AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Influence of chemical characterization of oil shale solids on understanding water quality impacts

Synfuels technologies will yield products and effluents that are a function of the raw material being processed and the process variables. Chemical and mineralogic characterization of solids generated in synfuels production provide valuable insight into health and environmental impacts associated with synfuels processing (coal liquefaction or gasification and shale oil extraction). This report deals with considerations relating to leachate generation from solid wastes, but the suggested research approach is applicable to understanding the nature and extent of all effluents from synfuels operations. Solid characterization studies of one raw shale core and two spent shale cores from Occidental Oil Shale, Inc.'s Logan Wash site are described. These data are used to determine the effect of processing on the shale solids and also to evaluate a variety of water quality issues associated with in situ processing. The importance of solid characterization studies in developing an understanding of effluent composition and behavior and subsequently defining environmental impacts is described.

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Disposition of sulfur during the oxidation and subsequent leaching of retorted oil shale

The char and iron sulfides in retorted oil shale were oxidized at temperatures from 350 to 800/sup 0/C. At temperatures above approximately 550/sup 0/C, sulfur was retained by the shale as water-soluble sulfates, whereas oxidation at temperatures between 400 and 500/sup 0/C resulted in a loss of as much as 22% of the sulfur as SO/sub 2/. The fraction of the sulfides converted to water soluble sulfates is proportional to the fraction of char burned. This implies a similar rate of combustion for char and iron sulfides. When retorted oil shale is oxidized at 650/sup 0/C and below, the principal sulfur-fixing reaction appears to be between FeS, O/sub 2/, and dolomite to produce approximately equal amounts of Ca and Mg sulfates. Oxidation at temperatures above 650/sup 0/C yielded mostly CaSO/sub 4/. Oxidation at 800/sup 0/C resulted in complete carbonate decomposition to CaO and MgO which, when mixed in water, resulted in a solution of high Ca concentration and a pH of 12.3. Exposed to air, the pH and Ca concentration of the solutions fell due to carbonate precipitation by reaction between CO/sub 2/ dissolved from the air and Ca.

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Gas combustion retorting of oil shale under Anvil Points lease agreement: Stage I

Results are presented of mining operations and of research and development work done during stage I of the gas combustion retorting research program conducted by the Colorado School of Mines Research Foundation and 6 major oil companies at the U.S. Bureau of Mines Anvil Points Oil Shale Facilities. A brief description of the gas combustion process is given and the experimental program is discussed. Included in this discussion are: (1) air-gas distributor development; (2) results of gas and shale distribution studies; and (3) effects of other process variable studies. A statistical evaluation of experimental results is given. Two appendixes present a chronological account of the experimental work and tabulations of data for all retorting runs conducted during stage I.

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BX in-situ oil shale project. Annual status report on environmental monitoring and analysis-SP No. 6, March 1, 1980-February 28, 1981

The objective of the BX In Situ Oil Shale Project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of using superheated steam as a heat-carrying medium to retort in situ the oil shale in the Green River Formation leached zone and provide a mechanism for the recovery of this shale oil with a minimum impact on the environment. Utilizing primarily the natural porosity in the leached zone, approximately one trillion Btus of heat will be injected into a site over a two-year period to heat to retorting temperature a shale zone approximately 550 feet thick and covering about one acre. The field project is located at Equity's BX In Situ site in Rio Blanco County in northwestern Colorado. Environmental activities conducted from March 1, 1980 through February 28, 1981 were a continuation of operational monitoring initiated the previous year that included meteorology, water quality and aquatic ecology monitoring.

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Environmental, health, safety, and socioeconomic concerns associated with oil recovery from US tar-sand deposits:  state-of-knowledge

Tar-sand petroleum-extraction procedures undergoing field testing for possible commercial application in the US include both surface (above-ground) and in situ (underground) procedures. The surface tar-sand systems currently being field tested in the US are thermal decomposition processes (retorting), and suspension methods (solvent extraction). Underground bitumen extraction procedures that are also being field tested domestically are in situ combustion and steam-injection. Environmental, health, safety, and socioeconomic concerns associated with construction and operation of 20,000-bbl/d commercial tar-sand surface and in situ facilities have been estimated and are summarized in this report. The principal regulations that commercial tar-sand facilities will need to address are also discussed, and environmental control technologies are summarized and wherever possible, projected costs of emission controls are stated. Finally, the likelihood-of-occurrence of potential environmental, health, and safety problems that have been determined are reviewed, and from this information inference is made as to the environmental acceptability of technologically feasible 20,000-bbl/d commercial tar-sand oil-extraction procedures.

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Oil Shale Programs second quarterly report, April 1976--June 1976. [Diagnostic and rock mechanics support, advanced instrumentation, and bed preparation for in-situ oil shale research]

This is the second Quarterly Report for the Sandia Laboratories Oil Shale Programs, and summarizes the activities between April 1, 1976 and June 30, 1976 on three programs supported by the Fossil Energy Division of the U. S. Energy Research and Development Administration. These programs are:

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Oil Shale Programs third quarterly report, July 1976--September 1976. [Diagnostic and rock mechanics support, advanced instrumentation, and bed preparation for in-situ oil shale research]

This is the third Quarterly Report fot the Sandia Laboratories Oil Shale Program and summarizes activities between July 1, 1976, and September 30, 1976, on three programs funded by the Fossil Energy Division of the U. S. Energy Research and Development Administration.

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Rock fragmentation research plan

Recent experiments in oil shale processing, via in situ methods, have demonstrated the importance of proper bed preparation in obtaining high yields. While the creation of in situ retorts has been demonstrated to be viable, there does not exist a predictive design capability that can be used as a basis for optimization. A research program plan has been developed that delineates the tasks and costs necessary to develop a predictive capability for the rock fragmentation process. Models that treat fracturing, rock motion, permeability in rubbled media, and retorting are required to constitute a predictive capability. The plan indicates that these models must be developed in close association with a field experimental program. The field work is an evolving series of experiments from single borehole cratering tests to multi-level, multi-deck, mini-retorts. There is an optimum pace for the conduct of the program that requires some 7 years and $18 million for completion. Under current funding levels the work will require some 15 years and $27 million for completion. 16 figs., 10 tabs.

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Fluorescence spectrometry in the characterization of high-boiling petroleum distillates

Use of fluorescence spectrometry as a qualitative analytical technique in the characterization of high-boiling petroleum distillates is reported. Examples of fluorescence emission and fluorescence excitation spectra obtained from compound types in 400 to 500/sup 0/C distillates are shown. Among the compound types identified were carbazoles, 11H-benzo(a)carbazoles, 7H-benzo(c)carbazoles, perylenes, coronenes, benzo(ghi)perylenes, and chrysenes. Fluorescence and excitation peak maxima of 35 aromatic model compounds are reported. The separation scheme which produced samples suitable for fluorescence analysis involved the use of ion exchange chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, and thin-layer chromatography.

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Investigation of the Geokinetics horizontal in situ oil-shale-retorting process. Fourth annual report, 1980

The Geokinetics in situ shale oil project is a cooperative venture between Geokinetics Inc. and the U. S. Department of Energy. The project is governed by DOE cooperative Agreement #DE-FV20-78LC10787. The objective is to develop a true in situ process for recovering shale oil using a fire front moving in a horizontal direction. The project is being conducted at a field site, Kamp Kerogen, located 70 miles sound of Vernal, Utah.

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Instrumentation and data analysis from Occidental retorts MR-3 and MR-4

During 1981, Occidental Oil Shale, Inc., conducted two approximately 12 m x 12 m x 16 m vertical modified in situ retorting experiments designated MR-3 and MR-4. These retorts were run to develop ignition technology for their commercial size retorts 7 and 8. Sandia participated in the experiments by providing both thermal instrumentation and a computer based data acquisition and anlaysis system. An analysis approach utilizing both thermal data and material balance calculations based on offgas composition was applied to both retorts. Results indicate that the analysis tools used can provide a detailed assessment of retort performance. Thermal instrumentation provided detail about the structure of the retort front. Material balance calculations permitted estimates of retorting rates and oil loss mechanisms such as coking and combustion. The sweep efficiencies were estimated to be 76% for MR-3 and 48% for MR-4. Oil loss to combustion in the two retorts were 35% and 29% of Fischer Assay, respectively. Material balance results also permitted detailed energy balances to be performed on the retorts.

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Stratigraphic variations in oil-shale fracture properties. [Colorado and Wyoming]

The proper design and evaluation of in situ oil shale fracture and retorting experiments require that both the extermem values and spatial distribution of the controllling rock properties be adequately known. Many of the in situ technologies being consedered for processing within the Green River Formation in Colorado, Wyoming and Utah depend upon the carefully controlled explosive fracturing of the rock such that suitably uniform permeabilities are achieved. The prediction, control and evaluation of explosive oil shale fracturing require a detailed knowledge of tensile strength behavior as a function of shale grade and sratigraphic position. Direct-pull tensile tests, point-load pinch tests, and four-point-bend fracture toughness tests have been utilized to develop detailed logs of the relevant fracture properties for the 37 m thick mahogany Zone section of the Green Rive Formation near Anvil Points, Colorado and for the rich, upper 13 m of the tipton Member near Rock Springs, Wyoming. For the Mahogany Zone shale tensile strengths ranged up to 15.3 Mpa (2220 psi) for direct-pull tests and 43.4 Mpa (6290 psi) for indirect test. Fracture energy values for this shale ranged from 8 J/m2 to 191 J/m2. For the Tipton shale tensile strengths ranged up to 3.7 Mpa (536 psi) for direct-pull tests and 12.6 Mpa (1830 psi) for indirect tests. Fracture energy values for the Tipton averaged from 5 J/m2 to 91 J/m2. Detailed statistical analyses were performed on these data and on Fischer assay oil yield data to establish the correlations between them. Data from both tensile strength and fracture energy tests correlate well with lithologic and oil yield chacteristics of the Mahogany Zone shale while poor correlation were foound for the Tipton shale. Extensive direction-pull tensile testing was performed 14.6 m of Utah Mahogany Zone shale from the Genokinetics site near Vernal, Utah, but the lack of other fracture property data and oil yields precluded any statistical analyses.

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Preliminary studies on the recovery of oil from Chattanooga shale

Three exploratory investigations have been performed to examine the recovery of oil from the Chattanooga black shale formation. Thermogravimetric data were analyzed to yield and average activation energy of 57.1 kcal/mole for the conversion process; positive deviations from a reaction order of 3.7 were observed suggesting the presence of autocatalytic effects at low conversion levels. Thermal chromatographic analysis indicated that the maximum organic product release occurred at approximately 435supO/C and resulted in an oil of relatively low distillation range. A packed bed of shale was retorted in the self-sustained combustion mode thus suggesting the feasibility of this mode for in situ oil recovery. Comparisons with oil shale from Colorado's Green River formation have been made throughout.

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Cyclone oil shale retorting concept. [Use it all retorting process]

A new concept for above-ground retorting of oil shale was disclosed by A.E. Harak in US Patent No. 4,340,463, dated July 20, 1982, and assigned to the US Department of Energy. This patent titled System for Utilizing Oil Shale Fines, describes a process wherein oil shale fines of one-half inch diameter and less are pyrolyzed in an entrained-flow reactor using hot gas from a cyclone combustor. Spent shale and supplemental fuel are burned at slagging conditions in this combustor. Because of fines utilization, the designation Use It All Retorting Process (UIARP) has been adopted. A preliminary process engineering design of the UIARP, analytical tests on six samples of raw oil shale, and a preliminary technical and economic evaluation of the process were performed. The results of these investigations are summarized in this report. The patent description is included. It was concluded that such changes as deleting air preheating in the slag quench and replacing the condenser with a quench-oil scrubber are recognized as being essential. The addition of an entrained flow raw shale preheater ahead of the cyclone retort is probably required, but final acceptance is felt to be contingent on some verification that adequate reaction time cannot be obtained with only the cyclone, or possibly some other twin-cyclone configuration. Sufficient raw shale preheating could probably be done more simply in another manner, perhaps in a screw conveyor shale transporting system. Results of the technical and economic evaluations of Jacobs Engineering indicate that further investigation of the UIARP is definitely worthwhile. The projected capital and operating costs are competitive with costs of other processes as long as electric power generation and sales are part of the processing facility.

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Storage stability and compatibility of heavy fuel oils

The increasing use of low quality crudes in refinery feedstocks has been paralleled by increasing problems in both processing and product quality. Lower product quality is evidenced by increased problems with product stability and compatibility. Problem components increase with increasing boiling point and are highest in the residual fractions. This project has the specific goal of determining the types of components causing problems in the utilization of residual fuel oils and then using information to provide practical test methods that will be useful as screening techniques for predicting stability and compatibility problems. Three baseline (nonproblem) fuels and three which have exhibited instability or incompatibility problems are being analyzed in an effort to determine the compound types responsible for the observed problems. 23 refs., 7 figs., 10 tabs.

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Opportunities for by-product recovery in synfuel plants

Emerging synfuel technologies will generate large quantities of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes that may contain useful by-products. Recovery and sale of such materials could reduce the waste-disposal burden and increase plant revenues; recovery of organic compounds could improve the energy efficiency of the process. At present, the synfuel industry is not yet set in place; therefore now is the best time to investigate potentially useful by-products and methods of recovering them, so that the synfuel plants eventually built can be equipped with appropriate recovery devices. Three major synfuel technologies, each represented by a promising process, were examined with a view to identifying potentially recoverable by-products and evaluating conventional and novel recovery processes that might be useful. The three technologies reviewed are shale oil retorting, represented by the Colony Shale Oil Project (which uses the TOSCO II process,8997 ); coal gasification, represented by the Great Plains synthetic natural gas facility, and coal liquefaction, represented by the H-Coal Project. Our findings indicate that the members of the synfuels industry are well aware of the potential of the various conventional methods of recovering by-products: for example, sulfur, ammonia, and phenolic compounds. Other opportunities exist, however - some are not cost effective at present, and some are in need of further development. For example, aluminum could be recovered from dawsonite in oil shale; some oil shale deposits also contain nahcolite (a sodium carbonate mineral,8997 ); the catalysts used in synfuel production contain noble metals that may be worth recovering; and the large volumes of carbon dioxide produced by many synfuel processes may be useful for enhancing the yield of oil fields. 53 refs., 34 figs., 45 tabs.

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Oil Shale Program. Technology status report

Oil shale research activities at the Anvil Points Facility, located near Rifle, Colorado, began in the mid-1940's, and government-sponsored research has been intermittent there since that time. The Bureau of Mines'gas combustion retorting technology was developed at the facility. In the mid-1960's the Bureau of Mines (which later became the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Department of Energy built two small (10- and 150-ton) batch-type retorts near Laramie, Wyoming. These facilities were used to research in situ processing variables of oil shale. Variables such as active void volume, shale assay and size, and processing parameters have been studied. In the late 1970's, the US government sponsored four large in situ demonstration projects in Western Oil Shale: Occidental, Geokinetics, Inc., Equity, and Talley-Frac. At the present, approximately 24 major companies are at some level of effort in developing an oil shale industry. Major private companies, as well as government-sponsored projects, are developing western and eastern shales. Some 22 major efforts are involved with western shales, and 7 are involved with eastern shales. In FY 1984, the Oil Shale Program was restructured to understand the oil shale conversion phenomena so that advanced concepts for the production of liquids from shale could be developed. The restructuring is a refocusing from process development to a more fundamental approach to research. The principal participants in the new program are: Laramie Project Office, Morgantown Energy Technology Center, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory, Western Research Institute, and selected universities and private industry. Program accomplishments are presented for these participants.

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Alterations in structure and physical properties of Green River oil shale by thermal treatment. [Compression strength; permeability; porosity; weight loss; bulk density]

Experimental data are presented showing changes in physical structure and physical properties that occur when oil shales of widely different organic content from the Green River formation are heated under controlled conditions to 950 and 1500/sup 0/F in a stress-free environment. Seven oil shales were investigated yielding from 1 to about 60 gallons of oil per ton of oil shale. Physical properties evaluated, before and after heating, were compressive strength, structural alterations, permeability, porosity, weight loss, and bulk density. These data serve as engineering guidelines for in situ combustion or other retorting processes.

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Fracture toughness of Antrim shale

Fracture toughness of Antrim shale cores from Dow Chemical's Sanilac County test site in Michigan were measured by the burst test method developed by Clifton et al. (1976). These tests were conducted to establish a preliminary data base to be used for the designing of a bed preparation method and prediction of rock fracture behavior under various loading conditions such as explosives and hydraulic fracturing for in-situ processing of oil shale. The test method was chosen because the thick-walled cylinder provides a loading and specimen configuration similar to in-situ hydraulic fracturing operations and the specimens can be conveniently prepared from diamond drill cores for laboratory tests. Further, the nature of variation of crack tip stress intensity in this specimen is such that K/sub IC/ does not depend on initial crack length, and crack propagation need not be monitored. The test results show that the fracture toughness of typical Antrim shale core range from 930 to 1080 psi ..sqrt..in. while the limestone specimens, a basement rock, range from 1240 to 1430 psi ..sqrt..in. These values are close to that of lean Western oil shale from Anvil point, Colorado (Schmidt, 1977), i.e., 980 psi ..sqrt..in.

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Evaluation of additives to enhance the in-situ steam processes applied to US and Canadian tar sand and heavy oil reservoirs. Final report, 14 October 1982-15 May 1985

Diverse additives were subjected to a series of three screening phases to assess their suitability with a steam drive process for recovery of tar sand and heavy oil resources. The resources studied were tar and mateials from Utah and Alberta and heavy oil materials from California and Saskatchewan. The first screening phase, which consisted of a literature review, identified over 120 potential additives to steam processes. In the succeeding screening phases, these additives were subjected to semiquantitative laboratory evaluations using actual resource materials. Chemical and physical evaluations were conducted during the second screening phase to assess additive enhancement of steam process oil recovery mechanisms, additive thermal stability at steam process temperatures, and additive/matix interactions. Additives demonstrating potential enhancement of steam process oil recovery, adequate thermal stability and acceptable additive/matrix interactions were subjected to process simulations in unscaled physical models during the third and final screening phase. The hot water region of the steam drive process was simulated with a hot water drive in an elemental core apparatus. Improvements in oil recovery were established by comparing oil recovery from simulations with additives to a baseline run without an additive. A total of 46 Phase 3 tests were performed. A list of additive/resource combinations which demonstrated increased oil recovery was compiled. 5 refs., 18 figs., 35 tabs.

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