AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
Comparison of Brazilian and Colorado shale oils. [Effects of retorting method and kerogen composition on boiling range, N and S distribution, and hydrocarbon-type composition]

Lack of uniformity of retorting operations on shales from various localities has made it difficult to separate the effects of retorting from those contributed by the nature of the oil shale. analyses of oils obtained from Colorado shale by various retorting methods and of oils from a number of countries have been published. These latter oils in general resulted from commercial retorting, so did not give information as to the range in product composition obtainable by different retorting methods or different operating conditions in the same retort. In the present investifation, oils obtained by retorting Paraiba Valley shale from Brazil in six experimental retorts have been analyzed. Comparison of selected properties with those on a similar series of Colorado oils affords an opportunity to distinguish between the effects of shale composition and retorting conditions.

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Constitution of organic acids prepared from Colorado oil shale - based on butyl esters

The constitution of organic acids prepared from the kerogen in Colorado oil shale was studied to determine organic structures.  The kerogen was degraded to a series of organic acids by oxidation with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate; the acids were converted to their n-butyl eaters for fractionation. Based upon the properties of the eaters, the degradation product consisted of dicarboxylic acids of the normal alkane series, with a series of dicarboxylic acids of higher molecular weight.  The compositions of the nuclear portions of the higher molecular weight acids resembled that of kerogen and indicated the presence of saturated ring rather than aromatic or parafinic structures.  Information concerning the principal chemical structures in the organic material in Colorado oil shale helps ;in the selection of favorable reactions and processing conditions for converting the oil shale to liquid fuels.

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Analysis of crude shale oil. II. Some Brazilian and USA oils

This report gives the results of analyzing three groups of crude shale oils by the Bureau of Mines procedure: (1) oils produced by standard Fischer assay determinations on oil shales from Brazil and the United States; (2) oils produced from Brazilian shale by different retorting methods; and (3) oils from high-temperature retorting of Colorado oil shale in the Entrained Solids retort. It is the second in a series presenting data obtained by analyzing crude shale oils from various sources. The series furnishes information on the general characteristics and compositions of a wide variety of shale oils. Use of a standard analytical method on all samples facilitates comparison of different oils.

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Coal/tar sand/shale refining technology:  engineering aspects of processing oil shale by in situ retorting

Following an in situ retorting experiment in Green River oil shale near Rock Springs, Wyoming, at a depth of 70-88 ft, the U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted a second experiment on a larger scale and at a greater depth (110-145 ft). Combustion was initiated after explosive fracturing, but the rate of combustion attained was insufficient, and an hydraulic fracturing treatment was tried in an attempt to increase the surface available for combustion; however, combustion of shale continued to be limited by the availability of fuel. Pattern for injection, production, and monitoring wells, the fracturing procedures, and the measures taken to evaluate results are described.

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Effects of temperature and time of reaction in distilling oil shales on the yields and properties of the crude oils

This paper is based on data obtained in the course of the oil-shale investigation of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, conducted in cooperation with the State of Utah.  The amount and quality of oil that can be produced from any shale may able made to vary to an important degree by changing the temperature relations existing in the shale charge during  it thermal decomposition.  The rate at which the oil is formed from the shale is affected by the rate of heat supply, and therefore by the temperature of the shale during its thermal decomposition.  The quality of the oil formed may be controlled by altering the temperature of the shale, and therefore the rate of formation of the oil.  Variations in the yields and quality of shale oils may be caused by inherent properties of the retort used, but in any event the properties of the crude oil and yields are very largely  the result of the extent to which thermal decomposition has progressed.  Recognition of these principles will aid in explaining to a large degree the reasons for the wide variations in oils produced from the same shales by different "processes".  These principles also may be applied in the operation of different types of retorts in order that crude oils of a type most profitable to the operator may be produced.  The Bureau of Mines has conducted an extended series of tests in the destructive distillation of oil shales, in order to determine the wide variations that may be affected in the quality and yield of shale oil by changing the rate and temperature at which the oil is formed.  Those tests furnished interesting information on the four related points: yield of oil, quality of oil, temperature required to distill shales and time required for distillation.

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Technical and economic study of candidate underground mining systems for deep, thick oil shale deposits. Final report

This report covers: (1) chamber and pillar mining with spent shale backfill, (2) sublevel stoping with spent shale backfill, (3) sublevel stoping with full subsidence, and (4) block caving mining using LHD's. Final refinement and analysis of these four systems indicated their technical feasibility over at least part of the range of conditions expected in the deeper deposits. Their economic feasibility also was indicated under certain operating and market conditions. A variety of engineering, production, and cost information is provided on each of these systems.

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Second-order effects in the kinetics of oil shale pyrolysis

A system of thermal decompositions is presented providing an adequate description of the mechanism of oil shale pyrolysis. Specific rate constants for systems of thermal decompositions studied are estimated via a least-squares procedure. The estimates thus obtained provide a mathematical model of the corresponding thermal decomposition system. A model that generates a good fit to published Bureau of Mines experimental data, in comparison with other models studied, is based on a thermal decomposition system consisting of two first-order reactions and three second-order reactions. Values computed for the specific rate constants corresponding to this system are shown to exhibit a temperature dependence that is in good agreement with the Arrhenius equation.

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Waterflooding of oilfields in Colorado

Information is presented on 63 waterflood projects in Colorado. Water was injected in 10 formations located in 58 oilfields. Specific field data presented include location, discovery, development, water supply, fluid injection, oil and water production, oil reserves, and oil recoveries by primary and secondary methods. An estimated 3.5 billion barrels of water have been injected to recover approximately 533 million barrels of oil, a ratio of 6.57 to 1. Most of the injection water is from alluvial deposits, although produced water is used in many fields. Injection water treatment is not a major problem. Appraisal of project success or failure in this report is based on technical, rather than economic, information.

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Coal devolatilization and hydrogasification. [Review; 180 refs]

The fundamental understanding of coal and its behavior under gasification conditions is far from complete, but significant insights into the complex chemical and physical phenomena have been achieved. This review of available fundamental information focuses on thermal decomposition of coal in inert gas and in hydrogen, with emphasis on the effects on yield of products exerted by time, temperature, heating rate, pressure, hydrogen partial pressure, and particle size, and on the development of chemical and transport models of engineering importance.

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Sulfur and nitrogen compounds in shale oil

Shae oil is related to petroleum but in many respects is a quite different material. Shale oil does not exist in nature as an oil; it is formed by heating the naturally occuring, insoluble organic matter in oil shale to approximately 850 degrees F or higher. Hence, as a product of pyrolysis, shale oils resemble cracked petroleum products more than they do virgin stocks. Shale oils vary in composition, depending on the shale source and on the retorting method used to produce them. Part of this paper is concerned with shale oils from various localities throughout the world, but most of it is devoted to shale oils produced from shale of the Green River Formation in Western Colorado. Most pertinent work of the Bureau of Mines Laramie Petroleum Research Center and other investigators in this country has been done on these Colorado shale oils.

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Visible-action continuous-distillation apparatus for laboratory study of fractionation

"The value of careful fractionation in the manufacture of petroleum products is recognized more and more by petroleum refiners. Recent studies have shown that the quality of the products depends largely on the type of  fractionating equipment and on the care used in operating the equipment. For example Rue3 has shown that careful fractionation of pressure distillate will greatly reduce the amount of chemical treatment necessary to produce finished gasoline. The advantages of the combination of pipe still and bubble tower in obtaining good fractionation are well recognized in the petroleum industry. However, the equipment designed in the past has in general been much too large for convenient laboratory use. The present paper describes a continuous-distillation apparatus for the laboratory study of fractionation. This apparatus has given very satisfactory results in the study of different crude oils and petroleum products. A discussion  of the theory and action of bubble towers has not been given, as this subject has been discussed previously by Cooke and Rue. It is believed that the distillation curves of the products obtained from this apparatus show clearly  its capabilities."

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Processing of oil shale in molten hydroxides

Scoping experiments to determine bounds on a possible process for producing fuel hydrocarbons from oil shale by pyrolysis in a bath of molten Na, Li, and K hydroxides have been done. The process can be carried out at relatively low temperatures, 200 to 225/sup 0/C, requires the presence of water and oxygen, and gives hydrocarbon and organic acid products, apparently free of sulfur and nitrogen. A mechanism of oxidation of kerogen at heteroatoms and other functional groups, followed by decarboxylation of organic acids, is consistent with the observations but is speculative at this time.

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Relation of oil yield to the structure of the thermal wave in the combustion processing of oil shale

The combustion retorting of oil shale is analyzed. By using coordinate systems moving at the same velocity as reaction zones, a model is obtained for the fully developed thermal wave which would exist after the wave has progressed a sufficient distance into the bed. Of particular interest is the interpretation of oil yield in terms of the structure of the wave and of operating variables.

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Fluidized bed retorting and gasification of Devonian shale. Final report

There are vast quantities of Vevonian shale in the Eastern United States including the state of Alabama. The energy potential amounts to several hundred years of total equivalent crude oil demand in the United States. Most of the prior research on Devonian shale by conventional retorting methods resulted in oil yields of only about half that of oil shales from the Western United States even though the total organic carbon content of the Eastern and Western shales are comparable. Eastern shales have organic carbon in polynuclear aromatic type structures. Such structures are very refractory, and it is virtually impossible to break them down into oils. However, hydrogen will react with polynuclear aromatics to form aliphatic structures which can be readily decomposed into oils. The purpose of this work is to determine how much oil yield or equivalent gaseous fuels can be recovered from Devonian shale in retorting and gasification under hydrogen-containing atmospheres. Experiments involving the retorting of granular shale under hydrogen atmospheres resulted in recoveries of organic carbon from Devonian shale exceeding eighty percent. This compares favorably with recoveries from Western shale. Other studies involved the gasification of shale char and the development of fluidized bed reactor design models for evaluation of various process alternates. 10 references, 1 figure, 5 tables.

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Energy from true in situ processing of Antrim shale:  preparation of an in situ retort bed by hydraulic fracturing

The Antrim shale, which underlies most of the Lower Peninsula of michigan, is a black Devonian shale which generally contains organic matter which was deposited as dead vegetation along with muds and silts in a large shallow epicontinental sea. Over the millions of years, the mud with compacted and transfromed into shale as the vegetation was coalified into a high molecular weight material called kerogen. When the oil shale is heated to about 500 degrees C (932 Degrees F), the kerogen breaks down into oils and gases. In in situ processing, this pyrolysis reaction is carried out undergound, using wells to access the zone of interest. The Antrim has potential yields of 5-15 gallons of oil per ton as well as significant quantities of low Btu gases.

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Investigation of the Geokinetics horizontal in situ oil shale retorting process. Seventh annual report, 1983

In the Geokinetics process, a pattern of blast holes is drilled from the surface, through the overburden, and into the oil shale bed. The holes are loaded with explosives and fired using a carefully planned blast system. The blast produces a fragmented mass of oil shale with high permeability. The fragmented zone constitutes an in situ retort. The project site is in the Mahogany Zone oil shale in Utah. During 1983 significant milestones were achieved. The burn of Retort No. 26 was completed on February 22, 1983, having produced 22,889 barrels of oil. By the end of July, 1983, all preparations were complete for the ignition of Retort No. 27. However, ignition was delayed until August 11, 1983, pending completion of the retort off gas processing facility. By early October, final preparations for the ignition of Retort No. 28 were completed and the retort was ignited on October 18, 1983. A facility to remove ammonia and hydrogen sulfide contaminants from Retorts No. 27 and No. 28 off gas was constructed at the site. Numerous environmental tests and experiments were conducted, primarily to gather data for permitting purposes. A pond to hold water produced by Retorts No. 27 and No. 28 was completed during August, 1983. The pond was put into service at the same time as the ignition of Retort No. 27.

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Energy from true in situ processing of antrim shale:  preparation of in situ retort bed by explosive underreaming and fracturing

The contract between the Dow Chemical Company and the Department of Energy to investigate the feasibility of recovery of energy from the Antrim shale by an in situ process includes a task titled, "In Situ Fracturing and Assessment". This task required Dow to conduct and evaluate three fracture techniques.

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An analytical model of combustion of spent oil shale blocks: the model and experiments

Oil shale, a potential source of liquid fuel, is a fine-grained, sedimentary rock composed of both organic and inorganic solid compounds. The production of liquid fuel from oil shale requires the retorting of the shale, in which oil and gas are destructively distilled from the shale rock, leaving behind a highly carbonaceous char within the spent shale matrix. The amount of char left depends on the richness of the raw shale. Typically, 23% by weight of the organic material originally present in the shale is left as char. Combustion of this char could potentially provide all or part of the heat requirement for retorting of the shale. There have recently been several studies dealing with the combustion behavior of spent shale. Although char in shale is not pure carbon, most studies have treated it as carbon with reasonable success. In the combustion of spent oil shale in an environment of air with other inert gases, there are three active components to be considered, O/sub 2/, CO/sub 2/ and CO and four major chemical reactions, namely: Direct oxidation of the residual char, a process which is limited by the diffusion of oxygen and which creates an ''unburned core''.

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Model capabilities for in-situ oil shale recovery

The extensive oil shale reserves of the United States are now under development as an energy source. One of the approaches for extracting oil from shale is the so called modified in-situ retort. The operation of such retorts for maximum yield requires an understanding of oil loss mechanisms so that operating strategies that minimize these losses can be developed. The present modeling capabilities for describing the behavior and yield from a modified in-situ retort are discussed. It is shown how the advances made in describing retort chemistry have greatly increased the predictive capabilities of these models. Two models that have been subject to comparison with laboratory retorts are described. The first is a one-dimensional model that treats the retort as a packed bed reactor, the second is a quasi-two-dimensional examination of block retorting. Both models are capable of predicting retorting rates, off gas composition and oil yield losses to coking and combustion. The block model, for example, describes conditions where local oil yield losses can be as high as 50%. Areas for further model improvement include additional work on describing retort chemistry, such as the steam/char and gas phase combustion reactions. The major need for modeling now is expansion to multi-dimensional simulation. This is necessary if a predictive capability is to be developed for field situations where sweep efficiency losses and gravitational effects become important.

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Oil Shale Program. Quarterly reports, April 1984-September 1984

Recent field experiments have demonstrated that the yield from an in situ retort is largely controlled by the characteristics of the rubble bed produced during the bed preparation step. This realization has focused the need to develop a predictive capability for the fragmentation step in the process of constructing an in situ retort. In addition, it is important that criteria for the blast results be developed that are based on a thorough understanding of retort yield as a function of bed characteristics. The influence of permeability structure on retort yield must be clearly defined.

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Pyrolysis of oil shale in gas-combustion retort. [Factors affecting mist formation]

Important features of the gas combustion process to recover oil from Green River oil shale are discussed, and data are cited from a pilot plant (6 tons per day) to illustrate certain operational characteristics. Condensation as a stable mist allows the oil to be removed from the shale bed below its dew point. The ration of gas to solid in the product cooling zone influences strongly the oil-condensation phenomenon, exerting an effect on the extent to which the oil condenses as an aerosol and upon the size and stability of the oil-mist particles. Combustion-zone temperature should be above 1400 degrees F, to ensure a rapid combustion rate but less than 1800 Degrees F, to avoid fusing the inorganic constituents in the shale. To recover a high yield of liquid products in a gas circulation process, a low pyrolysis temperature, about 800 to 900 degrees F, is very desirable. Low pyrolysis temperatures are readily attained in the gas combustion process.

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Oil-Shale Program. Twenty-fifth quarterly report, January 1982-March 1982

The overall efficiency of shale oil recovery processes is determined primarily by a combination of sweep efficiency, retorting efficiency and volumetric efficiency. There efficiency components are related to the way in which the retort bed is prepared, the retorting technique employed and the structural characteristics of the mine and in situ retorts. Therefore, the Sandia program addresses these three main areas: Bed Preparation and Characterization; Retorting Process; Structural stability.

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Metal content of twenty-four petroleums

Varied information has been published concerning the metal content of petroleum (4,6,14,17) but the data are limited for crude oils from definitely known geographic and geologic sources.  The samples analyzed in many instances have been mixtures or have been only partially identified.  For this investigation 24 petroleum were collected by the Geological Survey and analyzed semi quantitatively for 27 elements and quantitavely for vanadium, nickel, copper and uranium.  In addition, they were analyzed by the routine Bureau of Mines crude oil analysis method (18).  These petroleum's can be associated geographically with the oil field and geologically with the producing formation.

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Oxygen and nitrogen compounds in shale-oil naphtha

"Among the nonhydrocarbon constituents of shale-oil  naphtha are various classes of nitrogen- and oxygen-  containing compounds. These are important because of their effect on processing techniques and because of by- product possibilities. Bureau of Mines work on naphtha from Colorado shale oil as reported in this paper has resulted in the identification of eleven phenols, twelve pyridines, two pyrroles, three benzonitriles, and benzofuran. Relative amounts of individual phenols and pyridines were estimated and evidence indicating the presence in of carboxylic acids was obtained.  Previously, two additional pyrroles and two quinolines were reported by the Bureau.  Other investigators have found phenols, ketones, an alcohol and an ether among the oxygen compounds and pyridines among the nitrogen compounds in shale oil.  As the result of this work two new classes of compounds for which no individual member had previously been reported were shown to be present in shale-oil naphtha."

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Role of nucleation in oil-shale retorting. [Seeding by NaCl or Al/sub 2/O/sub 3/]

"Promotion of nucleation of oil vapor in a gas stream rising  through a bed of irregularly shaped solids by seeding with  sodium chloride or aluminum oxide has been found to  simplify the later recovery of the oil by condensation.  Translated, this technique may find other important uses  in chemical processing."

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Identification of a cycloalkyl ketone in Wilmington petroleum through use of chromatography and spectroscopy

"An acetyl-isopropyl-methyl cyclopentane, the first  cycloalkyl ketone to be found in petroleum has been identified in Wilmington, Calif., petroleum as part of the work of API Research Project 52. The cycloalkyl ketone was isolated from the virgin petroleum by a combination of distillation, liquid-solid chromatography, and gas-liquid chromatography. The compound, which is present in the crude oil to the extent of at least 5 p.p.m., was identified by interpretation of medium and high resolution mass,  infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectra."

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