situ retorting of oil shale. Alternative methods were evaluated for the treatment and disposal of retort water and minewater. Treatment and disposal processes evaluated for retort water include evaporation for separation of water from both inorganic and organic pollutants; steam stripping for ammonia and volatile organics removal; activated sludge and anaerobic digestion for removal of biodegradable organics and other oxidizable substances; carbon adsorption for removal of nonbiodegradable organics; chemical coagulation for removal of suspended matter and heavy metals; wet air oxidation and solvent extraction for removal of organics; and land disposal and underground injection for disposal of retort water. Methods for the treatment of minewater include chemical processing and ion exchange for fluoride and boron removal. Preliminary cost estimates are given for several retort water treatment processes.

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Preparation and injection of grout from spent shale for stabilization of abandoned in-situ oil shale retorts

A procedure has been developed for stabilizing abandoned in-situ oil shale retorts by means of high-temperature treatment of surface-processed shale, followed by grinding, mixing with water, and injection underground. Laboratory results indicate that abandoned in-situ retorts can be made strong enough to prevent subsidence and sufficiently impermeable to reduce groundwater flow greatly. The underground injection also reduces the amount of spent-shale disposal on the surface. 12 refs.

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Water quality at the LETC TS-1S tar-sand steamflood site. Final report

Water quality was monitored during the LETC TS-1S steamflood experiment conducted in the Northwest Asphalt Ridge tar sand deposit near Vernal, Utah. Ground-water samples were collected by personnel from the Department of Energy's Laramie Energy Technology Center (LETC) and from Western Wyoming College. Samples were analyzed for 41 water quality constituents by Western Wyoming College. TDS and major inorganic ion concentrations peaked early in the experiment and then rapidly declined a couple of weeks later to concentrations approaching those in the injected steam. Saturation of the tar sand deposit by injected steam appeared to bring dissolvable solids into contact with water, to cause dissolution of the solids producing saline water, and to permit the movement of this saline water to the monitoring wells. COD and TOC typically peaked three times during the experiment. The first peak coincided with the inorganic peak; the second peak occurred with the commencement of oil production; and the third peak happened at the end of the experiment. Many of the Utah surface water quality standards and Wyoming ground-water standards were exceeded in samples taken during the tar sand experiment. However, degraded water quality in the tar sand deposit may have little environmental significance since the deposit is not an aquifer and is apparently isolated from underlying aquifers by shale aquitards. (DMC)

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Flash pyrolysis of Green River shale: Technical note

This study was part of a multireactor project on rapid shale pyrolysis. The work presented here is a progress report on a major phase of the flash lamp work. A flash lamp reactor was used to study rapid kerogen and shale retorting mechanisms, to evaluate the potential oil yield enhancement due to rapid heating, and to fill in gaps in the data on the composition and distribution of the product from rapid pyrolysis. Two predictive models were developed to evaluate the time-temperature profiles during flash pyrolysis, each with different degrees of complexity and transportability. Experiments were conducted to verify and refine the models in order to obtain better accuracy. Statistically designed flash pyrolysis experiments were conducted in conjunction with model calculations to assess the response of a Green River oil shale under different experimental conditions. 16 refs., 27 figs., 4 tabs.

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Horizontal modified in situ oil shale retorting concept. [Cowboy Canyon, Utah]

A detailed study of the geology of the Cowboy Canyon area near Bonanza, Utah was completed that showed the area would be well suited for an experimental program. Almost fifty feet of continuous oil shale, assaying about 30 gallons of oil per ton was found in the Mahogany Zone region. The oil shale strength, and the location and spacing of the joint system would allow mining and retort construction without unusual safety problems or excessive subsidence. The absence of aquifers in the immediate vicinity of the proposed experimental horizon eliminated a critical environmental concern. Detailed engineering studies were made that showed that the horizontal modified in situ retorting technology could be economically viable with only minor improvements resulting in some reduction in costs. Research conducted for the Laramie Center and by others in the preparations of vertical modified in situ retorts and horizontal retorts show that many improvements have been made in blasting techniques needed for retort preparation. The experimental program proposed in this report for the Cowboy Canyon site could be conducted with some revisions to the original planning documents to include the results of research conducted after the documents were originally completed.

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Stratigraphic change in organic composition demonstrated by oil specific gravity-depth correlation in Tertiary Green River oil shales, Colorado

Specific gravity of oil retorted from oil shales of the Eocene Green River Formation, northwestern Colorado, decreases uniformly with increasing sample depth.  Statistical evaluation of oil specific gravity depth data from 18 samples sets representing 2,000 feet of the formation in an area of 325 square miles shows this correlation to be uniform stratigraphically and geographically.  Mineral profiles did not correlate with this change.  Decrease in oil specific gravity is associated with a progressive decrease in oxygen content of organic matter.  This stratigraphic change probably resulted from the loss of carboxyl groups from the organic matter under heat and pressure of increasing depth of burial.

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Oil shale: potential environmental impacts and control technology. Environmental research brief

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio (IERL-Ci) has performed research related to oil shale processing and disposal since 1973. This research is in support of the Clean Air Act, The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Toxic Substances Control Act. Potential environmental impacts from oil shale development activities have been identified and potential control technologies are being evaluated through a combination of laboratory and field tests on actual oil shale waste streams. This paper discusses recent results from this program. Included are field test results on control of sulfur gases at Occidental Oil Shale's Logan Wash Site and Geokinetic's Kamp Kerogen Site, wastewater treatability studies on retort water and gas condensate at Logan Wash, and results of laboratory and field testing on raw and retorted oil shales.

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Tono-1 field experiment preliminary process design

A decision has been made by DOE to initiate an in situ coal gasification project in the State of Washington at a site in the Tono basin owned by Washington Water Power Company. This site has been surveyed and partially characterized by a team led by Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque. The program, envisioned for this project, is to complete the site characterization, to do a short series of large scale laboratory type experiments called Large Block Tests at a site in the Widco mine and to carry out two field experiments, the first Tono-1 based on directional drilling and the second Tono-2 based on reverse combustion linking.

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