AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Sulfur in petroleum. III. Selected physical properties of some sulfur compounds

"Four tables listing values for the various physical  properties of those sulfur compounds most likely to occur in petroleum and petroleum products are given herein. The data necessary to bring the first compilation in this  subject up to date are given in table I - Revised and Additional Data, which includes boiling points, refractive indices, densities, and freezing points. Tables II, III, and IV are published for the first time and include refractive  indices for the F, C, and G lines of hydrogen and the helium D3 line; surface tensions and viscosities; and refractivity intercepts, specific dispersions, specific refractions, and parachors. The need for information concerning the sulfur compounds in petroleum is  becoming more urgent because of the necessity of refining larger quantities of high-sulfur crude oil to meet the rising demand for petroleum products. For a number of years  the Bureau of Mines has been engaged in research to make available more information concerning the properties of the sulfur compounds in petroleum. The petroleum industry has recognized the value of such studies, and as a result the American Petroleum Institute has established Research Project 48A to study sulfur compounds. The investigations under this Project  are to be done in Bureau of Mines laboratories as a cooperative project in connection with the work already started."

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Water pollution potential of spent oil shale residues. Water pollution control series

Physical properties, including porosity, permeability, particle size distribution, and density of spent shale from three different retorting operations, have been determined. Slurry experiments were conducted on each of the spent shales and the slurry analyzed for leachable dissolved solids. The concentrations of the various ionic species in the initial leachate from the column were high. The major constituents, SO4(-2) and Na( ), were present in concentrations of 90,000 and 35,000 mg/l in the initial leachate; however the succeeding concentrations dropped markedly during the course of the experiment. A computer program was utilized to predict equilibrium concentrations in the leachate from the column. The extent of leaching and erosion of spent shale, and the composition and concentration of natural drainage from spent shale has been determined using oil shale residue and simulated rainfall. Concentrations in the runoff from spent shale have been correlated with runoff from the spent shale have been correlated with runoff rate, precipitation intensity, flow depth, application time, slope, and water temperature.

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Oxidation of Colorado oil shale. [Structural studies on oxidation products]

Samples of raw oil shale and kerogen concentrates were oxidized by alkaline potassium permanganate, air, nitric acid, oxygen, and ozone to obtain information about the chemical structure of organic kerogen in oil shale.  In one test, oil shale and oil-shale products were oxidized exhaustively with alkaline potassium permanganate, and the distribution of the organic carbon in the final oxidation products was determined.  Comparing results of this oxidation with those obtained from other carbonaceous materials and known compounds gave information about the structure of kerogen.  Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidation also was used partly to degrade kerogen into soluble products for characterization purposes.  Structures present in these degradation products were indicative of type structures originally present in the kerogen.  Nitric acid, oxygen, and ozone were used also for partly degrading kerogen to soluble oxidation products.  Carbon-balance oxidation tests using alkaline potassium permanganate shoed that Colorado oil-shale kerogen differs from many other carbonaceous material such as coal and kerogens from other areas.  Composition of the degradation products indicated that Colorado oil-shale kerogen is predominantly cycloparaffinic and saturated heterocyclic structures with some long chain paraffinic and aromatic structures present.  The ring system may be connected through short carbon chains or bridges containing oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.  Developing new and better methods of utilizing Colorado oil shale would be aided by having additional information about the chemical structures present in kerogen.  This Bureau of Mines study gave new information about the type of structure present in kerogen and the products obtained from it by oxidation.

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Ultimate composition of organic material in Green River oil shale

"This paper describes and evaluates a method that the Federal Bureau of Mines used to determine the ultimate composition of the organic material in 10 samples of oil shale from the Mahogany zone of the Green River formation in Colorado and Utah. Since interest has centered on the Mahogany zone, the richest section of the deposit, these 10 samples were chosen to provide a  broad representation of this zone with the objective of obtaining generally valid ultimate composition values. The most probable organic composition for the Mahogany zone and the 95-percent confidence limits for each component average (in weight-percent of organic material) are:  Carbon 80.5 ± .4  Hydrogen 10.3 ± .1  Nitrogen 2.4 ± .1  Sulfur 1.0 ± .1  Oxygen 5.8 ± .5  As only minor variations in composition were observed, the organic material of this particular bed is quite similar over a wide geographic area. The potential economic value of oil shale depends on the organic component  of the rock. Advances in our knowledge of the character of this material, which may increase its usefulness, require that its ultimate composition be determined. However, such a determination is complicated by the presence of  widely varying amounts of mineral material containing appreciable quantities of the elements, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen, which are also present in the organic component. Oil shale of the Green River formation, occurring in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, is no exception in this regard."

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Review and analysis of oil shale technologies. Volume I. Oil shale deposits, mining methods, and environmental concerns

This volume describes and discusses oil shale deposits of the U.S., applicable methods for mining the shale, and the environmental concerns associated with oil shale technologies. Mining is required to supply shale to the retorts of aboveground processes. The majority of oil shale mining is expected to be by the underground room-and-pillar method. Surface mining (i.e., open pit mining) may also be used to supply material for surface retorts and may be appropriate for up to 15 to 20% of the oil shale resources. Principal environmental issues unique to true and modified in situ oil shale processing include disposal of retort water and drill cuttings, migration of fluids during and after in situ processing, surface thermal changes, and hazardous materials that may be leached from spent shale. Other site-specific problems of in situ processing include off-gas emissions, fugitive dust generation, land disturbance, and water usage. The environmental issues are similar for oil shale surface processes, except for surface thermal changes. The degree of impact, however, is expected greater than that for either the true or the modified in situ process.

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Increasing oil recovery from MIS oil shale retorts by offgas cooling

Occidental Oil Shale, Inc., recently completed the demonstration ct mining, rubblication, ignition, and simultaneous processing of two commercial-sized modified in situ (MIS) retoria at our Logan Wash Facility near De Beque, Colorado. Two hundred thousand barrels of shale oil were produced from the two retorts, a 70 percent yield of the oil-in-place in the rubbled rock. One of the control measures demonstrated on this project was the use of water sprays behind the product levil bullheads to cool the offgas. When the ofigue temperature began to increase as the high temperature reagion in the retort uproached the bottom of the retorte, the water sprays cooled the offgas to acceptable levels and the extended retort life resulted in better oil revovery.

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Use of external fuel to improve yields from in situ oil shale retorts with nonuniform permeability: Quarterly report

This report documents the test conditions and results from three tests used to see whether yields can be improved by adding fuel to oil shale retorts having nonuniform permeability. It also contains comparisons of results from these three tests with a previous test using external fuel and a baseline test where no external fuel was used. 16 refs., 6 figs., 10 tabs.

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Oil shales and carbon dioxide

During retorting of oil shales in the western United States, carbonate minerals are calcined, releasing significant amounts of carbon dioxide. Residual organic matter in the shales may also bu burned, adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide produced depends on the retort process and the grade and mineralogy of the shale. Preliminary calculations suggest that retorting of oil shales from the Green River Formation and burning of the product oil could reicase one and one half to five times more carbon dioxide than burning of conventional oil to obtain the same amount of usable energy. The largest carbon dioxide releases are associated with retorting processes that operate at temperatures greater than 600 degrees C.

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Chattanooga shale:  uranium recovery by in situ processing

The increasing demand for uranium as reactor fuel requires the addition of sizable new domestic reserves. One of the largest potential sources of low-grade uranium ore is the Chattanooga shale--a formation in Tennessee and neighboring states that has not been mined conventionally because it is expensive and environmentally disadvantageous to do so. An in situ process, on the other hand, might be used to extract uranium from this formation without the attendant problems of conventional mining. We have suggested developing such a process, in which fracturing, retorting, and pressure leaching might be used to extract the uranium. The potential advantages of such a process are that capital investment would be reduced, handling and disposing of the ore would be avoided, and leaching reagents would be self-generated from air and water. If successful, the cost reductions from these factors could make the uranium produced competitive with that from other sources, and substantially increase domestic reserves. A technical program to evaluate the processing problems has been outlined and a conceptual model of the extraction process has been developed. Preliminary cost estimates have been made, although it is recognized that their validity depends on how successfully the various processing steps are carried out. In view of the preliminary nature of this survey (and our growing need for uranium), we have urged a more detailed study on the feasibility of in situ methods for extracting uranium from the Chattanooga shale.

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Technical and economic study of the modified in situ process for oil shale. Volume I. Investigation and results. Final report, 1976

"This report contains the results of a technical and economic evaluation of conceptual systems for the underground mining, rubblization, and in situ retorting of deep oil shale deposits. Study efforts were first directed towards evaluation of the applicable geology, associated minerals, rock mechanics, in situ retorting, access mining, ventilation, rubbilization, safety, and environmental impact factors. Conceptual systems were synthesized and then evaluated against these factors from both a technical and limited economic viewpoint. The results of these evaluations were then analyzed and, based upon this analysis, the following two systems were selected for further study:  System II: Room and Pillar-Vertical Drill and Blast  System IV: Tunnel Boring-Horizontal Ring Drill and Blast.  Results of the early computer runs indicated the value of the tool available in the computer program and led to an extension in the contract to determine the sensitivity of the systems to several of the more apparent significant variables. These results in turn led to a refinement in the design assumptions and a better understanding of the technical and economic options available to an owner-operator of a Vertical Modified In Situ Shale Oil Extraction System."

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Purification and properties of ten organic sulfur compounds. Second series

Ten organic sulfur compounds, 2-propanethiol, 1-butanethiol, 2-butanethiol, 2-thiapropane, 2-thiapentane, 3-methyl-2-thiabutane, thiacyclohexane, 2-methylthiophene, 3-methylthiophene and benzo(b)thiophene, were purified to at least 99.9 mole percent purity. In addition to the boiling point, freezing point and cryoscopic constant, the following properties were measured at 20, 25 and 30/sup 0/: density, viscosity, surface tension and refractive index for the r, C, D, e, v, F, and g lines. Derived functions including refractivity intercept, specific dispersion, molecular refraction, parachor and molecular volume, were calculated. Mass, infrared and ultraviolet spectra were determined, permitting some correlation of the effect of sulfur groupings on spectra. The stability of the compounds under storage conditions was investigated.

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Gaseous decomposition products formed by the action of light on organic sulfur compounds

Exposures of 30 highly purified sulfur compounds to a mercury-vapor light under identical conditions produced gaseous decomposition products that were analyzed mass spectrometrically. The experiments included 13 thiols, 8 sulfides, 3 cyclic sulfides, 2 disulfides and 4 thiophenes. Decompositions, as measured by the gaseous products, ranged from 0.004 to 3.0 mole percent. Thiols showed greater amounts of decomposition than the other types of sulfur compounds and gave hydrogen as the main product. Sulfides and disulfides yielded, as the predominant product, a saturated hydrocarbon corresponding to the smallest alkyl radical attached to the sulfur. Thiophenes gave hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide. These experiments show that the sulfur compounds studied must be protected from light to maintain high purity.

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Determination of aromatics in light petroleum distillates by use of specific dispersions between sodium D line and mercury g line

The aromatic content of a hydrocarbon mixture in the gasoline boiling range containing no olefins or diolefins may be determined from the refractive indexes for the mercury g and the sodium D lines, and from the density, all determined at 20/sup 0/C. The percent aromatics in the mixture may then be obtained from the equation: W = S/sub s/ - 122.4/S/sub a/ - 122.4 x 100   C. The values of specific dispersion for the several aromatics are: benzene, 248.4; toluene, 241.4; ethylbenzene, 228.1, o-xylene, 234.8; m-xylene, 237.1, p-xylene, 238.2; and isopropylbenzene, 215.8.

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Oil shale project small retort run summary, Run S-15. Addendum. Computer tables

The Run Summary for S-15 was published quite some time ago (UCID ;8282-Sept. 1979(. At that time we had not completely analyzed the data using the computer as we had done in other run summaries. We have now gone back and processed that data. This report presents the computer generated fun summary data, and as well as mass and energy balance caluclations. The tables given in this report should be used in place of those presente in the earlier report. The other materials presented in this report should be used as a supplement to the earlier report since the data presented in that report has not been reporduced here.

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Dielectric measurements of oil shale as functions of temperature and frequency

A high-temperature sample holder designed at the National Bureau of Standards was used to determine the dielectric properties of approximately 40 oil shale samples as functions of temperature and frequency. A description of the sample holder characterization is given along with the measurement procedure and the sample preparation. Experimental results are given for different oil shale samples, varying in yield from 0.024 1/kg (6 gal/ton) to 0.338 1/kg (81 gal/ton), that were measured at room temperature (25/sup 0/C) up to 500/sup 0/C and within the frequency range of 5-1000 MHz.

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Oil Shale Project Run summary. Small Retort Run S-16

Retort Fun S-16 was a combustion run in the small retort (125 kg retort). The experiment was conducted on March 9 and 9, 1978. Shale from the anvil Points mine was crushed and screened to -0.34   0.059 cm (-0.13   0.023 inch), then retorted under a 50% air/50% steam atmosphere. The following table summarizes the run.

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Analysis of the effectiveness of steam retorting of oil shale

A numerical model is developed to describe the retorting of oil shale using superheated steam. The model describes not only the temperature history of the shale but predicts the evolution of shale oil from kerogen decomposition and the breakdown of the carbonates existing in the shale matrix. The heat transfer coefficients between the water and the shale are determined from experiments utilizing the model to reduce the data. Similarly the model is used with thermogravimetric analysis experiments to develop an improved kinetics expression for kerogen decomposition in a steam environment. Numerical results are presented which indicate the effect of oil shale particle size and steam temperature on oil production.

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Oil shale project run summary:  small retort run S-13

Retort Run S-13 was a combustion run in the small retort conducted on 28 an 29 September 1977. Anvil Points master batch -2.5   1.3 cm material was used with a 50% air and 50% steam mixture. This was the firstrun using steam as a diluen. The following table summarizes the run.

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Study of the feasibility of using nuclear explosions to increase petroleum recovery

"Tremendous volumes of petroleum (crude oil and natural gas) at present cannot be recovered economically. The feasibility of using nuclear explosions for production stimulation therefore has been investigated. Data from underground nuclear tests conducted by the Atomic Energy Commission were reviewed, and the physical effects were evaluated for stimulating petroleum production. Calculations of the effect on ultimate recovery of increasing reservoir temperature with nuclear  explosives showed disappointingly small increases. Production increases caused by fracturing of massive  low-permeability reservoirs appear technically and economically promising. Petroleum reservoirs that might be converted from submarginal to commercial production are being located and evaluated as to potential reserves and as a location for a field test."

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RETORTING CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE OIL SHALE ENTRAINED-SOLIDS RETORT RUN 24- 1235 F

On February 23, 1953, Mr. John W. Ruch of the Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C. and Professor M. D.  Hassialis, of the School of Mines, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. visited the Bureau of Mines Petroleum and Oil-Shale Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming, and discussed with H. P. Rue, H. M. Thorns, and W. I. R. Murphy application of the entrained-solids retorting system to Chattanooga, Tennessee Oil Shale. In this discussion, it was brought out that Chattanooga oil shale contains uranium and that methods for recovering it were being studied at Battelle Memorial Institute and Columbia University, One method under consideration involved retorting the shale at as low temperature as possible to minimize loss of uranium and yet obtain good oil recovery, followed by recovery of uranium from the spent shale. A large batch of this shale was to be retorted in the Gas Combustion retort at the Bureau of Mines Demonstration Plant near Rifle, Colorado to prepare spent shale for the uranium recovery studies. In addition to obtaining a material balance around the retort and determining quality of products, a sulfur balance was though to be of considerable importance. Spent shale from Rifle operation was to be shipped to Battelle Memorial Institute and Columbia University.

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Water consumption rates of synthetic fuel industries:  a cross-reference guide to the open literature

There is a great deal of controversy over how much water synthetic fuel industries will consume. Although this controversy can not be definitely settled until such industries are actually in operation, this report attempts to put it into perspective by summarizing, in an orderly fashion, the water consumption values for synthetic fuel industries found in a major portion of the open literature. Often the values started in the literature are neither clearly delineated nor substantiated. In many cases they have been borrowed - and reborrowed - from earlier reports. A number of times this has led to seemingly independent reports having actually obtained their values, indirectly, from the same original source (as occurred in a recent, major National Science Foundation study). In addition, the values are often stated in different units in different reports, making comparisons awkward. This survey includes unit-water- requirement values for coal gasification (producing substitute natural gas - SNG), coal liquefaction, and oil-shale processing from over 150 references found in the open literature. The primary conclusion drawn from this survey is that only a handful of key reports have been responsible for most of the water-use values appearing in the open literature. Based on the members of this subgroup which appear to be most reliable, the following rule of thumb is recommended: for water consumption by future synthetic fuel industries a best guess estimate is 80 m/sup 3//10/sup 12/J (of product) and a conservative (high) best guess estimate is 110 m/sup 3//10/sup 12/J. 315 references, 3 figures, 11 tables.

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Gas--liquid chromatography of pyridines using a new solid support

A solid support has been developed for the gas-liquid chromatography of pyridines, superior to Chromosorb or Celite 545; symmetric peaks were obtained when nonpolar substrates were used. The solid support was prepared from a commercial detergent by heating it and then extracting it with petroleum ether. The porous residue was used as a liquid substrate carrier. The new solid support was used to study the selectivity of several nonpolar and slightly polar liquid substrates. Decided differences in the selectivities of the liquid substrates permit a wide choice in the use of these substrates for separations of pyridines. The study on the selectivity of the liquid substrates was used to select two columns employed in series to separate a test mixture of 14 pyridines.

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Oil shale retorting. Part I. The effects of particle size and heating rate on oil evolution and intraparticle oil degradation

The evolution of oil during pyrolysis of blocks and powders of oil shale was investigated using heating rates from 2 to 180/sup 0/C/h. Blocks (in the form of right circular cylinders) ranged from 3.2- to 17-cm diam, and from 14 to 49 gal/ton in grade. Results show that coking reactions are the major source of intraparticle oil degradation. Furthermore, the degree of coking depends strongly on the heating rate but is nearly independent of particle size and grade for the conditions used. For example, at a heating rate of 2/sup 0/C/h, 83 percent of Fischer Assay oil is collected, whereas at a rate of 180/sup 0/C/h the yield is 99 percent. These results are the same (to within  -2 percent) for both powders and 17.2-cm diam blocks. The experimental results from the 17.2-cm blocks are analyzed using a simple mathematical model based on kinetic results from powder retorting experiments and thermal data reported in the literature. The model calculations for the rate of oil production, the degree of oil degradation, and the thermal profile through the material are found to agree very closely with the experimental data. Finally, the practical implications of this work toward field retorting are discussed.

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