AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.
In 1913, Watson viewed Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflex as primarily a physiological mechanism controlling glandular secretions. He had already rejected Edward Thorndike's "Law of Effect" (a precursor to B.F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) because of what Watson believed were 'unnecessary subjective elements'. The article is also notable for its strong defense of the objective scientific status of applied psychology, which at the time was considered to be much inferior to the established experimental psychology.
With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions. This outlook was thought to be extreme or radical behaviorism.
Watson wrote the book "Psychological care of infant and child" in 1928, with help from his mistress, turned wife, Rosalie Rayner. Rosalie later entitled a self-penned article "I am a mother of behaviorist sons". In the book, Watson explained that behaviorists were starting to believe psychological care and analysis was required for infants and children.
His slogan was "not more babies but better brought up babies". Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, claiming that the world would benefit from extinguishing pregnancies for twenty years while enough data was gathered to ensure an efficient child-rearing process. Watsons’ description of a "happy child" was rather detached. It included ideas such as that the child can occupy himself through his problem-solving abilities, should only cry when in physical pain, and that the child stray from asking questions. Behavior analysis of child development as a field may have begun with the writings of Watson.
Watson carried out controversial science experiments known as the "Little Albert experiments"; in these experiments, Watson studied fear in infants.
Watson's views and life have been the subject of a number of works.
Indian English
Indian English or South Asian English is several dialects or varieties of English. It is spoken mainly in India, and by first-generation members of the Indian diaspora.
The dialect evolved during and after the British colonial rule of India. English is the co-official language of India, with about 90 million speakers, but with fewer than quarter of a million calling it a first language.
In 19th century India, Britain first faced the need to teach English to a body of people who were important to Britain.
There were a number of schools which taught and used English in India. They were mostly run by missionaries. Many taught European and Eurasian children and orphans. The products of these schools provided the first generation of teachers.
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas. He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing "The work of the digestive glands" in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.
As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.
The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.
Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, "Brave New World", and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow".
It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.
It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.
Hamilton College
Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.
Starting in 1996 "the Sacerdote Great Names Series" has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.
To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:
Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's "The Daily Show" and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting "Short Attention Span Theater" for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called "The Jon Stewart Show" and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.
In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”
The Quagga ("Equus quagga quagga"), also Cape Quagga, is a recently extinct zebra.
It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi. The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent. It was found as far north as the Orange River. It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago. The name "Quagga" comes from the noise that they made. (kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).
The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats. The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878. The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Her body is now in a museum. There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.
A foundation in Africa is trying to bring Quaggas back to life by taking zebras that have very light stripes and breeding them. They began in 1987 and the first Quagga foal was born in 2005.
Przewalski's horse
Przewalski's horse ("Equus przewalskii" or "E. ferus przewalskii"), the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse. The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, "Equus ferus". It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.
At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.
Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of "Equus ferus", the others being the domesticated horse, "Equus ferus caballus" and the extinct tarpan, "Equus ferus ferus". Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.
Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.
According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.
Nation state
The nation state is a certain form of state that has a territory where mainly one nation is located. The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation state" means that the two are on the same territory, and this distinguishes the nation state from the other types of state, which existed before.
Clear examples of nation states include:
In Europe, in the eighteenth century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire, the British Empire).
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician. He was a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.
He made claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.
During World War II he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.
McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.
Poet laureate
A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by the government of a country. He or she is responsible for writing poems for special occasions in that country, for example a coronation or military victory.
The first official Poet Laureate was Ben Jonson in 1619. There are also Poets Laureate in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.
The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is Carol Ann Duffy. She was appointed Poet Laureate on 1 May 2009 to take the place of Andrew Motion. She is the first British woman Poet Laureate.
List of emperors of Japan
The List of Emperors of Japan presents the traditional order of succession. Records of the reigns of the Emperors of Japan were compiled according to the traditional Japanese calendar, and these traditional dates have been converted into the Western calendar format.
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson (born October 25, 1984), known professionally as Katy Perry, is an American singer, songwriter and television judge. She has released five studio albums and two EPs. In 2001, she released a Christian album named after herself, "Katy Hudson". In November 2007, Perry released the music video for her first single, "Ur So Gay". She has a contralto vocal range. Perry became the most-followed person on Twitter in November 2013. She has earned nine number-one singles on the "Billboard" Hot 100, five of which are from one album (she became the first female artist to achieve this record). Perry has also been nominated for 11 Grammy Awards.
Perry was born on October 25, 1984 at Goleta Valley Cottage Hospital in Santa Barbara, California, to Maurice Hudson and Mary Hudson ("née" Perry), both pastors. She has an older sister, Angela, and a younger brother, David, who is also a musician. Perry has said that her upbringing was "sheltered" and that an example of this was that her family did not eat Lucky Charms cereal because her parents thought that luck was something that came from the devil. She also called deviled eggs "angeled eggs" growing up.
Then known as Katy Hudson, she released a Christian album named after herself. It had the single "Search Me". She was discovered by Glen Ballard, who is known for his work with musician Alanis Morissette. This album did not perform well, and she was dropped from her record label, Red Hill, when the label was shut down. She struggled for six years before eventually signing with her current label, Capitol Records.
After changing her last name to Perry (her mother's maiden name) so that she allegedly would not be confused with actress Kate Hudson, Katy released an EP album called "Ur So Gay". This song has been criticized and labeled homophobic. On June 17, 2008, Perry released her first pop album called "One of the Boys" with singles including "I Kissed a Girl" (her first number-one hit), "Hot N Cold", and "One of the Boys".
She co-wrote the single "I Do Not Hook Up" for singer Kelly Clarkson (the first winner of "American Idol"), along with the song "Rock God" for singer-actress Selena Gomez.
Perry's third album, "Teenage Dream", was released in August 2010 and included the singles "California Gurls", "Teenage Dream", and "Firework". She is the only female artist to get 5 number-one singles from one album on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. Along with the album's first three singles reaching the top, "E.T." featuring Kanye West and "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" also hit number one. The only other artist to get 5 number-one songs from one album is Michael Jackson, with "Bad". She was inspired by her then-engagement to British comedian and actor Russell Brand.
At the Grammy Awards in 2012, Perry performed a new song, "Part of Me", that was released as the lead single from the re-release of "Teenage Dream", called "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection". The song entered at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming her seventh US number-one hit. The next single, "Wide Awake", reached number two in the US and topped the Canadian Hot 100.
In July 2012, Perry released the concert film/biopic "Part of Me in 3D". The movie shows her early life through the "Teenage Dream" era and her rise to fame.
On November 30, 2012, Perry went to the 2012 Billboard Women in Music event. She was given the Woman of the Year Award there.
In August 2013, Killer Queen, Perry's third fragrance, was released.
Perry collaborated with fellow American pop star Britney Spears to write the song "Passenger" for Spears' eighth studio album, "Britney Jean".
Perry's fourth album, "Prism", was released on October 18, 2013. It reached number one in 83 countries. The first single from the album, "Roar", was number one in Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, New Zealand, Scotland, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Perry performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards.
On November 10, 2013, she performed the album's second single, "Unconditionally", at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards.
On December 5, 2013, Perry's single "Roar" was nominated for the 2014 Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance. She performed at The GRAMMY Nominations Concert Live!
On May 7, 2014, Perry began the Prismatic World Tour in support of her fourth studio album, "Prism".
The album's third single, "Dark Horse", featuring rapper Juicy J, became Perry's ninth number-one single in the United States. It was the second-best performing single of 2014 there.
In 2016, she released the single "Rise" in support of the Rio Olympics. Two music videos were released: one with an Olympic theme and one which depicts Perry with a red parachute. The song reached number one in Australia and the top twenty in the US and Canada.
On February 10, 2017, Perry released the single "Chained to the Rhythm", which reached the top five in many countries worldwide, including the US, UK, and Canada. It features the grandson of Bob Marley, Skip Marley, and was co-written by Australian singer-songwriter Sia. Two months later, the single "Bon Appétit" was made available for download. The hip-hop group Migos is featured on this song. "Swish Swish" (featuring) rapper Nicki Minaj) and "Hey Hey Hey" were released as the album's third and fourth singles, respectively. "Swish Swish" became certified platinum in the US.
In May 2017, Perry announced that her fifth studio album would be released on June 9 and is called "Witness". She also announced "Witness: The Tour", a concert tour that began in North America in September 2017.
During the weekend of the release of "Witness", Perry partnered with YouTube and held a 96-hour livestream event called "Witness World Wide". In the stream, Perry was recorded over four days throughout her daily life in a house she rented in Los Angeles. She held segments which featured celebrities, like British talk show host James Corden, "Huffington Post" founder Arianna Huffington, and YouTuber Gigi Gorgeous. Perry could also be seen crying in a therapy session. She claimed she got rid of her long, dark hair in favor of a new, short and blonde hairdo at a time where she questioned whether she still wanted her fame and did not "want to be Katy Perry anymore." The livestream gained over 49 million views on YouTube. In 2018, Perry became a judge in American Idol, a job she had previously refused.
In February 2019, Perry released her first single of the year, titled "365", with DJ Zedd. 365 was followed up with the singles "Never Really Over" on May 31, "Small Talk" on August 9, and "Harleys in Hawaii" on October 16. She also appeared in Taylor Swift's music video for "You Need to Calm Down".
In March 2020, Perry released the single “Never Worn White”. The single "Daisies" was released on May 15 as the lead single from her upcoming sixth studio album, "Smile". "Never Really Over" and "Harleys in Hawaii" are also included on the album. Perry revealed that the album would be released on August 14 but was pushed back two weeks to August 28 because of production delays.
Perry married British comedian and actor Russell Brand on October 23, 2010. However, the two divorced in December 2011. She previously dated Gym Class Heroes lead singer Travie McCoy. She began dating actor Orlando Bloom in 2016. In 2019 the pair announced their engagement.
On August 27, 2020, Perry announced via social media that her daughter with Orlando Bloom, Daisy Dove Bloom, had been born. This is Perry's first child and Bloom's second.
One of the Boys is the first album by pop singer Katy Perry. Four singles were released from it. The album's first single "I Kissed a Girl" was no.1.
"I Kissed a Girl" is the first single by pop singer Katy Perry from her album "One of the Boys" (2008), produced by Dr. Luke. Perry says it is "about the magical beauty of a woman." On June 26, 2008, the song topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, becoming the 1000th chart-topper of the Rock Era. The song has since become a major worldwide hit, and along with the United States it has topped the charts in more than 20 countries, including Canada, Sweden, Australia, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Germany, and Ireland.
A music video for the song was released on May 16, 2008, on Perry's personal website and on MySpace. The video was directed by Kinga Burza and features a Moulin Rouge and burlesque-type setting with scenes containing Katy, along with many other flamboyantly-dressed women, dancing to the song. Eventually she wakes up next to a male companion, Katy's real life boyfriend, Gym Class Heroes band member Travis McCoy. Despite the song's title, there is not any depiction of same-sex kissing. Katy features her real life friend and DJ, Mia Moretti and her main gay, Markus Molinari's dog Bella in the video. Even her cat, Kitty Purry, makes an appearance.
The video made its television debut on June 12 on TRL with the visit and interview by Perry in set show. And on June 24, 2008 it became #1 on TRL. The video obtained high airplay on this music video channel, as well as on VH1. It debuted at #20 on VH1's VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown on June 28, 2008. On June 30, 2008 the video was premiered on MTV Latin America. On July 6, 2008, it rose to #4 on VH1's VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown. The video received five nominations for the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards, including Best Female Video and Best New Artist. The video has had over 24 million views on YouTube. Due to the video and the songs popularity around the world, there are several videos on YouTube which imitate and mock the song such as "I Kissed a Pig" and "I Kissed a Dog", both of which use the same tune and similar lyrics, while the videos use similar scenes to the original.
"I Kissed a Girl" has drawn mixed reviews from critics. "Blogcritics Magazine" called it "an instantly catchy number," and About.com said, "fueled by an instrumental wallop provided courtesy of producer Dr. Luke, 'I Kissed a Girl' is the perfect breakthrough."
However, Rolling Stone, while giving her album 2/5 stars, despite describing the song as a "New Wave-y club single," says the supposedly rebellious "attention-grabbing" lyrics are "a vanilla recounting of her chick-on-chick exploits" and that this "acting out" is "just to get a dude's attention." AllMusic praises "the stomping Gary Glitter beat" before criticizing the producers for turning it "into a leaden stumble and burying Perry's voice underneath Pro Tools overdubs so it all winds up as a faceless wash of sound designed to be placed in TV shows, movie trailers, and malls."
Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" wrote, Perry's "lead single 'I Kissed a Girl' features a throbbing beat and an infectious, bi-curious hook, but its self-satisfied, in-your-face posturing rings phony in comparison to the expertly constructed ambiguities of 'Justify My Love' or practically anything in the first decade of Ani DiFranco's catalogue; it's like a tween version of DiFranco's tortured bisexual confession 'Light of Some Kind.'" "Hiponline.com" wrote that the song is "not nearly as interesting or exciting as you’d expect. It’s not even half as good as Jill Sobule’s song 'I Kissed a Girl'.” "Glitterati Gossip" agrees Sobule's song "was ten times better, because there was actual emotional content to her lyrics."
The song was premiered on BBC Radio 1 in the UK on July 21, 2008 on The Scott Mills Show. It was praised by many fans on their text lines and was made his record of the week. On July 23, 2008, "I Kissed a Girl" was added to the station's C-List, "The Playlist," being, "where most songs on daytime Radio 1 are selected from". The song has since made it to the station's more popular A-list.
Previous to its debut on Radio 1, it had been (and continues to be) on the playlist of some of the UK radio stations which are part of The One Network for a number of weeks. In addition it had received at least one play a week on BBC Radio 2 on its Saturday evening America’s Greatest Hits show hosted by Paul Gambaccini due to the song’s number status in the Billboard chart.
The song gained a significant amount of controversy after its rise in popularity due to its perceived promotion of bisexuality and promiscuity. While community members and parents may be concerned over "the coarseness of the sexual behavior," including its public nature and intoxicated state, they may or, such as Unitarian minister Debra W. Haffner, may not be concerned over "the sex or gender of the person she's talking about."
While Haffner, who holds a degree in public health, believes Perry "obviously is using the whole issue of sexual orientation in a positive way, raising awareness, or she's doing it because it gets attention," AllMusic concludes that, "the problem is not with Katy's gender-bending, it's that her heart isn't in it; she's just using it to get her places, so she sinks to crass, craven depths." "Slant Magazine" agrees, saying, the song, "isn't problematic because it promotes homosexuality, but because its appropriation of the gay lifestyle exists for the sole purpose of garnering attention—both from Perry's boyfriend and her audience."
Adam Holz of "PluggedinOnline", a division of Focus on the Family, wrote an article entitled "A Tale of Two Katys" about the singer's image transformation from a Contemporary Christian Music artiste to one of the "girls gone wild". He criticizes the song for being the latest, "high-profile message to young women and men that our sexuality is a malleable commodity that can be reshaped at will." Holz also argues that Perry's message carries with it, "no need to worry about who might get used or objectified in the process," causing Katy to live, "down to a damaging, demeaning stereotype."
In some areas of the world the song's bi-curious lyrics have kept it from reaching the Top 40 or to even be released at all. Though the "Toronto Star", of Canada, describes it as "a lesbian-friendly tune," whether anti-gay bias fuels negative reactions to the song or the song itself appears to divide critics. While "Slant" and other critics suggest that Perry may be homophobic, especially given her single "Ur So Gay", which makes "I Kissed a Girl" seem like "a classic example of the 'Guys kissing is gross, girls kissing is hot' line of thought" "The Star Ledger" quotes a listener who proposes that negative reactions to the song are due to homophobia, saying that it would not draw disapproval if sung by a male artist, and who compares the level of explicitness in the lyrics with other songs on the radio such as rap lyrics. "MomLogic.com" writer Vuv-A-Licious agrees, asking, "'What's the big deal?'...When this tune is playing and my son and daughter are dancing, I will be trying to dance along, or trying to acknowledge that they may one day dance to the beat of a different drummer than me."
During her Washington concert at Warped Tour, Perry actually did kiss a girl from the audience.
In an August 2008 interview with the "Daily Mail", Perry's mother, Mary Hudson, who is an evangelical Christian preacher, was reported as saying that she disliked the song, stating: "It clearly promotes homosexuality and its message is shameful and disgusting..." However, Perry took to her official blog stating that her mother's supposed comments were completely fabricated, while also saying her parents love and support her and attend many of her shows.
Regarding the question of her own sexuality that the song has raised, Perry told Santa Barbara magazine (which featured her on the cover), "I like to kiss boys, but there is no doubt in my mind if Angelina Jolie or Gisele Bündchen came a callin', who wouldn't pucker up?"
"I Kissed a Girl" debuted at number 76 at Billboard Hot 100. After a couple of weeks, the single hit the top 5, due to the rising digital downloads and increasing radio airplay. It continued to rise the next week, reaching #2 just behind her labelmate, Coldplay. The following week, the song reached the summit of the US chart, becoming the 1000th #1 song of the rock era (the 961st #1 on the Billboard Hot 100). In addition the song also gave the Capitol label two consecutive Hot 100 #1's, as the week's prior #1 was fellow Capitol artist Coldplay's "Viva la Vida", making it the first time since 1976 Capitol has had two back to back chart toppers on the Hot 100. The single also crossed over to Billboard's sister publication R&R's Rhythmic chart in its July 5 issue, where not only did she have the highest debut ever for a non-rhythmic track, entering at number 26 with 1,065 spins, she also had the highest debut from a new artist in over five years. The bow is the best for a debut track at Rhythmic since Beyoncé entered at No. 21 with "Crazy in Love" in 2003. It also became the first song since Gnarls Barkley's "Crazy" to simultaneously appear on the Mainstream Top 40, Rhythmic, Adult Top 40 and Alternative charts. On July 26, 2008, the track also made history by reaching the number one spot on Billboard's Hot Dance Airplay chart by three weeks, a first for a solo act with a debut single. The song topped the Hot 100 for seven weeks in a row before finally being dethroned by Rihanna's "Disturbia". It is the second longest running number one on the Hot 100 of 2008 so far, with only Flo Rida's "Low" topping the chart for longer. The single has sold more than 2,500,000 downloads in the United States to date.
In Canada, the single debuted at #55 at Canadian Hot 100. On June 12th the song soared to #1, jumping 26 spots from #27 position. Also on the Canadian iTunes Top 100, the song remained at #1 for over 6 weeks, until rapidly being pushed to #4 on August 7, 2008, behind Lady GaGa's "Just Dance", the Jonas Brothers' "A Little Bit Longer" and Rihanna's "Disturbia".
In New Zealand, the song debuted at number 38, the single's first appearance in other countries chart outside North America, moving to number three the following week. The song was certified Gold after seven weeks with sales of over 7,500. On August 11, eight weeks after debuting on the chart, "I Kissed A Girl" finally made it to number one.
In Australia, the song debuted at #11 on the 30th of June on downloads alone, then the next week jumped to second position behind Jordin Sparks, still on downloads alone. The next week it jumped to number one still solely off downloads, becoming only the second single to do so. Ironically, by the time the song went number 1, this was the time when World Youth Day 2008 had started and the event held anti-gay views. On 21st July, 2008, after the singles physical release, the track retained its number one position and was certified Gold. The single has held the number one position since and has gone on to be certified Platinum.
In the United Kingdom, a cover version released by the artist Nicki Bliss was climbing up the UK iTunes Chart. It debuted on the UK Singles Chart (published 3 August 2008) at position number 50.
A second cover version, by Barnicle, entered the UK Singles Chart (published 3 August 2008) at position #116.
Because of the success of the cover versions, the official release of Katy Perry's version was brought forward from September 1 to July 30, 2008. On August 3, 2008, the song, which had entered the UK Singles Chart at number 139 the week before, climbed 135 places to reach position number 4. The song has become one of the most requested on Radio 1's request hour. The following week it climbed 3 places to reach number 1. The following week it stayed at the top spot for a second consecutive week and then went on to spend 5 consecutive weeks at #1.
Even parodies of "I Kissed a Girl" are seeing chart success. Robert Lund's spoof "I Peed in the Pool" reached #1 on Dr. Demento's August 2008 comedy music countdown. Including the MADtv parody, "I'll Kiss a Girl" featuring Nicole Parker as Ellen DeGeneres and fellow cast member Arden Myrin as Portia de Rossi, by Ellen saying that she's been kissing girls since the 9th grade.
"Hot N Cold" is a single by pop singer Katy Perry. The song came from the album "One of the Boys". The single was released on September 30, 2008.
The song reached number one in Canada, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Belgium (Wallonia). It climbed to the top three in the US and the top five in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand.
"If I Were a Boy" is a song by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles, written by Toby Gad, BC Jean and Beyoncé Knowles for her third solo album, "I Am... Sasha Fierce" (2008).
The music video for "If I Were a Boy" was directed by Jake Nava and portrays Knowles as an NYPD officer. It begins with Knowles and her husband reciting words such as "honesty" and "commitment". It later shows Knowles on patrol with her male partner. The video tells of the ways a both men and women hurt each other in a relationship. Knowles stated: "It's about all of the little things that mean so much in a relationship[…] At the end of the clip, you realize that I was acting out his life, and it all starts over again. He was a cop and everything that happened was really him doing the same thing to me."
Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)
"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" - is a song by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles. It was written by The-Dream, Tricky Stewart and Beyoncé Knowles for her third solo album, "I Am... Sasha Fierce" (2008).
The music video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was shot on sep 14 and directed by Jake Nava and released to major outlets on October 13, 2008. In the video, Knowles is performing as Sasha Fierce. The video features much choreography, showing Sasha with two other female dancers in all black leotards.
The video is based upon a 1960s routine performed by Gwen Verdon.
Secure Shell (SSH) is an Internet communication protocol used mostly to allow users to log into other computers and run commands. It lets people exchange data using a secure channel between two computers. It is used mainly on Linux, Macintosh and Unix computers. It is a lot like Telnet, but is safer. It is less likely to be hacked than Telnet is.
A person can make a key out of numbers. This key has two parts, a private part that should not be shared and a public part that should be. These parts are mathematically related to each. To send a message to a computer, the message is encrypted with the sender's private key and the receiver's public key. This is done in such a way that the message can only be read if the receiver has their private key and the sender's public key. This means that an attacker cannot read the messages without both keys.
SSH was designed by Tatu Ylönen in 1995 to replace the less secure protocols rlogin, Telnet and rsh, which were used to access shell accounts on remote computers.
An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of functions, procedures, methods or classes used by computer programs to request services from the operating system, software libraries or any other service providers running on the computer. A computer programmer uses the API to make
application programs.
An API works by communicating with and exchanging data with other systems, acting as a messenger between the user and the system to retrieve the necessary data the user is requesting from the system.
Main types of web APIs:
Types of API include web services API like the Twitter API, which allows programs to use the API to receive updates on tweets.
Peregrine falcon
The peregrine falcon ("Falco peregrinus") is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. It can also be known just as the peregrine, and was once called the "Duck hawk" in North America. In Pakistan it is officially the military iconic symbol of the PAF and the unofficial territory bird of Gilgit-Baltistan.
The peregrin is a crow-sized falcon, with a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache". It can go at up to 322 km/h (200 mph) in a dive, which means it is the fastest animal in the world. As with other bird-eating raptors, the female is bigger than the male. There are 17–19 subspecies recorded, and each varies slightly in appearance and where they live. There is disagreement over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the Peregrine or just a different species.
The use of certain pesticides, especially DDT was not good for the animals. It could be shown that in areas where DDT was used, the thickness of the shells of their eggs was reduced. This caused a dramatic decline in their numbers, in certain countries. Since the use of DDT has been forbidden in many countries, their numbers are increasing again. This recovery was helped because their nesting places were protected in many countries; some countries also bred these falcons in captivity and released them into the wild.
Conservation organizations:
The Mozilla Public License (MPL) is a free and open source software license developed and maintained by the Mozilla Foundation. It is a weak copyleft, characterized as a middle ground between permissive free software licenses and the GNU General Public License (GPL), that seeks to balance the concerns of proprietary and open source developers. As such, it allows re-licensing. MPL software can thus be converted into a copyleft license such as the GPL, or to a proprietary license (example:KaiOS).
It has undergone two revisions, a minor update to version 1.1, and a major update to version 2.0 with the goals of greater simplicity and better compatibility with other licenses.
The MPL is the license for Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, and most other Mozilla software, but it has been used by others, such as Adobe to license their Flex product line, and The Document Foundation to license LibreOffice 4.0 (also on LGPL 3+). Version 1.1 was adapted by several projects to form derivative licenses like Sun Microsystems' own Common Development and Distribution License.
The MPL license was approved as an Open Source software license by the Open Source Initiative also as a Free Software license by the Free Software Foundation.
Version 1.0 was created by Mitchell Baker when she was working as a lawyer at Netscape Communications Corporation and version 1.1 when she was working at the Mozilla Foundation.
Ubisoft is a company that makes video games. They are based in France. They are famous for making many popular games including the Rayman franchise and the Tom Clancy games such as "Rainbow Six" and "Splinter Cell".
Permissive software license
A permissive free software licence is a free software licence for a copyrighted work that offers freedoms such as publishing a work to the public domain. In contrast, copyleft licences like the GNU General Public License require copies and derivatives of the source code to be made available on terms not more restrictive than those of the original licence.
A license tells what someone can do with something that was bought. It also tells what cannot be done with it without getting into legal trouble.
Examples of permissive licences include the MIT License and the BSD licence.
Hero / Heroine
"Hero / Heroine" is the 2nd single by rock and roll-Alternative pop band Boys Like Girls. It is off the album "Boys Like Girls".
The music video for "Hero/Heroine" was released in September 2007.
Thunder (Boys Like Girls song)
Thunder is a single released by American rock band Boys Like Girls. "Thunder" was released May 6th, 2008 on radio airplay. The single was originally released months before May 6th, 2008 as an acoustic version. The song was released off the album "Boys Like Girls".
The music video shows a group of friends, in which there are couples, hang out. The music video starts with the band playing, and then moves on to the friends going to restaurant to eat, with intervals of the band playing. The friends then go a field, where they drink and laugh. The friends then start making a human pyramid, but fail. The couples start hanging out alone and kissing. From this on, the band is shown playing in the rain. The friends are then shown going to a swimming pool and start swimming, with a couple kissing underwater. They then run through a carpark and stand by the railings to see the sunrise. The couples are then kissing again, and the music video ends with the band leaving their instruments.
The video for "Thunder" was released on the MTV summer special "Friday Night MTV" (or "FNMTV").
Live from SoHo (Maroon 5 album)
Live from SoHo is a live album by rock band Maroon 5. The songs performed by the band are the first 6 tracks in order from track 1-6 on the album "It Won't Be Soon Before Long". The album was released March 25, 2008.
The band Maroon 5 performed "Live from SoHo" in Apple Store SoHo in New York.
Alexander Berkman
Alexander Berkman (November 21 1870 – June 28 1936) was a Russian-American writer and a leading member of the anarchist movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He was the lover of Emma Goldman. In 1892, he tried to kill Henry Clay Frick because of his involvement with the Homestead Strike. During World War I, he was deported along with Goldman and other foreign-born American anarchists as a result of the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Continuing to write and speak to the poors, Berkman died in France in 1936.
Murray Bookchin
Murray Bookchin (January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, speaker and writer. For much of his life he called himself an anarchist, although as early as 1995 he privately renounced his identification with the anarchist movement. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics, philosophy, history, and urban affairs as well as ecology.
Bookchin was a radical anti-capitalist and always favored the decentralisation of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green Movement and anti-capitalist direct action groups such as Reclaim the Streets. His criticisms of "new age" Greens such as Charlene Spretnak contributed to the divisions in the American Green movement in the 1990s.
Although an anti-capitalist, Murray Bookchin often met with libertarian thinker Murray Rothbard and occasionally attended Libertarian Party (United States) conventions, endorsing their Presidential candidate Roger MacBride in 1976.
Bookchin has influenced the thinking of captured Kurdish militant Abdullah Öcalan, who has renounced violence and now wants a peaceful solution to the question of Kurdish autonomy.
Bookchin was the first to use the term "Libertarian municipalism", to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the State with a confederation of free municipalities. Libertarian municipalism intends to create a situation in which the two powers — the municipal confederations and the nation-state — cannot coexist.
Carlo Cafiero
Carlo Cafiero (September 1, 1846 - July 17, 1892) was an Italian anarchist and friend of Mikhail Bakunin during the second half of the 19th century.
Carlo Cafiero was born in Barletta, in the Apulia region of Italy on September 1st, 1846 from a rich and noble family of Southern Italy. His father was Carbonari in 1821, one of his brothers and a brother-in-law were deputies, while Carlo Cafiero was always called the 'black sheep' of the family. In 1864 he went to Naples, where he got a degree in law. He then went to Florence and at the beginning of 1870 he was in Paris. The Paris he went to London, where he matured, renouncing his diplomatic career, his wealth and family, to join the revolution and socialism. In London Cafiero made contacts with Marx and Engels. He joined the International Workingmen's Association and was charged to go back to Italy and conquer it to Marx’s ideology, where instead there was the strong influence of the Anarchism of Mikhail Bakunin and the Republicanism of Giuseppe Mazzini. He restored the ancient section of 'L'Internazionale' in Naples, with the help of the young Errico Malatesta. There, during an assembly, he was imprisoned for the first time.
After over a year spent in Italy as a representative of Marx and Engels Cafiero felt the influence of anarchism. And thanks to the friendship with Giuseppe Fanelli, he passed on to the other side of the barricade, with Bakunin and his Italian followers. In early 1872 came the first issue of the newspaper "La Campana" and Cafiero wrote for, and gave money towards the publication. In the same year he met Bakunin in Locarno (Switzerland). In the summer of 1873, with the help of Cafiero, an old project was realised: to create an international center for the revolution in Italy and the world. Cafiero, selling all his inherited lands, bought a farm in Switzerland where Bakunin could live. This center was called "La Baronata", would also be a safe shelter for revolutionaries persecuted by their respective governments. In 1875 Cafiero went to Milan and joined the editorial staff of the first socialist daily paper, "La Plebe", directed by Enrico Bignami. In April 1877, Cafiero, Malatesta, Ceccarelli, the Russian Stepniak and 30 other comrades began an insurrection in the province of Benevento. They took the village of Letino without violence and with great enthusiasm. Arms and food were expropriated and distributed amongst the people, tax money was returned and official documents destroyed. Cafiero, in dialect, explained about anarchism, freedom, justice and the new society without the State, without masters, servants, soldiers and owners. His proclamations convinced even the parish priest who called the rebel group 'the true apostles sent by the Lord'. The following day the village of Gallo was taken in a similar fashion. As they were leaving Gallo the Internationalists were surprised and surrounded by government troops and all were arrested. Held in prison for over a year before being brought to trial all the accused were eventually acquitted in August 1878. In 1878, Cafiero was living in Marseilles working as cook and docker. In October he was arrested with Malatesta, then released and expelled from France. He rested in Switzerland, meeting with Kropotkin, and with the collaboration of Élisée Reclus promoted the publications of Bakunin. In 1881 Cafiero went to London, where he remained for a long time. In March 1882 he returned to Italy, expressing the will to take part in the imminent electoral campaign.
On April 5th he was arrested without any charge but on May 2nd, while imprisoned, he was the victim of a strong mental crisis and attempted to kill himself. The scandal of a man imprisoned without reason and crazy exploded and Cafiero was released with only the choice between forced residence in Barletta, his birth town, or exile to Switzerland. Cafiero chose the exile in the small town of Chiasso. Emilio Bellerio took Cafiero to his house in Locarno and Errico Malatesta wrote about him "if his mind is ill, his heart is still healthy...". In February 1883 Cafiero left for Florence, but was found in a street very shocked, so some doctors transferred him to a lunatic asylum in the City. After the lunatic asylum for the rest of his life had problems, Olimpia Kutusoff, mate of Cafiero, returned from Russia in September 1883 to assist him in the asylum of Imola. Olimpia left him after one and a half years because Cafiero in his crises was violent with her. Carlo expressed the will to return in Barletta where he arrived in the second half of ’89. However his brothers turned him away and after living some time in a hotel he was taken in by his brother Pietrantonio. In 1891, following another crisis, Carlo Cafiero was confined in the asylum of Nocera Inferiore where he died on Sunday July 17, 1892.
Benito Juárez
Benito Pablo Juárez García (March 21, 1806 - July 8, 1872) was a Zapotec who served five terms (1858–1861 as interim), (1861–1865), (1865–1867), (1867–1871), and (1871–1872), as President of Mexico. During his presidency he outlawed slavery, especially the mistreatment of the Mexican Native Americans.
His philosophy has influenced many Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the United States, who have fought for the human and civil rights of Latinos for almost two centuries.
In 1843 Benito married Margarita Maza.