AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Rock Springs oil shale fracturization experiment:  experimental results and concept evaluation. [No extensive fractures system was created by explosion]

While the Rock Springs event was not as successful as one might have hoped from a fracturization standpoint, a great deal was learned concerning the details of the concept and computer simulations outlined in this report indicate that experiments like that of Rock Springs can induce significant fractures into nonporous rocks like oil shale. With this in mind, we make recommendations which should lead to an expeditious development of the fracturization concept.

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Ground-water quality effects of an underground coal gasification experiment

Ground-water sampling and analysis have been carried out at the site of an in situ coal gasification experiment conducted by the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory (LLL) near Gillette, Wyoming. An important environmental question associated with the in situ gasification of coal concerns the possibility that reaction products (ash and tars) left underground following the gasification process may lead to the contaimination of local ground waters. In an effort to clarify the significance of this problem, the authors have sampled the water from more than 12 wells in the vicinity of an underground gasification experiment before, during, and up to 6 months following gasification. Water samples were analyzed in the field and at LLL, US Geological Survey, and Research Triangle Institute for a variety of characteristics, including the presence of 70 inorganic elements and compounds, phenolic materials, dissolved organic carbon, and volatile organics. The authors find a greatly increased concentration of phenolic materials (450 mg/l) just outside the burn boundary, and a variety of inorganic species issuing from within the residual ash bed. All contaminants decrease rapidly with distance, although above-background levels of some species were detected 100 feet from the burn zone. Several important contaminants showed a large decrease in concentration with time, possibly a result of adsorption.

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Chemical and physical interactions of an in situ oil-shale process water with a surface soil

Chemical and physical interactions of an in situ oil-shale process (retort) water with a surface soil were investigated by soil and effluent analyses of three soil-column experiments whereby soil was leached with: (1) Distilled water, (2) a synthetic retort water containing only inorganic solutes, and (3) an actual retort water produced by in situ processing of oil shale. Major findings of this study include an ion exchange-precipitation reaction, in which exchangeable calcium in the soil is displaced by ammonium from retort water and precipitated as carbonate by inorganic carbon in retort water. This precipitation process affects soil permeability. Ammonium was strongly adsorbed from retort water by the soil, and was not removed by subsequent distilled-water leaching and drying. 26 refs.

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Water reuse in steam generation systems for oil shale plants

Based on direct experience in the use and treatment of produced waters in the enhanced oil recovery field (steam flooding), a case is made for the judicious use of raw or pretreated oil shale plant wastewaters (mine water, retort water, process condensates) as makeup to steam generator systems. This water reuse option can effectively reduce the requirements for fresh water and, in some cases, provide a means of concentrating wastewater organics and salts in the steam generator blowdown. This lower volume, concentrated waste stream may be more amenable to ultimate treatment or disposal in the overall water management plan. Recommendations on steam generator feedwater quality and treatment are made. Options for blowdown treatment and/or ultimate disposal are also provided. The types of steam generator systems available are described as are data on operating systems in the enhanced oil recovery field. 15 refs.

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Cross-borehole seismic probing to locate high-contrast anomalies

Seismic probing between boreholes is useful for locating high-contrast geophysical anomalies such as an abandoned tunnel. Theoretical studies of continuous-wave components of a swept-frequency or pulse seismic wave interaction with a tunnel show that both the signal minima and the phase structure of the received signal can be used for locating the anomaly. The theoretical studies show that as the source and receiver are lowered in separate boreholes straddling the anomaly, the signal minima and the phase structure can be easily interpreted to yield both the lateral and vertical positions of the anomaly. Plane waves of compressional, horizontally polarized shear, and vertically polarized shear wave types incident on a cylindrical horizontal anomaly have been considered. All components of the total seismic field have been calculated using an exact formulation. The variation of the response is studied as a function of the ratio of anomaly diameter to wavelength. The resulting fields in the receiver borehole are an effective diagnostic when a wavelength in the surrounding medium is less than or equal to the diameter of the anomaly. These results are analogous to the corresponding electromagnetic case which has been studied previously.

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Steam quality measurement:  a state-of-the-art review

Methods used for measuring the quality of a two-phae flow mixture are reviewed together with the supporting research information available in the open literature. The problem of remotely measuring steam quality in a downhole steam generator was examined. It was discovered that the presence of the non-condensables provided for a satisfactory solution. It was shown that by measuring the pressure and temperature any place in the system, the steam quality can be determined from the known flow rates of the fuel, air and water supplied to the system.

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Investigation of the geokinetics horizontal in situ oil shale retorting process. Quarterly report, April, May, June 1980

The Retort No. 18 burn was terminated on May 11, 1980. A total of 5547 barrels of shale oil or 46 percent of in-place resource was recovered from the retort. The EPA-DOE/LETC post-burn core sampling program is underway on Retort No. 16. Eleven core holes (of 18 planned) have been completed to date. Preliminary results indicate excellent core recovery has been achieved. Recovery of 702 ft of core was accomplished. The Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permit application was submitted to the EPA regional office in Denver for review by EPA and Utah air quality officials. The application for an Underground Injection Control (UIC) permit to authorize GKI to inject retort wastewater into the Mesa Verde Formation is being processed by the State of Utah. A hearing before the Board of Oil, Gas and Mining is scheduled in Salt Lake City, Utah, for July 22, 1980. Re-entry drilling on Retort No. 24 is progressing and placement of surface equipment is underway. Retort No. 25 blasthole drilling was completed and blast preparations are ongoing. Retort No. 25 will be blasted on July 18, 1980. The retort will be similar to Retort No. 24, with improvements in blasthole loading and detonation. US Patent No. 4,205,610 was assigned to GKI for a shale oil recovery process. Rocky Mountain Energy Company (RME) is evaluating oil shale holdings in Wyoming for application of the GKI process there.

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Semimicro procedure for the determination of hydrocarbon types in shale oil distillates. [Gas chromatography with acid absorption and hydroboration]

"The characterization and analysis of crude shale oils and their various distillate fraction have been objectives of the work carried out at the Laramie Energy Research Center. Analysis of the crudes usually involves the quantitative  determination of five general compound types: tar  acids, tar bases, saturates, olefins, and aromatics. For the  purposes of this paper, tar acid and tar bases are referred  to as polar; saturates, olefins, and aromatics are hydrocarbons. The limited quantities of sample frequently encountered in research and development make it very difficult to apply, with accuracy, standard methods of analysis such as acid absorption (1), bromine number (2), and silica gel chromatography (3) because of the subjective judgment that must be made in each test. This paper describes an analytical procedure based on a new application of the reaction of olefins with diborane in the quantitative determination of saturates. olefins. and aromatics in shale oil."

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Directional properties of coal and their utilization in underground gasification experiments

"Renewed interest in the underground, gasification of coal evolves from comprehensive studies of earth fracture systems that indicate that the movement of fluids can be controlled in the coalbed. In particular, directional property studies of natural microfissure occurrence, permeability, ultrasonic velocity, tensile strength, and orientation of intervals of inherent rock weakness, together with geologic structure setting and fracture trace analysis, can predict the gaseous flow paths in the coalbed. Having this  information, the dominant direction in which gases generated and/or liberated by heat would move can be determined so that appropriate well patterns can be developed. Together with advances made in drilling technology that permit long horizontal holes to be drilled through the coal seams, tests can be conducted to determine whether directional control will permit devolatilization of the coalbed and gasification of the remaining hot coke in a systematic manner to produce a  low-Btu gas suited for the generation of electricity."

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Retorting ungraded oil shale as related to in situ processing. II

This report presents results obtained from a continuing research project on the retorting of unsized oil shale conducted by the Bureau of Mines at its Laramie Energy Research Center at Laramie, Wyoming. Included are the data from 13 experiments using Colorado oil shale and four experiments using Wyoming oil shale. The oil shales processed ranged in grade by Fischer assay from 20.4 to 48.0 gallons of oil per ton; air rates employed in retorting ranged to as high as 3.74 scfm per square foot of bed.

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Feasibility studies of measurement techniques applied to in situ coal gasification

The Laramie Energy Research Center of the U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted an in situ coal gasification experiment at Hanna, Wyoming, during 1973-74. Sandia Laboratories participated in the latter phase of the experiment by performing feasibility studies of different instrumentation and measurement techniques. These studies, which included surface resistivity scans, seismic/acoustic measurements, and temperature measurements, demonstrated that signals and effects associated with the in situ combustion process could be detected.

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Instrumentation for in situ coal gasification:  an assessment of techniques evaluated on the Hanna II experiment

"The Hanna II in situ coal gasification experiment was conducted by the Laramie Energy Research Center during 1975-76. As part of this experiment, Sandia Laboratories designed, fielded, and evaluated seven instrumentation techniques and several variations of them. These belonged to two general classes: (a) diagnostic techniques (thermal, in-seam gas sampling and pressure, and overburden tilt and displacement) to obtain data for process characterization and (b) remote monitoring techniques (electrical, passive acoustic, and induced seismic) which are being developed to provide a continuous, real-time map of the in situ process which would be used in a process control system. Assessments of these techniques have been made with respect to their feasibility, information obtainable and future development and applications; in general, very positive assessments were obtained.  Extensive thermocouple arrays, which incorporated special branched circuitry for data validation, provided the most detailed characterization of in situ coal gasification yet obtained. The feasibility of in-seam gas sampling and pressure measurements was demonstrated and composition changes due to the advancing reaction front were detailed. The thermocouple circuits and gas sampling and pressure canisters are part of a diagnostic well specification now under development for general in situ applications.  Promising results were obtained for the remote monitoring techniques. Two different electrical configurations were employed: direct excitation electrical potential (DEEP) and a modified Schlumberger (MS) technique. Contour maps of potential data from a surface array showed the location and movement of the reaction at 300 ft depth. Mapping the source of process-related acoustic signals was shown to be feasible. These signals originate in the overburden and are related to areas of extensive gasification and coal removal. Borehole-to-borehole induced seismic techniques were able to delineate the advance of the gasification process."

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Underground coal gasification. 1979-July 1981 (citations from the NTIS data base). Report for 1979-July 1981

The bibliography of Federally-sponsored research cites many aspects of in-situ gasification techniques, including rock fracturing, combustion, gas removal economics, costs, and environmental factors. (This update bibliography contains 136 citations, 63 of which are new entries to the previous edition.)

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Oil shale and shale oil: brief review of work by United States Bureau of Mines

The work discussed in this article was done to aid in establishing the availability and utility of oil shale as a source of liquid fuel in the United States.  Indications are rather definite that oil shale from U.S. Naval Reserve No. 1 situated in Colorado will yield oil that can be used directly as fuel for steam boilers, or from which gasoline can be made by commercial processes or by minor modifications of such processes.  Considering all phases of the problem, the N-T-U retort  is apparently better adapted for use in the United States than in the Pumpherston retort.  Both retorts will give a high yield of oil, but coking shale will plug the Pumpherston retort.

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Theoretical relationship between density and oil yield for oil shales. Report of investigations

"The Bureau of Mines derived equations expressing the theoretical relationship between density of oil-shale rock and its organic content. Effects on theoretical shale density produced by variations in mineral composition and  organic matter properties were evaluated. The theoretical relationship was extended to relate oil-shale density to oil yield in both oil weight and volume units by considering the fraction of organic matter converted to oil and the specific gravity of the oil produced. Corollary equations relating  organic content by volume to organic content by weight and to oil yield were developed. The general relationships apply to an oil-shale deposit uniform in character.  Application of the theoretical relationships to Green River Formation oil shales was demonstrated."

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Nitrogen bases in a shale-oil light distillate

"The chemical characterization of shale oil is important in planning for its potential use as an energy or as a chemical source. The polar materials in shale oil are of particular interest because they cause problems in refining and also in themselves form a potential source of  chemical raw materials. The naphtha fraction of a shale oil has best described in detail (1), but it is a small part  of the crude oil. The nitrogen compounds in a heavy distillate have been characterized In terms of model compounds (2) . The composition of the light distillate, which is not readily interpolated from these two fractions, has not been reported before. In a closely related area, detailed compositional studies of the nitrogen and oxygen compound types in petroleum have been reported by   Snyder, et.al. (3-7).  The objective of this investigation was to characterize the nitrogen-type compounds in a  shale-oil light distillate (190'-310'C). The light distillate comprises 15% of the crude shale oil and has as much as 20% nitrogen-containing compounds. Over 90% of the nitrogen In the light distillate is titratable as either weak bases (PKa =  2 to  8) or as very weak bases (PKa = -2 to  2). Cat1on-exchange fractionation was used as a separative tool to fractionate a weak-base fraction and four very weak-base fractions from the light distillate. These fractions were examined using titrations and various specific chemical and spectrometric methods to determine the nitrogen types in each fraction."

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Structural response of rich Green River oil shales to heat and stress and its relationship to induced permeability. [Laboratory studies]

Green River oil shale is a highly consolidated rock composed of a complex mixture of organic and inorganic constituents in a variable proportions.  Considerable research has been conducted on aboveground methods of retorting and many such systems have been developed, some to commercial or semi commercial scale (1,5,6,8,11). A second approach for shale oil recovery, which in recent years has been given increasing consideration, is underground processing.  The objectives of this approach are threefold: to utilize deep deposits, to eliminate mining, transporting and crushing of the raw oil shale and to eliminate disposing of the spent rock.

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Refining improvement of shale-oil naphtha. [Catalytic reforming process]

The purpose of this research was to determine how much, if any, improvement would be made by subjecting hydrogenated shale oil naphtha to a catalytic reforming process. Preselected ranges of temperature and pressure within the commercial reforming ranges were chosen for investigation and other possible variables were held constant. All tests were made with a liquid hourly space velocity of 3 volumes of liquid feed per volume of catalyst per hour and a hydrogen rate of 3,000 sci/bbl. Operating temperatures of 850, 875, and 900 degrees F were used at pressures of 200, 400, and 600 psig. The greated octane improvement in the naphtha was obtained at a temperature of 900 degrees F and pressure of 200 psig. The reformed naphtha had a clear research octane number of 89, a liquid yield of 80 vol pet, and a yield-octane number of 71.1. The data indicate that a higher temperature could have produced a higher yield-octane number.

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In-situ retorting of oil shale. Results of two field experiments. [On maintenance of self-sustaining combustion zone in oil shale body]

"Application of the in situ recovery process to oil shale was tested during two field experiments near Rock Springs, Wyoming. The results of these tests demonstrate that a self-sustaining combustion zone can be created in an oil shale body, that this zone can be moved through the oil shale, and that the process will produce shale oil.  Evaluation of the combustion process by monitoring produced fluids for physical and chemical properties and volumes is described. The material and energy balance obtained in compared with a second evaluation based on extensive coring of the test area after the test was terminated.  Several side results of the research are noted such as ground surface heating by underground burning and production of low- to medium-Btu gas during retorting."

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Compositional variations of the organic material of Green River oil shale. Colorado No. 1 core. Report of investigations. [Alkane, aromatic, carbon, hydrogen content]

Sixty samples, selected from a 2,300 foot core of the Green River Formation in Colorado were studied to ascertain differences in the structure of the organic material present in the oil shale samples.  Emphasis was placed upon relating differences in the aromatic content of the insoluble kerogen and the alkane content of the extractable material obtained from the selected samples.  The methods used in determining these differences consisted of fractionation of the soluble material, carbon and hydrogen analysis, volatile material determination, carbon residue determination, oxidation rate determination, and infrared analysis.  In general, it was concluded that the organic material in this core does vary in chemical structure and that some of these variations resulted from factors related to depth of burial.  Other observed changes in structure of the organic material were not depth-dependent and resulted from other factors such as source material variations, biological alterations or ecological differences.

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Preliminary design and operation of a 150-ton oil shale retort. [Bureau of Mines]

To extend the scope of the retorting studied being conducted by the Bureau of Mines to include the retorting characteristics of oil shale pieces as large as 4 foot cubes, a nominally sized 150 ton batch retort was designed and constructed at the Laramie Petroleum Research Center, Laramie, Wyoming.

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Laboratory study of asphalts from native bitumens and bituminous sandstones. [Rozel Point, Utah bitumen, Athabasca bituminous sandstone, and Edna, California sandstone]

"Fourteen straight-run asphalts were prepared in the laboratory from bitumens obtained from three sources: (1) native bitumen from Rozel Point, Utah, (2) bitumen extracted from Athabaska, bituminous sandstone at Alberta, Canada, and (3) bitumen extracted from Edna bituminous sandstone outcropping in San Luis Obispo county, Calif. Three to seven asphalts with penetrations  ranging from 19 to 287 at 77 F. were prepared from each of the bitumens. The yields of the prepared asphalts ranged from 14.5 percent for a 27-penetraticn asphalt from the Athabaska bitumen to 99.5 percent for a 271-penetration asphalt from the Rozel Point bitumen."

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Oil-shale mining. [Survey of oil shale deposits and their exploitation in France, Estonia, Sweden, Australia, Manchuria, German, Scotland, and USA]

The term oil shale is defined. Foreign oil shale developments are outlined briefly. The richest and most extensive oil shale deposits in the US lie on Western Colorado. The Bureau of Mines is opening two adjacent areas for underground mining in Western Colorado. From the first area the oil shale is mined selectively as required by the retorting plant. The second are is being developed as a unit of a full scale oil shale mine to ascertain the most practical methods of mining oil shale and to determine costs. In both of these mining areas, research will be carried on to develop new and improved practices for mining oil shale.

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New ways to process oil shale

This paper reviews several shale-beneficiation techniques which aim at cutting down the volume of feed required to obtain oil. Also, use of radio frequency is being studied as an alternative to current retorting processes. Data are given on heavy-medium separation, originally developed for coal beneficiation, which is one method that is being pursued for upgrading shale feed. Crushed shale is put into an aqueous suspension of finely ground magnetite and atomized ferrosilicon particles. Schemes of two such processes are included.

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Correlations for the diffusivity and permeability for Devonian shale

Energy extraction from oil shale is a major facet of the expanding synthetic fuels program. In situ retorting of oil shale presents a method of recovering a portion of that stored energy content by inducing a flame front through the shale. Diffusivity and permeability are measures of the ease of movement of air toward the flame front and product gases away from the front. This study reports on measurements of diffusivity and permeability at seven depths within and below the Antrim shale for unretorted and retorted cores. The threshold pressures were also measured and compared to the predictions given by correlations. Finally, correlations were developed between the diffusivity, permeability and other physical properties.

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