AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Low-cost, abundant energy:  paradise lost

"The United States has entered an era of profound alteration in traditional patterns and trends in the field of energy, Price relationships, rates of use, sources of supply, and, in its broadest sense, national security, all have become areas affected with uncertainty and conflict.  With supplies tight and prices rising, the changes are widespread and painful. Although the Arab oil embargo of recent months has greatly aggravated the crisis, the underlying causes lie farther back in the past and hopes of long-term remedies lie well into the future. It would be fruitless here to describe the immediate situation or report on day-to-day efforts to improve it. Events are moving so fast that any up-to-the-minute account would be out-of-date before it could be gotten into print. Instead, let us examine the fundamental trends and forces that have brought this country to its present pass and that can be expected in persist. Although no clear answer can as yet be given, there is reason at least to ask whether we are witnessing the closing of still another frontier—the end of a low-cost, reliable energy supply in the United States.  If the answer should be unfavorable, we would have plenty of company. For many years relative prices of energy have been far higher in Europe, as every tourist who has pulled up at a gas pump knows. Western Europe and, to an even greater degree, Japan are vastly more dependent on energy imports than is the United States, with even for oil producers two-thirds of its own requirements (Tables 1 and 2). Uncertainly of energy supply, both in availability at any given time and in quality of service prevails through much of the world. Most of industrialized Europe, Japan, and in fact all but a handful of countries get along n one-half the per capita supply, or le3ss, of what has seemed to be a necessity for Americans, although their growth rates in recent years have far exceeded that of the United States."

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Advances in fossil energy. [With China]

The Morgantown Technology Center is a U.S. Department of Energy fossil fuel research center. It is responsible for conducting research and development to extract, convert, and utilize coal, oil, and gas in an environmentally acceptable manner. METC performs and supports high-risk, high-payoff research and development, research that the private sector will not perform because of the risk and long-term payback aspects. In doing so METC is developing a scientific and engineering knowledge base that can be used by the private sector to evaluate the technical and economic potential of the technologies investigated.

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Combined CO/sub 2/--O/sub 2/ underground pyrolysis-gasification of southwestern coals. Progress report, July--September 1977

"The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) is studying an advanced concept for underground coal gasification that has been designed to address the deeply lying subbituminous seams in the Southwestern United States. The intent of these studies is to evaluate, both with laboratory experiments and computer simulations, the processing options available when dealing with low moisture content coals, as are found in the southwestern region.  This report presents an overview of the LASL program and describes theoretical and experimental work in progress. It also includes preliminary engineering assessments and concludes with a description of proposed field experiments."

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On-line Zeeman atomic-absorption spectroscopy for mercury analysis in oil-shale gases. Final report

This report describes an instrumental technique to continuously measure total mercury in gas streams on a real-time basis. The technique utilizes Zeeman atomic absorption spectroscopy (ZAA) for on-line measurement of mercury in the presence of smoke, organic vapors, and oil mist which are typically present in offgases from oil shale processing plants. The accuracy of the ZAA background correction technique enables analytical measurement of mercury with up to 95% attenuation of the 2537A analytical line by broadband uv absorption. Furnaces with optical absorption tubes of different lengths are used depending upon the mercury concentration. Between 5 and 250 ppB (nanomoles Hg/mole of gas) of mercury in an 18-cm furnace is used. The instrumental response with this furnace is characterized by a detection limit (DL) of 2 ppB, a linear response up to 100 ppB, and a precision of  - 7% or better. In the 50 ppB to 1.6 ppM range, a furnace with a 5-cm optical absorption tube yields a DL of 10 ppB, a linear response up to 800 ppB, and a precision of  - 10% or better. Sample gas flow rates can be varied between 400 and 4000 scc/min for either furnace. 35 figures, 3 tables.

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Hanna, Wyoming underground coal gasification data base. Volume 1. General information and executive summary

This report is part of a seven-volume series on the Hanna, Wyoming, underground coal gasification field tests. Volume 1 is a summary of the project and each of Volumes 2 through 6 describes a particular test. Volume 7 is a compilation. This report covers: (1) history of underground coal gasification leading to the Hanna tests; (2) area characteristics (basic meteorological and socioeconomic data,10645 ); (3) site selection history; (4) site characteristics; (5) permitting; and (6) executive summary. 5 figs., 15 tabs.

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Resistive heating for oil-shale retorting

Since 1941, researchers have explored the use of electrical energy to convert oil shale into usable liquid fuels. The attractiveness of these electrical methods stems from the fact that they allow for true in-situ processing. One specific method that appears to hold promise is electrical resistive heating. In this method, heat is induced from an electrical-power input at two spatially separated electrodes. As retorting begins, the electrical resistivities of the shale formation are expected to increase dramatically. This in turn allows the power input to be focused primarily at the retort zone. To explore the feasibility of this method, the thermal response of the shale to electrical inputs is calculated analytically and also numerically through a finite-element formulation. Results and limitations of the research, as well as a set of recommendations are included in this report.

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Technical and economic feasibility of sulfur trioxide retorting

A laboratory evaluation of oil shale retorting using sulfur trioxide injection has shown that sufficient heat is generated to retort oil shale. But the direct reaction of sulfur trioxide and oil shale results in large oil yield losses. A screening evaluation of the economic feasibility for sulfur trioxide retorting indicated that the large oil yield losses increase shale oil production costs relative to conventional retorting processes. Sulfur trioxide may be an economical alternative to air for oxidation of retorted shale in retorting processes using solid heat carriers. In this case, the shale is heated largely by the exothermic reaction of sulfur trioxide with the mineral carbonates in the shale. The hot retorted shale can be mixed with raw shale to isolate the oil and gas production from the sulfur trioxide reactions. A screening evaluation of this alternative use for sulfur trioxide indicates that the by-product credits for high Btu off-gas and CO/sub 2/ may offset the additional production costs for the sulfur trioxide. 11 refs., 7 figs., 12 tabs.

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Instrumental methods of analysis of sulfur compounds in synfuel process streams. Quarterly technical progress report, October-December 1982

The general objective is to develop dependable and accurate instrumental analysis methods for the determination of sulfur moieties. These will include polysulfides, dithionite and polythionates. Calorimetric procedures (thermometric titrations, injection enthalpimetry) and electroanalytical techniques (voltammetry, coulometric analysis, etc.) will be used. The complete speciation of sulfur will be undertaken in representative synfuel process stream samples. Total sulfidic sulfur has been quantitated with the aid of diffusion currents engendered by the anodic depolarization of the dropping mercury electrode. Classical chemical reactions involving polythionates were surveyed as to their applicability to analytical determinations by Direct Injection Enthalpimetry (DIE). Reactions included polythionate decomposition by sulfide precipitation with mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, and thallows nitrate; polythionate oxidation, cyanolysis, and complexation with aquopentaammine cobalt ( 3) chloride. An analysis of two H-Coal sour water samples was undertaken using thermochemical, electrochemical and classical methods. The various methods yielded consistent sulfidic and polysulfidic sulfur levels. This internal consistency substantiated the accuracy of the findings.

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Oil shale in-situ research and development. Quarterly report No. 4, May 1-July 31, 1978

This period encompassed many of the preparatory operations prior to the explosive fracturing event at Rock Springs Site Section 17. During May, the last two hydraulic fracturing operations were completed. In June, post hydrofracture evaluation studies were performed. During July, six instrumentation wells were completed and several surveys conducted. (DLC)

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Surface mining of non-coal minerals. appendix II: mining and processing of oil shale and tar sands. Final report

This report was prepared in response to a charge given in Section 709 of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, P.L. 95-87, namely: to make an in-depth study of current and developing technology for mining of oil shale and tar sands. The report includes comments on the relation of oil shale mining and processing to the Act's environmental provisions. These mineral deposits are described in relation to land, water, air, and biological resources. The report concerns oil shale in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, where it is most abundant. The study also describes tar sands of eastern Utah, where almost all the significant deposits are found.

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Opportunities in underground coal gasification

A review is presented of the results obtained on DOE-sponsored field tests of underground coal gasification in steeply-dipping beds at Rawlins, Wyoming. The coal gas composition, process parameters, and process economics are described. Steeply-dipping coal resources, which are not economically mineable using conventional coal mining methods, are identified and potential markets for underground coal gasification products are discussed. It is concluded that in-situ gasification in steeply-dipping deposits should be considered for commercialization.

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Effect of pore size distribution and flow segregation on dispersion in porous media

In order to study the effect of the pore size distribution and flow segregation on dispersion in a porous media, the dispersion of solute in an array of parallel pores is considered. Equations are obtained for the dispersion coefficient in laminar and turbulent flow, as a function of the particle Peclet number. The theory fits quite well cumulative experimental data from various researchers in the Peclet number range from 10/sup -3/ to 10/sup 6/. The model also predicts some trends, backed by experimental data, regarding the effect of particle size, particle size distribution and fluid velocity on dispersion.

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Numerical modeling of thermal recovery processes SUPRI-TR-12

This work treats a theoretical investigation of forward combustion in a simulated laboratory combustion tube. A mathematical model has been developed that includes the thermal, thermodynamic, and hydrodynamic aspects of the process. Oil is assumed to burn directly. A fully implicit scheme is used in a simultaneous technique which seems to be much faster than the Gottfried model. Our model yields spatial distributions of pressure and temperature and saturations and concentrations of all important components (oil, water, oxygen, inert gas, and steam). Finally, it gives production rates, cumulative production, and instantaneous and cumulative WORs and GORs. The various computed profiles and the associated phenomena are interpreted. Comparison with other numerical models is made. The developed model can also simulate other thermal recovery processes, such as hot water flooding and steam injection.

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Oil shale project small retort run summary:  Run S-12

The authors conclude that finely divided shale, broad particle size range, and bed packing characteristics are important factors in retort performance. Future experiments must explore the roles of these factors as they may relate to field operations. The roughness of axial temperature profiles coupled with some localized partial melting observed during inspection of the burned shale bed demonstrates that flow nonuniformities are associated with fine material. Yield loss owing to oil burning could have occurred due to diversion of gas flow by pockets of fines. Oil holdup and subsequent degradation in the fines may have been a factor contributing to the yield loss.

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Trends of petroleum fuels

Trends in properties of motor gasolines for the years 1942 through 1984; diesel fuels for the years 1950 through 1983; aviation fuels for the years 1947 through 1983; and heating oils for the years 1955 through 1984, have been evaluated based upon data contained in surveys prepared and published by the National Institute for Petroleum and Energy Research (NIPER) formerly the Bartlesville Energy Technology Center (BETC). The surveys for motor gasolines were conducted under a cooperative agreement with the Coordinating Research Council (CRC) and the Bureau of Mines from 1935 through 1948 and in cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute (API) since 1948 for all surveys. The motor gasoline surveys have been published twice annually since 1935 describing the properties of motor gasolines throughout the country. Other surveys prepared in cooperation with API and the Bureau of Mines, the Energy Research and Development Administration, the Department of Energy, and currently NIPER were aviation gasolines beginning in 1947, diesel fuels in 1950, aviation turbine fuels in 1951, and heating oils, formerly burner fuel oils, in 1955. Various companies throughout the country obtain samples of motor gasolines from retail outlets and refinery samples for the other surveys, and analyze the samples using American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) procedures. The analytical data are sent to the Bartlesville Center for survey preparation and distribution. A summary report has been assembled from data in 83 semiannual surveys for motor gasolines that shows trends throughout the entire era from winter 19

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Design and analysis of a hydraulic fracture in the tar sand at Northwest Asphalt Ridge, Utah

Material properties and the in-situ stress field information are used to design and analyze a hydraulic fracture experiment in tar sand. Simplified mathematical models have been used to correlate the measured tilts (uplift gradient) at the surface during fracture treatment to the fracture orientation and geometry. Recommendations are made for post-fracture investigation to ascertain the validity of the analysis and the predictability of fracture orientation. Measurements and analysis suggest that the induced fracture was initiated horizontally but turned to a near vertical plane on propagation. This is considered to be a result of the near hydrostatic stress state in which the induced fracture has no preferred orientation and local inhomogeneities, etc., may change the propagation direction.

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Energy balance for the second underground coal gasification experiment, Hanna, Wyoming

The second underground coal gasification experiment conducted by ERDA's Laramie Energy Research Center at a site near Hanna, Wyoming, was completed on July 30, 1976. During the experiment, production reached 0.32 thousand cu m/day (12 thousand CFD) of 6.9 MJ/cu m gas (175 Btu/cu ft). Approximately 6100 tons of coal were gasified during the experiment. Energy return ratios of 4.5 to 5.3, cold gas thermal efficiencies of 76 to 89%, and overall process efficiencies of 65 to 74% were achieved during the second Hanna experiment. The experiment and the results obtained are described with emphasis given to the determination of the energy recovered relative to energy consumed in conducting the test. Data from this determination are compared with previously published data from the first test conducted at Hanna during 1973 to 1974.

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Mechanisms of syncrude/synfuel degradation. First annual report, September 15, 1981-September 30, 1982

Fuel stability tests have been conducted at three temperatures - 43, 65 and 80/sup 0/C - with a wide variety of added nitrogen compounds. Most pyrroles develop copious amounts of total insolubles (filtered solids   adherent gum) but pyridines, quinolines, tetrahydroquinolines, pyrazoles, pyrrolidines, piperidines and pyrazines form modest amounts of sediments. A time-temperature-concentration matrix for sediment formation has been developed for 2,5-dimethylpyrrole (DMP). A very regular pattern has been found with a first order dependence on DMP concentration and an apparent energy of 12 kcal/mole. Basic extracts from two shale derived fuels, when added to the US Navy Shale-II diesel fuel, developed modest amounts of total insolubles.

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Multiphase flow modeling of oil mist and liquid film formation in oil shale retorting

A first level model is presented to account for the appearance and disappearance of liquid oil produced during oil shale retorting. Although a substantial fraction of the kerogen initially present in the oil shale exits the retort as a liquid either in the form of a mist or a falling film, the flow or this valuable, clean liquid fuel is not presently accounted for in oil shale retorting computer models. A rigorous treatment of the problem is very difficult. A simplified and tractable treatment is developed which is designed to be incorporated into computer models of the oil shale retorting process. A complete set of equations and simple models are developed to explicitly account for the movement of condensed oil mist and liquid film flowing at unequal velocities. The equations clearly illustrate where more detailed treatments may be inserted, as they are developed.

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Nitrogen in petroleum asphalt

Nitrogen content is a property of asphalts that have not received the attention that its importance merits.  Asphalt chemistry often is considered an extension of hydrocarbon chemistry and the characteristics that are associated with the low boiling fractions of petroleum are assumed to be slightly modified for asphalt.  Asphalt however, is composed essentially of hydrocarbon c0ompounds containing sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.  This paper shows the importance of the nitrogen content through development of three concepts:  1) Most of the nitrogen in petroleum is fond in the asphaltic fractions.  Some asphaltenes contain as much as an average of tw0-atoms of nitrogen per molecule.   2) Nitrogen not only forms an integral part of the high molecular weight  compounds, but is so firmly combined that upon pyrolysis, most of the nitrogen remains in the coke.  3) Nitrogen and consequently asphalt has significance geochemically as an indication of the degree of maturation or age of an oil.

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Geotechnical studies related to in situ lignite gasification trials. Final report

In situ lignite gasification field tests have been conducted at the Rockdale Test Site by the Petroleum Engineering Department of Texas A and M University. The primary goal of the tests has been the development of technology required to exploit deep-basin lignite resources that are too deep to be mined economically by conventional methods. The objective of the study reported herein was to investigate those geotechnical factors that may influence the performance of in situ gasifiers. Because these geotechnical factors are site specific, the emphasis of this study has been on the in situ gasification trials at the TAMU Rockdale Test Site. The scope of the study included field, laboratory, and numerical modeling tasks related to the role of geotechnical parameters involved in in situ gasification of lignite. Topics included: (1) strength, deformation, permeability, and porosity of lignite and associated overburden materials; (2) regional and local geological structure - particularly orientation of joints and faults and their relationship to strength, deformation, and hydrogeologic parameters; (3) local groundwater hydrology; (4) changes in these parameters resulting from the gasification process; and (5) geophysical methods for cavity detection and monitoring. The results of this study confirm and emphasize the need for adequate pretest baseline data collection and interpretation. Further, it is concluded that anisotropic hydraulic conductivities may be adequately determined by multiple well interference testing and that knowing the preferred directions of flow is important to design of gasification tests. Other conclusions are presented. Primary recommendations are that extensive pretest baseline studies should be run to provide a base for subsequent interpretation of post test results. 88 refs., 19 tabs.

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Resource assessment of the eastern gas shales

The Upper Devonian shales of the Illinois, Appalachian and Michigan Basins are being characterized to provide a basis for accelerating the exploitation of this unconventional source of natural gas which contains in its matrix enormous quantities of natural gas. The Eastern Gas Shale Program is being conducted in order to provide industry with criteria for locating the best areas in which to drill and the means for effectively stimulating the shale to make wells drilled in this resource economically attractive. This paper deals with the organic geochemical characterization of the shales and those criteria that have evolved to assist in the exploration of the resource.

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Vacuum pyrolysis of sodium stearate

Vacuum pyrolysis of sodium stearate was studied to provide useful information for Green River oil shale pyrolysis. Sodium stearate is a typical compound of carboxylic acid salts amounting to 3.6% of total organic materials in the oil shale by methanol extraction. Sodium stearate contained in a stainless steel miniature reactor was heated at 450/sup 0/C in a fluidized sand bath. Pyrolysis times ranged from 15 to 120 minutes. The amounts of gas and liquid products were measured and composition determined by gas chromatography. Ethane, methane, propylene plus propane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide are the major gaseous products, in order of decreasing concentration. The predominant liquid product is a C/sub 17/ alkene with C/sub 12/-C/sub 21/ alkene/alkane pairs present. The first order decomposition rate constant for sodium stearate at 450/sup 0/C was calculated to be 6.4 x 10/sup -3/ min./sup -1/. 18 refs., 7 figs.

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