AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Potential for reducing oil shale mining costs

This paper uses a typical Colorado/Utah oil shale project to examine methods of reducing capital and operating costs. It considers mining as including materials handling and spent shale disposal which represents 24% of total capital while processing capital comprises 56%. Tables (e.g. percentage estimates of costs by capital segments) are presented to illustrate the different elements, since tradeoffs are a constant consideration. The model is defined as an underground, gassy, room-and-pillar mine (two bench system with buried deposit at 700 ft. average depth,9450 ); 63 ft. mining height; average grade of 28 gal per ton; 3 coarse feed surface retorts producing 50,000 bbl per day; 63% mining recovery; surface disposal of processed shale and 10% rejected fines; and average daily mine production of 82,500 tons.

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DOE-sponsored in situ shale oil recovery projects

In an effort to help develop a commercial shale oil recovery industry, the Federal Government,  through the U.S. Department of Energy and its Laramie Energy projects to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility and environmental costs of shale oil recovery by in situ retorting methods. These field projects are joint totally or in part by the government. Although the costs for some of the cost-sharing projects are dependent on future negotiations, the total government-industry cost for all planned projects is over $100 million during the next four years. This represents a rather substantial investment into the future of oil shale.

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Novel techniques for the denitrogenation of shale oil. Final report, January 1, 1982-March 31, 1984

The objective of this project is to test the feasibility of a novel process to denitrogenate shale oil and selected distillate fractions by mild catalytic hydrogenation followed by ion exchange. Emphasis is directed toward the study of the ion exchange portion of the process. Using both bench- and pilot-scale units, research was first undertaken to produce a series of samples of mildly hydrogenated shale oils which were then distilled into naphtha, jet fuel, diesel fuel, gas oil and residue. Experiments were performed to determine the relative thermal stability (at somewhat elevated temperatures) of various hydrogenated and ion-exchange treated jet and diesel fuels. Ion exchange markedly improved the stability of raw shale oil. However, the stability of the mildly hydrotreated shale-derived jet fuel was made worse by adding ion-exchange treatment, presumably as a result of removing some of the lower level stabilizers (i.e., phenolics). All samples of shale-derived jet fuel, except the highly hydrogenated P67-154 jet fuel, were less stable than petroleum-derived jet A. In contrast to the above, the raw shale-derived diesel fuel was more stable than petroleum-derived No. 2 heating oil. Mild hydrotreating effected some improvement in stability. A study of the results with Amberlyst-15 resin shows that the process economics are most favorable for the ion exchange of jet fuel when the shale oil hydrotreating severity is high and the nitrogen content of the charge to ion exchange is relatively low. Although ion exchange is not economical in these cases, it appears to be economical when the weight percent nitrogen in the charge to the ion exchange is below 0.05 wt %. Significant savings are possible by minimizing the amount of resin used and by maximizing the number of cycles before discarding the resin. This appears to be realizable using Rohm and Haas XE-397 resin. 14 references, 46 figures, 28 tables.

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Offgas emissions from simulated modified in situ oil shale retorting

Experiments have been completed that were designed to determine the emission characteristics of modified in situ oil shale retorts. A series of pilot plant scale, oil shale retort tests using oil shale from Occidental's future commercial suite have been conducted. The effects on emissions of the size of particle being retorted were investigated as well as the effects of using an air/steam mixture to support the combustion. The results demonstrate that H/sub 2/S and ammonia are the dominant species of concern. These gases occur in the offgas in the thousands of a ppm range. Carbonyl sulfide and other organosulfur species were detected, but their concentrations were in the tens of a ppm range or lower. Measurements of arsenic and mercury levels in the offgas also were made. Arsenic and mercury levels averaged well below the ppm range and were not detectable in most samples.

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Environmental characterization of geokinetics'in-situ oil shale retorting technology: field and analytical data appendices. Final report November 1978-June 1980

Air emissions and water effluents from true in-situ oil shale retorting were physically, chemically and biologically characterized by sampling of Geokinetics Retort No. 17, a pilot-scale unit which produced 30 barrels of crude shale oil per day during testing from July 16 to July 26, 1979. The potential pollution sources tested were the retort off-gases before and after mist elimination, exhaust from thermal incineration of the demister outlet gases, fugitive gas seepage through the retort surface and around well casings, retort water after oil separation, and evaporation pond water. The three stack gas streams were analyzed for ammonia, arsine, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulate matter, and trace elements. Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide were quantified in the fugitive emissions samples. Water quality parameters, organic priority pollutants, and trace elements were measured in the two water samples. Selected air and water pollution samples were tested for biological activity, using the Ames mutagenicity assay, the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) clonal toxicity assay, and the rabbit alveolar macrophage (RAM) cytotoxicity assay.

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Investigations of trace elements and organic ligands in oil shale wastes

Following adsorbent separations of the organic constituents, measurements of dissolved organic carbon showed the proportions of acid, base and neutral subfractions that comprise solutes are very different for three different processes and sources of oil shale wastewaters. The organic compounds that have been identified by high resolution fused silica capillary chromatography included phenol, ortho-, meta-, and paraphenol, alkyl substituted phenols, n-C/sub 6/-C/sub 12/ carboxylic acids, methylpyridines, dimethylpyridines, trimethylpyridines, aniline, substituted anilines, quinoline, isoquinoline, methyl-, and dimethyl-substituted quinolines. The use of fused silica capillary columns provided excellent peak shapes for polar compounds like underivatized carboxylic acids and the aromatic amines. Many of the organic compounds identified are good complexing ligands. Independent measurements of the abilities of the compounds in the oil shale wastewaters to form complexes with a model cation, Cu(II), were made. Molybdenum and selenium were leached from the waste water as complexes.

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Health effects research in oil shale development

This task includes the testing of primary effluents and products of oil shales to determine the risk posed to the shale oil industrial worker as well as consumer. Paraho/Sohio Shale Oil was found to be mutagenic in the Ames assay and confirmed in the yeast system. After chemical fractionation of the crude shale oil, it was found that the mutagenic activity was contributed by the organic constituents of the basic and neutral fractions. Hydrotreatment of the shale oil abolished the detectable mutagenic activity and also reduced the cytotoxicity as measured in cellular systems. Refined shale oil, jet fuel, and diesel fuel marine samples were not mutagenic. The samples rank for their mutagenic activity as coal oils > shale oil > natural petroleum crudes and only qualitatively agree with carcinogenic activity. Acute toxicity of Paraho Crude Shale Oil and its upgraded derivatives does not appear to be a problem of immediate concern. The data obtained in the lung adenoma bioassay suggest that Crude Shale Oil has tumorigenic potential. Paraho shale oil is carcinogenic in mouse skin. Hydrotreatment reduces but does not eliminate skin carcinogenicity and appreciable carcinogenic activity remains in the residue material. Kidney injury was noted following chronic dermal exposure to shale and petroleum derived middle distillates.

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Description and selection of soils at two oil shale disposal sites

This paper presents geologic soil descriptions of two oil shale areas selected for soil sampling. Soil samples are to be collected specifically from areas designated for spent shale disposal. One shale disposal site is the Colorado Rio Blanco lease tract C-a, 84 Mesa. The other area is adjacent to the Clegg Creek Member of the New Albany shale in southeast Indiana. Site descriptions are considered to be fundamental before sampling in order to collect samples that are representative of the major parent material. The dominant parent materials found near Rio Blanco are basalt, sandstone, and marlstone. The dominant parent material in southeast Indiana is glacial till. The soils weathered from these materials have different physical and chemical characteristics. Collected samples will be representative of these characteristics. 6 refs., 3 figs.

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Production of spent shales by simulation of surface oil shale retorting processes

This report documents sources of the raw shale and the processing conditions used to produce spent shale for solid waste studies. Fourteen bathes of spent shale were produced for these studies, seven from 1986 eastern reference oil shale and seven from 1986 western reference oil shale. Spent shales representing those produced in surface processes characterized by low heating rates, large particle sizes, and long residence times were produced in the fixed-bed Paraho batch pilot plant. Spent shales representing those produced with high heating rates, small particles, and short residence times were produced in an inclined fluid bed reactor built by Western Research Institute. The processing conditions were varied to include both direct and indirect retorting. The gas composition, heating rate, maximum temperature, and residence time typical of known oil shale surface retorting processes were used to produce these spent shales. Also, some shale was exposed to temperatures above 1600/sup 0/F (870/sup 0/C) to study changes in the composition of certain minerals and to create a combination of high temperature and oxidizing atmosphere to produce spent shale with very low residual organic carbon content. Conclusions are as follows: (1) The residual organic carbon and sulfur content of spent shales processed in air in an inclined fluid bed are lower than the residual organic carbon and sulfur content of spent shales processed in air in a fixed bed. (2) The residual organic carbon content of shales from the direct retorting of eastern shale is higher than the residual organic carbon content of spent shales from the direct retorting of western shale. (3) The residual sulfur content of retorted eastern shale is higher than the residual sulfur content of retorted western shale. (4) The highest sulfur, organic carbon, and nitrogen content is produced in the spent shale by retorting with recycle gas. 9 refs., 18 figs., 6 tabs.

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New method to determine the independent shear moduli of transversely isotropic materials

A new and simple method is presented to determine the independent shard module of inversely isotropic materials. The method is treated on Green River Formation oil shale, one of such materials. The method is applicable for linear and non-linear elastic materials. Mathematical formulation, derivation and solution are given, and test apparatus and results are presented. Comparison with other approximate results and acoustical methods are made. Confirmation of the test method with materials having known shear module is also presented.

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Organic solute profile of water from two commercial tar sand processes

By-product waters from two commercial steam flood tar sand bitumen recovery operations were screened for organic solutes by a variety of techniques. Analyses indicated that the total dissolved organic carbon content of these waters was around 100 ppm. These waters were screened using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography and capillary-column gas chromatography, each used with specialized detectors. The liquid chromatographic detectors were ultraviolet absorbance at 205 nm and fluorescence after a post-column reaction system using cerate oxidation. For gas chromatography, detectors were the flame ionization detector, the thermionic ionization detector, and the electron capture detector (after p-bromophenacyl bromide derivatization). The absence of low-molecular-weight hydrophilic organic species in appreciable concentrations and the evidence of high-molecular-weight organophilic solutes indicate that the hydrophilic organic carbon content is primarily humic or bituminous materials. The deficit in the inorganic cation balance indicates that some of the hydrophilic organic solutes may be catonic at pH 7. In general, those methods that have been found readily applicable for gas combustion-process by-product waters need to be expanded for nonpyrolytically produced process waters. Separation and detection of materials with poor ultraviolet absorbance at very low levels is a fertile area for research. The fundamental material balance methods upon which much of the inference of this work rests are always suspect in highly salt-loaded waters such as these. The validity under the conditions imposed by these waters needs to be demonstrated. 6 refs., 5 figs., 1 tab.

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Characterization of Rio Blanco retort 1 water following treatment by lime-soda softening and reverse osmosis; Residual brine treated by wet-air oxidation

Laboratory research has been conducted to evaluate the chemical, physical, and toxicological characteristics of treated and untreated water pumped from the flooded modified in situ retort at lease tract C-a. This wastewater had a total dissolved solids (TDS) content of about 5450 mg/L and a total organic carbon content of about 16 mg/L. Wet chemical analyses, metals analyses, particle-size analyses, and MICROTOX assays were performed on the wastewater before and after treatment by lime-soda softening and reverse osmosis. The reverse osmosis membrane used in this research was a Filmtec model SW30-2521 spiral-wound polyamide unit. In a short duration test at a TDS of 21,800 mg/L, the reverse osmosis system successfully removed dissolved solids and organics from the wastewater. The water was also much less toxic to the MICROTOX organism after treatment by reverse osmosis. Membrane fouling was observed when water with a TDS of 54,500 mg/L was treated. Treatment of the reverse osmosis residual brine was attempted by subcritical wet-air oxidation. The brine remaining after the 170-hour test on the water with a TDS of 5450 mg/L was subjected to temperatures ranging from 204/sup 0/C (400/sup 0/F) to 315/sup 0/C (600/sup 0/F) and pressures from 500 to 1600 psig for approximately 30 minutes. The waste treated by the higher temperatures and pressures showed good removals of organics, nitrogen compounds, and some metals. The sample treated at 302/sup 0/C (575/sup 0/F) and 1300 psi was assayed for MICROTOX response and no toxicity was measured. The reverse osmosis brine was significantly toxic to the MICROTOX organism before treatment by subcritical wet-air oxidation. 14 refs., 8 figs., 14 tabs.

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Adsorption of oxyanions by spent western oil shale. 1. Arsenate

The partitioning of arsenate between Paraho indirectly retorted and directly retorted oil shales and a combusted oil shale was examined with batch equilibrium adsorption isotherms. Arsenate adsorption was found to conform to the Freundlich adsorption model, and the combusted oil shale was found to have the greatest affinity for arsenate. The indirectly and directly retorted oil shale samples did not have statistically different affinities for arsenate. The greater adsorption capacity of combusted oil shale for arsenate was attributed to greater surface area and free iron oxide. Arsenate adsorption by combusted oil shale was not reversible. Upon dilution of the solution phase, arsenate did not desorb. Upon dilution of the retorted oil shale solutions, arsenate continued to be removed from solution. An evaluation of metal arsenate stability in the spent oil shale systems indicated that the retorted oil shale solutions were highly super-saturated with respect to magnesium and barium arsenated, whereas the combusted oil shale solutions were not super-saturated. The data were interpreted to indicate that adsorption reactions control arsenate solubility at short reaction times. As reaction times increase, precipitation reactions control soluble arsenate concentrations.

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Applied Science Division annual report, Environmental Research Program FY 1984

The objective of the Environmental Research Program is to understand the formation, transformation, transport, and effects of energy-related pollutants on the environment. The effects studied include those on global, regional, and local scales and involve the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. This multidisciplinary research program includes fundamental and applied research in physics, chemistry, engineering, and biology, as well as research on the development of advanced methods of measurement and analysis. During FY 1984, research concentrated on atmospheric physics and chemistry, applied physics and laser spectroscopy, combustion theory and phenomena, environmental effects of oil shale processing, toxicology studies of biological systems, and trace element analysis for the investigation of present and historical environmental impacts.

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Permeability enhancement methods for preparing a coal bed for in situ coal gasification. [27 references]

Seven methods of borehole linking, or permeability enhancement, are discussed; others undoubtedly could be included. A linking method should meet these requirements: (1) it must be a reliable procedure that gives good control of the subsequent gasification, and (2) it must be as inexpensive as possible. Of the methods discussed, reverse combustion combined with pneumatic or hydraulic fracturing is the most successful. However, directional drilling could become the best choice as technology improves and cost decreases.

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Development of the Multisolid Fluidized Bed oil shale retort. Final report

This report presents the results of a project aimed at determining the feasibility of applying Multisolids Fluidized Bed technology to the retorting of eastern US oil shales. The MSFB oil shale retort appears to have considerable potential. Oil yields up to 162% of Fischer Assay and shale throughputs in excess of 3300 lb/hr-ft/sup 2/ were obtained while processing an eastern oil shale. An economic analysis indicated the cost of crude shale oil would be approximately $37.00/bbl compared to a cost of $50.00/bbl for a similar-sized Paraho plant (1983 dollars). 11 figures, 11 tables.

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Physics of oil shales:  a program of theoretical and experimental studies. Quarterly progress report, March 21-June 21, 1984

Experimental work on microwave absorption in oil shale materials is continuing. The experimental work done so far concerns the propagation of electromagnetic waves perpendicular to the layering. To study the anisotropy effect we are now studying effects for propagation parallel to the layering. The frequency response of a sample cored across the shale layers exhibits behavior characteristic of a medium with effective dielectric constant. In a sample cored along the shale layers, the frequency response points to the generation of a multiple set of resonances by few dominent layers. This experimental work will continue during the next quarter. The dielectric modeling work is also being continued. The work done on the effect of water on the dielectric properties of oil shales is now available as a preprint submitted to fuel for publication. The modeling work is also continuing. The numerical model developed so far is being optimized to speed up the processing time. Detailed documentation of the computer programs will be given during the next quarter. Preliminary work started for the design for heating large blocks of oil shale by electromagnetic methods.

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Animal toxicity evaluation of an in situ oil shale retort water

The results of exposure studies, acute toxicity studies, and reproduction-developmental studies undertaken to define health risks associated with occupational exposure to a retort water sample are discussed. This investigation represents the first animal toxicity evaluation of a retort water and therefor incorporated a broad base of various tests selected to determine toxicity as a function of exposure route and species exposed. Results are interpreted as to their occupational health significance. On the basis of this study a limited number of specific tests have been selected for use in cost-effective, comparative screening of additional retort waters and waters significant to oil shale processing, in general (ERB)

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Laboratory screening of thermal recovery processes for Tar Sand Triangle

Four thermal processes (steam displacement, not-gas pyrolysis, reverse and forward combustion) were evaluated to select the most effective oil recovery process for the in situ development of the tar sand resource at Tar Sand Triangle, Utah. Reverse combustion was not considered an effective process for this deposit because of the low initial bitumen content and the nonutilization of the residual coke. Since the hot-gas pyrolysis process simulates the pyrolysis of bitumen in the forward combustion process, only steam displacement and hot-gas pyrolysis were chosen for laboratory evaluation using a tubular reactor. In the laboratory evaluation the residual oil and coke saturation after steam displacement was found to be independent of the initial bitumen content and totaled 29% of pore voluem. Since the initial bitumen saturation wasn't much greater than the residual oil saturation, the oil yield from the steam displacement test was only 9.1 wt % of the initial bitumen. The oil yield from the hot-gas pyrolysis test was 54 wt % of the initial bitumen, which is almost identical to the Fischer assay yield. The residual coke and product gas were 23 and 21 wt % of the initial bitumen, respectively. These values are much different from those determined by Fischer assay because of the steam-char and water-gas shift reactions of the hot-gas pyrolysis test. Since the forward combustion process utilizes the residual coke and is expected to produce oil yields equivalent to the hot-gas pyrolysis process, it was selected as the most promising process for the recovery of oil from the Tar Sand Triangle resource. 16 refs., 2 figs., 6 tabs.

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Summary of current techniques for processing Green River oil shale

Major operations in producing shale oil by conventional methods are mining, shale preparation (crushing, grinding, and screening), and retorting. Each of these operations requires major capital investment and substantial operating costs. Of these costs, mining accounts for about 50 percent; shale preparation, 15 percent; and retorting, 35 percent. Oil-shale technology in the United States is still in relatively early stage of development, and technologic advances that will effect substantial savings in costs undoubtedly will be made as research continues and an industry develops.

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