AndreaBozzo/ceres-open-data-index huggingface dataset:
A THREE-DIMENSIONAL NUMERICAL SIMULATION FOR UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION

The domestic need for alternative energy sources and energy self-sufficiency has stimulated a renewed look at underground coal gasification. The potential for UGG in Texas is great because there is estimated to be over 100 billion tons of Texas lignite, amounting to the energy equivalent of ten times the state's reserves in oil and gas. Of this 100 billion tons, about 10 to 20% is recoverable by strip mining. The deeper lignite could be extracted using a process such as underground coal gasification. W. R. Kaiser for the Bureau of Economic Geology has estimated about 35 billion tons to be feasible for recovery by UCG. A low BTU gas produced by air injection of UCG could be used in powerplants. A medium BTU gas produced by steam-oxygen injection could be used in direct heating in industry and as a chemical feedstock. This lignite is also close to the major cities in Texas, making the economics of its utilization even more attractive.

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GEOPHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF COAL DEPOSITS

Recent literature on the techniques of applied geophysics which are used to detect geologic and man-made structures in coal deposits is reviewed. Information about these structures may be used in the assessment of coal reserves and in the planning of coal mining and the use of abandoned mining sites. Seismic, nuclear, electromagnetic, electrical, magnetic, gravitational and geothermal techniques are described. Equipment, data acquisition procedures and data processing methods are outlined in each case. Many of the techniques may be used to explore from the surface, from within boreholes and from underground. Some techniques are largely experimental while others have passed the development stage and are in regular operational use in the coal industry. The most promising results to data have been obtained form the various techniques of geophysical borehole logging and from seismic and electromagnetic surveying both from the surface and from underground.

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POSTBURN STUDY RESULTS FOR HANNA II, PHASES 2 AND 3, UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION EXPERIMENT

During the fall of 1980 the Laramie Energy Technology Center conducted a post-burn drilling study at the Hanna 2, Phases 2 and 3 underground coal gasification site. Twenty-two drill holes were drilled and logged. Core samples and geophysical logs were used to interpret the gasification zone. Caliper, gamma, gamma-gamma density, neutron, directional, and temperature logs were used. Char zones were delineated using petrographic studies and chemical analyses. Vertical cross sections were constructed to show the size and shape of the burn cavity and the location of rubble, paralava and char.

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OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF SHALE OIL FOR PARAMETER STUDY IN RETORTING

"Optical activity has been observed in petroleum and in isoprenoid compounds, steranes. and triterpanes extracted from oil shale (1-3). Optical activity is a  property that can reflect the molecular integrity of a former biological system and has been used to evaluate the geochemical history of petroleum from different  geological ages (1). Optical isomer data have been used as a biological clock in geochronological research (4) and have been used to determine the possible origin of  certain carbonaceous chondrite meteorites (5). The key to studying these organic systems is the slow decay of the optically active molecules, as a result of lowlevel  heat (geological time), into optically neutral mixtures. Retorting of oil shale kerogen accelerates this decay process. This paper describes the use of optical activity data as a means of studying this conversion of kerogen into shale oil. Studies at the Laramie Energy Research Center have demonstrated that shale oil produced from bench-scale and field in-situ experiments is optically active. New insights into the retorting process may now be possible by following the changes in optical activity."

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PROPERTIES OF SHALE-OIL ASPHALTS FROM COLORADO OIL SHALE

"Shale oil obtained by retorting oil shale from the Green River formation in Colorado contains an appreciable amount of asphaltic material. This paper describes a preliminary laboratory study of this material. Series of asphaltic products of different consistencies were  prepared experimentally by various petroleum-refining processes such as vacuum distillation, cracking, air blowing, and propane precipitation. The properties of these products were then measured by common asphalt  tests, and the results were compared with those obtained for corresponding products from petroleum. In general, the study showed that asphaltic products of different consistencies can be prepared from Colorado shale  oil. As might be expected, the properties of these shale-oil asphalts were somewhat different from those of asphalts from petroleum, particularly with respect to solubility, distillation, ductility, temperature susceptibility, and possibly wax content. To obtain products that meet specifications for petroleum asphalts, it would be  necessary to adjust or alter several properties of the shale-oil asphalts. No attempt was made in this  study to prepare shale-oil asphalts or road oils that meet current specifications for products from petroleum or to determine the performance of the shale-oil asphalts under service conditions."

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COMPARISON OF SHALE-OIL DENITRIFICATION REACTIONS OVER CO-MO AND NI-W CATALYSTS

As the nations needs for additional sources of petroleum products become ever more pressing, a role for oil shale in the synthetic fuels industry becomes more probable.  One of the problems in converting shale oil to hydrocarbon liquid products in the elimination of nitrogen from the shale oil.  Nitrogen compounds not only impart undesirable properties to the finished products but their basic nature makes them effective poisons for the acidic catalysts used in petroleum refining.  An efficient means of eliminating nitrogen from shale oil is hydrodenitrification of the oil in the presence of a dual function catalyst.  In a study of the denitrification of model nitrogen compounds over an Ni-W on Al2O3 catalyst, Flinn reported that amines and anilines reacted readily to form ammonia but indole was much less active and quinoline was the most difficult to dentrify.  Unfortunately, most of the nitrogen in shale oil has been found to be of the quinoline and indole types.

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DIRECTIONAL PROPERTIES OF ORIENTED CORE, UNDERGROUND GASIFICATION SITE, HANNA COAL FIELD, WYOMING

Lack of control of injected and produced fluids in any subsurface formation is more times than not the critical factor in the evaluation of whether an in situ extraction technique is feasible or not. This problem often evolves from insufficient information about the directional characteristics of the subsurface formation. In order to obtain a better understanding of the geologic factors in the coalbed existing at the Hanna test site, an evaluation of the directional properties was requested. Accordingly, an oriented core was extracted from the proposed field test site and sent to the Morgantown Energy Research Center for measurement of directional properties. This report describes the methods used, the results obtained, and the interpretation that evolved.

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CONVERTING CHATTANOOGA OIL SHALE TO SYNTHETIC LIQUID FUEL

The Chattanooga Shale is widely distributed in Tennessee and has been known as a potential source of shale oil and strategic minerals, particularly uranium, for many years. It was studied in the late 1940's as a source of uranium. The shale varies in color from light gray to black. The shale is of the Devonian Age and occurs under the Maury formation and above the Leipers limestone. It exists as the Gassaway and Dowelltown members. Generally, the combined thickness of these two members in the seven-county study ranged in thickness from about 26 feet to greater than 34 feet. The overall intent of this study was to identify the extent of the Chattanooga shale in Tennessee, characterize its properties, review its potential as an oil producer in terms of present-day technologies, and to assess interest in the private sector for development and commercialization. This report contains the results of this six-month study.

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PARAHO FINAL REPORT MANAGEMENT SUMMARY VOLUME I

Two Paraho oil shale retorts, a 30 inch inside diameter Pilot Plant with a nominal capacity of about 20 barrels per day and a 10 times larger Semi-Works unit were installed and operated. Three retorting modes were performed: Direct Heated whereby heat was supplied by internal combustion; Indirect Heated with an external heat source; and a Combination mode.

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EFFECT OF AN IN SITU PRODUCED OIL SHALE PROCESSING WATER ON METABOLISM

The effects of in situ produced oil shale retort water on the metabolism of various substrates was studied both in vivo and in vitro. The induction observed in rats was classified as Type I due to an increase in metabolism of hexobarbital and ethylmorphine without subsequent increases in zoxazolamine metabolism. The maximal absorption of the cytochrome P 450 complex was observed to be 450 mu also consistent with type I inducers.

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PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF UNALTERED AND THERMALLY METAMORPHOSED COAL FROM THE HANNA, WYOMING GASIFICATION AREA

Petrographic data were used to characterize carbonaceous shale, bituminous coal, and char at the Hanna, Wyoming, underground coal gasification site. Petrographic procedures for sample preparation, maceral analysis, and mean-maximum reflectance analysis are described. Photomicrographs showing vitrinite, pseudovitrinite, exinite, resinite, semi-fusinite, semi-macrinite, fusinite, macrinite, and sclerotinite are included. A petrographic classification of coal from the Hanna No. 1 coal seam is given. Rank of the Hanna coal was determined using the mean-maximum reflectance of the virtrinite, and this determination was compared to rank determined according to the AASTM method. The rank of the coal is a High Volatile C Bituminous coal. Char obtained from the Hanna 2, Phase 2 and 3 burn was characterized using a maceral analysis and a reflectance analysis. Possible applications of petrographic data for characterization of coal prior to underground coal gasification is explained.

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LOCATION OF BURNS AND FAULTS AT THE HANNA UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION AREA USING HIGH RESOLUTION SEISMIC Survey

In November 1980, a high-resolution seismic survey was conducted at the Hanna underground coal gasification area. The objectives of the survey were to locate and characterize the burn cavity at the Hanna II, phases 2 and 3 gasification site, and to locate shallow geologic faults. Seismic data acquisition and processing parameters were specifically designed to emphasize reflections at the shallow, 200 to 500 ft depths. A three dimensional grid of data was obtained over the burn zone. Processing included time-varying filters, deconvolution, trace compositing, and two dimensional, areal stacking of the data in order to identify anomalies. An anomaly was clearly discernible resulting from the rubble collapse void in the burn zone. The anomaly was studied in detail and compared to synthetic models. The fault system was found to be a graben complex with antithetic faults. The fault system contains folded beds. A series of anomalies was discovered on the northeast end of one of the seismic lines. These reflections have been identified as underground mine adits from the old Hanna No. 1 coal mine.

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DETERMINATION OF UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION BURN TEMPERATURES USING THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF COAL MACERALS AS A GEOTHERMOMETER

Samples of coal were obtained from the Hanna No. 1 coal at DOE's Hanna underground site. Each sample was heated in a helium atmosphere for one hour, with alteration temperatures beginning at about 23 degrees Centigrade, and increasing at 50 degree increments between 50 degrees and 600 degrees Centigrade. The process is believed to have duplicated conditions at certain locations within an underground coal gasification reactor. A method of determining gasification reaction temperature by relating visible changes in coal macerals with known temperature of alteration was developed. Macerals were identified using white and blue-ultra violet incident light. A semi-mobile fluorescing maceral, exudatinite, was found to be unusually abundant in all samples and displayed a steadily decreasing abundance as heating progressed. Significant changes began between 250-300 degrees Centigrade when reaction vesicles developed due to exudatinite and exinite destruction. Above that temperature, increased cracking and vesicularization of the coal matrix was accompanied by extinction of fluorescence at 400 degrees Centigrade. The devolatization of exudatinite and other Liptinites is among the earliest of conversion reactions. Vitrinite reflectivity increased as temperatures increased.

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AN EVALUATION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION AT THE US DOE HOE CREEK UCG EXPERIMENTAL SITE

The US Department of Energy Hoe Creek Underground Coal Gasification Experimental site has been the subject of many environmentally directed investigations. To date, these investigations have focused primarily on identification and quantification of contaminants in the groundwater at the site as a result of these UCG experiments, and on the possible mechanisms of that contamination in monitoring wells on the northern and eastern boundaries on the site, indicating the possibility of a contaminant plume resulting from the Hoe Creek II burn.

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HANNA IV OPERATIONAL DIFFICULTIES--AN EVALUATION

Hanna IV, the fourth in a series of underground coal gasification experiments fielded and conducted by the Laramie Energy Technology Center, was originally designed as a three-well linear module. A major process objective was to confirm the ability to relay the reverse combustion linking and forward gasification techniques from one pair of process wells forced an extended interruption of the experiment and precluded the relaying of the process as originally conceived. The initial phase of Hanna IV is referred to as Hanna Iva; the continuation of the experiment is referred to as Hanna IVb.

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ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF THIOPHENES IN SHALE-OIL NAPHTHA

Methods have been developed for the isolation and identification of the thiophenes in a Colorado shale-oil naphtha.  The basic method for the isolation of thiiophenes from a shale oil naphtha is as follows:  1. Treatment with 10 percent sodium hydroxide.  2. Treatment with 10 percent sulfuric acid   3. Fractional distillation of the neutral naphtha  4. Pentane solution of selected fractions from activated florisil, yielding an aromatic hydrocarbon-thiophene concentrate.  5. Mercuric acetate reaction with the thiophene in the concentrate.  6.  Regeneration of the thiophene from the mercuric acetate derivatives.   Methods used for the identification of the isolated thiophenes are as follows:   1. Analysis by the mass spectrometer  2. Formation of mercuric acetate and mercuric chloride derivation  3.  Hydrogenation to the corresponding paraffin's, and identification of the resulting paraffin's by mass spectra.

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THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF COST EFFECTIVE UCC PRJECTS

Past knowledge of the UCC process should guide us to a set of projects focusing on the significance of relevant parameters. A linear parametric model is developed to calculate the parametric coefficients of the process variables that can be evaluated, based on a selected confidence interval. A tracking vector is generated and, together with a set of differential equations, can be used to determine the point at which the production unit is not economically attractive. This go, no-go test clearly defines the operating limits of the process.

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A COMPREHENSIVE DESIGN AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF A COMMERCIAL IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION FACILITY

Engineering design and costing of a commercial in situ coal gasification plant have been completed and analyzed for economic viability. The plant is relatively small compared to surface based coal conversion facilities resulting in significantly reduced capital expenditures. Based on the results of the economic analysis presented, financing for such a facility appears both feasible and warranted in spite of the current industry retreat from commercial synthetic fuels plants. The facility is designed to produce a synthesis gas for further upgrading to methanol, SNG, or Fischer Tropsch liquids as well as to recover important byproducts such as carbon dioxide. The overall plant design is discussed and economic analyses are presented. The economic analyses presented are based on a total gross revenue approach with a choice of product combinations and selling prices to yield necessary revenues. This approach allows potential equity sponsors to analyze the economic results based on there individual expertise with particular product values and markets.

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CHROMATOGRAPHIC CHARACTERIZATION OF ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS OF SIMULATED IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION

A laboratory scale apparatus was used to simulate in situ coal gasification, enabling collection of organic by-products were subjected to gas chromatographic analysis using species selective detectors. Strikingly different compositions of hydrocarbons and hetero compounds were observed depending upon the mode of gasification. Aromatic hydrocarbons predominated among the products of the reverse burn, whereas aliphatics were predominant from the forward burn. Much lower production of N, S, and Cl compounds was observed from the forward burn. These observations may be explained by the physical and chemical conditions that obtain during the two modes of gasification. The methodologies developed are applicable to by products of true in situ gasification processes.

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AN IMPROVED SINGLE PARTICLE CHAR GASIFICATION MODEL

Recently Srinivas and Amundsen proposed a model for the gasification of a single char particle in the presence of steam, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. We he utilized a similar model in studies of the gasification of Mississippi lignite's, and we believe that our model and method of solution represents a significant improvement over the computations of Srinivas and Amundsen. Our model takes into account the different diffusivities among the various components; whereas Srinivas and Amundsen assume that the diffusivities of all components are identical except for that of hydrogen which is infinite. Our model provides for Knudsen diffusion. Srinivas and Amundsen assume that diffusivities of all components are identical except for that of hydrogen which is infinite. Our model provided for Knudsen diffusion. Srinivas and Amundsen assume that diffusion is characterized by the Stefan Maxwell equations, and therefore make no provision for Knudsen diffusion. Finally the method of solution which we employ is quite general. It allows for any number of reactions and any number of components. The method of solution employed by Srinivas and Amundsen appears to have been developed more or less specifically for this problem.

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SUMMARY REPORT ON LARGE BLOCK EXPERIMENTS IN UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION, TONO BASIN, WASHINGTON, VOL. 2. EXCAVATION RESULTS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

The large block experiments were a series of five, medium-scale in situ coal gasification parameter study tests. Two injection flow rate schedules and two steam/oxygen rations were used. The final experiment was a test of the effect of roof interaction and of the controlled retracting injection point system. At the conclusion of the test series, each burn cavity was carefully excavated. The burn cavities were filled mostly with rubble and thermally altered coal. Photographing, geologic examination, and chemical analysis of selected samples were used to document the excavation results.

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FUTURE OF UTAH TAR SANDS

"DR. OBLAD: My talk today will be devoted to talking about Utah's tar sands. The talk will be concerned with what we're doing at the University of Utah and also we have Dr. Sam Dorrence who will follow me, roughly equal time, to tell you about what's going on at the Laramie Energy Research Center on in-situ recovery of the bitumens from tar sands, so I will introduce him at the appropriate time.  We heard from Dr . Govier a very short mention of what's going on in Canada with tar sands. I personally have visted these operations . A number of you have  also been there, I'm sure, and I found it mind boggling to observe. It's an enormous operation. I'm talking about GCOS and Syncrude, Inc. The total operation involves removing the tundra , which is fifteen to thirty feet deep. This material is preserved for future use. Removal of overburden is next carried out and is about twenty-five to fifty feet in depth and this exposed a layer of tar sands , which is mined. The tar sand is several hundred feet thick  but it varies depending on where you are in the stratum.  The tar sands are moved to the processing area where it is treated with the hot water process which recovers the bitumen. The bitumen is then taken to a coking operation where a distillable material is made and finally the fractions  are hydrotreated to remove sulfur. This product is  shippad to refineries by pipeline. Tar sand bitumens are similar to what we call the bottom of the barrel in  petroleum. It's very heavy oil fraction. There's a great deal of similarity, I think I have a slide or two, if we can get to that later."

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Status of Tar Sands Conversion Process Technologies and Residuals Management

To begin with, in Figure 1, I give my definition of tar sands.  Now, tar sands are not tar and they're not sands.  Rather, they are consolidated or unconsolidated sandstones ( or rocks probalby is a better terminology since limestones are involved too) which have part of the void spade filled with viscous hydrocarbons called bitumen.  the viscosity (and this is my own definition to distinguish tar sands from heavy oils) of the bitumen in tar sands usually exceeds 100,000 centipoint at 25 C.

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THE STATUS OF INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCES CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION

In situ gasification of coal is under development as a means of energy extraction from coal resources. In situ coal gasification has enjoyed limited economic success due to process control difficulties; the problem being extreme variability in gas production and caloric content. The Laramie Energy Research Center is presently conducting field tests of underground gasification; in support, Sandia Laboratories is investigating instrumentation and process control techniques.

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AN ASSESSMENT OF IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION

Since 1973, ERDA and its predecessor agencies have been conducting field experiments, laboratory investigations and analytical studies on in situ coal gasification. While the U. S. Development of this technology is still in an early stage, a significant amount of information is becoming available by which to assess the technical feasibility, economic vitality and environmental impact of this approach to coal resource utilization. This paper will discuss, based on available information, such factors as resource applicability, resource utilization, process products and economics, environmental impact, and health, safety and societal aspects. The overall conclusion is that current results are extremely encouraging and an accelerated development of this technology is warranted.

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HANNA GROUNDWATER DATA

During the spring of 1980, a field program was begun to evaluate the hydrogeology of the LETC underground coal gasification site near Hanna, Wyoming. Four holes were cored and twenty two new hydrology wells were drilled in the Hanna No. 1 coal seam and in the overlying strata. A comprehensive set of geophysical logs were run. The Hanna no. 1 coal seam and two separate strata in the overburden were identified as water bearing. A series of slug tests and injection tests were run to determine hydrologic characteristics of the aquifers. Values of transmissivity for the Hanna no. 1 coal aquifer were found.

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