AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Reverse-combustion, horizontal retorting of oil shale

Retorting of Green River oil shale by reverse combustion was studied in an adiabatic horizontal retort of approximate 226 kg (500 lb) capacity. The effects of air injection rate, system pressure, steam injection, and outlet temperature of the retort on oil yield and properties and product gas quantity and quality were studied. Product gas from the tests was of low heating value with a relatively high hydrogen and carbon monoxide content in the absence of steam injection. Oil yield was generally less than 50 volume percent of Fischer assay potential due to thermal cracking and possible product combustion. Regression equations are presented to allow estimation of oil yield and properties and product gas properties and compositions based on the retort operating variables. It was found that total usable energy recovery from the raw oil shale could be influenced by changes in test parameters. 2 figures, 8 tables.

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Oxides of nitrogen/ammonia control technology for oil shale retort emissions. Final report

The retorting of oil shale yields several undesirable pollutants. The nitrogen in the shale and the reducing conditions under which the retorting is carried out results in the formation of sizeable amounts of ammonia in the gas stream. If not removed, the ammonia will make a significant contribution to the NOx emissions after the gas is burned. The projected NOx emissions from five selected oil shale developers were modeled using the VALLEY air dispersion model and found that the levels of NOx were increased near the plant sites but dropped off to just above baseline at a distance of 6 km. Additional projections of NOx impact on the ambient air impact were also made as a result of modifying the combustion conditions and use of Selective Catalytic Reduction control technology. Both of the additional control technology options corresponded to tighter air pollution regulations. It was concluded that oxide of nitrogen emissions would not be a significant air pollution problem in the development of the oil shale industry.

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Socio-economic impacts of GKI activity

The purpose of this report is to assess the potential socio-economic impacts of Geokinetics, Inc. (GKI) activities on Uintah Basin. Potential impacts on socio-economic conditions in the Uintah Basin are limited by the scope of GKI operations. In 1978, the population of Uintah and Duchesne counties was nearly 30,000. GKI employees represented 0.1% of the Basin population. 1978 Gross Taxable Sales were estimated to be $167.182 million for the Uintah Basin. GKI expenditures totaled less than 1% of gross taxable sales, even if it is assumed that all expenditures went to Basin businesses. GKI employment and expenditures are likely to increase in the years ahead, but projected increases will have insignificant socio-economic impacts on local communities. However, some employees will already own and others will seek to purchase homes in the area. Resulting impacts, though insignificant, will be positive. Several years ago, Utah State University researchers developed estimates of population changes and impacts associated with employment growth in Uintah County. Their report indicated that a project increasing basic employment by 400 persons would have minor impact, but would increase the tax base of the county. It is unlikely that GKI employment will approach, let alone exceed, the threshold level of 400 employees. In addition, GKI growth will be incremental and gradual, even to commercial scale operations. This leads us to conclude that GKI operations will have minimal adverse impact upon the Uintah Basin and in fact will probably have a net positive impact on the Basin.

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Hydrogen sulfide evolution from Colorado oil shale

The dependence of H/sub 2/S evolution on gas atmosphere was measured in this study. The gas environments used were argon, autogenous (self-generated), and steam-argon mixtures, all at atmospheric pressure. The samples used in these experiments were Green River oil shale from Colorado. In Green River oil shale, sulfur occurs in both inorganic and organic combinations; 70 to 85% of the sulfur is present as pyrite, and most of the remaining sulfur is present as organic sulfur. During pyrolysis, H/sub 2/S could be formed from the reaction of pyrite with hydrocarbons, hydrogen, or water, and from cracking or organosulfur compounds. The objective was to determine the importance of these various reactions and to report the amounts of H/sub 2/S evolved from oil-shale samples obtained from locations in Colorado. Most of the sulfur in oil shale occurs in pyrite and a smaller amount is contained in the kerogen. The major sources of H/sub 2/S during oil shale pyrolysis appears to be the reaction of pyrite with organic matter. In an autogenous atmosphere, most of the H/sub 2/S evolves between 400 and 500/sup 0/C. Addition of finely ground pyrite increases the amount of H/sub 2/S evolved but does not change the evolution profile. In an argon atmosphere, however, added pyrite causes a substantial increase in H/sub 2/S evolution only between 475 and 525/sup 0/C. Similar reaction characteristics were observed with large-grained natural pyrite in Tract C-a shale. The argon results demonstrate the importance of intimate contact between the pyrite and organic material. In a steam atmosphere, pyrite is oxidized to iron oxides and the H/sub 2/S evolution increases substantially. In some samples, essentially all the initial sulfur is evolved as H/sub 2/S at temperatures below 800/sup 0/C. However, thermodynamics may limit the amount of H/sub 2/S produced from pyrrhotite under retort conditions.

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Irrigation experiments with produced waters from the retorting of oil shale

The research described herein was conducted by Geokinetics to qualitatively assess the tolerance of native and certain introduced species of vegetation to irrigation with produced water from the retorting of oil shale. Two separate experiments were conducted at the Kamp Kerogen field site in Uintah County, Utah. The results indicate possible effects on vegetation that a prolonged exposure to produced water would have. The two simple experiments were initiated during the summer of 1979. It was expected that irrigation with produced water would eventually result in detrimental effects to the plants receiving it; the concentrations of boron, molybdenum, arsenic, oil and other constituents in untreated production waters are high enough to likely cause damage to plants. In one experiment a 27 foot by 27 foot plot of native vegetation was irrigated with one inch of produced water per week for five weeks using a lawn sprinkler. Grasses and shrubs within the test plot appeared to have died; germination of annual plants was greatly inhibited. In the other experiment, 30 container-grown seedlings ranging in height from 0.3 feet to 3.0 feet were transplanted. Six species of broadleaf, deciduous trees not native to the test site were represented by five seedlings each. All 30 trees received well water irrigation for one month, after which four trees of each species were irrigated with produced water for seven weeks. One tree of each species continued to receive well water throughout the experiment; only two of those trees survived the summer of 1979. All six species appeared to have been adversely affected by produced water. The horse chesnut trees were the hardiest of the species planted. Most of the 30 trees, including those irrigated with well water, did not survive the winter season.

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Laboratory analyses of oil shales for US Department of Energy, Laramie Energy Technology Center

Analytical tests were performed on six samples of raw oil shale, two identified as Eastern, two identified as Colorado and the remaining two as Utah. This report covers the following aspects of this study: testing methods; sample preparation for specific tests; overall analytical summary tabulation; conclusions; specific enthalpy results; thermogravimetric analysis results; slag viscosity results; ash fusion temperature results; gross heating value results; elemental analysis results; and mineral analysis results. Procedures for drop calorimetry thermogravimetric analysis, differential thermal analysis and viscosity measurements are provided in the appendices. (ATT)

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Effects of pressure, mineral decomposition and particle size distribution on oil shale compaction

Porosity and permeability reduction during oil shale retorting is well documented in the literature. The reduction in permeability has been observed in low void vertical modified in situ (VMIS) field experiments with adverse effects. Mechanical forces caused by the weight of the overlying shale can equal 100 psi near the bottom of commercial retorts. Postburn investigation of the Rio Blanco retorts at the C-a lease tract in Colorado shows evidence of compaction occurring. Western Research Institute is conducting research to study compaction of large oil shale blocks. The data presently available suggest that most oil shale compaction occurs during retorting between 600 and 800/sup 0/F and that significant amounts of compaction may occur in regions of VMIS retorts where 30 gallon per ton or richer oil shale is retorted. Recent oil shale compaction research has studied the effects of pressure, mineral decomposition, and a wide particle size distribution on oil shale compaction. Results from these tests indicate that compaction increases with an increase in overburden pressure. However, the weight of the rubble column is sufficient to cause compaction of the richer oil shales throughout a VMIS retort. Mineral decomposition and particle size distribution have little effect on the overall compaction of the spent shale. 14 refs., 5 figs., 3 tabs.

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Refining and upgrading of synfuels from coal and oil shales by advanced catalytic processes. Tenth Interim Report. Revised stock balances and updated cost estimates

Design studies and cost estimates have been published under this contract from 1978 through 1984. While each estimate was based on the best available data and methods at its publication date, cost indices changed and methods were improved with the passage of time. This report revises all the previous results to a common, consistent basis. The results are now suitable for use in internal comparisons and any future evaluations where stand-alone synfuel refineries are under consideration.

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Plant response to aqueous effluents derived from in-situ fossil-fuel processing. Part II. Five grass plant species and their response to five produced retort waters:  oil shale, tar sands, and underground coal gasification. [Wildrye; wheatgrass; alkali sacaton; alkaligrass]

In situ produced waters collected from retorting oil shale and tar sands to produce oil and in-situ coal gasification to produce gas were tested for their effect on plant growth. Five native grass plant species were utilized for monitoring growth response. Root weight, shoot weight, total dry weight, leaf area, root/shoot ratio and shoot/leaf area ratio were parameters measured. All experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions using hydroponic techniques and commercial grade perlite as support systems. Measurements were collected after a 10 week growth period. Hypotheses tested were: (a) there is a difference between in situ produced waters, and (b) plant species respond differently to various retort waters. Results indicated that the stated hypotheses were true.

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Results from simulated, modified in-situ retorting in pilot retorts

Data obtained from operating 1.5 m x 0.3 m and 6 m x 0.9 m laboratory retorts to simulate a modified in-situ process are summarized. The effects of feed-gas composition, including addition of steam, shale particle size and bed porosity on retorting rate, temperature maxima and profiles, off-gas composition and oil yield are presented. Inclusions of steam is shown to increase retorting rate, oxygen efficiency and hydrogen content of the off-gas. The heating value of the off-gas is also raised somewhat, but is mainly determined by the C/sub 4//sup  / content. With a narrow shale particle size range, the experimental data agree well with model calculations based on the underlying physical and chemical processes. The experimental results with a broader range of particle size or large content of fines indicate complexities due to gas flow non-uniformity and oil holdup. The use of intra-retort gas composition and temperature data to detect and help interpret these complexities is demonstrated.

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Mechanisms of leaching from in-situ-retorted oil shale. Final report

The results from several leaching studies using retorted oil shale from the Rifle mine in Colorado and both demineralized, de-ionized water and Rock Springs groundwater are reported. The shale used in the groundwater leaching was retorted at temperatures ranging from 430 C to 780/sup 0/C in the absence of air for 30 hr. The 780/sup 0/C retorted shale was then leached with the groundwater for 450 hours while the 430/sup 0/C retorted shale was leached for 400 hr. The leachate from the 780/sup 0/C experiment showed a greater increase of calcium, lithium, and potassium in the groundwater than did that from the shale retorted at 430/sup 0/C. Sodium, iron, and carbonate concentrations in the groundwater decreased during the leaching of both 780 C and 430/sup 0/C retorted oil shales, with the larger decrease occurring with the shale retorted at the higher temperature. While the magnesium concentration in the groundwater decreased during the leaching of the high temperature retorted shale, it showed a slight increase during the leaching of the 430/sup 0/C retorted shale. The pH of the leachate also showed an increase with increasing retorting temperature. For the de-ionized water leaching experiments, the oil shale was retorted over the same temperature range as in the other experiments whether in the presence or absence of air. In the experiments with the shale retorted without air, the leachate showed an increase in lithium, sodium, potassium and pH with increasing retort temperatures, while magnesium showed the opposite behavior. Calcium in the leachate showed a maximum concentration at 630/sup 0/C. The behavior of all the ion concentrations in the leachate from the shale retorted in the presence of air was similar to that retorted without air, except that greater amounts of materials, besides lithium and magnesium from the high temperature retorted shale, were leached from the shale retorted in the presence of air. 75 figures, 167 tables.

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Plant response to aqueous effluents derived from in-situ fossil-fuel processing. Part III. Three grass species and their response to Omega 9 and to five produced retort waters:  oil shale, tar sands and underground coal gasification. [Basin wildrye; western wheatgrass; alkali sacaton]

In situ produced waters collected from retorting oil shale and tar sands to produce oil and in-situ coal gasification to produce gas were tested for their effect on plant growth. Three native grass plant species were utilized for monitoring growth response. Root weight, shoot weight, total dry weight, leaf area, root/shoot ratio and shoot/leaf area ratio were parameters measured. All experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions using hydroponic techniques and commercial grade perlite as support systems. Measurements were collected after a 10-week growth period. The hypothesis tested was, there is a difference between produced waters diluted by ground water and those where dilution is non-existent and their effect on plant growth. Results indicated that retort water diluted by ground water has a less toxic effect on plant species tested.

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Selected elemental distributions as determined by reference retorting of oil shale

In an effort to determine potential hindrances to the commercial development of the oil shale industry mass balance Fischer assay was used as a reference retorting method to examine the distribution of selected elements generally considered as contaminants in the final retort products. The elements examined were nitrogen, sulfur, silver, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, lead, selenium, and zinc. The shales used in this study were an eastern (New Albany) interim reference shale, a western (Green River Formation) interim reference shale, and a series of stratigraphically differentiated shales from Colorado corehole No. 1 in the Piceance Creek Basin. Analysis of the raw shale and retort products was accomplished using instrumental elemental methods including inductively coupled argon plasma spectroscopy and graphite furnace atomic absorption. Carbon balances indicated a high potential for achieving good mass closures existed. However, instrumental limitations combined with a high potential for contamination and/or representative sampling problems resulted in poor closures for many of the trace elements. Consistent closures were obtained for arsenic, barium, copper, and zinc. Given the operating conditions of the retort all elements under consideration remained primarily in the spent shale. Elements verified in the oil product included nitrogen and sulfur compounds and arsenic and selenium. The water product was also contaminated by nitrogen and sulfur compounds and arsenic and selenium. Evidence suggests the sulfur occurs primarily as organic sulfur. Quantitative results for the gas product were poor. However, sulfur and mercury were determined to be present at significant levels in the gas stream. The data presented here concurs with previously reported data that suggests the existence of several potential problem areas in the development of an oil shale industry. 42 refs., 1 fig., 42 tabs.

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Conclusions on slagging, fixed-bed gasification of lignite: Final report

Operation of the Grand Forks Slagging Fixed-Bed Gasifier over the past three years has established the limitations on production rate of gas per vessel cross-section within which stable, sustained operation is possible. Operations in 1982 and 1983, with an expanded inside diameter and improved taphole burner have demonstrated the ability to run on lignite continuously for as long as desired. Models of mechanical and thermochemical behavior of the upper and lower fuel bed have been developed, providing partial bases for expanded gasifier designs and capacity prediction. The primary limitation on fixed-bed gasifier capacity and operational stability is the ability of fuel to settle into the combustion zone as fast as the oxygen can consume it. Closer optimization of gasifier design and control with respect to fuel bed behavior may achieve over 50% increases in capacity, with correspondingly increased return on capital investment in the vessel and accessories. For a well-designed slagging gasifier, refractory layers are protected by a layer of frozen slag, so selection of refractories is far less critical than formerly believed. Refractory damage is the result of catastrophic upsets rather than gradual degradation during extended, normal operation. 14 refs., 26 figs., 7 tabs.

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Characterization of oil shales by differential scanning calorimetry

Oil shale blocks were cored to suitable dimensions (nominally 2.5 cm diameter and 1 cm thick). Specific gravity measurements were then carried out on these cylindrical cores to determine the organic content. Selected samples were also assayed at Laramie Energy Technology Center, WY, by the pulsed NMR technique. Oil yields obtained by the two methods on identical cores were in agreement with the limits of experimental error (vide infra). The cored shale samples were crushed to particles which passed through 100-mesh sieves. Ten to fifteen milligram batches of these crushed shale particles were then subjected to enthalpy measurements in the differential scanning calorimetry assembly. A sample of kerogen concentrate was obtained from Laramie Energy Technology Center. DSC measurements were carried out on a DuPont 990 thermal analysis system fitted with the DSC accessory module. All measurements were carried out in a flowing atmosphere of prepurified N/sub 2/. A heating rate of 10/sup 0/C/min was employed for the enthalpy determinations. The fusion endotherm of zinc (mp 419.4/sup 0/C, ..delta..H/sub f/ = 27.05 cal/g) was used as the calibration standard. The linear correlation that was observed between the enthalpy of decomposition of the organic matter (..delta..H) and oil yields for Green river oil shales suggests that this technique might be useful as a rapid screening tool for resource evaluation of an oil shale deposit.

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Effects of overburden pressure on oil shale during underground retorting

Some effects of a simulated overburden pressure on oil shale during retorting are presented. The results are applicable to underground retorting in systems where there is no stress relief. The range of pressures investigated was 25-2,500 psig at retorting temperatures up to 1,000$F. The effects of the simulated overburden pressure on the degree of thermal fracturing and exfoliation, the induced permeability and porosity, bulk volume changes, the effective retorting temperature, carbonate decomposition, and thermal conductivity were investigated. It was found that no visible fracturing or exfoliation occurs in oil shales retorted under confining stresses of 100 psig or more. Pore structure, however, is created by removal of oil and water, decomposition of carbonates and the creation of microscopic expansion cracks. The induced porosity is independent of overburden pressure, whereas in beds lying perpendicular to the maximum principal stress, the induced permeability is pressure-dependent. (13 refs.)

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Chemical separation, purification, and identification of EOR-active compounds in water-soluble petroleum sulfonate. Final progress report

Prior work carried out at the US Department of Energy's Energy Technology Center at Morgantown, West Virginia had indicated that when the commercial petroleum sulfonates i.e., Pyronate-40 or NBS is used for tertiary oil recovery, the components responsible for enhanced oil recovery constitute only a minor fraction of the complex mixture. The aim of our investigation was to fractionate one such complex petroleum sulfonate i.e., Pyronate-40, to a stage of purification and to undertake investigations for characterizing the chemical structures of the most active fractions. The most EOR-active fraction of the Pyronate-40 from the Florisil column separation step was subjected to GC/MS characterization. It was found that the methylesters of Pyronate-40 did not lend themselves to the GC/MS examination. The Pyronate-40 fractions were therefore desulfonated and the oil that distilled at 210 to 215/sup 0/C was used for the GC/MS analysis. The major species in this oil was found to be structurally similar to the hydrocarbon obtained from Texas-57 under identical conditions of desulfonation and distillation. A re-examination (by Capillary GC) of the EOR-active fraction obtained from a replicate Pyronate-40 fractionation study indicated that, in addition to the Texas-57 type of species, it contained a number of other compounds. In a separate series, NBS (a detergent alkylate sulfonate) was fractionated under conditions identical to those of Pyronate-40 fractionation on Florisil and the EOR-active fraction was desulfonated and distillated. The oil when examined by means of capillary GC (with flame ionization detector) showed a very complex pattern, although it included a Texas-57 type species as a prominent component.

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