AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Fluidized-bed gasification of an eastern oil shale

The current conceptual HYTORT process design for the hydroretorting of oil shales employs moving-bed retorts that utilize shale particles larger than 3 mm. Work at the Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) is in progress to investigate the potential of high-temperature (1100 to 1300 K) fluidized-bed gasification of shale fines (<3 mm size) using steam and oxygen as a technique for more complete utilization of the resource. Synthesis gas produced from fines gasification can be used for making some of the hydrogen needed in the HYTORT process. After completing laboratory-scale batch and continuous gasification tests with several Eastern oil shales, two tests with Indiana New Albany shale were conducted in a 0.2 m diameter fluidized-bed gasification process development unit (PDU). A conceptual gasifier design for 95% carbon conversion was completed. Gasification of 20% of the mined shale can produce the hydrogen required by the HYTORT reactor to retort 80% of the remaining shale. 12 refs., 1 fig., 5 tabs.

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Mechanical characteristics of Antrim shale. Interim report, April 1977--January 1978

A laboratory investigation has been conducted to determine the basic mechanical properties of Antrim oil shale. The strength and deformation properties were studied in quasi-static uniaxial compression, ultrasonic velocity, point load strength and surface hardness tests. Young's modulus and compressive strength were found to decrease with increasing kerogen content while Poisson's ratio remained at a fairly constant level. The density decreased in a linear fashion with increasing kerogen content. The floor rocks showed much greater strength, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio in comparison with oil shale. A distinct characteristic of Antrim shale was the extreme weakness of the bedding plane which caused a great difficulty in sample preparation. This strength anisotropy would be of great importance in the design of bed preparation methods such as massive hydraulic fracturing and explosives fracturing. 28 figures, 13 tables.

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Initial evaluation of fracturing oil shale with propellants for in situ retorting

A series of field experiments were carried out to gather preliminary information on the use of propellant charges to fracture oil shale for in situ retorting. Three 40{number sign} propellant charges were fired at a depth of 60 feet, two in one hole, and the other in a second hole. Six angle core holes were drilled (3 at each shot site) to observe the fractures in the cores, and to provide access to the fracture zone for air injection tests. Thirteen air injection tests were carried out. Horizontal and vertical fractures were observed in the core, and substantial increases over natural permeability were observed in the air injection tests. 20 figs., 4 tabs.

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Inventory and evaluation of potential oil shale development in Kansas

The University of Kansas Center for Research, inc. was commissioned by the Kansas Energy Office and the United States Department of Energy to conduct a review of certain oil shale's in Kansas. The purpose of the study focused on making an inventory and assessing those oil shale's in close statigraphic proximity to coal beds close to the surface and containing significant reserves. The idea was to assess the feasibility of using coal as an "economic window" to aid in making oil shale's economically recoverable. Based on this as a criterion and the work of Runnels, et al, (1952) five eastern Kansas black shale units were selected for study and their areal distribution mapped. The volume of recoverable oil shale in each unit was calculated and translated to reserves. The investigation results indicate that an estimated 33.2x10^9 tons of oil shale are available for extraction. These shale's have an estimated reserve of oil of 33.5x10^8 barrels at 75% recovery.

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Computational model for oil shale retorting

"This paper develops conservation and subsidiary equations which simulate the phenomena occurring in situ and surface retorting of oil shale. This development  includes methods for dealing with gas phase reactions, evaporation and condensation, and solid phase reactions  within individual oil shale particles which make up the retorting bed. The system developed represents a nearly complete and sophisticated model for oil shale retorting and once solved should prove useful in predicting yields and setting guidelines for laboratory-size experiments."

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Colorado energy resources handbook. Volume II. Oil shale. [Handbook]

The handbook focuses on oil shale as a potential energy source of the future. It specifically will provide policy makers in Colorado with current and factual data on the oil shale resources of the state and on the technological, environmental, and socio-economic impacts associated with the development of the industry. After the introductory chapter on the nature of the resource, the following are included: oil shale mining methods, shale oil processing, commercial development considerations, manpower requirements, environmental considerations, socio-economic considerations, shale oil production constraints, and concerns for the future. An extensive bibliography precedes three appendices--Federal oil shale leases, surface retort processes, and shale oil plant cost estimates. (MCW)

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Thermal behavior of oil shale blocks heated in air. [Study of anomalously high heating rate at center of large blocks]

Anomalously high rates of temperature increase have been observed near the center of large blocks of shale being retorted in air. Because of the potential importance of this behavior for in-situ processing, an investigation of possible mechanisms of the temperature increase has been performed. Known mechanisms for which the conditions in the shale block are slowly varying have been shown to be unsatisfactory in explaining the observed behavior. For example, transport of oxygen by diffusion from the block surface to the interior is too slow to produce the rapid temperature increase by oxidation of hydrocarbons. A rapidly varying or oscillatory phenomenon was therefore sought. Pressure sensing capillary tubes were sealed into a block of shale so that interior pressure could be observed. During retorting of the block, pressure pulses occurred periodically. During a portion of each pulse, the interior pressure was below the pressure at  the block surface. Since a shale block develops numerous small cracks during the early part of the retorting process, the pressure pulses result in transport of thermal energy and oxygen to the interior of the block along these cracks. The pulsing behavior has been observed in a range of block sizes and shale grades.

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Energy from true in situ processing of Antrim shale:  sampling and analytical systems

Reliable on-line analysis of production gas composition is fundamental to the success of an in situ extraction experiment in Antrim shale. An automated sampling and analysis system designed to meet this need has provided high quality analytical data for three extraction trials without a single day when no data were taken. The production gas samples were routinely analyzed by both gas chromatography (GC) and a bank of continuous on-line process gas analyzers. The GC's analyzed for H/sub 2/, O/sub 2/   Ar, N/sub 2/, CO, CO/sub 2/, SO/sub 2/, H/sub 2/S, individual C/sub 1/ - C/sub 5/ hydrocarbon species, and lumped C/sub 6/   hydrocarbon species, each analysis requiring up to an hour to run. The process gas analyzers measured CO, CO/sub 2/, total hydrocarbons (% vol CH/sub 4/ equivalent), and O/sub 2/ continuously. The process gas analyzers were shown to be especially well suited for this application because of their fast response. The GC data provided itemized composition details as well as an independent check of process analyzer data. Sample selection, data collection and processing from both the GC's and process gas analyzers was handled by a Perkin Elmer Sigma-10 minicomputer. The combination of the two analytical techniques and automated data handling yielded a versatile and powerful system. The production gas sampling system demonstrated the feasibility of transmitting a properly treated gas sample through a long (1000 ft) 1/8''diameter sample line. The small bore tubing allowed the analytical instruments to be located a safe distance away from the well heads and yet maintain a reasonably short sample transport lag time without handling large volumes of gas.

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Evaluation of separate diagnostic correlations for cracking and combustion losses during oil shale retorting

The possibility of developing separate diagnostic correlations for cracking and combustion was evaluated using shale oils produced in a laboratory reference retort. The shale oils were produced under rotating conditions in which coking and cracking losses were minimized so that changes in possible combustion indicators could be observed. The changes in the concentration of phenol and methyl-substituted phenols relative to the concentration of selected hydrocarbons were compared with the concentration of oxygen available for combustion of the produced oil. The change in the concentration of phenol relative to the sum of n-undecane and n-dodecane (phenol/n-undecane   n-dodecane ratio) correlated well with the oxygen concentration for experiments performed at a retort heating rate of 1.9/sup 0/C/min (3.4/sup 0/F/min). A correlation of the phenol/n-undecane   n-dodecane ratio with the available oxygen was not observed for oils produced at a retort heating rate of 25.7/sup 0/C/min (46.3/sup 0/F/min). This result may have been caused by slightly more cracking of the normal alkanes at the faster heating rate. The possible use of phenol as an indicator of combustion still exists even with the discrepancy in the correlation of the phenol/n-undecane   n-dodecane ratio with oxygen concentration at the faster retort heating rate. 5 refs., 1 fig., 3 tabs.

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Wartime shale-oil production at Marangaroo, New South Wales

During the recent war, petrol rationing in Australia. promoted the use of many substitute fuels. One of those substitutes was" shale-oil distillate" which required a vaporizer for reasonably efficient utilization. Most of  the " shale-oil distillate" marketed was obtained from "back-yard" factories which sprang up to help supply the demand. Much of the oil thus marketed was obtained from the distillation of home-produced crude shale oil in pot stills. However, in addition to crude shale oil, used lubricating oils and slop kerosene that had been used for washing purposes by the Services were also charged to the stills.

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American Chemical Society 169th national meeting, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 6--11, 1975

In the fall of 1972 , the Laramie Energy Research Center of the Bureau of Mines (now the Energy Research and Development Administration) initiated an in situ coal gasification experiment in Hanna, Wyoming. The objective was to ascertain if a low-Btu gas which would be competitive with other energy sources could be produced using present technology. If such a process were feasible it could provide an alternative to the hazards, costly transportation, and environmental objections of current coal mining technology.

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BX in-situ oil shale project. Quarterly technical progress report, September 1-November 30, 1979

The quarter September 1979-November 1979 was the first quarter of continuous operation of the BX In Situ Oil Shale Project. Steam injection began on September 18, 1979 and, with the exception of a hiatus in November during the acidizing of steam generating equipment, continued throughout the quarter. The steam injection rate averaged 1690 barrels per day at an average wellhead temperature of 497/sup 0/F and an average pressure of 1199 PSIG. Except for 12 days of superheated steam injection, all steam injection took place at saturated conditions. Mechanical failures of steam generating equipment prevented superheated steam injection. No oil was produced from production wells during the quarter, however a very small amount was produced during the flowback of one of the injection wells, BX-30. Temperature increases of significant degree were noted in the temperature observation wells. During the quarter, all but one of the retorting runs planned in the laboratory program were completed. The results of these runs are encouraging for the field work because of the relatively high quality of the oil produced thus far in runs which are felt to most closely simulate in situ field conditions. Oil produced thus far has an average API Gravity of 28/sup 0/, and a pour point of 27/sup 0/F.

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Chemical and mineralogical characterization of core samples from underground coal gasification sites in Wyoming and West Virginia

A comprehensive analytical scheme for the chemical, mineralogical and physical property characterization of coal cores has been developed. The scheme includes the determination of those properties that are important in the evaluation of the burning characteristics of coal, and will thus aid in the selection of areas favorable for underground coal gasification and in the optimization of this in-situ energy extraction process. Four coal cores were analyzed, two from a western underground coal gasification site near Hanna, Wyoming (Carbon County) and two from an eastern site near Pricetown, West Virginia (Wetzel County). To obtain a valid seam evaluation, analyses were obtained on 148 samples representing the total column of the coal interval from each of these four cores. From the analytical data, average properties for the coal interval of each core were derived for use in site-evaluation studies and for correlation with important operatingparameters in the underground gasification tests at these sites. Results are also presented for an additional nine samples selected from a fifth coal core taken at the Hanna, Wyo. site. The compositional heterogeneity found by vertically sampling the entire coal column at the selected sites demonstrates the importance of carrying out detailed core analyses for an adequate bed assessment. On the other hand, the lateral continuity in chemical and mineralogical composition observed for the coal deposits at both the western and eastern sites indicates that stratigraphic variations are systematic and therefore predictable. (auth)

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Energy recovery from in situ coal gasification

"Estimates of the energy balance for the first underground  coal-gasification experiment at Hanna, Wyoming, have been calculated for a 5t-month period from mid-September 1973 through February 1974. Operating results were the most favorable during this period, with dry gas production rates averaging 1.6 million scf/day (45,300 Nm /day) at an average gas heating value of 126  Btu/scf (1122 kcal/Nm). The ratio of energy produced to energy consumed in running the experiment was approximately 4 , and the overall efficiency was approximately 50%. Use of more efficient air compression equipment and of a system designed for combustion of low-Btu gas could increase this ratio to 8 and efficiency to 55%."

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Simple control parameter for combustion retorts

The establishment of external control parameters for shale-oil combustion retorting to obtain high oil recoveries must be on an a priori basis, it is not possible, particularly in the use of large underground operations to control retorted gas composition or flow rates by means of a classical feedback scheme based on continuous measurement of the product gas composition. A principal objective of the USBM work on oil shale at the Laramie Energy Research Center has been directed at establishing meaningful control variables and data from the operations of their 150 ton combustion retort are used here to develop a possible control parameter.

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Operating experience with the Livermore solid-recycle retort system

Seven runs in a series of experiments to study the behavior of solid-recycle systems for oil shale retorting have been completed at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Two of these runs failed because of mechanical problems, but the other five succeeded in yielding useful data. By operating the small-scale recycle system described herein, we were able to produce an oil yield equal to Fischer assay and to gain valuable information about pressures, temperatures, and flow rates. We also learned that pyrolysis gas has a low concentration of sulfur-containing compounds, none of which is detectable in the combustion gas. 3 refs., 15 figs., 8 tabs.

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Effects of injection gas composition on modified in situ shale retort economics

The effects of injection gas composition of the performance and economics of a Modified In Situ oil shale retort have been examined. The injection of air could produce oil at a slightly lower price than steam-air injection. Retort systems using steam oxygen or carbon dioxide oxygen are economically unattractive. A system using water and air could be economical if water addition can be controlled. Approximately one-quarter of the energy is produced as a retort off-gas that has a very low heating value.

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Results of mathematical modeling of modified in-situ oil shale retorting

The Lawrence Livermore Laboratory has developed a one-dimensional mathematical model to simulate modified in situ retorting of oil shale. In this paper we discuss the application of the model to commercial-scale retorting conditions. The model was tested by comparing calculated values to those measured in experimental retort runs performed at LLNL. There was generally good agreement between the calculated and observed results for oil yield, temperature profiles, and the yields of most gas species. Retorting rates were consistently overestimated, although the average error was less than 10%. The model is a useful tool for the design and control of retort operations, and for identifying and interpreting observations that differ from model predictions.

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Oil shale:  a huge resource of low-grade fuel. [Rocky Mountain region]

The rich oil shale deposits on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains constitute a potential source of fuel several times as great as the identified reserves of U.S. oil, and processes for extracting synthetic crude oil from the thick seams of brown-black rock have been ready to go for 15 years technologically, the production of synthetic crude oil from shale is a simple process. When the shale is crushed and heated to 480supO C, raw shale oil is released. Because it does not require special mineral preparation, high pressures, or difficult catalytic procedures, the process of oil shale recovery is easier than either coal gasification or coal liquefaction. Until October 1973, the principal limitation to oil shale recovery was its price, which was projected by the National Petroleum Council to be about $5.50 per barrel.

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Data acquisition and analysis of occidental vertical modified in situ retorts 7 and 8. Volume I. Technical summary report; Volume II. Technical appendix

Sandia National Laboratories, funded by the United States Department of Energy, participated with Occidental Oil Shale, Inc. in the extensive instrumentation and analyses of vertical modified in situ Retorts 7 and 8. These retorts were commercial size retorts that were processed concurrently at Occidentals Logan Wash site near Debeque, Colorado. Retorts 7 and 8 each contained 340.000 tonnes of rubble with post blast voids of 18%. Average shale grade was 71 2/tonne.

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In situ gasification of softening coal

The design of in situ gasification systems for coals that soften on heating is considered. It is shown that these coals will not support open channels against overburden pressure for any significant length of time. Thus, the zones of heated and softened coal must be localized. This study is applicable to some subbituminous as well as bituminous coals. A workable gasification system for these coals would involve flow through widely spaced channels typical of the Soviet gasification systems. To determine how widely spaced the channels should be, the heat wave propagation depth from the channel into the coal must first be calculated. It is shown that if the coal surface in the reaction zone is burning at 1 m/d, heat is carried by conduction only 30 mm into the coal. This limited conductive heat propagation explains why reverse combustion processes tend to create narrow channels. However, downstream of the reaction zone, channel heating by product gases can propagate into the coal. For the typical Soviet line-drive system, heating will propagate to a depth no more than 18% of the distance between channels as the gasification of a section is completed. Hence, channel closing caused by coal softening has only a small effect in this system.

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Eastern oil shale retorting: Gas evolution during pyrolysis of northeastern Kentucky shales

Gases that are evolved, as eastern oil shale is heated from 150/sup 0/C to 900/sup 0/C, have been monitored by mass spectrometry. Profiles of gas evolution as a function of retort temperature are reported for CO/sub 2/, CO, Ch/sub 4/, H/sub 2/, C/sub 3/H/sub 8/, and H/sub 2/S. Over the temperature range associated with oil production, less H/sub 2/ is produced at increased heating rates. The Sunbury Shale (Mississippian age) and the Cleveland Member of the Ohio Shale (Devonian age) have very similar gas evolution profiles over this temperature range to within the experimental precision of   or - 5 percent. Hydrogen and methane evolution profiles of eastern oil shales are qualitatively intermediate between those of coal and western oil shale. The low carbonate content of eastern shales makes it possible to observe char gasification by the water liberated from mineral matter. In the case of western shales, the reaction is masked by mineral carbonate decomposition. The comparison of the rate that specific gases are evolved from eastern shale, western shale, and western Kentucky coal gives some additional insight into the similarities and differences that these fuel resources exhibit.

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Proceedings of the gas hydrates, arctic/offshore research, and deep source gas contractors review meeting

Gas hydrates research, one of the new efforts in DOE's program on unconventional gas recovery, is focused on the basic sciences related to the formation and dissociation of naturally formed gas hydrate deposits. The research goal is to determine the extent and nature of the natural gas resource of gas hydrate deposits and to develop methods to extract it for a future gas supply. METC research maintains focus on (1) analysis of the gas hydrate properties, (2) analysis of the geological environment, and (3) development of geological and production models for the gas hydrate reservoir. Data base activities include the loading of data tapes from the North Slope of Alaska, specifically, the National Petroleum Reserves of Alaska (NPRA), and the Kuparuk River/Prudhoe Bay region. Crosscutting geoscience research emphasizes the deposition of gas hydrates in the geologic formation, relative permeability/porosity measurements, and the measurement of in situ gas hydrate localities in both the onshore and offshore environments. Twenty-four papers have been entered individually into EDB and ERA. (LTN)

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Retorting Colorado oil shale. Review of the work of the Bureau of Mines, US Department of Interior. [Details of operation of N--T--U retort, a gas-flow pilot plant, and other retorts]

Colorado oil shale has characteristic properties some of which distinguish it from most of the other shales of the world.  Certain properties peculiar to Colorado shale, particularly the coking tendency of the richer grades  and the high percentages of mineral carbonates are important factors in designing successful shale processing equipment.

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