AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
OIL SHALE ECONOMICS UPDATE

Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing a solid organic material called kerogen. The conventional measure of the quality of oil shale is oil yield as determined by the Fischer assay procedure. With this technique a sample of oil shale is heated in a standardized way to 500degreesC and the hydrocarbons released as vapor are cooled and condensed. The recovered oil is measured and the yield of oil is expressed as gallons of oil per ton of oil shale feed or as weight percent oil recovered from the rock. In the assay procedure, the oil is released from the shale by a thermal cracking reaction. This reaction also produces coke and uncondensed light gases consisting principally of H2, CO, Cl through C4 hydrocarbons H2S and CO2. The coke is produced as a carbonaceous deposit on the retorted shale.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF IN SITU OIL SHALE RETORTING (DRAFT)

An experimental investigation of oil shale retorting is presented. The apparatus and operating conditions presented were specifically designed to simulate the in situ vertical fractured bed retorting process. The dependent retorting variables (oil yield, retorting rate, and bed weight loss) were investigated in terms of six process variables )gas content). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the significance and rank of each variable. In addition, extensive temperature profile measurements were recorded and are presented from several of the more recent tests. Temperature profiles are illustrated graphically in two forms; as two dimensional time/ temperature profiles and as three dimensional thermo-response surfaces. A mathematical formulation of the experimental retort is presented and modeling results discussed.

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RETORTING AND COMBUSTION PROCESSES IN SURFACE OIL-SHALE RETORTS

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's mathematical model for a batch oil-shale retorting process has proved useful in understanding in situ retorting in a bed of oil-shale rubble. This model is based on an improved understanding of the physical and chemical processes involved in retorting. It has since been modified to calculate the retorting of shale moving through a retort, as required for a continuous process in surface equipment.

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OIL FROM SHALE: THE POTENTIAL, THE PROBLEMS, AND A PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT

A unitized management and development of the government-owned oil shale will make it technically and economically practical to obtain very large production rates (1 to 5 x 10sup6 bbl/day) of shale oil from this source. The estimated price is below world prices and could be less than $15/bbl. Private oil shale lands, on the other hand, provide a smaller though still important potential for production in terms of resource size and economic cost. Important differences exist in the nature of the oil-shale resource held by the government and that held by private companies. These differences are crucial not only in estimating production costs and incentives necessary for production but also in defining applicable technology.

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ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT AND FEASIBILITY STUDY OF CHATTANOOGA SHALE AS A FUTURE SOURCE OF URANIUM

The U. S. Department of Energy has an ongoing interest in all aspects of energy: its uses, sources, costs, and availability, Continuing depletion of higher grade U.S. reserves of uranium to supply escalating energy requirements has provided the motivation to examine more closely other possible sources of uranium. One of these is the long-known Chattanooga Shale resource of large tonnage but low grade in the east-central United States.

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PETROLEUM AND OIL-SHALE RESEARCH OF THE BUREAU OF MINES, FISCAL YEAL 1969

During fiscal year 1969, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in 66 projects to improve methods for producing and utilizing petroleum. Programs directed toward the continued conservation of this natural resource, including crude oil, natural gas, and oil shale, were carried out through research performed at four laboratories supervised and supported by administrative personnel of this Bureau of the Department of the Interior. Over 100 technical papers and reports were published by the Bureau or others based on this research, and numerous other reports were prepared for the U.S. Government agencies, State agencies, and organizations of the petroleum and natural gas industry engaged in cooperative research programs with the Bureau.

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THE TOSCO PROCESS ECONOMIC SENSITIVITY TO THE VARIABLES OF PRODUCTION

Cost projections for the production of oil shale encompass much more than evaluation of the retorting process to be employed. The analysis must consider all production aspects, with particular attention to the characteristics of the oil shale property. The total production cost can be separated into three parts: 1. Mining, crushing, and waste disposal; 2. Retorting and recovery of raw shale oil; 3. Oil treating, to reduce nitrogen to a level tolerable to the average refiner. Of these elements, the mining constitutes the largest portion of the total cost and is the most sensitive to the specific nature of the oil shale reserve. Retorting cost is affected primarily by the feed quality, as measured by the standard Fischer Assay. Oil treating cost is affected only by the size of the processing units. Shale oil production costs, as developed for eleven different oil shale reserves, and employing the TOSCO II retorting system, are presented to illustrate the effect of the variables on the three cost elements.

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DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION OF A MODEL FOR EVALUATING ABOVEGROUND AND IN SITU RETORTING OF OIL SHALE

The following basic oil shale mass and heat transfer mechanisms were studied in the laboratory in order to "uncouple" the complex process of retorting oil shale: 1. Kerogen decomposition as a function of time, temperature, and particle size.; 2. Carbonate decomposition.; 3. Coke combustion, both intrinsic and diffusion-limited.; 4. Retort-gas combustion.; 5. Retort gas-to-shale heat transfer including transfer to the particle surface and thermal diffusivity within the particle.

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PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETICALLY SEPARATED SHALE OIL SOLIDS

The application of high gradient magnetic separation (HGMS) to shale oil has been shown by the authors to be an effective method for the removal of solid particles from these hydrocarbon streams. Typical ash removal results indicated that the solids concentration was reduced by 90-100% in several different types of shale oils and that temperature effects can be significant. Similar studies of coal and other synthetic fuels have demonstrated the usefulness of this technique in removing inorganic particulates, such as iron sulfides and pyrite, from liquid hydrocarbon streams. The application of magnetic separation methods to coal-derived liquids has been prompted by the large concentrations of iron containing compounds present in coal ash. By comparison, the mineral matter composition of most oil shales is not as rich in iron. However, the iron composition appears to be fairly evenly distributed enabling even very small solid particles to be efficiently separated from shale oil streams.

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THE PARTITIONINGOF ARSENIC IN INDIGENOUS AND RETORTED OIL SHALE

The distribution of organometallic compounds in shale oils is somewhat variable, but typical analysis indicate the presence of elemental Cd, V, Hg, Sn, Se, and As. Of these, the relatively high concentrations of arsenic have, in particular, presented problems for the processing and refining of oil shale into final oil products. Typically, approximately 30 ppm of arsenic compounds are present in Paraho retorted (indirect mode) shale oils, with similar [As] ranges being found in shale oils obtained via other above-ground or in situ processing methods.

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THE OIL SHALE INDUSTRY

Recent years have been filled with stirring and far-reaching events, world-wide in their effect, not the least of which has been the birth of a new industry, with a potential supply of raw materials that almost defies mathematical computation and staggers the imagination. Can oil wells produce enough to meet the enormous demand now existing for oil and its products? The answer is doubtful. Will new oil fields be discovered to meet the increased demand in future? The answer is extremely doubtful. Yet this is the age of oil. Oil we must have. The supply must come from our great deposits of oil shale. If oil is the "king," then oil shale is the "heir apparent."

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OPTIMAL WITHDRAWL/ INJECTION GAS POLICIES FOR IN SITU OIL SHALE RETORTS

Since the inception of the research, several important factors bearing on these studies have arisen which heavily influence future work. Real-time control of in-situ retorts is being heavily studied by T. Galloway at LLL. Important "controllable" and "observables" have been proposed. The casual affects of non-uniform rubbelization have been identified. The kinetic models have advanced to more accurate levels.

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VOLUMETRIC HEATING OF OIL SHALES BY ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS: A PROGRAM OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

This report is a brief summary of the work carried out since Oct.1981 in the project entitled "Volumetric Heating of Oil Shales by Electromagnetic Methods : A Program of Theoretical and Experimental Studies". This work has been supported in part by a grant from the Laramie Projects Office (Morgantown Energy Technology Center, of the Dept. of Energy). Four graduate students and three postdoctoral fellows in addition to the principle investigator contributed to this project at several stages.

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PRELIMINARY REPORT ON OIL-SHALE RETORTING IN A FLUIDIZED SOLIDS SYSTEM

The use of the fluidization technique is expanding rapidly as a unit operation in the petroleum catalytic cracking field. It is also in the infant stage in other non-catalytic processes such as the cement and ore-dressing industries. Desiring to obtain information on the retorting of oil shale with rapid heating rates at moderately high temperatures, the fluidized-solids technique was selected as being the most likely method. Opportunity was afforded also to study in such a system the effect of a hydrogen atmosphere upon the yield and quality of oil produced. As a preliminary study small-scale laboratory equipment was constructed permitting fluidized retorting of small batches of pulverized oil shale and collection of the oil and gas produced.

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RESEARCH PROGRAM FOR COMPACTION STUDIES ON SPENT SHALE

The Laramie Energy Technology Center (LETC) is currently planning to utilize in-house equipment and personnel to perform a series of experiments which would complement existing oil shale compaction programs and contribute to the technology in this area. To this end, Harris and Associates was requested to develop a research program which could add significantly to oil shale compaction technology based on the utilization of personnel and equipment of LETC.

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PERFORM RESEARCH IN PROCESS DEVELOPMENT FOR HYDRORETORTING OF EASTERN OIL SHALES ANNUAL STATUS REPORT PROGRAM YEAR 2

Program Year 2. The overall objective of this program is to expand the process and environmental data base for moving-bed hydroretorting of Eastern oil shales. The process data will be used to define the operating conditions for efficient utilization of Eastern oil shales using moving-bed hydroretorting technology. Additionally, novel concepts which have the potential for increasing process efficiency and resource utilization will be investigated. The environmental data will be used to assess the potential environmental impact of a commercial-scale moving-bed hydroretorting facility and to identify the suitable environmental control technologies for a moving-bed hydroretorting facility.

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"BENEFICATION-HYDRORETORTING OF U.S. OIL SHALES Program Year 2 For The Period  October 1985 through September 1987"

The specific objective of the second year program at HYCRUDE are: (1) to evaluate the hydroretorting characteristics of the three selected shales supplied by MRI, (2) to evaluate the particle integrity of a briquetted beneficiated shale supplied by MRI, (3) to evaluate the hydrocarbon products produced from the combined MRI beneficiation-HYTORT process, (4) to scale up the hydroretorting data to a commercial plant scale, and (5) to assess the potential environmental impact for a conceptual commercial HYTORT plant operation which utilizes beneficiated shales as feedstocks.

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PERFORM RESEARCH IN PROCESS DEVELOPMENT FOR HYDRORETORTING OF EASTERN OIL SHALES ANNUAL STATUS REPORT PROGRAM YEAR 1

Program Year 1. The overall objective of this program is to expand the process and environmental data base for moving-bed hydroretorting of Eastern oil shales. The process data will be used to define the operating conditions for efficient utilization of Eastern oil shales using moving-bed hydroretorting technology. Additionally, novel concepts which have the potential for increasing process efficiency and resource utilization will be investigated. The environmental data will be used to assess the potential environmental impact of a commercial-scale moving-bed hydroretorting facility and to identify the suitable environmental control technologies for a moving-bed hydroretorting facility.

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INFORMATION PACKAGE : OIL SHALE TRACT C-B, OCCIDENTAL OIL SHALE INC.

In recognition of the vast oil shale resources in the states of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming and the potential they offer to help alleviate a growing energy problem, the Secretary of the Interior in 1971 announced plans for a Federal Oil Shale Leasing Program. As stated in the final environmental statement, the goal of the leasing program was to: provide a new source of energy for the nation by stimulating the timely development of commercial oil shale technology by private enterprise, and to do so in a manner that will assure the minimum possible impact on the present environment while providing for future restoration of the immediate and surrounding area."

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IN-SITU OIL SHALE RESEARCH SITES, ROCK SRPINGS, WYOMING--FINAL BASELINE DATA

Part one of this report summarizes nearly two years of field and analytic work involving the University of Wyoming Rage management Division and the Department of Energy Laramie Energy Technology Center. The project was undertaken in order to design and develop a sampling procedure to meet requirements of regulatory agencies for monitoring reclamation efforts. An intrinsic portion of this procedure is the gathering of baseline data from native communities. This involves the development of a vegetation map and a sampling procedure to thoroughly inventory existing native vegetation. An additional phase of this research involves the inventory of disturbed areas to gain a better understanding of succession processes in the area. The disturbed sites involving in the study are highly variable in terms of the degree of disturbance, the nature of existing edaphic properties, the composition of surrounding communities and in terms of the nature of reclamation efforts already undertaken. Part II was designed to utilize data collected during the baseline study to detect a moisture gradient in desert shrub communities by using principles of ordination. This portion of the final report is submitted as a Ph.D. dissertation written by Calvin E. Lundberg in fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy submitted to the Division of Range Management and the Graduate School of the University of Wyoming.

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CATALYTIC CRACKING FOR THE PRODUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FUELS FROM SYNCRUDES

Because fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the major process currently employed for the conversion of less desirable heavy petroleum fractions, the use of FCC is also being investigated for the upgrading of various synthetic crude oil fractions derived from coal and shale. The synthetic crudes are in general relatively hydrogen deficient, so a large improvement in cracking performance can be achieved by first hydrotreating the syncrudes. The effect of this addition of hydrogen on the yield structure, product quality, and overall heat balance is highlighted for a range of syncrudes to emphasize the advantages of this approach.

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REFINING TO HIGH YIELDS OF JET FUELS FROM SHALE OIL--4TH TECHNICAL PROGRESS REPORT DECEMBER 21, 1978 - JANUARY 20, 1979)

Continuous hydrorefining of Paraho whole crude shale oil under conditions specified in Task 2-2 of the STATEMENT OF WORK to prepare total liquid products containing 500, 2000, and 5000 ppm of nitrogen has been completed in this reporting period. Analyses of the products as specified in the STATEMENT OF WORK are underway.

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A STRATEGIC PLAN FOR OIL SHALE SITING RESEARCH

Rough Draft, with revisions. In FY 1984 the DOE reorganized its oil shale program and altered the emphasis of much of its research. A newly defined research task it siting methodology was formulated for the purpose of guiding environmental research. By emphasizing the requirements for siting oil shale facilities, particularly in the rich basins of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, it was perceived that the needs for environmental research could be focused and priorities set to permit the development of an effective oil shale industry without undue negative environmental effects. Part of the siting methodology task is to define the problems and issues that are associated with facility siting that could deter the development of an oil shale industry if not properly addressed. As one step toward exploring critical issues, it was decided in the Fall of 1985 to conduct a strategic planning exercise using a carefully selected group of experts in various aspects of oil shale technology and its effects.

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REFINING TO HIGH YIELDS OF JET FUELS FROM SHALE OIL

"The objectives of the Suntech projects on shale oil are to convert shale oil into high yields of jet fuels and to examine the trade-offs between severe hydrorefining versus the combination of milder hydrorefining and subsequent removal of nitrogen via HC1-precipitation or solvent extraction (Slide 2). Paraho whole crude shale oil has been hydrorefined to produce multi-gallon blends of hydrogenate which contain about 5,000, 2,000, and 500 ppm residual nitrogen (Slide 3). The data indicate that the ratio of basic to total nitrogen decreases with increasing hydrogenation severity. Analyses of the distillate fractions of the original shale oil (Slide 4) and the three  hydrorefined blends (Slides 5, 6, and 7) indicate that the total nitrogen content increases at the higher boiling ranges. The ratio of basic to total nitrogen appears to be   highest in the lowest boiling range. Treatment of the three hydrorefined blends, which contain 5,000 to 500 ppm nitrogen, with hydrogen chloride (Slide 8) produced raffinates with nitrogen contents of 1,200 to 300 ppm, respectively, and chloride contents of about 300 ppm. Treatment of the HCl raffinates with sulfuric acid (Slide 9) reduced the nitrogen content to about 10 ppm. Successive  Hel and H2S04 treatment (Slide 10) of the 1 to 572°F distillate fractions of hydrorefined shale oil produced raffinates with nitrogen levels of less than 1 ppm.  Raffinates of the 572°F to 1000°F fractions had nitrogen levels of less than 100 ppm. Chloride contents of the two distillate fractions were <50 and >100 respectively."

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THE HYTORT PROCESS, A NEW APPROACH TO OIL SHALES WORLDWIDE

The HYTORT Process is a unique oil shale retorting process which uses an atmosphere of hydrogen gas at elevated pressure to produce higher yields of oil than are possible using conventional thermal retorting techniques. It is the result of nearly $20 million worth of research, demonstration, and design work by HYCRUDE Corporation, the Institute of Gas Technology, Phillips Petroleum Company, and Betchel Group, Inc. This work, which concentrated on the Devonian shales of the Eastern United States, established the technical feasibility of the HYTORT process as well as its economics for application to Eastern U.S. shales.

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COKING OF OIL SHALE, A PRELIMINARY LABORATORY STUDY

Oil-shale coke is that cellular, enhanced, solid material obtained as a result from the low-temperature carbonization of certain oil shales. It varies from a weak friable material is which the shale particles are cemented loosely together by a carbonaceous material, to a completely fused, coherent mass in which all shale particles have lost their physical identity.  This coking property does not seem to bear any direct relationship to oil yield, but is generally associated with rich oil shales, since lean shales rarely form troublesome cokes.  The shales which form coke are of such common occurrence, however, that any industrial organization which endeavors to process oil shale commercially will have of consider this problem, and it is serious, for the removal of coked mass from a retort may be a difficult and costly operation.

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ECONOMICS OF THE HYTORT PROCESS FOR EASTERN U.S. OIL SHALES

The HYTORT Process is the only oil shale retorting process which has been developed specifically to unlock the large Devonian oil shale resources of the Eastern U.S. Using hydrogen at elevated pressure, yields of over 200% of Fischer Assay are obtained from these shale. A joint effort by HYCRUDE Corporation, Phillips Petroleum Company, Bechtel Group, Inc., and the Institute of Gas Technology led to the completion of a comprehensive study of the HYTORT Process in May 1983. This study concluded that commercialization of the HYTORT Process is feasible.

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REPORT ON BURNING THE GEOKINETICS EXPERIMENTAL RETORTS #27 AND #28

The LOFRECO, which is an acronym for Low Front End Cost, Process is a true in situ oil extraction process designed specifically for areas where the shale beds are relatively thin and close to the surface. In this process, a pattern of blast holes is drilled from the surface, through the overburden, and into the oil shale bed. The holes are loaded with explosives and fired, using a carefully planned blast system. The blast results in a fragmented mass of oil shale with a high permeability. The void space in the fragmented zone comes from lifting the overburden and producing an uplift of the surface.

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PHYSICO-CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF EASTERN AND WESTERN SHALE OILS PRODUCED BY THE IGT HYTORT AND FISCHER ASSAY PROCESSES

The major interest in oil shale development within the United States, thus far, has focused on the oil shales in the Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah and Wyoming. However, a substantial portion (nearly 250,000 square miles) of the Eastern United States is underlain by the Devonian Black Shales, and in principle, represents a sizeable potential resource. These shales, however, yield only less than one-half as much liquids upon heating as do the Green River Formation oil shales, because of the lesser hydrogen contents of the Devonian shales. Therefore processes to extract liquids or improve recovery ratios from the Devonian shales must necessarily deal with special retorting techniques for hydrogen deficient material. One such candidate process is the Institute of Gas Technology's Hytort process, which retorts oil shale under hydrogen pressure with the result that oil yields of Devonian shales are increased 2.5 times over those obtained by the standard Fischer assay. Characterization of the Eastern and western oils that are produced by the IGN and Fischer assay processes would be beneficial toward: a) assessing the quality or the product oils. B) understanding the retort process and c) providing information for optimizing the process.

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