AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Deposition in sampling tubes

The particulate loading in the process streams of coal conversion and gasification plants must be accurately determined for reasons of environmental health and safety and the protection of operating equipment such as gas turbines. A common method of obtaining these measurements is with the use of aspiration probes. Deposition of particulate on the probe walls is a source of significant error in these measurements. This report reviews previous literature on deposition in sampling tubes for laminar and turbulent flows, the effects of the entrance region, and bends in the sampling lines. A research plan is proposed for additional work in the analysis of deposition. Experimental work is also proposed to verify the analytical studies. The objectives of the research program are to develop methods to correct for the effects of deposition in sample lines. Alternative techniques of sampling will be developed to minimize deposition.

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Risk assessments:  the performance and supply of commercially available process equipment for full scale coal gasification and liquefaction plants. Phase II. Final report

A broad-brushed assessment was made of the risks involved in using commercially available equipment in full-scale coal liquefaction and gasification plants. Since a detailed treatment of all processes was beyond the scope of this study, an approach which would indicate the general nature of the risks involved in the performance and supply of commercial equipment was selected. Flow diagrams and equipment lists were prepared for a coal liquefaction process which was based on published data for commercial coal liquefaction and gasification plants. The generalized process plant consists of five identical trains, each operating at 6000 tons per day coal feed rate and producing 20,000 barrels per day oil equivalent. In addition, assorted by-products including carbon dioxide, slag, water, sulfur, ammonia, and acids are produced.

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Assessment of underground coal gasification in bituminous coals:  potential UCG products and markets. Final report, Phase I

The following conclusions were drawn from the study: (1) The US will continue to require new sources of energy fuels and substitutes for petrochemical feedstocks into the foreseeable future. Most of this requirement will be met using coal. However, the cost of mining, transporting, cleaning, and preparing coal, disposing of ash or slag and scrubbing stack gases continues to rise; particularly, in the Eastern US where the need is greatest. UCG avoids these pitfalls and, as such, should be considered a viable alternative to the mining of deeper coals. (2) Of the two possible product gases LBG and MBG, MBG is the most versatile. (3) The most logical use for UCG product in the Eastern US is to generate power on-site using a combined-cycle or co-generation system. Either low or medium Btu gas (LBG or MBG) can be used. (4) UCG should be an option whenever surface gasification is considered; particularly, in areas where deeper, higher sulfur coal is located. (5) There are environmental and social benefits to use of UCG over surface gasification in the Eastern US. (6) A site could be chosen almost anywhere in the Illinois and Ohio area where amenable UCG coal has been determined due to the existence of existing transportation or transmission systems. (7) The technology needs to be demonstrated and the potential economic viability determined at a site in the East-North-Central US which has commercial quantities of amenable bituminous coal before utilities will show significant interest.

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Assessment of underground coal gasification in bituminous coals. Final report. Phase II

On the commercial scale, the success of UCG rests on a number of economical and technical considerations. Economically, such  factors as coal seam depth, seam thickness, product gas heating value, sweep efficiency, product gas flow rate, and gas losses all play important roles and must be considered in evaluating any ultimate UCG facility. Technically, an understanding of the physical phenomena which accompany UCG provides ability to select both the geometry of injection/production wells and, to some extent, to specify the regime which characterizes gas flow during early gasifier operation. The prime consideration in any UCG facility, though, is selection of the site. Site selection characterizes the coal seam, its permeability, fracture system, energy content, etc. and, for the most part, characterizes the final economic viability of the UCG facility. Each of the following variables strongly affect the economic viability of underground coal gasification: seam depth, seam thickness, sweep efficiency, product gas heating value, flow rates, injection and production, oxygen utilization (Btu/value of products generated/SCF of oxygen injected), gas loss, and environmental considerations.

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Development of technology for entrainer-enhanced CO sub 2  flooding

The results of studies conducted to evaluate the development of the technology for utilizing entrainers for carbon dioxide (CO{sub 2}) flooding are described. Experiments were conducted to determine the extent of the fluid-property enhancement (gas-phase density and viscosity) of CO{sub 2}   hydrocarbon and CO{sub 2}   crude oil systems in the presence of selected entrainers (cosolvents). The improvement in CO{sub 2}-rich phase hydrocarbon extraction capacity was also determined in the presence of added cosolvents. The hydrocarbon systems used in the study were n-hexadecane and a crude oil sample from Bloomington (TX) field with an API gravity of 22.7{degree}. Preliminary entrainer screening studies were conducted utilizing gas and liquid chromatographic approaches to determine relative affinities of certain cosolvents with target high-molecular-weight hydrocarbon solutes. These solutes ranged in molecular weights from n-decane (n-C{sub 10}) up to n-tetracontane (n-C{sub 40}). These qualitative screening methods were useful in identifying potential cosolvents that may be used for future study. A method of utilizing entrainers to enhance the extraction of polymeric materials into the CO{sub 2}-rich phase was also investigated. This approach utilized a simple extraction apparatus to determine relative degrees of polymer extraction in CO{sub 2}as a function of pressure and the degree of enhancement of extraction in the presence of added cosolvent. 10 refs., 15 figs., 2 tabs.

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Evaluation of medium-Btu gas combustion. Final report

This report presents the General Electric evaluation of the combustion of medium Btu (MBtu) fuel gas characteristic of an oxygen-blown gasifier. The fuel specification was provided by Arkansas Power and Light Company (AP and L). The major effect of this fuel gas application is in the turbine combustion system. The Report presents conceptual design of a modified fuel nozzle for MBtu gas, end cover for steam injection and the use of a standard production liner with minor modifications. The expected performance of this type combustion system is presented, based upon General Electric laboratory testing of MBtu combustion hardware with MBtu fuel gas virtually identical to the APL fuel gas spec. These tests show that excellent combustion performance is achieved with low CO emission and smoke, excellent combustion stability, low combustor dynamic pressure oscillations, metal temperatures equivalent to or lower than liners used for distillate petroleum fuel, and NO/sub x/ emissions meeting EPA NSPS standards by steam injection. Modifications to the turbine controls systems are straightforward to accomplish NO/sub x/ control by steam injection, startup/shutdown on conventional fuels with transfer to MBtu fuel gas, and fuel gas flow control for load following. Because of the low heating value, when compared to natural gas fuel, MBtu fuel gas delivery piping is considerably larger. Corrosion effects from coal derived gases exposed to effective gas cleanup are expected to be minimal based on the level of fuel contaminants seen in General Electric gasifier tests. However, the analytical tools are provided to allow an assessment of parts lives and maintenance cost effects (relative to experience with conventional petroleum distillate fuels) for a range of potential fuel gas contaminant levels.

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Gas turbine systems for operation on coal-derived fuels. Final technical report

The objectives of this program were to define the most attractive gas turbine power systems that could operate on coal-derived fuel and to identify a research and development program that could lead to commercialization. The power systems investigated included a combined cycle system for baseload electric utility applications, a simple cycle gas turbine for utility peaking applications, and a gas turbine cogeneration system for industrial process applications. The coal-derived fuels included a partially-cleaned fuel gas and a coal-water mixture. Both fuel systems were investigated for the baseload electric utility application, whereas only the coal-water mixture was investigated for the utility peaking and industrial cogeneration applications. The focal activity of the program was a comprehensive systems analysis which addressed critical technical, economic, environmental, and reliability issues. This analytical effort followed closely the spirit of systems analysis in that it drew on existing information to the maximum extent possible in order to minimize duplication of past efforts. The program was conducted in two consecutive phases, dealing primarily with large electric utility size systems and smaller industrial cogeneration systems, respectively. The principal purpose of this investigation was to identify the most promising way in which gas turbine power systems could operate on coal-derived fuels to produce low cost electricity while complying with applicable environmental regulations. A secondary purpose was to identify technology gaps which would need to be resolved before commercialization could be implemented. The highlights from the utility systems analysis phase of this study are summarized. 6 refs., 19 figs., 8 tabs.

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Regeneration of FGD dry-sorbent materials. Phase 1. Final report

An aqueous process was developed to regenerate spent alkaline sorbent materials used to control SO/sub 2/ in flue gases from coal burning power plants. Two alternate regeneration processes were also studied. Dry sorbent injection, directly into the flue gas duct of a coal-burning power plant, has been investigated by GFETC as an SO/sub 2/ control technology since 1975. The sorbent reacts with sulfur dioxide in the flue and is then collected in a baghouse or in an electrostatic precipitator. Sodium alkalis such as trona, nahcolite, and sodium bicarbonate are utilized as the sorbent material. The spent sorbent material collected in a baghouse consists of coal-derived flyash, sodium sulfate derived from reacted sorbent, and sodium carbonate derived from unreacted sorbent. Regeneration of sorbent from spent sorbent material is highly desirable to alleviate the sorbent cost and availability problems of a nonregenerative desulfurization system, and to alleviate the leaching and pollution problems of soluble sodium compounds when disposing of spent sorbent materials in landfills. Consequently, this project was initiated to develop a continuous, aqueous-based process for regeneration of sodium carbonate-type sorbents from spent sorbent/flyash materials. The specific project objectives are to: (1) retain process simplicity and to avoid difficult process conditions, so that it would be adaptable to a utility power station;(2) to maximize the recovery of sodium values in the spent sorbent; (3) to minimize the process costs and energy requirements; (4) to maximize the reactivity of the regenerated sorbent; and (5) to produce process waste materials that may be disposed of in an environmentally-acceptable manner.

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Biological dewatering and waste treatment of fly ash and FGD sludge ponds. Final report. [By marsh plants]

Wet scrubber sludges (FGD sludges) are a major national environmental problem. Dewatering of these sludges by conventional technologies is costly, but required for their permanent disposal. This report examines a novel concept for FGD sludge dewatering using emergent aquatic plants. The plants would act as wicks to remove moisture from a bed of wet sludge. An extensive literature review was carried out to develop a conceptual process for FGD sludge dewatering based on this idea. Key issues addressed were transpiration rates, salt tolerances, root aeration, organic matter decomposition, heavy metal resistance and climatic factors. Insufficient information was available in many specific areas, however, no fundamental problem or significant obstacle to the development of a marsh plant based FGD sludge dewatering process was apparent except one: hydrogen sulfide production from the reductions of sulfates or sulfites by organic material. Up to 0.1% of the total sulfur in FGD sludges could be removed by such a process, resulting in both increased atmospheric sulfur loads and, most seriously, nuisance and even toxic hydrogen sulfide concentrations. However, there are many factors which could reduce the actual amount of H/sub 2/S released, and the rate of such release, well below that calculated as the upper limit; actual H/sub 2/S production and release must be measured experimentally. A small scale experimental study of this concept for FGD sludge dewatering is proposed. Based on a conceptual FGD dewatering process developed during the phase I of this project a phase II research project is being submitted.

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Acid rain:  commentary on controversial issues and observations on the role of fuel burning

Even though much information has been accumulated on the subject of acid precipitation, lack of knowledge in certain technical areas precludes an adequate understanding of (1) how serious the acid precipitation problem really is and (2) what effect controlling sources of acid precipitation precursors would have in reducing acidification. It is nevertheless possible to draw some broad conclusions regarding the problem and to ascertain the direction that the required further work should take. This report presents the results of an investigation of various issues associated with acid rain. The following topics are addressed: occurrence of acid precipitation; effects of acid precipitation; sources of acid precipitation; transport, transformation, and deposition of acid pollutants; and fuel trend analysis. Recommendations for further research are included. (DMC)

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Second-generation pressurized fluidized bed combustion plant commercialization plan: Task 4 report

This report presents a plan for moving coal-fired second-generation pressurized fluidized bed (PFB) combustion plants from their present conceptual stage to and through the sale of the first commercial electric utility plant by 2000; market penetration analyses are also included. A second-generation PFB plant can operate with an efficiency of 45 percent (based on the higher heating value of the coal used as fuel) and achieve a cost of electricity at least 20 percent lower than that of a conventional pulverized-coal-fired plant with wet-limestone flue gas desulfurization. Compared with conventional and other newly emerging power plant technologies, projections indicate that the proposed plant should capture a market share of 12.7 percent in 2010 and of 60 percent in 2020. A second-generation PFB combustion plant integrates a coal pyrolyzer/carbonizer with a circulating pressurized fluidized bed combustor (CPFBC). Char produced in the carbonizer is burned in the CPFBC, and the low-Btu fuel gas produced in the carbonizer is burned in a topping combustor to heat the CPFBC exhaust gas to 2100{degree}F and higher before it enters a gas turbine. The carbonizer and CPFBC operate with lime-based sorbents for in-situ sulfur capture at {le}1600{degree}F. Components being developed for first-generation PFB combustion plants protect the gas turbine from corrosion, erosion, and deposition. 23 refs., 35 figs., 24 tabs.

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Coal gasification reactions with on-line in-situ FT-IR analysis. Sixth quarterly report, December 4, 1982-March 3, 1983

During the sixth quarter, the reactor configuration was unchanged but the water-cooled collector is now being cleaned after each run to extract tar (and char) from the collector. This brings the material balance above 90% even for high tar coals. Data for a Beulah, North Dakota lignite were collected in the reactor system at a furnace temperature of 820/sup 0/C. The data suggests that some adjustment must be made to the tar rate or to the particle heating calculation at this temperature. Experiments will be performed at 650/sup 0/C to investigate this problem further. Programmed slow heating-rate experiments were performed for several coals. The use of slow heating in pyrolysis experiments provides data on individual reactions which often cannot be distinguished in rapid pyrolysis because they occur simultaneously. Slow heating conditions often resolve such reactions into separate gas evolution peaks. These peaks provide low temperature data for gas evolution kinetics. Work was performed on the pyrolysis theory. The computational details of the pyrolysis model have been modified in order to allow the simulations of multi-molecular kinetics. This was motivated by the need for more accurate modeling of tar and HCN production. The tar evolution rate is determined by (1) the availability of donatable hydrogen from alipathic or hydroaromatic hydrogen in the char, and (2) by the rate of bridge bond breaking. Similarly, the HCN gas production from the coal depends on both the rate of formation of CN radicals, and the availability of aromatic hydrogen to form HCN. Work continued on elucidating the mechanisms of particle swelling. The effects of gas diffusion through the coal metaplast and of surface tension are considered. The report also considers tar formation which is thought to be the result of a depolymerization process that releases fragments of the coal molecule. 32 figs., 18 tabs.

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Coal gasification reactions with on-line in-situ FT-IR analysis. Ninth quarterly report, September 4-December 3, 1983

During the ninth quarter, work continued on the measurements of coal particle temperatures from FT-IR emission spectra. Attention has been focused on the departures from black-body behavior which have been observed for several cases. Additional data have been obtained confirming that the high temperature departures from black-body behavior appear to be caused by soot formation. The short residence time departures still are not definitely confirmed. There is a wide discrepancy in reported rates for pyrolysis. Much of the problem appears to be due to heat transfer limitations which have not been properly accounted for. To address this problem a new experiment has been designed for rapid heat transfer. The experiments performed with a new reactor have yielded the highest rates ever measured in the 700 to 900/sup 0/C range. The results suggest that lower rates measured at these temperatures and comparable or lower rates measured at high temperatures were heat transfer limited. An interesting area of progress has resulted from a combined effort on our METC program and our GRI program. This work is aimed at examining the mechanisms of tar formation. A careful analysis of coal Field Ionization Mass Spectra (FIMS), specifically the regular arrangement of peaks, is providing some interesting results on coal structure. In a continuation of this work, several materials and a coal which had been perdeutero-methylated have been analyzed by the FIMS technique. The material series shows very high molecular weight tars for the high hydrogen exinites and very low molecular weight tars for fusinites, with the vitrinites in the middle. This variation in molecular weight is similar to what is observed for rank variations. The perdeutero-methylated coals are also quite interesting. The results suggest substantial deuterium scrambling, more fluidity, and a shift of the spectral features by 17, consistent with 1 hydroxyl group per molecule. 8 refs., 25 figs.

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Coal gasification reactions with on-line in-situ FT-IR analysis. Eleventh quarterly report, March 3-June 3, 1984

During the eleventh quarter, work continued on the measurement of coal particle temperatures during pyrolysis using FT-IR transmission and emission spectroscopy. The main thrust was assessing the nature and magnitude of the scattering contribution to the spectra by a series of experiments and by development of a quantitative model. In the case of the tube reactor experiment, Inconel tubes were substituted for the stainless tubes used previously in order to extend the upper temperature limit. These were tested at temperatures up to 1100/sup 0/C and worked satisfactorily. In addition, a scheme was developed to measure the mean residence time and residence time distribution for pulses of coal. Additional data were obtained on the effect of heating rate on the molecular weight distribution for a lignite and an Illinois No. 6 bituminous coal. This data, obtained at 600/sup 0/C/s, was consistent with earlier results at 3 and 20,000/sup 0/C/s which showed a strong effect for the lignite change for the bituminous coal. It was also found that the most rapidly heated lignite was quite fluid and showed bubble formation. This observation is consistent with the concept that the cross-linking, which inhibits both tar formation and fluidity in lignites, can itself be inhibited by high heating rates. The designs of the refractory internals and the supporting framework for the high pressure reactor (HPR) were finalized and the parts were ordered. The temperature, pressure, and flow control schemes for the HPR system were also finalized and the appropriate indicators, gauges, regulators, and controllers were ordered. The shell for the high pressure reactor arrived on May 31, and was installed on the supporting framework. 4 refs., 15 figs.

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Coal gasification reactions with on-line in-situ FT-IR analysis. Twelfth quarterly report, June 3-September 3, 1984

During the twelfth quarter, the main thrust was determination of coal pyrolysis kinetics in the heated tube reactor. This involved measurement of particle temperature using FT-IR transmission and emission spectroscopy, residence time determinations with photodiodes, material balances, and FT-IR analysis of chars. The particle temperatures determined by FT-IR were generally close to those estimated from a knowledge of the gas temperature. The residence time determinations indicated that the particle velocity was between 80 and 100% of the average gas velocity, depending on size and the gas flow rate. Material balances done in the newer Inconel 702 tube agreed very well with those done previously in a stainless steel tube. The FT-IR char analyses were also consistent with previous results and the aliphatic region followed the trends of product yields quite closely. It was found that primary pyrolysis, measured by the initial rapid weight loss and the loss of aliphatic material, occurs between 50 cm and 115 cm for an equilibrium tube temperature of 800/sup 0/C and a cold gas velocity of approx.28 meters/second. The transit time over this distance is about 14 msec. while the particle temperature is increasing from 650 to 780/sup 0/C. The results suggest that k is at least 100 s/sup -1/ at 800/sup 0/C for the rate of evolution of tar and hydrocarbons which dominate primary pyrolysis and weight loss. Construction was nearly completed on the high pressure reactor system. A plan was formulated for the initial test phase. In addition, preliminary sulfur measurements were made on chars from entrained flow reactor system. 13 refs., 22 figs., 1 tab.

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