AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Gum formation in shale-oil naphtha. [On exposure to air or accelerated oxidation conditions]

"Two distinguishing characteristics of untreated shale oil distillates are their dark color and large gum content. The work reported in this paper was undertaken in an effort to establish the factors responsible for this apparent instability.  It was found that the gums from shale oil naphthas contain about 8% nitrogen. This is the principal difference in elemental composition between them and gums obtained from petroleum naphthas. The nitrogen appearing in the gum comes both from pyrrole and pyridine-type compounds found in the naphtha. Oxidation is far more important than light or heat in the formation of gum in shale oil naphtha. The rate of gum formation is very rapid when the naphtha is first exposed to accelerated oxidizing conditions, but decreases sharply after about 1 hour.  Information on the factors and compounds responsible for gum formation in shale oil naphtha is necessary as a basis for the development of handling and refining methods for shale oil products."

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Shale-oil refining. [Description of refinery at Rifle, Colorado; various refining processes]

As a basic approach to the study of the refining of Colorado crude shale oil, thermal cracking and chemical treatment processes were carried out on an demonstration plant scale to explore the variability of yield and quality of finished products and of certain distillates which could be suitable as charge stocks for other refining processes.  Some flexible thermal operations as topping, visbreaking, recycle cracking and coking have been made under exploratory operating conditions, which are not necessarily optimum for the purposes intended, to produce a pipe-line crude, cracked gasoline, coker distillate and residues.  Various gasolines and Diesel fuels, meeting most of the petroleum industry specifications for such products, have been produced by chemical treatment and by rerunning where necessary.  Usage of treated cracked gasoline and Diesel fuel in local vehicles and equipment indicates excellent performance characteristics.  The thermal cracking studies were made on 100 to 300 barrel per day fresh feed charge distillation-cracking plant of industrial type design: the data here could be expected to be duplicated in large scale equipment.  This is the first exploratory study on this scale made on crude oil from Colorado oil shale.

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Oil shale retorting in a 150-ton batch-type pilot plant. [Results of 10 runs; effects of oxygen, gas velocity, and particle size on yields]

"To determine the retorting characteristics of a column of mine-run, ungraded oil shale ranging in size from fines to 5-ton pieces, a 150-ton batch-type retort was designed and constructe at the Bureau of Mines Laramie Energy Research Center, Laramie, Wyoming. The retort vessel is 45 feet high by 11.5 feet inside diameter, and is supported in a 95-foot-high steel superstructure. Mine-run shale from the Bureau of Mines facility near Rifle, Colorado, assaying about 25 gallons of oil per ton, was used as the test shale. To date, 11 runs have been completed, and the results of the past 10 of these are reported.  The effects of oxygen content of the retorting gas and the superficial gas velocity of the retorting gas on oil recovery from a column of mine-run oil shale were studied. In one run, the average particle size of the shale was substancially increased to determine its effect on oil yield. Oil recoveries ranged from a low 39.3 to a high of 65.8 volume-percent of Fischer assay."

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Ignition characteristics of Colorado oil shale

Spontaneous ignition is usually characterized by an abrupt (exponential) increase in temperature and results when the rate of heat production in exothermic reaction exceeds the rate of heat dissipation to the surrounding media. Ordinarily the term spontaneous ignition temperature is applied to those systems being oxidized by air. However, in this paper the term applies to systems using oxygen enriched or partially depleted gas streams.

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Thermal reactions of shale-oil components:  plant pigments as probable precursors of nitrogenous compounds in shale oil. [Evaluation of reduced chlorophyllin as model for kerogen with respect to production of N compounds upon pyrolysis]

"As part of the current research effort in shale-oil  chemistry conducted by the Federal Bureau of Mines, reduced chlorophyllins were prepared and pyrolyzed in an effort to identify the role of plant pigments and their  decomposition products in the nitrogenous compounds found in the product of oil-shale pyrolysis. The properties of the chlorophyllin pyrolysates were related to the composition of the reduced chlorophyllins with particular emphasis on the amount and types of nitrogen compounds formed. A comparison based on the types of nitrogen compounds present was made between shale oil and the chlorophyllin pyrolsates. In order to make this  comparison, a sample of shale-oil light distillate was separated into polar and nonpolar fractions, and a careful examination of the polar fraction was conducted to obtain an accurate picture of the types of nitrogen compounds  present. The information gathered from these studies was used to evaluate reduced chlorophyllin as a model of oil-shale kerogen insofar as the production of nitrogen compounds was concerned. The results indicate that the  reduced chlorophyllin does yield nitrogen products which are directly related to the nitrogenous compounds in shale oil, and it therefore represents a good model of shale-oil kerogen."

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Comparison of laboratory and field steamfloods in tar sand

In situ recovery technologies for tar sand and heavy oil are simulated at the Western Research Institute to prepare for pilot tests and commercial operations. Wide ranges of process parameters are tested in one-dimensional reactor tubes in which the tar sand or heavy oil is uniformly reconstituted to nearly the same permeability and porosity as the field resource. Three-dimensional process performance is verified in a reactor system that demonstrates the most promising operating parameters in consolidated blocks of the field resource. Both of these reactors are capable of testing combustion or steamflood processes at pressures as high as 1000 psi. Initial laboratory simulations have tested steamflooding of Asphalt Ridge tar sand for comparison with previous results from a pilot test near Vernal, Utah. Oil production rates, properties and residual saturations have been measured for different operating conditions, reservoir properties and bitumen concentrations. Corresponding operating parameters and production performance are compared to evaluate the relationships between the laboratory simulations and the field test results. These comparisons show that the residual oil saturations and sweep efficiencies in the laboratory tests are similar to the results of the field tests. 9 refs., 3 figs., 4 tabs.

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Comparison of oils produced from Kentucky oil shales by fluid bed and Fischer Assay retorting

Physical properties and chemical composition of oils produced from a master sample of the Ohio Shale by bench scale fluid bed and Fischer Assay retorting are compared. The fluid bed oil was found to have a higher nitrogen content, lower H/C ratio, more heteroaromatic and heavy hydrocarbons, higher alkene/alkane ratios, a higher naphthalene/(C/sub 11/   C/sub 12/) ratio and a higher aromatic carbon content than the Fischer Assay oil. Since vapor phase cracking is the major source of oil loss during fluid bed retorting with coking being near zero, these results are in agreement with correlations developed for western U.S. shales. Additionally, there is evidence to suggest that under fluid bed conditions, raw shale aromatic carbon is converted to oil.

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Parametric analysis of in situ retorting options for NOSR 1

A parametric analysis was performed in evaluating the vertical MIS technologies as a function of retort configuration, shale grade, oil yield, costs and resource compatibility. Two basic retorting scenarios were evaluated: MIS retorting alone, and MIS/surface retorting combination. In all cases the raw shale oil was upgraded to produce refinery feedstock grade shale oil. Based on an assessment of the NOSR 1 resource, it is determined that in situ grades of 20 gpt with surface retorting grades of 37.5 gpt can be supported by the resource for the production of 50,000 BPD of shale oil over at least 20 to 25 years plant life. However, based on the current level of development of MIS technology, it is believed 80% in situ retort yields are not possible. It is concluded that the NOSR resource is not configured for current MIS retorting technologies to be a viable alternative to surface retorting technologies.

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Atmospheric studies in complex terrain:  executive summary. Technical progress report, FY-1979 through FY-1983

In 1978, the Office of Health and Environmental Research of the Assistant Secretary for Environment in the Department of Energy developed a program aimed specifically at atmospheric studies in complex terrain - ASCOT. The ASCOT program was designed to develop the technology needed to assess atmospheric properties and the impact of energy sources on air quality in areas of complex terrain. The ASCOT team is composed of scientists from DOE national laboratories, other federal laboratories, and university programs. To initiate the program, each participating laboratory and university was asked to redirect funds into an area focusing on research that involved atmospheric boundary layer flow subject to interactions with complicated underlying terrain. The two broad objectives under which the program was organized are: to improve fundamental knowledge of transport and dispersion processes in complex terrain; and to utilize this improved insight into the physics of terrain dominated flows to provide a methodology for performing air quality assessments. The initial focus of the ASCOT program has been on the transport and dispersion of pollutants entrained in or near nocturnal drainage flows. This phenomenon was selected on the basis of its importance for transporting pollutants from energy related facilities to population or agricultural centers that are generally situated within valleys. The Geysers geothermal area in northern California, a large geothermal power producing region situated within the coastal-mountain range was chosen as the primary field experimental area. Three series of major field experiments were conducted in this area; while smaller scale studies were carried out at Rattlesnake Mountain near Richland, Washington, Corral Gulch in western Colorado, and on Parajarito Mountain near Los Alamos, New Mexico to evaluate cold air drainage on relatively simple slopes. 1 figure, 4 tables.

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Hydraulic fracturing of Wyoming Green River oil shale:  field experiments, Phase 1. [Determination of preferential orientation of induced fractures at depth of 400 ft]

"The Bureau of Mines has conducted a field hydraulic fracturing experiment to determine the preferential orientation of induced fractures in oil shale at a depth of about 400 feet in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. The hydraulic fracturing treatment was performed by injecting extremely viscous water-base gel and 8- to 12-mesh sand into the oil shale through straddle packers set in  an impermeable section of smooth-walled, 6-1/4-inch-diameter open hole. An impression packer proved that a horizontal fracture, which has an average width of about 1/2 inch at the borehole, was induced. A corehole drilled  100 feet from the fractured well intersected the fracture and confirmed its horizontal orientation. Because a horizontal fracture was successfully initiated, it is inferred that the creation of multiple, closely spaced horizontal  fractures may be feasible in Green River Basin oil shale."

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Fluidized-bed pyrolysis of oil shale:  oil yield, composition, and kinetics

A quartz isothermal fluidized-bed reactor has been used to measure kinetics and oil properties relevant to surface processing of oil shale. The rate of oil formation has been described with two sequential first-order rate equations characterized by two rate constants, k/sub 1/ = 2.18 x 10/sup 10/ exp(-41.6 kcal/RT) s/sup -1/ and k/sub 2/ = 4.4 x 10/sup 6/ exp(-29.7 kcal/RT) s/sup -1/. These rate constants together with an expression for the appropriate weighting coefficients describe approximately 97/sup  /% of the total oil produced. A description is given of the results of different attempts to mathematically describe the data in a manner suitable for modeling applications. Preliminary results are also presented for species-selective kinetics of methane, ethene, ethane and hydrogen, where the latter is clearly distinguished as the product of a distinct intermediate. Oil yields from Western oil shale are approximately 100% Fischer assay. Oil composition is as expected based on previous work and the higher heating rates (temperatures) inherent in fluidized-bed pyrolysis. Neither the oil yield, composition nor the kinetics varied with particle size between 0.2 and 2.0 mm within experimental error. The qualitatively expected change in oil composition due to cracking was observed over the temperature range studied (460 to 540/sup 0/C). Eastern shale exhibited significantly faster kinetics and higher oil yields than did Western shale.

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Chemical and physical parameters necessary for the interpretation of in situ, thermal recovery of tar sand deposits

The United States has about 54 billion barrels of bitumen in numerous tar sand deposits. However, only about 10 to 15% of the bitumen can be recovered by conventional, surface mining techniques. This implies that the remainder will have to be recovered by in situ, thermal recovery processes. For these in situ processes to be operated efficiently, numerous chemical and physical parameters of the produced gas, oil, and water need to be determined and monitored. The parameters of the produced oil need to be compared with the parameters of the original bitumen to determine the extent of the former's thermal alteration. Only by understanding the interrelationships among these parameters and process variables can the process be understood and, therefore, controlled. This report contains listings of those parameters for gas, oil and original bitumen, and water that have been determined to be of value in monitoring and evaluating thermal recovery processes in tar sand. In addition, the application of laboratory- and field-derived data to the interpretation of processes is also discussed. In general, these data show definitive correlations between the study parameters and production progress.

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Characterization of two commercial tar sand process waters

Process waters from two commercial-scale steamflood tar sand extraction operations have been characterized for chemical, physical, and toxicological properties. The characterization effort included wet chemical analyses, elemental analyses, particle-size analysis, and MICROTOX assays. The results of these tests indicate that both waters require treatment before reuse or discharge into the environment. Depending on the intended use, reductions of hardness, silica, oil and grease, suspended solids, iron, chloride, and dissolved solids may be required. 13 refs., 2 figs., 11 tabs.

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High explosive fracturing studies in coal

In situ coal gasification using chemical high explosives to fracture coal at depth is described.  The one-dimensional Lagrangian elastic-plastic brittle-failure computer program SOC is used to compute Ef, the total failure induced shear strain, for coal.  Ef is then associated with shot-induced fracture in coal and the corresponding permeability change.  In laboratory experiments permeability was measured as a function of radius from the shot, postshot.  Epoxy was injected into the shot hole, the coal sectioned and the observed cracks compared ;with calculations.  The shot induced cavity radius agreed well with the calculated value.  The radius for major changes in appearance of the coal corresponded to an Ef of about 0.02.  Permeability data are questionable, but significant increases were observed to an Ef of 0.005.  The primary measurements in the field experiment were preshot and postshot permeability, preshot and postshot fracture frequency in cores, acoustic velocity as a function of depth, penetration of dye from the shot hole, ease of drilling postshot holes, attenuation of acoustic waves passing through the shot region, and electrical resistivity and attenuation of electrical signals passing through the shot region.  All of these measurements ere made as a function of radius.  Increased permeability, increased fracturing, increased acoustic attenuation, decreased sound speed, easier drilling and dye from the shot hole were found within a radius corresponding to an Ef of about 0.01.  Laboratory and field experiments were found to agree within measurement uncertainty, and it appears that calculated Ef can be associated with shot induced effects within reasonable error.

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Use of a fractional factorial design to evaluate interactions of environmental factors affecting biodegradation rates

For investigation of main and interactive effects of six experimentally controlled environmental factors on phenol biodegradation in a shake-flask system, a largely neglected statistical procedure was applied. A major benefit resulting from the application of the orthogonal, fractional factorial design is that the number of experiments necessary to evaluate multifactor interactions is limited. In the investigation, the required number of experiments was reduced to 81 from the 324 necessary with conventional factorial designs; information was sacrificed for only 3 of 15 possible two-factor interactions. Six experimentally controlled factors were investigated at two or three treatment levels each; the six factors were (1) amount of phenol substrate, (2) amount of bacterial inoculum, (3) filtration of inoculum, (4) type of basal salts medium (5) initial pH of basal salts medium and (6) flask closure. Significant main effects were found for factors 1, 2, and 4; whereas significant interactive effects were found only for factor 2 with factor 3 and for factor 2 with factor 5. The results suggest that the application of these statistical designs will greatly reduce the number of experiments necessary to evaluate multifactor effects on degradation rates during optimization of both hazard screening systems and waste treatment systems. (Refs. 19).

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Raman/FTIR spectroscopy of oil shale retort gases

A Raman facility was assembled in order to aid in the evaluation of the feasibility of using Raman or FTIR spectroscopy for analyzing gas mixtures of interest in oil shale. Applications considered in oil shale research included both retort monitoring and laboratory kinetic studies. Both techniques gave limits of detection between 10 and 1000 ppM for ten representative pertinent gases. Both techniques are inferior as a general analytical technique for oil shale gas analysis in comparison with mass spectroscopy, which had detection limits between 1 and 50 ppM for the same gases. The conclusion of the feasibility study was to recommend that mass spectroscopic techniques be used for analyzing gases of interest to oil shale.

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Investigation of the feasibility of recovering energy from Antrim oil shale by an in situ process. Final summary report

This report briefly summarizes the results of a four-year study which consisted of four tasks: shale characterization; in-situ fracturing and assessment; in situ extraction trails; and environmental, public policy and legal assessment. Forty one topical reports issued during the project are listed. A wealth of data has been published on the chemical, physical, geological, mineralogical and lithological properties of Antrim shale. Large numbers of stratigraphic cross sections and maps have been prepared. Much was learned in the fracturing experiments and extraction trials. Antrim shale was successfully ignited in situ in an explosively fractured site and low BTU gas was produced. However, as the formation was heated up the permeability decreased, and significant self sustained combustion was not achieved before work had to be discontinued. No significant impacts on the environment other than surface disturbance were observed.

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Issues and answers on the Department of Energy Oil Shale RD and D Program Management Plan

This document consists of Department of Energy replies to public comments made on the Department's Oil Shale RD and D Program and the RD and D Program Management Plan during an oil shale workshop held in December 1979 in Denver, Colorado, and incorporates responses from a number of Department offices and divisions currently associated with the Oil Shale Program. Workshop participants expressed concern in a number of areas associated with oil shale development impacts. Comments addressed effects on water quality and availability; air quality and solid waste impacts; impacts on terrestrial ecosystems; the pace of oil shale development; health, safety, and socioeconomic concerns; coordination among Federal, State, and local agencies during development of the shale resource; legislative and regulatory issues; financing of oil shale development; continued public education and involvement; and technology considerations (e.g., comments relating to shale oil upgrading, refining, product composition, and stability). Replies made by RD and D Program staff to the comments of workshop participants provide an overview of Department of Energy oil shale activities, both planned and ongoing, in the areas of concern addressed by the workshop. Although the responses focus on Department efforts to resolve these concerns, the research activities and responsibilities of other Federal agencies are also outlined. To supplement the RD and D Program response, recently published sources of information on oil shale development are identified that offer the public a more thorough description of Departmental research programs.

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Eastern oil shales:  critical environmental issues

Eastern oil shales, located in Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and Tennessee, may contain over 67 billion m/sup 3/ (423 billion barrels) of oil. Extraction of oil from eastern shales probably will be by surface or underground mining of the shale followed by surface retorting. Major environmental concerns will be associated with disposal of the great volumes of spent shale. The effects of shale disposal will depend upon the speed and success of revegetation of the spent shales, and potential transport of toxic constituents in the shale leachate to surface waters. Preliminary characterizations of raw and spent eastern shales indicate that most leachates will be acidic and may contain several trace metals. Revegetation potential of the spent eastern shales is unknown. Other environmental issues include the effects of mining of the shales, atmospheric emissions from shale retorting, and treatment and disposal of process wastewaters, the constituents of which are poorly known. Research needs are highlighted.

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