AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Review of oil shale comminution technology. [65 references]

The objectives of this study were: (1) to survey the literature on the comminution requirements for flash pyrolysis and beneficiated shale conversion processes to convert oil shales to salable products; and (2) to determine from existing studies the cost of comminution as a process step in shale oil production. The study was conducted in three steps. First, particle size requirements of commercial and some bench-scale oil shale retorting processes were surveyed and tabulated. Approximately a dozen processes were identified which require shale particles of 1/2 in. or less. Most required shale particles ranging from 1/4 in. to finely ground material. Second, a literature review of developments in beneficiation and comminution technology since 1979 was conducted. The review indicated that commercial-scale comminution technology is currently available to reduce oil shales  to 10- or 20-..mu..m-size particles. Beneficiation technology is in the experimental stage of development. Third, costs of beneficiation and comminution processes were obtained from published information and from personal contacts with companies through telephone interviews. In general, comminution costs (grinding energies) were between 25 and 50 kilowatt-hours per ton to reduce crushed oil shale to 20-..mu..m particle size. In some shale oil recovery processes, reduction to very fine particle sizes was necessary and resulted in increased oil yields that offset the cost of comminution. In other cases, reduction to fine particle sizes was impractical and did not result in improved economics when compared with conventional retorting processes. The study indicated that precise cost information is generally lacking in the literature and can be obtained only through contract agreements with private companies. 65 refs., 1 tab.

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Summary of the environmental monitoring at the Rock Springs, Wyoming Site No. 9, true in situ oil shale retorting experiment

The environmental effects and needed control technology associated with the potential in-situ retorting of oil shale in the Green River Basin (near Rock Springs, Wyoming) has been studied for over four years. This environmental monitoring program has included previous and existing in-situ oil-shale retorting field experiments and baseline data collection for potential future retorting experiments. The most extensive environmetal monitoring effort is at Rock Springs Site No. 9, a true in-situ oil-shale retorting field experiment which was ignited April 5, 1976. The purpose of this monitoring program was to identify any significant changes in the hydrology, air quality, and soils. Data have been collected during the pre-operational (baseline) and operational phases and continues to be collected during the post-operational phase. This report presents the results of the environmental monitoring conducted in support of the LETC Rock Springs No. 9 field experiment and the entire DOE oil shale program. 18 figures, 8 tables.

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Modeling of oil shale compaction during retorting

A model of oil shale compacting during retorting has been developed and incorporated into a one-dimensional retorting model. The model calculates the vertical stress distribution in a column of oil shale rubble and the degree of compaction that these stresses cause. A correlation was developed that relates shale grade, initial void volume, and vertical stress to the final compaction of the shale bed. The model then determines the gas pressure drip through the retort and the effects of the varying pressure on the retorting process. The model has been tested by simulating the Rio Blanco Oil Shale Company's Tract C-a Retort 1. The model calculates 8.1% compaction, whereas 12 to 16 compaction was measured in the retort; causes of the discrepancy between calculated and measured values are discussed. 14 refs., 10 figs., 2 tabs.

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Reverse combustion in asphalt ridge tar sand

One-dimensional laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate reverse combustion both as a recovery process and as a reservoir preheating mechanism before steam displacement. Pairs of similarly packed tubes were subjected to identical reverse combustion conditions, and one packed tube of each pair was subsequently steamflooded. Reverse combustion effectively preheated the tar sand without developing matrix plugging. Peak combustion temperatures increased with increased air flux and ranged from 600/sup 0/ to 1050/sup 0/F (316-566/sup 0/C). Oil yields averaged 33 wt. % of the initial bitumen and wre independent of injected air fluxes between 50 and 100 scfh/ft/sup 2/. The fuel consumption averaged 24 wt. % of the initial bitumen, and most of the remaining bitumen was converted into an unrecoverable coke (33 wt. % initial bitumen). Consequently, very little bitumen or oil (less than 10 wt. % initial bitumen) was available for recovery during the subsequent steamflood phase. Coking occurred at temperatures as low as 400-450/sup 0/F (200-230/sup 0/C), and tar sand ignition occurred at approximately 600/sup 0/F (315/sup 0/C). Low-temperature oxidation reactions were dominant prior to ignition and were characterized by low levels of carbon oxides in the product gas, increased apparent hydrogen/carbon ratio in the combustion products, increased water production, increased acidity in the product water, and increased oxygen in the product oil. The quality of the reverse combustion product oil was significantly better than the original bitumen. The API gravity increased from 10.6/sup 0/ (bitumen) to 21.2/sup 0/ API, and the viscosity at 140/sup 0/F (60/sup 0/C) decreased three orders of magnitude from 12,800 cp for the bitumen to 18 cp for the product oil. 12 refs., 5 figs., 6 tabs.

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Topical report on coal pyrolysis. [211 references published after 1978, emphasizing US DOE programs]

This topical report reviews the coal pyrolysis literature published after 1978, with special emphasis on the programs supported by the US Department of Energy. The major achievements of these programs are identified and the impact of the existing pyrolysis data base on the advanced gasification technology development is assessed. The areas that need further investigation are defined and a future research program for coal pyrolysis is recommended. This report begins with a post-1978 literature survey and a listing of DOE-funded work. The effect of operating parameters, such as coal rank, heating rate, temperature, pressure, particle size, surrounding gas, and the mineral matter, cations, and catalysts, on the devolatilization yield is then presented. Various kinetic models of devolatilization are described and their application in modeling fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, and entrained-flow gasifiers is discussed. The development of advanced gasification technology, as it is affected by the current knowledge of coal pyrolysis, is then described. The missing data that are needed to enhance the gasification technology development are identified. The major areas where the data base was found to be inadequate are: knowledge of primary and secondary reaction yields in pyrolysis experiments; understanding of the fundamental reaction mechanisms and kinetics; coupling of gasifier hydrodynamics and devolatilization reactions; and the limited base of the available data as to coal type, heating rates, and reactive atmospheres. Recommendations are made to direct the future pyrolysis research to obtain the data applicable to the specific conditions of various gasifier configurations and to conduct the fundamental investigations to generate the missing data necessary to significantly impact the development of the advanced gasification technology.

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Investigation of acid drainage potential of Eastern oil shale. Final report

The objective of the first phase was to establish, via a survey type of an investigation, the presence or absence of potential hazardous drainage production from Eastern oil shale commercialization. To provide background regarding the various aspects associated with utilization of Eastern oil shale, a brief literature study was compiled to include current information on variations in mineralization of shales with geographic location, types of retorting processes used and their effect on the shale components, as well as data on leaching studies performed to date. Eastern oil shale is vastly different from the Western shale; concepts developed for the latter, in particular with respect to leaching, cannot be applied here. Eighteen shales were investigated. Of these, four were spent shales and four were the corresponding raw shales. The remaining ten were representative samples from two cores from Kentucky and Alabama, five from each. All the raw shales studied contained pyrite; in some the carbonate present was sufficient to delay or entirely prevent acid production and iron mobilization. Results indicate that exposed raw Eastern shales will definitely produce acidic leachates, containing sulfate, iron, and alkaline earth metal ions, in a manner analogous to the acid drainage associated with Appalachian coal mining. Combusted shales from the multi-solid fluidized bed retort appear not to present a drainage hazard. The materials recovered from the Rockwell process, when exposed to acid, e.g., from drainage of raw shale, were found to liberate soluble iron. Consequently, co-disposal of raw and spent shales would result in environmentally unacceptable drainage. Based on the limited experimentation performed, the same would seem to apply to the shales subjected to the Hytort. Any predictions as to the behavior of non calcareous shales are merely extrapolations. 51 references, 22 figures, 14 tables.

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Investigation of the Geokinetics horizontal in-situ oil-shale-retorting process. Quarterly report, January-March 1983

An in situ process is being developed for recovering shale oil using a fire front moving in a horizontal direction. The project is being conducted at a field site, Kamp Kerogen, located 70 miles south of Vernal, Utah, on Section 2, Range 22 East, Township 14 South, Uintah County, Utah. The process is a true in situ method for extracting oil from oil shale. The oil shale is fractured by means of explosives placed in blastholes drilled from the surface. After a specific area has been fractured to create an in situ retort, air injection wells are drilled at one end and off gas recovery (air-out) wells are drilled at the other. The oil shale is ignited at the air injection wells and air is continually injected to establish and maintain a burning front. The front is moved in a horizontal direction through the fractured rock. This heats the shale, driving out the shale oil which drains to the bottom of the retort where it is recovered through oil production wells. As retorting progresses from the air-in to the air-out wells, the residual coke serves as the primary fuel source to sustain the moving burn front. The combustion gases are recovered at the off gas wells. Retort No. 26 produced 23,106 barrels of shale oil during its 246 day production phase. Construction is in progress on retorts 27 and 28.

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Menu-driven interactive data-display-and-monitoring system

Sandia National Laboratories has fielded an extensive instrumentation system to collect and display data from large-scale oil-shale retorts. A great number of process and thermal measurements are recorded by the data-collection computer during these retort operations. Real-time access to this information by operators and analysts, who are at remote locations, is extremely beneficial. To provide access to a large number of displays showing data from an oil-shale retort, while minimizing system resource requirements, a menu-driven interactive video monitor system has been developed. This system has four independent video-display monitors multiplexed into one asynchronous serial computer output port and four telephone-type push button keypads multiplexed into one parallel input port. A user selects, from a menu, the information to be displayed on his monitor by pressing the keypad button corresponding to the desired menu item. The system decodes the station address and menu selection, assigns resources and executes the programs required to display the requested information on that monitor. Menu items can be easily added or deleted to suit the changing conditions making the system very flexible and adaptable to a wide variety of situations.

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Primary oil-shale resources of the Green River Formation in the eastern Uinta Basin, Utah

Resources of potential oil in place in the Green River Formation are measured and estimated for the primary oil-shale resource area east of the Green River in Utah's Uinta Basin. The area evaluated (Ts 7-14 S, Rs 19-25 E) includes most of, and certainly the best of Utah's oil-shale resource. For resource evaluation the principal oil-shale section is divided into ten stratigraphic units which are equivalent to units previously evaluated in the Piceance Creek Basin of Colorado. Detailed evaluation of individual oil-shale units sampled by cores, plus estimates by extrapolation into uncored areas indicate a total resource of 214 billion barrels of shale oil in place in the eastern Uinta Basin.

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Investigation of the geokinetics horizontal in-situ oil-shale retorting process. Sixth annual report, 1982

The Geokinetics in situ shale oil project is a cooperative venture between Geokinetics and the US Department of Energy. The objective is to develop a true in situ process for recovering shale oil using a fire front moving in a horizontal direction. The project is being conducted at a field site, Kamp Kerogen, located 70 miles south of Vernal, Utah. This 6th Annual Report covers work completed during the calendar year 1982. During 1982, two 2 acre retorts were blasted and two 1 acre retorts were burned. A total of 33,232 barrels of crude shale oil were produced. 65 figures, 22 tables.

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Oil-shale utilization at Morgantown, WV

Fully aware of the nation's need to develop high-risk and long-term research in eastern oil-shale and low-grade oil-shale utilization in general, the US DOE/METC initiated an eastern oil-shale characterization program. In less than 3 months, METC produced shale oil from a selected eastern-US oil shale with a Fischer assay of 8.0 gallons/ton. In view of the relatively low oil yield from this particular oil shale, efforts were directed to determine the process conditions which give the highest oil yield. A 2-inch-diameter electrically heated fluidized-bed retort was constructed, and Celina oil shale from Tennessee was selected to be used as a representative eastern oil shale. After more than 50 runs, the retorting data were analyzed and reviewed and the best oil-yield operating condition was determined. In addition, while conducting the oil-shale retorting experiments, a number of technical problems were identified, addressed, and overcome. Owing to the inherent high rates of heat and mass transfers inside the fluidized bed, the fluidized-bed combustor and retorting appear to be a desirable process technology for an effective and efficient means for oil-shale utilization. The fluidized-bed operation is a time-tested, process-proven, high-throughput, solid-processing operation which may contribute to the efficient utilization of oil-shale energy.

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Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory oil shale project. Quarterly report, January-March 1981

Reported are: MIS pilot retorts (runs S-24, S-21, and S-23), laboratory research (gas evolution kinetics, sulfur content of oil shales and its release during oxidation, heat of combustion of spent shale), above ground retorting (fluidized bed studies, Paraho shale oil analysis), and analysis of multiple gas-solid reactions during the gasification of char in oil shale blocks. 16 figures, 6 tables. (DLC)

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Oil shale in situ research and development. Final report, August 1, 1977--December 22, 1978. [Hydraulic fractures; explosive rubblization]

The selected Site Section 17 was prepared for hydraulic fracturing and explosive rubblization, and these operations accomplished. This report presents the field and laboratory preparations for the fracturing, rubblization, and evaluation operations. A series of four, parallel, hydraulically induced fractures was created during the first year. The evaluation tests showed the following about the four hydraulic fractures: (1) They were horizontal and narrow, that is, as large as 0.05 inches thick within a 50-foot radius and as small as 0.0011 inches thick for the average of all four fractures over the entire radius. (2) They extended at least 113 feet to the outer ring of production wells in a southeasterly direction. (3) They extended out beyond the outer ring of production wells in a northwesterly direction. (4) They had some degree of communication with the naturally fractured aquifer lying about them. And, (5), they had no significant communication with naturally fractured aquifer lying below them. The rubblization event took place on 21 August 1978, early in the second year of the contract. An evaluation of the areal extent, thickness, porosity, interconnectivity, and the influence of the explosion upon the adjacent aquifers was determined. The dynamic tests showed that the explosive slurry was loaded into the four hydraulic features and that detonation occurred simultaneously. The postrubblization evaluation demonstrated that: (1) There were four layers of damage of less than two-feet thick each, (2) massive permeability was apparent from all production wells, and (3) the permeability is in the form of block, open cracks rather than porous medium.

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Acid mine drainage potential of raw, retorted, and combusted Eastern oil shale: Final report

In order to manage the oxidation of pyritic materials effectively, it is necessary to understand the chemistry of both the waste and its disposal environment. The objective of this two-year study was to characterize the acid production of Eastern oil shale waste products as a function of process conditions, waste properties, and disposal practice. Two Eastern oil shales were selected, a high pyrite shale (unweathered 4.6% pyrite) and a low pyrite shale (weathered 1.5% pyrite). Each shale was retorted and combusted to produce waste products representative of potential mining and energy conversion processes. By using the standard EPA leaching tests (TCLP), each waste was characterized by determining (1) mineralogy, (2) trace element residency, and (3) acid-base account. Characterizing the acid producing potential of each waste and potential trace element hazards was completed with laboratory weathering studies. 32 refs., 21 figs., 12 tabs.

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Structural and fracture mechanics modeling associated with underground coal conversion. Final report, April 1, 1980-June 15, 1982

This report presents model formulations, governing equations, sample simulation results, and field experiment predictions associated with the underground coal conversion (UCC) thermo-mechanical and consolidation responses. The schematic for developing the master simulator for the numerical experiments is illustrated. Examples revealing the temperature, stress, consolidation, and failure responses for various cases are presented. 24 figures, 3 tables.

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BX In Situ Oil Shale Project. Quarterly technical progress report, 1 March-31 May 1981

March 1, 1981-May 31, 1981 is the second quarter of continuous superheated steam injection at the BX In Situ Oil Shale Project. During the quarter, 122,749 barrels of water as steam were injected into Project injection wells at an average wellhead temperature of 757/sup 0/F and an average wellhead pressure of 1381 psig. During the same period, 145,628 barrels of fluid were produced from the Project production wells for a produced to injected fluid ratio of 1.19 to 1.0.

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Characterization of contaminants in oil shale residuals and the potential for their management to meet environmental quality standards. Final report

Some general aspects of various oil shale processes developed for scale-up to commercial size modular units are described. The overall magnitude of an envisioned commercial shale oil operation and the magnitude of resulting potentially polluting residues in particular solid residues from retorting oil shale and associated operations and wastewater from retort streams and other sources are considered. The potential problems ensuing from self-oxidation of stockpiles of oil shale and from residual carbonaceous retorted oil shale disposed above ground and/or from in situ retorting operations are examined. Some methods for managing self-heating processes are suggested. The most plausible method of avoiding potential self-heating for retorted oil shale is to oxidize as much as possible of the organic carbon present by utilizing a process that will produce low carbon or carbon-free retorted oil shale residues. In the case of unretorted oil shale, the dimensions and shapes of the stockpiles should be designed such that heat build-up is eliminated or kept to a minimum.

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Geotechnical design considerations for spent oil shale disposal fills

Methodology for the geotechnical design of spent shale fills are summarized. Disposal technology for eastern oil shales is postulated based on recent studies of western oil shales. Gaps in knowledge for eastern oil shales are identified by comparison with geotechnical data developed for western oil shales. The variability of spent shales is defined and factors for consideration in an integrated approach to the design of surface disposal fills for processed shales are outlined. The lack of experience for large spent shale fills means that initial designs must be refined during spent shale production and disposal to develop actual engineering properties, design geometry, construction procedures, and monitoring provisions. Very conservative assumptions are required until a viable experience base is established. The immediate need is to define the variability of spent shales caused by processing and disposal and to develop an understanding of subsequent interactions within the disposal fill and between the disposal fill and site environment. Recommendations are given for needed research.

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Application of a geochemical model to the prediction of the chemistry of extracts from non-recarbonated and recarbonated spent shales

The chemistry of extracts from spent shale disposal environments is controlled by a number of chemical processes including the formation of inorganic complexes and precipitation-dissolution reactions. The objectives of this study were (1) to alter the data base of a geochemical code by including data for different solution species and solid phases that are important to spent shale environments and (2) to predict the chemistry of extracts from non-recarbonated and recarbonated spent shales by evaluating the solid phases controlling the solubilities of major elements such as calcium and magnesium, and trace elements like fluorine and molybdenum. The geochemical code used for this study was the GEOCHEM model. The data base of this code was altered using updated association constants and solubility products for different elements that the authors and others have developed. Three spent shale samples (PPP3, PPP6, and Lurgi) were recarbonated under slightly elevated CO{sub 2} pressure in a specially designed chamber. The non-recarbonated and recarbonated samples were subjected to solubility studies. The total element concentrations and pH of extracts were used as input to the GEOCHEM code to predict the chemistry. The model predicted that silicate phases (produced during the heating process) initially buffered the pH and controlled Ca{sup 2 } and Mg{sup 2 } concentrations in extracts. The GEOCHEM model predicted that after recarbonation, the Ca{sup 2 } concentrations are controlled by calcite. The F{sup {minus}} concentrations in extracts from non-recarbonated and recarbonated spent shales are controlled by fluorite. Further, GEOCHEM predicted that powellite does not control the solubility of molybdenum in non-recarbonated recarbonated spent shale extracts. 27 refs., 1 fig., 2 tabs.

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