AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
EASTERN OIL SHALE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

"The idea of producing clean fuels from oil shales of the Eastern United States, specifically from oil shales known to geologists as Devonian s hales, is not new. During and after the Civil War, oil was produced commercially in southern Ohio and Northeastern Kentucky from Devonian  oil shale, although no trace of these operations can be found today. Researchers at the Institute of Gas Technology, a Chicago-based, not for profit energy research and education center, are once more  contemplating development of this resource to provide a vast new source of synthetic crude oil and substitute natural gas near the most populous part of our nation.  The area underlying the Devonian shale deposits is rich in a variety of natural resources that include scenic beauty, mineral deposits, forests and other vegetation, and abundant supplies of fresh water and clean air. These factors, coupled with the invigorating climate, contribute  to the attractiveness of this region for residential and year-round recreational use. In the past, development of such regions was sometimes accompanied by detrimental effects on the environment. Today, however, advanced technology offers a variety of control measures to permit development of Eastern Devonian oil shale in these regions within the limit , of acceptable environmental impact."

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PROCESSED SHALE STUDIES Environmental Impact Analysis Appendix 5

"This  report is one of many prepared by consultants  on behalf of the Colony Development Operation. This report, like other consultants'reports, will be taken into consideration with respect to Colony environmental planning efforts pertaining to a commercial oil shale facility in the Parachute Creek area of Colorado. Colony's views on environmental matters concerning the Colony project will be presented in its Environmental Impact Analysis to be  published and made available to the general public."

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A SYSTEM FOR EXPOSING ANIMALS TO OIL SHALE- DIESEL AEROSOLS

A six chamber system for exposing rodents to oil shale and diesel aerosols was designed and constructed.  Four-inch fluid bed generators were used for generating oil shale aerosols and two 5.7 liter diesel engines were used for generating diesel exhaust.  An aerosol delivery/dilution system was designed to provide control of aerosol concentrations.  Filter samples and cascade impactors ere used to characterize exposure aerosols.  During the first five months concentrations in the exposure chambers were from 2 to 9% of target concentrations.

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THERMAL DeNOx TECHNOLOGY UPDATE

"The original THERMAL DeNOx installations involved positioning a gridwork of pipes in the flue gas stream for injecting a mixture of NH3 and carrier air or steam.  In the most recent designs, the injection grids have been replaced by wall injectors which offer numerous advantages such as higher performance, lower costs,  better load following, and lower maintenance. Also, the development of a fundamental kinetic model of the process chemistry and a three-dimensional flow  model have provided significant process optimization capability. One application of THERMAL DeNOX incorporating the most recent technology involves  a 440,000 lb/hr boiler generating steam and power in a Japanese chemical plant. In this installation, 70% deNOx was achieved through utilization of the optimized  design techniques at d cost approximately 20% of a comparable selective catalytic reduction facility.  Other advantages of the most recent technology include the ability to deal more successfully with particulate-laden flue gas streams and methods of minimizing or eliminating effects from ammonium salts in the exhaust flue gas. In its present form, THERMAL DeNOX. offers a highly developed, practical means of achieving deep  NOx reduction in all types of stationary fired equipment."

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REVIEW OF TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION PERTINENT TO THE UNDERGROUND GASIFICATION OF COAL - DRAFT

This review focuses on the toxicological aspects of the products and byproducts produced during the gasification of coal underground, or in situ. This report is based in part and builds upon a TRW report prepared for the  ERDA Office of Program Planning and Analysis, Fossil Energy - July 1976, entitled "Carcinogens Relating to Coal Conversion Processes, Final Report." "Toxic" here includes "carcinogenic", although the terms are often separated. Chemical carcinogenesis can be regarded as "a very special aspect of an adverse toxicological reaction." (WeiSburger 1975). The range of toxicants and their possible health hazards is extremely wide, from simple  chemicals like carbon monoxide to complex mixtures of organic materials including carcinogens. In any coal gasification plant, whether it be a surface gasifier or an  underground coal gasification process, process streams and effluents contain complex mixtures of chemicals. If the chemicals are similar in chemical constitution and toxicological mechanism, then the total effect would be  additive. Synergistic effects (i .e., the combined effect is greater than the sum of the individual effects) may also occur with certain combinations of chemicals. Synergism is of particular significance with carcinogens. Other  chemicals, such as phenol, SO2 and N02, which are not carcinogenic of themselves, can enhance the potency of carcinogens or promote tumor formation. Carcinogenic potency can also be decreased, as in the application of weak carcinogens such as dibenz (e,g) fluorene and chrysene together with strong  carcinogens such as benzo (a ) pyrene (BaP). Finally, if components act  independently, each can be considered as though the others were not present. This is seen with some carcinogens and with other toxicants; e.g., in concurrent  exposure to an azo dye that induces liver tumors and 4-dimethylaminostilbene, which affects the ear duct (Weisbulger 1975). The known and suspected carcinogens present a toxic hazard in coal gasification because they are hazardous at low levels of exposure, have delayed action with no immediate warning, and have grave consequences. As for routes of entry, potentially carcinogenic solids and liquids may reach the body directly by inhalation or deposition of particles, or indirectly by contact with dirty surfaces; there are also unproven possibilities of cancer induction by vapor inhalation. Other toxicants are most likely to enter the body by inhalation.

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON CARCINOGENESIS OF SYNTHETIC LIQUID FUELS AND PETROLEUM SUBSTITUTES. 1. AMERICAN SHALE OILS

With the rapidly increasing  industrialization of the countries of  the Western World there has arisen a growing demand for petroleum products to be used for a constantly rising number and variety of purposes and manufactured goods (production of heat and power in industrial, ship and domestic furnaces, fuel of gasoline and Diesel engines and railroad locomotives, jet and rocket propellants, lubricants and greases, insulating building and paving materials, rubber , plastics, fibers, solvents, carbon blacks, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, cosmetics, herbicides, detergents, vitamins, and many other petrochemicals). While for many years the supply of natural mineral oils was supplemented to only a limited degree by similar materials obtained by the fractionation of coal tar, the retorting of oil shale and lignite and the processing of native asphalts and mineral waxes (Abraham; McKee; Peir; Sell) economical and political developments of the last decade have demonstrated the need for increased efforts in exploring methods for the commercial production of petroleum substitutes through the retorting of oil shale and the hydrogenation of coal, i.e., raw products available in this country in abundant amounts.

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RESULTS OF GROUNDWATER SAMPLING FOR EPA ORGANIC PRIORITY POLLUTANTS - HANNA UNDERGROUND COAL CONVERSION SITE, HANNA, CARBON CO., WYOMING

"Nine water samples were received on September 9, 1983 for analysis. The samples were labeled as shown on the enclosed Sample Description Information sheet. The samples for base/neutral and acid extractable organics were filtered through 0.45 micron Nucleopore filters and  refrigerated. The samples for volatile organics were refrigerated but not filtered."

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ISSUES RELEVANT TO BIODEGRADATION OF ENERGY-RELATED COMPOUNDS IN GROUND WATER - A LITERATURE REVIEW

"Organic compounds released to the environment by hydrocarbon extraction/conversion processes (i.e., synfuel and enhanced oil recovery processes) could be major contributors to the growing problem of  ground water contamination. This could be a major problem for a fully developed commercial-scale synfuels industry. One of the least understood, but potentially most important, processes affecting ground water quality is subsurface biodegradation of chemical contaminants. This report summarizes the current state of knowledge on in-situ biodegradation of groundwater contaminants, points out the limitations of current research, and makes  recommendations for future research. The sparse literature on the fates of organic contaminants in the subsurface environment provides few, well-documented descriptions of in-situ transformations of organic compounds by indigenous microbiota. In-situ restoration of contaminated aquifers through enhancement of naturally occurring biodegradation processes, however, shows definite promise as an economical means of  removing contaminants from the groundwater  environment. In contrast, the effectiveness of purposeful introduction of specially adapted or genetically engineered microorganisms remains purely conjectural. To obtain a better understanding of the processes controlling the in-situ fates of organic contaminants, future research should emphasize definitive experimental controls, reliable and extensive sampling of both the microbiota and the  parent contaminant or metabolites, increased authenticity in laboratory simulation experiments, and integration of concomitant laboratory and field studies. Only after a dramatic increase in funding to implement these recommendations, can the research community expect to make reliable predictions of the fates of groundwater contaminants and design appropriate aquifer-restoration schemes."

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EVAPORATION OF OIL SHALE WATE WATER

"Hourly class-A pan evaporation was measured for two oil shale process waters and compared to a fresh water control at a Laramie, Wyoming research site. The two oil shale process waters were shown to evaporate 9.9 and 18.3 percent slower than fresh water. An hourly  evaporation equation was developed based on four meteorological parameters. The hourly model was found to compare favorably with measured pan evaporation. A rule of thumb equation was developed to predict evaporation of low quality waters based on pan water  temperatures."

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TREATMENT OF AN OIL SHALE RETORT WATER BY STATIONARY FIXED BIOFILM

The process wastewaters from oil shale retorting originate from mineral dehydration, combustion, and input steam during pyrolysis of the embedded polymeric kerogen, a high-molecular-weight heterogeneous polymer. High concentrations of numerous organic and inorganic solutes are typically present. Although many of these compounds have been identified for a few waters. Most have not. For the waters the waters that have been studied only small portions of the spectrum of organic solutes have been found to be biodegradable during aerobic biological treatment. Insufficient acclimated biomass, low individual substrate concentrations, and chemical inhibition have been proposed as mechanisms responsible for the resistance of dissolved organic carbon presented in a range of process wastewaters. All of these purposed limitations could potentially be overcome by fixed biofilm treatment, which has inherent advantages over homogeneous disperse growth systems.

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EFFECT OF OIL SHALE RETORT WATER ON AROMATIC AMINE BIOOXIDATION

Successful biologic treatment of oil shale retort wastewaters depends partly on the biooxidation of aromatic amines, compounds reported to resist mineralization. To investigate possible causes of recalcitrance, we followed the disappearance of selected aromatic amines in both single and mixed-substrate systems to model the more complex arrays found in retort waters. Biodegradability of each of 35 aromatic amines was evaluated in a series of batch, dispersed phase cultures with each compound as the sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy. Of these aromatic amines, 15 u.v. absorbance. After 1 to 3 months of exposure to acclimated cultures, none of the other 20 aromatic amines was biodegraded. An equal mass mixture of 12 biodegradable aromatic amines was mineralized in one week by the pooled, individually acclimated cultures. This mixture appeared to be less degradable, however, when added to a retort water. While inhibitory effects of the retort water may have accounted for the resistance of some of the endogenous aromatic amines, it was likely that the majority remaining after biooxidation were inherently recalcitrant.

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BIOOXIDATION OF ORGANIC SOLUTES IN OIL SHALE WASTEWATERS

Biooxidation of nine retort waters was evaluated in batch culture. Because losses of dissolved organic carbon by volatilization could be extensive, biotreatment was evaluated in screw-capped shale-flasks that contained enough headspace to ensure aerobic conditions. Biological removals of DOC ranged only from 9% to 49% using bacteria subjected to extensive enrichment periods. A simple reverse phase chromatographic fractionation scheme indicated that the majority of refractory DOC for each water resided in the lipophilic fraction; the polar fraction comprise most of the degradable carbon. The LpF organic nitrogen content did not change significantly after biooxidation, and the LpF molar ratio of carbon to nitrogen was similar for each treated water. Molar C:N ratios ranging from 7 to 15, and high UV absorbance's indicated that the malodorous and colored solutes, which are predominantly associated with the bio refractory LpF, primarily comprised aromatic nitrogenous compounds. Extracellular fluid that remained after exhaustive biooxidation of one waste water was used in over 200 enrichment cultures, each of which failed to further remove DOC.

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VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION OF SPENT OIL SHALES - VEGETATION, MOISTURE, SALINITY, AND RUNOFF - 1973-1976

Disposal of massive amounts of spent shale will be required if an oil shale industry using surface retorting is developed. Field studies were initiated in 1973 on two types of spent oil shale coarse textured and fine-textured. The objectives of these studies were to investigate surface stability of and salt movement in spent shales and spent shales covered with soil after vegetation has been established by intensive treatment and then left under natural precipitation conditions. The plots were established at low-elevation and high-elevation study sites in northwestern Colorado.

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EFFECTS OF WEATHERING ON THE BORDEN AND BEDFORD SHALES IN TERMS OF THEIR POTENTIAL USE AS TOPSOIL SUBSTITUTES IN OIL SHALE MINE RECLAMATION

"The objective of this study was to employ laboratory techniques to determine the effects of weathering on overburden strata proposed for use as topsoil substitutes in Kentucky oil shale mine reclamation. Strata studied included the Bedford Shale and the Henley Bed of the Borden Formation of Lewis Counand the Nancy Member of the Borden For  action of Powell County. Samples were subjected to freezing/thawing and slaking in the laboratory to simulate field weathering conditions. Physical, mineralogical, and chemical attributes of the unweathered and weathered shales were compared to properties of native soils."

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MERCURY MASS DISTRIBUTION DURING LABORATORY AND SIMULATED IN-SITU OIL SHALE RETORTING

Gaseous Hg emissions were measured ruing the processing of a large modified in-situ oil shale retort in Colorado. A continuous, on-line, gas monitor based upon the principal of Zeeman atomic absorption spectroscopy was the primary analytical method. The on-line monitor technique was shown to be well suited for this application and compared favorable with an independent reference method which collects gaseous Hg by Au-amalgamation.

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ENERGY DEVELOPMENT: A CHALLENGE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

During the later years of the '70's, it became popular to refer to a "War Between the States," Specifically the movement of people form he so called Frostbelt to the Sunbelt. The shift in population meant several things to the states involved; reallocation of voting power, grants in-aid, etc. The impacts and political ramifications are controversial when the Federal/state relationships change because the formulae established by law or regulation respond to stimuli not directly cause by either party. How much more friction is possible when the involved parties also become on of the factors causing the change?

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OIL SHALE WASTE TREATMENT: FUNDAMENTAL APPROACHES QUARTERLY REPORT, DECEMBER 1983

This report summarizes the major modifications to the Kjeldahl method and discusses the applicability of the method to compounds found in oil shale wastewaters. The Kjeldahl method was evaluated for the recovery of nitrogen from individual N-containing reference compounds, total nitrogen in 10 oil shale wastewaters, and organic nitrogen in 10 oil shale wastewaters. The Kjeldahl method was found to give quantitative recovery of nitrogen for only 3 of 17 compounds tested. The precision of the method for both total Kjeldahl nitrogen and organic Kjeldahl nitrogen was excellent; the rsd values were below 5%. The accuracy of the method for organic nitrogen was difficult to assess, however, because there is currently no available means of validating, organic nitrogen values for these wastewaters. The recovery of TKN from these wastewater samples was within 5% of the total nitrogen values obtained by a method that we are currently evaluating that uses combustion/ chemiluminescence.

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PILOT STUDY OF THE FEASIBILITY OF SUBSURFACE INJECTION OF INDUSTRIAL LIQUID WASTES IN WEST VIRGINIA

Subsurface injection of liquid wastes is a waste-management practice that has recently become more common and has received more attention because of enactment of stricter controls on surface waste-disposal. To date, seven industrial waste-disposal wells have been drilled in West Virginia. Four of these wells were specifically drilled because of surface water disposal restrictions. Six wells are currently operational in the Kanawha River Valley and the Ohio River valley. Despite the existence of the seven industrial waste disposal wells, little comprehensive information had been gathered to assess the desirability of this practice, the long-term environmental effects, or the potential short term problems involved in specific situations.

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PARAHO ENVIRONMENTAL DATA: PART III - WATER QUALITY, PART II - AIR QUALITY

Water quality studies at the paraho Anvil Points operations have been made in the areas of process water, ground and surface water, and leachate water. A simple schematic of the sources of these water samples is pictured in Figure 1.1. None of the sample sources shown in Figure 1.1 offer continuous, reliable sample.

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ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PLAN OUTLINE GEOKINETICS SEEP RIDGE PROJECT UINTAH COUNTY, UTAH

Geokinetics, a corporation that pioneered an in-situ oil shale retorting process, is presentlly applying for financial assistance for its Seep Ridge Project from the U. S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation. Financial assistance from the SFC is contingent upon meeting many requirements, including compliance with Section 131e of the Energy Security Act which states, in part:

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TRACE ELEMENTS MINERAL TRANSFORMATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDRATION AND RECARBONATION OF RETORTED OIL SHALE

A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the influence of hydration and recarbonation on the solid phase distribution of trace elements in retorted oil shale. The oil shale samples were retorted by the Paraho direct heating process and equilibrated with deionized distilled water under controlled carbon dioxide conditions. A sequential extraction technique was then used to fractionate trace elements into soluble. KNO3 extractable, N2O extractable, and residual phases. The chemical fractions present in retorted oil shale and hydrated and recarbonated retorted oil shale were compared to identify trace element mineralogical changes that may occur n retorted oil shale disposal environments.

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PROCESSED SHALE REVEGETATION STUDIES, 1965-1973

This 1965 field study was designed to determine the capabilities of processed shale and shale ash to support plant growth. Four species of crass: Russian wildrye; orchard grass; intermediate wheatgrass; and tall wheatgrass were plated in various soil, ash, and processed shale mixtures. Authorities for scientific names are given in the Appendix A.

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CHARACTERIZATION OF LEACHATE FROM ABONDONED COAL REFUSE FINAL REPORT

This project was undertaken by the Western Research Institute in support of the Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Enforcement under contract J5150050. The work was administered by Mr. William Garrity, DOE-OSM, Washington, D. C. , and the technical direction was provided by Mr. Eric Perry, OSM Reclamation and Enforcement Division, Eastern Technical Center, Pittsburgh, PA.

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FLUORIDE SOLUBILITY RELATIONSHIPS IN PROCESSED GREEN RIVER FORMATION OIL SHALE

Green River Formation oil shale was retorted by indirect and direct Paraho processes. In addition, the raw oil shale was combusted in an inclined fluid bed. The resultant processed oil shale samples were subjected to a series of equilibrations with deionized distilled water. Experimental variables included: solid: solution ratio, temperature, reaction time, and gaseous carbon dioxide partial pressure. The aqueous extracts were chemically characterized ant the results input to the geochemical codes GEOCHEM and PHREEQE. The analytical results indicated that fluoride concentrations in processed oil shale lactates were influenced by oil recovery process and experimental variables. However, geochemical manipulation of the analytical data showed fluoride concentrations to be controlled by the solubility of fluorite, irrespective of solid waste generation process. Equilibrium with respect to fluorite was approached from super saturation in all systems, with temperature controlling the rate at which equilibrium was approached. These data suggest the solid phase specification of fluoride in processed oil shale's to be unstable in comparison to fluorite. A thermochemcal evaluation of literature data show fluorite and magnesium difluoride to control processed oil shale leachate fluoride concentrations. Fluoride concentrations n processed oil shale lactates were predicted by an iterative process in which the activities of major captions and anions were determined by Geochem and fluoride was controlled by the solubility of fluorite. The predicted fluoride concentrations were compared to analytically determined values. The results of this study illustrate the utility of geochemical models to predict leachate chemistry, particularly for elements whose concentrations are controlled by precipitations reactions. However, the applicability of this approach to predicting leachate chemistry requires further experimental verification.

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