AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Chano was born in Ichikawa on November 23, 1976. After graduating from Funabashi Municipal High School, he joined his local club JEF United Ichihara (later "JEF United Chiba") in 1995. He played many matches as center back from 1998. The club won second place in the 1998 Emperor's Cup. The club also won third place in the 2001 and 2003 J1 League. He moved to Júbilo Iwata with teammate Shinji Murai in 2005. He played many matches as center back with Japan national team player Makoto Tanaka. He left the club with Murai at the end of the 2009 season for a generational change and he returned to JEF United Chiba with Murai in 2010. He retired at the end of the 2011 season.
On April 25, 2004, Chano debuted for the Japan national team against Hungary. In July, he was elected Japan for 2004 Asian Cup. At this tournament, although he did not play in the match, Japan won the champions. He also played at 2005 Confederations Cup. He played 7 games for Japan until 2005.
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Kentaro Ohi
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Toshihiro Hattori
Hattori was born in Shizuoka on 23 September 1973. After dropped out from Tokai University, he joined Júbilo Iwata in 1994. He played in many defensive positions. He was a central player in golden era in club history. The club won the champions at J1 League 3 times (1997, 1999, 2002). The club also won 1998 J.League Cup and 2003 Emperor's Cup. In Asia, the club won the champions at 1998–99 Asian Club Championship and 2nd place at 1999–00 and 2000–01 Asian Club Championship. He played the club until 2006. Toward end of his career, he played for Tokyo Verdy (2007–09), Gainare Tottori (2010-11) and FC Gifu (2012–13). He retired end of 2013 season.
In July 1996, Hattori was selected the Japan U-23 national team for 1996 Summer Olympics. He played in all 3 matches. Although Japan won 2 matches, Japan lost at First round. At this time, Japan won Brazil in first game. It was known as "Miracle of Miami" () in Japan.
On September 11, 1996, Hattori debuted for the Japan national team against Uzbekistan. He was selected Japan for 1996 Asian Cup and 1998 World Cup, but he did not played in the match both competition. After 1998 World Cup, he came to be well selected for Japan by new manager Philippe Troussier. He played at 1999 Copa América, 2000 Asian Cup, 2001 Confederations Cup and 2002 World Cup. At 2000 Asian Cup, he played in all matches and Japan won the champions. At 2001 Confederations Cup, Japan won 2nd place. After 2002 World Cup, he played as regular player under new manager Zico. He was also selected Japan for 2003 Confederations Cup, but he did not play in the match. He played 44 games and scored 2 goals for Japan until 2003.
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Tetsuhiro Kina
Tetsuhiro Kina (born 10 December 1976) is a Japanese football player.
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Intercropping
Intercropping is growing two or more crops next to each other at the same time. The main purpose of intercropping is to produce more crops in a given area. It also makes use of resources (nutrients) that would otherwise not be used by a single crop. Crops are selected such that their nutrient requirements are different. This way, the crops can give the same returns but require less space.
Things to consider when choosing which crops to mix include the soil, climate and varieties. It is very important not to have crops competing with each other for space, nutrients, water, or sunlight. An example of an intercropping strategy is planting one crop that has deep roots with another that has shallow roots.
Intercropping has been proposed as an alternative to slash-and-burn farming, which is very bad for the environment.
Conserving soil
Intercropping also helps to conserve soil. When One crop is harvested and it starts raining the second crop grown in that farm will not let to erode the soil easily by water. Hence the soil is conserved.
Intercropping also helps to conserve soil. When One crop is harvested and it starts raining the second crop grown in that farm will not let to erode the soil easily by water. Hence the soil is conserved.Samuel de Champlain
Samuel 'Hunterry' de Champlain (c. 1567 – 25 December 1635) was a French navigator, cartographer, draughtsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He is called "The Father of New France". He founded Quebec City on July 3, 1608. In 1609 he came to Lake Champlain, which is named for him. He married Hélène Boullé when he was 43 and she was 12. Their marriage contract required them to wait two years until she had reached the age of consent before the marriage could be consummated.
The Danegeld ("Danish tax") was a tax that the English kingdoms paid to the Vikings between the 9th and 11th centuries. The Vikings called it “geld” or “gafol” in the 11th century, but the term Danegeld did not appear until the early 12th century.
Besides the taxes in England, the term also applies to Eastern Europe in the 9th century, where Sami, Finnish, and Slavic tribes paid taxes to the Swedes. In Francia (France), the Franks paid off the Vikings in Normandy (Normans), and in return, the Normans would convert to Christianity and cease to raid.
John Doggett
Scream can mean different things:
Brian Lara
Brian Charles Lara (born 2 May 1969 in Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago) is a former West Indian cricketer.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de la Marck, usually known as "Lamarck", (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829) was a French soldier, naturalist and member of the French Academy. He was one of the first people to suggest that organisms changed in accordance with natural laws. This is known as evolution.
Jean-Baptiste was the 11th child of Philippe Jacques de Monet de La Marck and Marie-Françoise de Fontaine de Chuignolles. His parents were nobles, but they were not well-off. His parents wanted him to become a priest. Starting at age eleven, he attended a Jesuit school in Amiens. After his father's death in 1759, Jean-Baptiste joined the army. Lamarck fought in the Pomeranian War with Prussia, and was awarded a medal for bravery on the battlefield. During his service, he was stationed in different forts in France, mostly at the eastern border, and the Mediterranean coast. At his post in Monaco, Lamarck became interested in natural history and resolved to study medicine. In 1766, he was injured. He retired from the army in 1768 and returned to his medical studies. He worked at a bank in Paris. From 1770 to 1774, he studied medicine at the university, but did not finish his studies with a degree. During this time, he met some of the well-known scientists of his day, such as the botanists Bernard and Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu, and the naturalist Buffon.
Lamarck developed a particular interest for botany, and later, after he published a three-volume work "Flora française", he gained membership of the French Academy of Sciences in 1779. Lamarck became involved in the "Jardin des Plantes" and was appointed to the Chair of Botany in 1788. When the "Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle" was founded in 1793, Lamarck was appointed as a professor of zoology. In 1801, he published "Système des animaux sans vertèbres", a major work on the classifications of invertebrates. In an 1802 publication, he became one of the first to use the term "biology" in its modern sense. Lamarck continued his work as a top authority on invertebrate zoology.
In the modern era, Lamarck is remembered mainly for a theory of the inheritance of acquired characters, called soft inheritance or Lamarckism. His major work on this subject was "Philosophie zoologique", Paris 1809.
His idea of soft inheritance was a reflection of the folk wisdom of the time, accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory was an early, perhaps the first, theory of evolution. In Lamarck's theory, an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity. A second environmental force adapted them to local environments through "use and disuse" of characteristics, making them different from other organisms. Since these ideas cannot be reconciled with what we know about genetics, they are now history.
Lamarck died in Paris in 1829. When he died, his family was so poor they had to apply to the Academie for financial assistance. Lamarck's books and the contents of his home were sold at auction, and he was buried in a temporary lime-pit.
Lamarck came into conflict with the widely respected palaeontologist Georges Cuvier, who was not a supporter of evolution:
After his death, Cuvier used the forum of a eulogy to denigrate Lamarck:
Opposition to Lamarck's theories became stronger when Mendel's genetics was rediscovered, but there were always common-sense doubts. Particular criticism came from Alfred Russel Wallace and August Weismann later in the 19th century. Here is an example:
Wallace's argument in short is:
WWE Vintage Collection
Patrick Wayne Swayze (August 18, 1952 – September 14, 2009) was an American actor, singer, songwriter and dancer. He was born in Houston, Texas. He had starred in many successful Hollywood movies, including "Red Dawn" (1984), "Dirty Dancing" (1987), "Ghost" (1990), and "Point Break" (1991). Swayze's film career was started in the Coppola movie "The Outsiders" (1983)
Swayze was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in January 2008 and died in Los Angeles, California at the age of 57. He was married to Lisa Niemi from 1975 and until his death. The couple owned a horse ranch in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Swayze did not have children.
Fox Mulder
Fox Mulder is one of the main characters in the science-fiction show The X-Files. He is an FBI agent working in the section called the X-Files. He works together with his partner Dana Scully to figure out answers to questions in the X-Files. The questions he looks at are usually about aliens or the paranormal. Later, Mulder begins to date Scully in season 7 of the show.
Mulder has a sister named Samantha Mulder. He spends a lot of time looking for her. Later in the show, Mulder finds out that his sister was kidnapped by aliens and the government.
Traudl Junge
Traudl Junge (born Gertraud Humps 16 March 1920 – 10 February 2002) was Adolf Hitler's youngest private secretary. She was his secretary from December 1942 to April 1945.
She was hired by Hitler in November 1942. She married Hans Hermann Junge, under encouragement from Hitler. Hans Junge died while fighting in 1944.
In 1945, Junge was in the Fuhrerbunker with Hitler. She typed Hitler's last will and testament. After that, she said that she heard Hitler shoot himself. She left the Fuhrerbunker in May 1945.
After the war, she was not well-known. However, she was in several shows that talked about Hitler. She was also in the movie Der Untergang, which was about the last days of Hitler in the Fuhrerbunker. In the beginning and end of the movie, it shows an interview of her.
Dana Scully
Dana Scully is a character on the science fiction show The X-Files. She works as a special agent in the FBI. In the show, she works in the X-Files with her partner, Fox Mulder. Scully and Mulder work together to find answers to cases that they have to solve. She is in every episode of the show except for five of them.
She was first told to join the X-Files because she was scientific and logical. People thought that her partner, Mulder, was crazy because he thought aliens and the paranormal were the answers to their cases. However, after a while with Mulder she started to think like him. She also begins a relationship with him.
Scully later has a child, named William Scully Jr. However, we do not know how she could have a child. Earlier in the series, it is said that she cannot have babies.
May Coup
May Coup was a coup d'état that happened in Poland in May 1926. It was organised by the former Polish leader and national hero Józef Piłsudski to remove the "weak" democratic government from power. It started on 12 May and ended on 15 May.
Piłsudski and his followers were victorious and the Polish democracy was replaced with an authoritarian regime that remained in power until the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. After Piłsudski's death in 1935 the regime became more and more radical, with regular persecution of the political opponents, never changing into totalitarianism though.
Fritz Müller (31 March 1821 – 21 May 1897), was a German biologist and doctor who went to live in southern Brazil. There he studied the natural history. He was an early supporter of Darwinism, and lived in Brazil for the rest of his life. Müllerian mimicry is named after him.
Unlike most of his contemporaries in Britain, Müller had what would be seen today as a normal scientific education at the universities of Berlin and Greifswald, culminating in a doctoral degree. Then, he decided to study medicine. As a medical student, he began to question religion and in 1846 became an atheist. Despite completing the course, he did not graduate because he refused to swear the graduation oath, which contained the phrase "so help me God and his sacred Gospel".
Müller was disappointed by the failure of the Prussian Revolution in 1848, and realised there might be implications for his life and career. As a result, he emigrated to South Brazil in 1852, with his brother August and their wives, to join Hermann Blumenau's new colony in the State of Santa Catarina. The colony, near the coast on the Itajaí River, was called Blumenau. In Brazil, Müller, living with his wife Caroline, became a farmer, doctor, teacher and biologist, sometimes employed by the provincial government, sometimes surviving on his own efforts, sometimes defending against Indians but always collecting evidence of life in the Atlantic forest. The climate here is sub-tropical, and the vegetation typical of the Brazilian coast: it is not rain forest.
In 1876 he was appointed as Travelling Naturalist to the National Museum in Rio de Janeiro. This was the ideal post for him: it gave him the opportunity to range over the whole of the Itajaí system and study anything that interested him. A series of reports published in the "Archivos" of the National Museum record this work.
At last this, the best period of his life, was brought to an end indirectly, by the overthrow of the liberal monarchy of Dom Pedro II in 1889. The new Brazilian Republic was riddled with corruption and nepotism, and eventually there was a civil war in 1893-5. Travelling naturalists were to be based in Rio de Janeiro, and instructions were sent out. Müller refused point-blank and was dismissed, as was von Ihering in São Paulo.
In his retirement years Müller received many letters of support and offers of financial help (from Darwin, amongst others). His cousin Alfred Möller visited him, and eventually became his biographer. His rewards during life from the Brazilian state were minor; but his reputation now stands high. He was one of a half-dozen great naturalists to visit and work in South America during the nineteenth century. Humboldt, Darwin, Wallace, Bates, Spruce — and Fritz Müller. He was the only one of these to settle in Brazil for the rest of his life. A statue was erected to Müller in Blumenau in 1929.
Another of Fritz's brothers, Hermann Müller, was also an evolutionary biologist. He was especially interested in the coevolution between insects and flowers. He, too, corresponded with Dariwn, who arranged for his 1873 book to be translated into English.
A broad chronology of Müller's life is as follows:
During his life Müller published oved 70 papers, mostly in German-language periodicals, some in English and Portuguese. The topics covered a range of natural history topics in entomology, marine zoology, and botany.
Müller's great discovery concerned the resemblance between two or more unpalatable species which are protected from predators capable of learning. The protection is often a noxious chemical, perhaps gained from the larva eating a particulat plant; or it may be a sting or other defence. It is an advantage for such potential prey to advertise their status in a way clearly perceptible to their predators; this is called "aposematic" or warning colouration. In Muller's case the prey were butterflies, and the predators usually birds or reptiles.
The aposematic colours are most often some combination of red, yellow, black, white, whereas palatable animals are usually cryptic. The noxious animals may display by slow flying, and in general are prominently visible. Noxious animals usually have thick, leathery cuticles through which, at certain points, they extrude noxious fluids when pecked; they will often survive a 'trial'.
In Müllerian mimicry an advantage is gained when unpalatable species resemble each other, especially when the predator has a good memory for colour (as birds, for instance, do have). Thus one trial may work to dissuade a bird from several species of butterfly which all fly the same 'flag'. Brazilian butterflies provide some of the most extraordinary examples of mimicry, and Müller, Bates and Wallace all had lengthy experience of this. All three traveller-naturalists believed firmly that such systems of mimicry could only come about by means of natural selection, and all of them wrote about it.
One of his favourite topics was the life habits of the stingless honey-bees "Melipoma" and "Trigona". They are protected by a venom which they squirt when disturbed. The local name for them is Cagafogo (fire-shitter).
Another discovery was the dimorphism in midges of the family Blepharicereidae. There are two female forms with different mouth-parts: one sucks blood, the other takes nectar, as does the male. To prove the point to skeptics, he sexed the flies carefully, and reared them from pupae.
By studying living termites Müller was able to correct many errors to be found in text-books. For example, their caste system is organised quite differently from ants, since the castes contain members of both sexes, whereas in hymenoptera the castes are unisexual and the males are haploid. Termites are placed in a different order from ants, the Isoptera.
Much of Müller's botany was stimulated by the series of botanical works published by Darwin in the years after the "Origin". Müller made contributions in all these fields. After Darwin's "Fertilisation of Orchids" (1862) he spent years of work on orchids, sending observations to his brother Hermann and to Darwin. Darwin used some of this work in his second edition of 1877, and Hermann later became famous for his work on pollination. On "Climbing plants" (Darwin 1867) Müller sent a letter to Darwin listing 40 genera of climbing plants classified by their method of climbing. The next few months saw more observations, which Darwin had translated and published as Müller's first paper in English.
Müller became a strong supporter of Darwin. He wrote "Für Darwin" in 1864, arguing that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was correct, and that Brazilian crustaceans and their larvae could be affected by adaptations at any growth stage. This was translated into English as "Facts and Arguments for Darwin" in 1869. If Müller had a weakness it was that his writing was much less readable than that of Darwin or Wallace; both the German and English editions are hard reading indeed, which has limited the appreciation of this significant book.
Extensive correspondence exists between Müller and Darwin, and Müller also corresponded with Alexander Agassiz, Ernst Krause, and Ernst Haeckel.
John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow
John Adrian Louis Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow KT, GCMG, GCVO, PC (25 September 1860 - 29 February 1908), known as Viscount Aithrie before 1873 and as The 7th Earl of Hopetoun between 1873 and 1902, was the first Governor-General of Australia.
Hope was born at South Queensferry, West Lothian in Scotland. He was the eldest son of the 6th Earl of Hopetoun. He was educated at Eton College and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, where he passed in 1879 but did not join the Army. He looked after the family houses and lands. In 1883 he became active in the House of Lords. He served as a Lord in Waiting from June 1885 to January 1886 and August 1886 to August 1889.
In 1889 he was made the Governor of Victoria, where he served until 1895. He went back to the United Kingdom and was made a privy councillor. He became the Paymaster-General from 1895 to 1898, and then Lord Chamberlain until 1900. The Australian colonies joined together to form the Commonwealth of Australia from 1 January 1901. Hopetoun was well liked in Victoria and he knew all the important Australian politicians. This made him a good choice to be the first Governor-General of the Commonwealth, and he was appointed in July 1900. In India, on his way to Australia, he got typhoid fever and his wife got malaria. They arrived in December 1900.
Hopetoun's first job was to choose a Prime Minister to form a government, which would start on 1 January 1901. The first elections were not going to be held until March, so he could not choose the leader of the biggest political party in the House of Representatives. Instead, he asked Sir William Lyne, the Premier of the largest state, New South Wales, to be Prime Minister
While this was a reasonable choice, Lyne had opposed federation and was unpopular with the leading federalist politicians. Alfred Deakin and other important politicians told Hopetoun they would not work with Lyne. Hopetoun then asked Edmund Barton, the leader of the federal movement and the man everybody thought should be the Prime Minister. This became known as the "Hopetoun Blunder".
There were soon more problems. Hopetoun had brought his own Official Secretary, Captain Edward William Wallington. The Australians did not want an Englishman in charge of official business. They also did not like the regal pomp and ceremony that Hopetoun used in his position, and the money that this cost. He acted as if ruled Australia with the Prime Minister. This was not what writers of the Constitution had wanted.
Hopetoun became friends with Melbourne anarchist and union pioneer, John 'Chummy' Fleming. In May 1901, Fleming protested against unemployment in Melbourne by rushing onto the Prince's Bridge to stop the Governor-General's carriage. Hopetoun listened to Fleming talk about the problems of the unemployed. According to some reports, Hopetoun made the government speed up work projects.
Finally, there was a problem with how much the Governor-General should be paid to have a house in both Sydney, the largest city, and Melbourne, the home of the Australian government. The Commonwealth and Victorian parliaments would not pay Hopetoun more money. Hopetoun resigned in May 1902. He and his family left Australia (from Brisbane) on 17 July 1902. He knew he had failed in a historic role. He was created 1st Marquess of Linlithgow on 27 October 1902, while he still the Governor-General. His term officially ended on 9 January 1903. He was made Secretary for Scotland in 1905.
He died suddenly on 29 February 1908, in Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France.
On 18 October 1886 he married Hersey Everleigh-de-Moleyns, daughter of the fourth Baron Ventry. They had four children;
His son Victor, the 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow became the longest-serving Viceroy of India 1936-43, a job he had always wanted. His grandson Lord Glendevon married the daughter of the English novelist W. Somerset Maugham.
Henry Walter Bates
Henry Walter Bates (Leicester, 8 February 1825 – London, 16 February 1892) was an English biologist who explored the Amazon Rainforest.
This naturalist and explorer gave the first scientific account of mimicry in animals. Batesian mimicry is named after him. He was most famous for his expedition to the Amazon River basin with Alfred Russel Wallace in 1848. He spent 11 years in the rain forest.
When Bates arrived home in 1859, he had sent back over 14,000 species (mostly of insects) of which 8,000 were new to science.
In 1847 Wallace and Bates discussed the idea of an expedition to the Amazon basin. The plan was to defray expenses by sending specimens back to London, where an agent would sell them for a commission. Also, for the travellers to ""gather facts towards solving the problem of the origin of species"", as Wallace put it in a letter to Bates.
The two friends, who were both by now experienced amateur entomologists, met in London to prepare themselves by viewing South American plants and animals in the main collections.
Bates and Wallace sailed from Liverpool in April 1848, arriving in Pará (now Belém) at the end of May. For the first year they settled in a villa near the city, collecting birds and insects. After that they agreed to collect independently.
Eventually, Bates' health deteriorated and he returned to England, sending his collection by three different ships. He didn't want to put all his insects into one boat. Bates wrote a famous book on his experiences: "The naturalist on the river Amazons".
Alfred Russel Wallace
Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, biologist and social activist. He is best known for proposing a theory of natural selection. This was published in 1858 together with Charles Darwin's idea.
Wallace did extensive natural history exploring. He went first to the Amazon River basin with Henry Walter Bates, and later to Malaya and Indonesia. He wrote books on both these adventures. While in Indonesia he drew the "Wallace Line" which divides Indonesia into two parts. On one side are animals of Australasia. On the other side are species mostly of Asian origin. He wrote a wonderful book on biogeography (the distribution of animals).
After a few years of working as a railway surveyor with his brother, Wallace's life was changed by meeting Henry Walter Bates in Leicester in 1847.
Wallace and Bates discussed the idea of an expedition to the Amazon. The plan was to defray expenses by sending specimens back to London, where an agent would sell them for a commission. Also, for the travellers to ""gather facts towards solving the problem of the origin of species"", as Wallace put it in a letter to Bates. The two friends, who were both by now experienced amateur entomologists, met in London to prepare themselves by viewing South American plants and animals in the main collections.
Wallace continued charting the Amazon for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples, the languages, the geography, flora, and fauna. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for England on the brig "Helen". After twenty-eight days at sea, balsam in the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, most of his collection, were lost. He could only save part of his diary and a few sketches. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig "Jordeson".
From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the "Dutch East Indies" (now Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study nature. Wallace collected more than 125,000 specimens in the Dutch East Indies (more than 80,000 beetles alone). More than a thousand of them represented species new to science.
His observations of the clear zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace Line. Bali and Lombok were two islands in the archipelago only 17 miles apart at the widest (28 km), roughly the same size and with the same climate, soil, elevation and aspect. Yet their flora and fauna were so different.
"In this archipelago there are two distinct faunas rigidly circumscribed, which differ as much as do those of Africa and South America... yet there is nothing on the map or on the face of the islands to mark their limits. The boundary line passes between islands closer together than others belonging to the same group. I believe the western part to be a separated portion of continental Asia, while the eastern is a fragmentary prolongation of a former west Pacific continent".
Why was it, he wondered, that the animals and plants on the Bali side of the channel were of Asian types, while those on the Lombok side were Australasian in type? This had to mean that the western group had evolved from common western stock, while the eastern group had evolved from a common eastern stock.
While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.
Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as "The Malay Archipelago". It became one of the most popular natural history travel journals of the 19th century. It was praised by Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell and by others, such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his "favorite bedside companion".
Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in evolution. Both he and Bates had read "Vestiges", a controversial work of popular science, published anonymously in 1844. This advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system, the earth, and living things. He also read Malthus's "Principle of population", which he says "twenty years later gave me the long-sought clue to the effective agent in the evolution of organic species". He meant by that the struggle for existence, which led Wallace to "natural selection".
Wallace wrote his ideas on the small isle of "Ternate", in what was then the Dutch East Indies. He was suffering from malaria. While the natives looked after him, his thoughts turned to Malthus's book.
"I thought of [Malthus's] clear exposition of the 'positive checks to increase' – disease, accidents, wars, famine – which keep down the population... It then occurred to me that the same causes, or their equivalents, are
continually acting in the case of animals also... Why do some die and some live? And the answer came clearly, that on the whole the best fitted live... Then it suddenly flashed upon me, that this self-acting process would necessarily improve the race..."
This was the origin of his letter to Darwin, which set out the idea of natural selection.
In 1864 Wallace published a paper, "The origin of human races and the antiquity of Man deduced from the theory of natural selection", applying the theory to human beings. Huxley had already published his view that evolution applied to mankind as it did to other living things.
Wallace thought that natural selection could not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, wit and humour. He eventually said that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in mankind. He also believed that the purpose of the universe was the development of the human spirit.
Many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were highly critical of these ideas. As one historian of science has pointed out, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of Darwinism. These are: evolution does not have a goal, and it is not aimed at or centered around mankind. It is thought by most biographers that his thinking on the evolution of man was influenced by his adoption of spiritualism, which happened at the same time.
Wallace was not a believer in revealed religion of any kind, but he did believe in spiritualism. This has puzzled biographers, who struggle to think why such a man would believe in spirits. Early in his life, he experimented with hypnosis, which was then doubted and criticised. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. Apparently, this persuaded him not to reject ideas which were doubted. Even when Huxley told him that one of his favourite mediums was a proven fraud, he refused to believe it. He preferred the evidence of his own experience.
Wallace's public support of spiritualism, and his defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud, damaged his scientific reputation. It strained his relationships with friends such as Bates, Huxley and Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Others became openly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism were subject to much criticism from the press, with "The Lancet", the leading English medical journal, being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public's idea of Wallace for the rest of his career, though he was always respected in other ways.
Wallace had a wide range of interests, and wrote books about all of them. He wrote against vaccination, for phrenology, for spiritualism, for land nationalisation, against the moon having canals, and for social change and the progress and improvement of mankind. He did not believe in religion, but he did believe in spiritualism. He was a radical in politics, economics and social reform. He was a kind and honourable person, but he could be a tough opponent if he thought something unfair was going on. Even the titles of some of his books were sensational, as for example:
Wallace wrote about 22 books, depending on how one counts them.
His greatest works include:
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov (25 November 1887 – 26 January 1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He is best known for showing how and where crop plants evolved. He devoted his life to agriculture: the study and improvement of wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.
By 1940, Vavilov had accumulated a collection of 200,000 plant seeds from the Soviet Union and from abroad. He was widely admired, but his life came to a terrible end. Vavilov repeatedly criticised a powerful but poor scientist, Trofim Lysenko. As a result, Vavilov was arrested, and died of starvation in a prison in 1943. Today Vavilov's name stands high. The "Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry" in St. Petersburg is named after him. It maintains one of the world's largest collections of plant genetic material.
This is mimicry in plants where a weed comes to look like a crop plant. Before herbicides, weeds were plucked by hand. This has been done for thousands of years. The weeds come to look like the crop because the weeders pick those weeds which look most different. Vavilovian mimicry is caused by unintentional selection by humans. The weeds that survive pass on their genes. Gradually, all the weeds look more like the crop plant.
An example is rye, a common Mediterranean species. Rye was originally just a weed growing with wheat and barley. Weeding made it like the crop. Like wheat, it came to have larger seeds and more rigid spindles to which the seeds are attached.
Rye is a tougher plant than wheat: it survives in harsher conditions. Having become a crop like the wheat, rye was able to become a crop plant in harsh areas, such as hills and mountains.
Gilbert White (18 July 1720 – 26 June 1793) was a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist.
White was born in his grandfather's vicarage at Selborne in Hampshire. He was educated by a private tutor in Basingstoke before going to Oriel College, Oxford University. He obtained his deacon's orders in 1746, being fully ordained in 1749.
Then he held several curacies in Hampshire and Wiltshire, including Selbourne. White also held the office of Junior Proctor at Oxford and was Dean of Oriel College. In 1784 he became curate of Selborne for the last time, remaining so until his death.
White is best known for "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" (1789). This was a collection of his letters to Thomas Pennant, the leading British zoologist of the day, and the Hon. Daines Barrington, an English barrister and Fellow of the Royal Society. These letters contained White's discoveries on local birds, animals and plants. White believed in observing birds rather than collecting specimens. He was one of the first people to separate the similar-looking Chiffchaff, Willow Warbler and Wood Warbler by means of their song.
White is regarded by many as England's first ecologist and one of the founders of modern respect for nature.
Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a British geologist. He was the foremost geologist of his day, and an influence on the young Charles Darwin. His work was rewarded with a knighthood, and later he was created a hereditary baronet.
The house of his birth is in the Scottish Lowlands. it is in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault, one of the great features of Scottish geology. Round the house is farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west are the Grampian Mountains in the Scottish Highlands.
Charles would have seen this view from his house as a child. He was also fortunate that his family's second home was in a completely different area: at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, England. Both these places lit his interest in the natural world.
Lyell was a rich man, and earned more money as an author. He came from a prosperous family, and worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s. He held was a Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books gave him both income and fame.
Lyell's "Principles of Geology" was his most famous and most important book. It was first published in three volumes, in 1830–33. The book was about the ideas of James Hutton, but with many additions, improvements and examples. The book made Lyell to be known as an important geological theorist. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.
The central argument in "Principles" was that "the present is the key to the past". This was called by William Whewell 'uniformitarianism'. Geological remains from the distant past are explained by processes we can see operating now. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a big influence on his young friend, Charles Darwin.
John Ray
John Ray (29 November 1627 – 17 January 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Ray was the son of a village blacksmith who got to Cambridge University on a scholarship. This was in 1644, when the Puritans were making war against Charles I. When he got his bachelor's degree in 1648, he continued as a Fellow of Trinity College.
Ray was a Protestant dissenter who had accepted the return of Charles II. He was ordained as a priest of the Church of England, in London in 1660. By then, Charles II insisted that all priests sign an affadavit against the Puritan party. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in religious services, which was opposed by those of Puritan beliefs. Ray would not sign the affidavit, so he was forced to resign his Fellowship, and could not work as a priest.
Ray returned to his native village of Black Notley, near Braintree in Essex. After Ray joined up with a former student, Francis Willughby, the pair spent three years in continental Europe, discovering what the latest scientific ideas were. When he returned to England in Spring 1666, he joined the new Royal Society, and devoted himself to the study of natural history. His most important scientific works were supported financially by the Royal Society, whose President at a critical time in the 1680s was Samuel Pepys.
Ray published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. His classification of plants in his "Historia Plantarum", was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system by which species were classified according to an either/or type system. Instead he classified plants by observation according to similarities and differences. Thus he advanced scientific empiricism against the deductive rationalism of the scholastics. He was the first person to give a biological definition of the term "species".
Ray published about 23 works, depending on how one counts them. The biological works were usually in Latin, the rest in English. For ease of reading, the titles below are in English.
Including the various editions, there are 172 works of Ray, of which most are rare. The only libraries with substantial holdings are all in England. The list in order of holdings is:
WWE Diva Search
The WWE Diva Search was a competition held by the World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) which ran from 2003 to 2007. The aim of the contest was to find a new WWE Diva, from the 2004 contest onwards the winner of the contest was offered a WWE Contract which was worth $250,000.
Despite only one winner of the competition each year (excluding 2003) the WWE has signed multiple diva search contestants, including Candice Michelle, Taryn Terrell and many others.
In 2003 the first Diva Search was held, however the winner of the first Diva Search Jaime Koeppe did not receive a contract. She did receive a photoshoot for an issue of WWE Magazine.
Despite Christy Hemme winning, the WWE hired many other Divas also featured within the contest, this included, Michelle McCool, Amy Weber, Candice Michelle, Maria Kennllis and Joy Giovanni.
Like the previous year's Diva Search, Ashley Massaro was not the only Diva WWE hired, this included, Kristal Marshall, Trenesha Biggers and Elisabeth Rouffaer.
Like the past two years this also featured the WWE hiring many losing Divas, this included, Milena Roucka, the Garcia Twins, Rebecca DiPietro, Amy Zidian and Maryse Ouellet.
WWE like in the previous years WWE hired runner-ups, this included, Taryn Terrell, Lena Yada and Angela Fong.
Vladimir Samoylovich Horowitz (, "Vladimir Samojlovich Horovitz") (October 1, 1903 – November 5, 1989) was a Russian-American classical pianist. He is often said to be one of the best pianists of the 20 century.
Horowitz was born in Kiev, that time part of the Russian Empire (now Ukraine) to a Jewish family in 1903. He was the youngest of four children. His father was an engineer and his mother was a pianist. He first started piano lessons from his mother at an early age. In 1912 he joined Kiev University where he was taught by Vladimir Puchalsky, Sergei Tarnowsky, and Felix Blumenfeld. He performed Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3 in D Minor on his graduation. He then performed his first solo concert in Kharkiv in 1920.
Horowitz got more and more famous but was often paid in food rather than money because Russia wasn't very rich. Although performing in many concerts, he secretly wanted to be a composer. In 1925, he moved to the West, intending not to return.
On January 2, 1926, Horowitz played his first concert outside of Russia. He then played in many other places, such as Berlin, Paris, and London. He gave his first concerts in the United States in 1928.
When World War II started in 1939, Horowitz decided to live in the U. S. He became an American citizen in 1944. Horowitz was very proud of being an American, and decided to make a piano version of Sousa's The Stars and Stripes Forever. He played many concerts to raise money for the war effort, and he asked people to call him "the American pianist." Horowitz began playing music written by an American composer, Samuel Barber, and gave the world’s first performances of the Barber's Piano Sonata and Excursions.
During World War II, Horowitz also played a lot of Russian music, giving the first performances in America of Prokofiev's Piano Sonatas Nos. 6, 7 and 8 (which were called "War Sonatas") and Kabalevsky's Piano Sonatas Nos. 2 and 3.
Horowitz stopped playing concerts four times (1936 to 1938, 1953 to 1965, 1969 to 1974, and 1983 to 1985), as he was unsure that he was good enough, even when he was popular.
He made his television debut on September 22, 1968, in a concert at Carnegie Hall.
Horowitz was most well known for playing music written between 1830 and 1920. His 1932 recording of the Liszt Sonata is still considered by many to be the best ever, even though many other pianists have recorded it. Other pieces he was famous for were Scriabin's Étude in D-sharp minor, Chopin's Ballade No. 1 in G minor, and many of Rachmaninoff’s short pieces, including Polka de W.R. Horowitz was praised for his way of playing the Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 3, and the composer said "he swallowed it whole. He had the courage, the intensity, the daring." Horowitz later became good friends with Rachmaninoff. Horowitz was also well known for playing quieter works like Schumann's Scenes of Childhood, Scarlatti sonatas, and some Mozart and Haydn sonatas.
Horowitz's way of playing often used large contrasts between soft and loud volumes. He was able to play louder than most other pianists, without making an ugly sound. His playing was also known for many different kinds of sounds – sometimes called "tone colors". Horowitz was also famous for playing precise passages in octaves very fast.
Horowitz began making recordings in 1928. He recorded for several record labels. His most famous early records were Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3 with Albert Coates and the London Symphony Orchestra (the first time that piece was recorded) and Franz Liszt's Sonata in B minor.
When Horowitz was not playing in public, he sometimes made recordings in his house. His recordings won many awards, and he continued recording until a few days before he died.
In 1986, Horowitz told his friends that “before I die, I want to see the land where I was born.” So, he decided to play two concerts in Russia. At the time, Russia and the United States were trying to be more friendly with each other, and Horowitz’s concerts were part of that effort. The concert in Russia’s capitol, Moscow, was shown on TV, and people in the audience could be seen wiping tears from their eyes.
When Horowitz returned to the United States, President Ronald Reagan gave him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Vladimir Horowitz died on November 5, 1989 in New York of a heart attack. He was 86.
Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist who specialised in comparative anatomy. He was born in Ealing, Middlesex. He was a friend and supporter of Charles Darwin, and had a public career. He was a member of ten Royal Commissions.
Today he is sometimes called "Darwin's Bulldog" for his support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. However, this term was not used during his lifetime. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwin's ideas, but he was wholehearted in his public support of Darwin.
Huxley's 1860 debate with the English Bishop Samuel Wilberforce was a famous public event. The debate was about evolution, and it was widely reported in the press. Many thought Huxley won that debate, which helped Huxley's career, and the theory of evolution.
Huxley also developed scientific education in Britain, and fought against the more extreme forms of religion. These activities had a big effect on the way people in Britain and elsewhere thought about the world. Huxley used the term "agnostic" to say that he did not know if there is a god or not. We continue to use the term "agnostic" today. Huxley was for many years a close friend of the Irish physicist John Tyndall.
Huxley had little schooling, and taught himself almost everything he knew. Remarkably, he became a great anatomist and zoologist. Later, he discussed the evolution of man and the apes. Another of his ideas was that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, which is now known to be true.
Huxley died in Eastbourne, Sussex. Three of his grandsons became famous in the 20th century.
As a young man, Huxley went on a long voyage of discovery to the southern continents. He was Assistant to the Surgeon on the Royal Navy ship HMS "Rattlesnake". What he did was to collect sea animals, and study them. He went ashore in New Guinea and the eastern coast of Australia, to study the animals, and the native peoples. He fell in love with a girl in Sydney, Australia, and some years later they married and had children.
For nearly ten years he worked on the relationship of man to the apes. This led him into a clash with Richard Owen, a man who was disliked for his behaviour, but admired for his skill. The struggle between them ended in some severe defeats for Owen.
Huxley's public lectures grew into his most famous work "Man's place in Nature" (1863). There he deals with the evolution of man, before Charles Darwin published his "Descent of Man" in 1871.