AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
A review of the physical and engineering properties of raw and retorted oil shales from the Green River formation. Final report

The disposal of retorted oil shale is a problem of major proportion since each ton of raw oil shale entering currently used surface retort processes yields approximately 1600-1700 lb of retorted shale. Several options are available for disposal of retorted oil shales: (a) filling the deep, narrow canyons of the oil shale mine area with the spent shale, (b) backfilling the mine with spent shale as raw shale is removed, and (c) using the spent shale for productive uses. All of these options involve a determination and working knowledge of the geotechnical properties of the retorted oil shale.

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Natural restoration of ground water in UCG. [Underground coal gasification]

Data collected after underground coal-gasification field tests indicated that the concentrations of organic contaminants in the ground water decrease with time, apparently due to two natural processes - adsorption and biological degradation. Batch isotherm tests of the adsorption mechanism showed that 1) low-molecular-weight phenolic materials (the most prevalent contaminants) are the least likely to be adsorbed from the ground water, while high-molecular-weight polynuclear aromatics (PNA) are adsorbed most easily, 2) the adsorptive affinity of a compound increases with alkylation and ring addition, 3) the adsorptive affinity of aromatic hydrocarbons decreases progressively with insertion of oxygen or sulfur in the ring, insertion of nitrogen in the ring, amination of the ring, and conversion to the phenolic derivative, 4) the adsorption characteristics for a Hanna coal and a Texas lignite are similar, and 5) filtration cannot be used in laboratory studies of PNA because of adsorption to the filter. Analyses of the microbial composition of ground water from a UCG test site in Texas suggested that in situ biodegradation of UCG contaminants can occur. Microbial degradation depends on the concentration of dissolved oxygen; for maximal growth of organisms of UCG products, a limited concentration of oxygen - similar to levels measured in the ground water - is preferable to totally aerobic or anaerobic conditions. These microaerobic conditions might take part in the nitrification and nitrate respiration-dependent processes during biodegradation.

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Stratigraphic cross sections extending from Devonian Antrim Shale to Mississippian Sunbury Shale in the Michigan Basin

The Devonian shales of the eastern United States are a potential source for tremendous volumes of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. The Antrim Shale of Michigan is a part of this extensive body of rock. As part of the Shale Characterization Program, stratigraphic cross sections showing the Antrim Shale and associated formations have been constructed for various parts of the Michigan Basin. The principal formations include the Antrim Shale of Devonian age, the Ellsworth Shale which correlates primarily with the Antrim Shale but whose uppermost part appears to correlate with parts of certain formations of Mississippian age, and the Bedford Shale, Berea Sandstone and Sunbury Shale of eastern Michigan. The Bedford Shale immediately overlies the Antrim in eastern Michigan. Regional cross sections are constructed from gamma ray logs as illustration of the stratigraphic associations of these Devonian and Mississippian formations in the Michigan Basin. Data from gamma ray logs and records of 99 individual wells distributed throughout the Southern Peninsula of Michigan were used to construct six cross sections, and a network of intersecting cross sections which illustrates depths, thicknesses, and the stratigraphic relationship of the subject formations in various sectors of the Basin.

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Physical and chemical characteristics of retorted and combusted western reference oil shale

Tight gas sands are a vast future source of natural gas. These sands are characterizd as having very low porosity and permeability. The main resource development problem is efficiently extracting the gas from the reservoir. Future production depends on a combination of gas price and technological advances. Gas production can be enhanced by fracturing. Studies have shown that many aspects of fracture design and gas production are influenced by properties of the rock matrix. Computer models for stimulation procedures require accurate knowledge of flow properties of both the rock matrix and the fractured regions. In the proposed work, these properties will be measured along with advanced core analysis procedures aimed at understanding the relationship between pore structure and properties. The objective of this project is to develop reliable core analysis techniques for measuring the petrophysical properties of tight gas sands. Recent research has indicated that the flow conditions in the reservoir can be greatly enhanced by the presence of natural fractures, which serve as a transport path for gas from the less permeable matrix. The study is mainly concerned with the dependence of flow in tight gas matrix and haled tectonic fractures on water saturation and confining pressure. This dependencey is to be related to the detailed pore structure of tight sands as typified by cores recovered in the Multi-Well experiment. 22 refs., 34 figs., 9 tabs.

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Retorting indexes for oil-shale pyrolyses from ethylene--ethane ratios of product gases

"The production of shale oil from oil shale is currently practical only by thermally decomposing (retorting) the organic materials in the shale and collecting the liquid products. Investigations to develop processes for retorting oil shale have resulted in many proposed designs for the equipment. However, to maintain control of any of the processes, measurements of appropriate input and output parameters are required to indicate conditions during the decomposition and the subsequent collection of products. The direct measurement of retort temperatures is not always possible. Flow rates through the retorts give only an indirect measure of residence times for material in the heated zones. Both residence times and te  premature are important control parameters related to economy of operation and quality of product."

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Oil shale program. Nineteenth quarterly report, July 1980-September 1980

Geokinetic's Retort 25 was blasted on July 18. Fragmentation experiments were correlated with strain rate. Instrumentation was added to the reports. Feasibility of borehole retorting was demonstrated. Effects of explosive rubblization upon an underground structure in the vicinity of a vertical modified in-situ retort bed were investigated. (DLC)

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Pyrolysis of kerogen concentrate in the presence of calcium hydride

This preliminary report discusses the thermal conversion of kerogen in the presence and absence of calcium hydride under both atmospheric and reduced pressures. The effect of the calcium hydride upon the pyrolysis reaction both at atmospheric and reduced pressures was determined from differences in the composition of the thermal product. The results of these preliminary tests suggest that calcium hydride is a hydrogen donor in the pyrolysis reaction and tends to terminate the pyrolysis reaction by stabilizing the thermal products. Where calcium hydride was present, the pyrolysis product contained more hydrocarbons, less polar material which displayed considerably less reactivity, and less pentane-insoluble material than when calcium hydride was absent. Reduced pressure conditions contributed to the production of more hydrocarbons, less pentane-insoluble material, and less reactive polar material than did atmospheric pressure conditions.

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Oil shale properties by split cylinder method

The mechanical properties of oil shale are being investigated to provide the basic information necessary to develop and optimize procedures for modifying the rock in place, as required by diverse production techniques. A method is devised where Poisson's ratio, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength along the bedding planes can be obtained on oil shale samples (oil shales are slightly anisotropic) from a split cylinder test. Stress and vertical and horizontal strain measurements on 40 oil shale samples from the Tipton Member of Wyoming's Green River Formation were used to calculate mechanical properties. The determined mechanical properties show strong linear relationships to the volume of organic matter in the oil shale but little relationship to the major matrix mineral, dolomite. Relationships developed are sufficiently precise to provide useful estimates of oil shale's mechanical properties from the organic volume.

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Mathematical model of forward combustion retorting of oil shale

The first version or ''base model''is described of a mathematical model of vertical, forward combustion retorting of oil shale that was developed through 1974 at the Laramie Energy Technology Center in Laramie, Wyoming. The model was written to simulate conditions and processes occurring in LETC's experimental batch-type 150-ton retort. Information presented deals with the reasoning and justification for developing the model, a description of the modeling effort, and a comparison of the yields, retorting rates, and other information obtained from the model as compared with actual results from the 150-ton retort. Good qualitative agreement between the ''base model''and actual experimental results is found. However, quantitative agreement is not realized in this version of the model; some reasons for this are discussed. Current and future work on the model is also discussed.

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Tar sands: a new fuels industry takes shape. [Alberta]

Problems have delayed exploitation of tar sands in Alberta, but they have certainly not halted it. One by one, these problems have been overcome until, today, tar sands are the most promising near term alternative source of fossil fuels. One company has been mining tar sands and extracting oil from them for 10 yr, the last 2 yr at a profit. A second, much larger plant is now about 95% complete, and a third plant and possible fourth are on the drawing board. More than 20 companies have operated pilot projects for in situ recovery of oil from the tar sands. About 16 of these pilot projects are still in operation and one commercial facility may be under construction within 2 yr. The greatest immediate beneficiary of this activity will be Canada, where most of the work is taking place. The development is described in some detail.

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Effects of aqueous effluents from in situ fossil fuel processing technologies on aquatic systems. Annual progress report

This is the first annual report issued under a project to evaluate the effects of aqueous effluents from in-situ fossil fuel processing technologies on aquatic biota. Briefly, the goals of the project are to: evaluate the toxicity of process water effluents on aquatic biota; recommend maximum exposure concentrations for process water constituents; and assist DOE in using project data and recommendations to design control technologies and to assess environmental impacts. The project objectives for Year 1 were pursued through the following five tasks: a literature review on process water constituents; toxicity studies on the effect of process waters and six process water constituents on aquatic biota; degradation rate studies on four to six process water constituents; bioaccumulation studies on four to six process water constituents; and recommendations on maximum exposure concentrations for process water constituents based on data from the project and from the literature. Progress toward completion of these goals is presented.

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Assessment of international tar sands recovery and upgrading processes

This assessment highlights and evaluates foreign technologies that might aid in the future development of heavy oil deposits in the United States. This information on foreign technology developments would aid in formulating and directing policy decisions on future research programs within the United States. Emphasis of the study was on post-1978 developing technologies. Scope included sizing the resource base and reviewing and evaluating past, present, and planned research and field developments on processes for mining, producing, extracting, and upgrading very heavy oils recovered from tar sands. This report is presented in three major sections with supporting appendices and an executive summary. The characteristics and location of the world's principal tar sands resources are presented in Chapter III. Production methods, both above ground and in-situ, factors inherent in choosing between methods and the commercial and pilot application of those methods are discussed in Chapter IV. Chapter V then presents the factors which affect the process selection for upgrading bitumen and very heavy oils so they can be pipelined and/or refined to a desired mix of consumer products. Chapter V also contains a review of conventional upgrading methods and recent developments, both foreign and domestic. A more detailed discussion of selected US upgrading processes is presented in Appendix I.

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Effect of asphaltene- and preasphaltene-rich solvents upon coal liquefaction. Internal R and D final report

This report summarizes R and D work (Programs 12.1.4 and 12.1.12) performed by International Coal Refining Co. to address the design option of recycling solvent-refined coal (SRC) to the coal-slurry feed stream in the SRC-I Demonstration Plant. The major objective was to determine if solvent yield could be increased by recycling SRC, to prevent the plant from inadvertent solvent imbalance. The effect of SRC recycle on reactor yields was evaluated over a range of process conditions, using Kentucky No. 9 coals in a variety of SRC-enriched process solvents. Both light and heavy SRCs, produced from the Kerr-McGee critical solvent deashing unit at the Wilsonville Advanced Coal Liquefaction Facility, were recycled. Advantages and disadvantages of including the recycle process in the plant design are discussed in comparison with the baseline design. 12 references, 34 figures, 45 tables.

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True in situ fracturing of oil shale-preliminary results

DOE is conducting field research on true in situ fracturing and retorting of oil shale.The oil shale seam is about 40 ft. thick and has 50 to 200 ft. of overburden. This formation is located just west of Rock Springs, Wyoming. Several different sites have been tested in this research effort. Methods for fracturing oil shale under true in situ conditions at the field laboratory include electro-linking, hydraulic fracturing, well-bore explosives, slurried explosives and combinations of the above. One method that showed initial promise was hydraulic fracturing followed by injection and detonation of a slurried explosive in the fracture created. The objective of the fracturing experiment was to produce a distributed fracture network with sufficient porosity, permeability and uniformity for retorting. Three horizontal hydraulic fractures were formed in the shale bed. A slurry explosive was inserted and detonated in two of the three fractures. Post-detonation fracture assessment involved direct coring, well bore logging (including TV and caliper), air acceptance, and tracer flow tests. The results indicate that the stresses were sufficient to cause fracturing but that there was no significant tumbling. The major fractures apparent after detonation of the slurry were in the same positions as the hydraulic fractures. Flow logging showed that most of the air passage through the system was through these fractures. Preliminary modeling of the system shows that the existing fractures should support combustion and that shale will be retorted as much as one meter away from the fractures. Since the fractures are less than two meters apart, retorting should be possible. To test this idea, bench scale tests on blocks of oil shale with small fractures are being performed. A small scale two-hole ''burn''will be attempted in late September, followed by a full scale burn of the five spot pattern.

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Scaled physical model studies of the steam drive process. Second annual report, September 1978-September 1979

A scaled physical model was operated to simulate steam drive operations in five-spot patterns with reservoir and operational parameters similar to those encountered in California reservoirs. The goal of this study was to elucidate the role of two important controllable parameters, viz., steam injection rate and steam quality and to explore the role of two important factors, oil viscosity and reservoir permeability on the performance of the steam drive. In addition, the influence of bottom water and a basal permeable layer were investigated. The experiments demonstrated that there is an optimum injection rate; that in the vicinity of this optimum an increased quantity results in improved oil steam ratios; that the viscosity of the oil at steam temperature, raised to a fractional power, 0.5, appears to correlate with oil production; that permeabilities in the darcy range have little effect on performance, but an increasing one with low viscosity oil, and that bottom water, which facilitates injection, results in toorer early performance but one which eventually rivals the oil/steam ratio of a uniform reservoir at a somewhat higher recovery of original oil in place. It has been concluded that the major value of the physical model is in describing the role of the reservoir and operational parameters of a class of steam drive operations rather than providing an exact prediction of a given operation.The problem of supplying the latter lies in the virtually impossible-to-define distribution of oil, gas and water in the reservoir on initiating the steam drive. Two years of this project have now been completed. During the forthcoming final phase of the program, effort will be devoted to studying the relative effects of solvent and gas addition to the steam, of diurnal injection, and of (horizontal) well placement.

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Control of sulfur emissions from oil shale retorts. Final report Jul 79-Jul 80

The objectives of this study were to determine the best available control technology (BACT) for control of sulfur emissions from oil shale processing facilities and then to develop a design for a mobile slipstream pilot plant that could be used to test and demonstrate that technology. The work conducted included an in-depth evaluation of available gas characterization data from all major oil shale development operations in the United States. Data gaps and inconsistencies were identified and corrected where possible through working with the developers and/or researchers in the field. From the gas characterization data, duty requirements were defined for the sulfur removal systems. Based on this information, Stretford gas sweeting technology was recommended, and the design of a 1000 CFM pilot plant was completed.

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Characterization of volatile organic components in spent shale

Retorting of oil shale, a process which has been of considerable interest during periods of oil supply shortages, produces large amounts of spent shale. A knowledge of the nature of organic materials derived from the oil shale retorting processes and from the spent shale itself is important for assessing impacts on people and the environment. The purpose of the present study is to identify appropriate methods for sampling and characterizing volatile organic components of spent shale and to test the methods on samples of pyrolyzed and combusted oil shale. Volatile organic compounds, (VOCs) in spent shale were obtained by heating a spent shale sample while sweeping the sample with helium. The VOCs in the helium stream were collected on Tenax traps and subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Collecting the organic components on Tenax traps concentrates the organic constituents and thereby increases the sensitivity of the analytical procedure. Identification of the organic components was accomplished through the use of GC retention time data, library searches carried out on mass spectra, and the interpretation of mass spectra not identified by library searches. The spent shale samples were obtained from a two-stage, pyrolysis and combustion retorting process. 7 refs., 7 figs., 7 tabs.

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Comparison of organic-rich shales of Pennsylvanian age in Indiana with New Albany Shale

Abundant black organic-rich shales occur in rocks of Pennsylvanian age in southwestern Indiana. They have not been well characterized except for a few thin intervals in small areas, the best example being at the abandoned Mecca Quarry in west-central Indiana. Although these shales are thinner and less widespread than the organic-rich shales of the New Albany Shale (Devonian and Mississippian age) they warrant characterization because of their accessibility during strip mining of underlying coals. Organic-rich shales of Pennsylvanian age contain up to 44% organic carbon and might be considered potential oil shales. Carbon to hydrogen ratios in these shales are similar to those in the New Albany. Relatively high concentrations of certain metals occur in shales of both ages, especially where phosphate is abundant, and sulfur values for both shales range from < 1 to 6%. Sulfur values are much higher for thin pyrite-rich units. Siderite nodules are common in Pennsylvania shales, but little siderite if found in the New Albany. Dolomite, commonly ferroan, and calcite in a variety of forms are the dominant carbonates in the New Albany. Some Pennsylvanian shales may contain large fossils or mica flakes, but such coarse-grained features are uncommon in the New Albany Shale.

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Non-linear three dimensional mechanical characterization of Colorado oil shale

A comprehensive mechanical characterization program on Green River Formation oil shale from the Mahogany zone near Anvil Points, Colorado, produced prediction equations for the three-dimensional non-linear stiffness coefficients based on the organic volume and stress level as independent variables. These coefficients are useful in the mine design, fragmentation modeling, investigations directed toward creating in-place permeability, and so on. The stiffness coefficients and compressive strengths perpendicular and parallel to bedding planes are obtained from tested samples. Each sample set consists of two square prisms taken from the same horizon but cut perpendicular and parallel to bedding planes. The twelve non-zero coefficients in the stiffness matrix for oil shale are expressed in terms of the elastic constants consisting of Young's moduli and Poisson's ratios obtained from uniaxial compression tests on these square prisms. Dependency on stress levels makes it difficult to determine the coefficients by acoustical methods.

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