AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Bergkamp was named in FIFA 100, a list of the 125 greatest living footballers made by Brazilian retired footballer Pelé.
185||103||23||13||colspan="2"|-||208||116
52||11||16||10||colspan="2"|-||68||21
316||87||47||22||48||11||411||120
553||201||86||45||48||11||687||257
!Total||79||37
Fabien Barthez
Fabien Barthez (born 28 June 1971) is a French retired football player. He has played for France national team, and has won the World Cup and the European Championship.
363||0||66||0||colspan="2"|-||20||0||449||0
92||0||4||0||4||0||37||0||137||0
455||0||70||0||4||0||57||0||586||0
!Total||87||0
Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)
Civil Disobedience ("Resistance to Civil Government") is a text by Henry David Thoreau. It was first printed in 1849. It says that people should not allow a government to order them to do wrong things.
In 1848, Thoreau lectured at the Concord Lyceum (a place for people to meet and learn in the town of Concord, Massachusetts). The words of the lecture were later printed with the name "Resistance to Civil Government" in 1849. Now many people call it ""Civil Disobedience"" which means: "not doing what the government orders you to do."
In the early 1840s Thoreau stopped paying his "poll tax" (a tax that is the same amount for everybody). He was angry that the government used tax money to make people slaves and to war with Mexico. Thoreau did not want to help them do these things. In 1846 the tax agent put Thoreau in prison for one night. Thoreau wrote "Civil Disobedience" to say why he would not pay.
Thoreau says governments are more bad than good, and society without government would be more good. Letting people vote does not make government good, because people may vote for bad things. One person with their conscience (their feeling of right and wrong) may make decisions that are more good than decisions made by governments or by most of the people who vote.
Thoreau says the United States government, because it makes people slaves, cannot be his government. People should end such a government. To end a government is difficult, but because the government is so bad, we must end it anyway.
Most of the people Thoreau was talking to also did not like slavery or the war with Mexico. But Thoreau said they must do more than to dislike these things, or to vote against these things, or to hope these things will end. They must also stop supporting these things by paying taxes. If the government puts you in prison because you do not pay taxes, then it is good to be in prison because, if the government is bad, prison is the right place for good people. If the government attempted to put all good people in prison, the government would end first, and this would be a revolution of peace.
It is easier to be brave if you have less that the government can take from you. So Thoreau suggests that people own less, and that they value what is good and not value property only.
Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi (or Mahatma Gandhi) liked what Thoreau wrote. In 1907, when Gandhi was starting his first "satyagraha" fight in South Africa, he printed a short outline of "Civil Disobedience" that he wrote in an Indian language. He said that "Civil Disobedience" was the largest cause for the end of slavery in America, and that Indians in South Africa should learn from that example.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. also liked what Thoreau wrote. In his autobiography, he wrote that Thoreau taught him that it is as important "not" to help bad people as it is to help good people. He said that Thoreau's lessons "came alive" in the civil rights movement.
Osvaldo Ardiles
Osvaldo Ardiles (born 3 August 1952) is a former Argentine football player. He has played for Argentina national team.
143||16
253||16
14||1
410||33
!Total||53||8
Lambing Flat
Lambing Flat was the name of a gold field in New South Wales, Australia. People were digging for gold at Lambing Flat in the 1860s. It was part of the Burrangong goldfields which also included Spring Creek, Stoney Creek, Back Creek, Wombat, Blackguard Gully, and Tipperary Gully. Burrangong is now the town of Young, New South Wales. Frank Gardiner, a bushranger, had a butcher shop at Lambing Flat. Ben Hall, who also became a bushranger, sold cattle to Gardiner for his shop.
Lambing Flat is most famous for an anti Chinese riot. This was just one of a number of riots on the Burrangong goldfields between November 1860 and September 1861. Several place names are sometimes used when talking about these events. Lambing Flat, the name which is name used most often, was a grass area where sheep were kept. It was where one of the more violent riots took place.
There were many things that made the European miners dislike the Chinese miners on the gold fields in the 1850s. Most of the trouble was the way Chinese miners looked for gold. The gold was alluvial gold, small pieces of gold mixed in with soil and clay close to the surface. It was found in very old river beds called "leads" which had been buried for thousands of years. Getting the gold did not need much skill, but it was hard work. European miners worked alone or in small groups. They often left one area of ground to dig in another where others had said there was more gold. Many gold miners did not make enough money to buy food and clothing. Only a few miners became rich.
The government began to tax the miners by making them pay for "Miner's Licence". They had to pay to be allowed to dig rather than pay for the gold they had found. The miners did not like this tax. There were several angry and violent protests in Victoria and New South Wales. The most famous was at the Eureka Stockade in Ballarat, Victoria where over 30 miners were killed.
The Chinese usually worked in large groups of 30 - 100 men. They were able to share the small amounts of gold they found. They looked for gold on land that other miners had searched before. The European miners thought that the land was still their land. The Chinese miners lived and worked together. Most of them had been farmers in China. They were used to long hours of hard work. They were used to basic food and houses. It has been said that they "rarely paid for the mining leases". They were happy to find a lot of small pieces of gold, instead of looking for one big piece that would make them rich.
The first public display of anti-Chinese feelings took place in Bendigo in July 1854. Some these displays were attempts to keep the Chinese from working on the goldfields. There were fights between European and Chinese miners at Daylesford and Castlemaine. A group of Chinese on their way to the Victorian goldfields found gold at Ararat. They were forced off the new goldfield by European miners. The same things were also taking place in New South Wales. European miners forced the Chinese off the diggings at Rocky River in New England in 1856. Serious fights took place Adelong in 1857 and Tambaroora in 1858. There was a big riot at the Buckland River goldfield near Beechworth in July 1857.
There were not many Chinese miners in New South Wales. Victoria had cut the number of Chinese arriving by making them pay a tax of £10 to enter Victoria. The Chinese were now starting to arrive in NSW instead. The government tried to stop the Chinese coming in 1858, but the parliament would not pass the new laws. In 1860 the Chinese and British governments signed the Convention of Peking. This meant that Chinese and British people would have the same rights in each country. Australia was a British colony, so could New South Wales keep out people from China? A new law, the Chinese Immigration Regulation Bill, was being talked about in Parliament when the first gold miners were getting to Burrangong.
Trouble began in 1860 with the starting of the Miners Protective League. The European miners held big meetings, called roll ups, to force the Chinese to leave the goldfields. They would put up signs telling the Chinese to leave. At first there was not a lot of trouble. Most of the Chinese moved to another part of the goldfield, with some going back soon after. This happened a few times over the next eight months. As long as the Chinese stayed in certain places on the goldfield at Burrangong, the European miners would put up with them.
The most well known riot took place on the night of 30 June, 1861. A group of about 3,000 miners marched to Lambing Flat led by a brass band and two men carrying the roll up banner. They forced the Chinese to leave Lambing Flat. Tents were set on fire and items belonging to the Chinese were smashed or stolen. They then went to the Back Creek diggings and set fire to more tents. Many of the Chinese were cruelly beaten, but no one was killed. About 1,200 Chinese left the area and set up camp near Roberts' farm at Currowang, 20km away. Two things started the riot. In Sydney the parliament did not pass the anti-Chinese laws. Also an untrue story went around the goldfields. The story said that a new group of 1,500 Chinese were on the road to Burrangong. The police got to Burrangong in the next few days. They arrested three of the leaders of the riot. The miners were angry and on the night of July 14, 1,000 miners attacked the police camp. The police fired their guns and rode their horses into the miners. One miner was killed and many were hurt.
The police were forced to leave. A group of 280 soldiers, sailors and extra police came from Sydney and stayed on the goldfields for a year. The Chinese came back and lived in a separate part of the diggings. The leaders of the riots were arrested and two were sent to gaol. At the end of the year, Burrangong was quiet and the Chinese were still there.
Lens can mean different things:
The lentil or daal or pulse ("Lens culinaris") is a bushy annual plant of the legume family. It is a kind of vegetable, grown for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about 15 inches tall and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.
The plant originated in the Middle East and was one of the first crops domesticated in the world. Humans started eating lentils before they invented ceramics.
Consisting of 26% protein, lentils have the highest level of protein of any plant after soybeans and hemp. Because of this fact, and due to their high iron content, lentils are a very important part of the diet in many parts of the world, especially in India, which has a large vegetarian population.
Different kinds of lentils exist, including a variety of large and small lentils. Lentils come in colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black.
Lentils are sold in many forms, with or without the skins, whole or split. Red, white and yellow lentils are decorticated, i.e., they have their skins removed.
One variety of yellow "lentils", Chana, is in fact not a lentil, but are actually made from the kernels of chickpeas. Split Pigeon peas (either green or yellow) - that are actually considered pulses, which include peas and beans - are also sometimes erroneously referred to and sold as lentils. The urad bean is also referred to as a "black lentil".
The seeds only need very little cooking. This time is especially short for kinds of lentils with their husk removed, such as the common red lentil. Lentils have a distinctive earthy flavor. They can be used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious soup all over Europe and North and South America. Sometimes they are combined with some form of chicken or pork. They are frequently combined with rice, which has a similar cooking time. In the Middle East such a dish of lentils and rice is called "mujaddara" or "mejadra". Rice and lentils are also cooked together in khichdi, a popular Indian dish. Lentils are used throughout India, the Mediterranean regions and the Middle East. In rare cases the lentils are mixed with dairy cheese.
Many people in India are vegetarian and lentils have long been part of the indigenous diet as a common source of protein. Usually, lentils are boiled to a stew-like consistency with vegetables and then seasoned with a mixture of spices to make many side dishes such as sambar, rasam and dal, which are usually served over rice and roti.
When lentils are prepared, they are first inspected for damaged lentils, stones and other foreign matter. Then they are rinsed until the water runs through and comes out clear. Some prefer to soak the lentils for a longer time and discard the water. This removes substances that may cause indigestion. The lentils are then boiled in water or broth. They may be cooked on the stovetop, or in a slow cooker. Pressure cookers are not recommended, since the small lentils may clog the pressure relief valve, and their quick cooking time means there is little benefit from pressure cooking. Cooked lentils often require thinning: adding more hot water or broth to the cooked legumes until the desired final consistency is reached.
Lentils can be sprouted as can some beans and some other edible seeds (seeds people can eat). Seeds being sprouted are watered and rinsed repeatedly till they start to germinate (grow small roots and shoots). Sprouted lentils can be eaten raw on their own or in salads, they can also be cooked.
Apart from a high level of proteins, lentils also contain dietary fiber, vitamin B1, and minerals. Red (or pink) lentils contain a lower concentration of fiber than green lentils (11% rather than 31%). "Health" magazine has selected lentils as one of the five healthiest foods. Lentils are often mixed with grains, such as rice, which results in a complete protein dish.
In addition to providing slow-burning complex carbohydrates, lentils are one of the best vegetable sources of iron. This makes them an important part of a vegetarian diet, and useful for preventing iron deficiency. Iron is particularly important for adolescents, and menstruating or pregnant women, whose requirements for it are increased.
Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world. About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from India, most of which is consumed in the domestic market. Canada is the largest export producer of lentils in the world and Saskatchewan is the most important producing region in Canada. The Palouse Region of Eastern Washington and the Idaho Panhandle, with its commercial center at Moscow, Idaho, constitutes the most important producing region in the United States. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that world production of lentils totalled 3.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2003. Canada produced 520,000 MT and, according to the market analysis company STAT Communications, will likely export 400,000 MT during the 2003-04 marketing year, which runs from August to July. The FAO estimates world trade in lentils totalled 1.2 million MT in 2002, with Canada exporting 382,000 MT during the calendar year.
Lentils are mentioned many times in the Old Testament. In Jewish tradition they are considered as food for mourners, together with boiled eggs. The reason is that their round shape symbolizes the life cycle from birth to death.
La Gravelle
Grazay
Grez-en-Bouère
Grez-en-Bouère is a commune of 981 people (2004). It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Philadelphia Soul
The Philadelphia Soul was an American football team in the Arena Football League. The team had played in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They are not to be confused with the Philadelphia Eagles. They were owned by Jon Bon Jovi and Ron Jaworski, a former player for the Philadelphia Eagles. They won the Arena Bowl in 2008. By 2019, however, all the teams ceased team operations and later the league folded due to bankruptcy.
La Haie-Traversaine
Le Ham, Mayenne
Hambers
Hardanges
Hercé
Hercé is a commune of 335 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Lehigh Valley IronPigs
The Lehigh Valley Ironpigs is a minor league baseball affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies. They play in Coca-Cola Park in Allentown, Pennsylvania. The brand new Coca-Cola Park, which opened for the start of the IronPigs' first season in 2008, seats up to 8,100, with a capacity of 10,000, and cost $50.25 million to complete. In 2012, "Forbes" ranked the IronPigs as the second most valuable franchise in Minor League Baseball.
Le Horps
Le Horps is a commune of 734 people (1999). It is in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France. The current mayor is Gérard Dujarrier.
Houssay, Mayenne
Le Housseau-Brétignolles
Le Housseau-Brétignolles is a commune of 212 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
L'Huisserie
L'Huisserie is a commune. It is in Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in northwest France. The Jouanne river is in L'Huisserie.
The D1 and D910 roads pass through L'Huisserie.
Izé is a commune of 477 people (1999). It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Javron-les-Chapelles
Jublains
Juvigné
Juvigné is a commune of 1,340 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Laigné
Laigné is a former commune of 674 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2018, it was merged into the new commune of Prée-d'Anjou.
Christine Schürrer
Christine Schürrer, (born 30 June 1976 in Hannover) is a German criminal. On March 17, 2008, she murdered two Swedish children and seriously injured their mother after attacking them in their Arboga, Sweden home. The reason for the murders has been identified as jealousy as Christine had dated the children's stepfather on a holiday in 2006.
On August 26, 2008, Christine was found guilty of the murders and the assault on the mother.
It is the home of football team DOS Kampen.
The sister cities of Kampen are:
The city of Kampen is on the side of the river IJssel. On the other side of the IJssel, lies IJsselmuiden, which is the second largest town in the municipality of Kampen.
Kampen received city rights in 1236. It joined the Hanseatic League around 1440 and used to be an important port. Kampen has one of the old town centres in best condition of the Netherlands.
Landivy
Larchamp, Mayenne
Spiro Mounds
Lassay-les-Châteaux
Lassay-les-Châteaux is a commune of 2,532 people (1999). It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France. There is also a 15th-century castle that you can visit.
Laubrières
Laubrières is a commune of 248 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Launay-Villiers
Lesbois
Levaré
Levaré is a commune of 358 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Lignières-Orgères
Lignières-Orgères is a commune of 735 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Livet
Livré-la-Touche
Livré-la-Touche is a commune of 787 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France.
Loigné-sur-Mayenne
Loigné-sur-Mayenne is a former commune of 704 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of La Roche-Neuville.
Loiron
Loiron is a former commune of 1,273 people (1999). It is found in the region Pays de la Loire in the Mayenne department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Loiron-Ruillé.
Longuefuye
1968–69 NHL season
The 1968–69 NHL season was the 52nd season of the National Hockey League. Twelve teams each played 76 games (two more than in 1967–68). For the second time in a row, the Montreal Canadiens faced the St. Louis Blues in the Stanley Cup finals. Montreal won for their second Stanley Cup in a row as they swept the Blues in four, which was exactly the same result of the previous season.
Loire River
The Loire River is the longest river in France. It is 1,013 km long. It originates in the Massif Central. Its mouth is near Nantes by the Atlantic Ocean. The Loire gives its name to 6 French departments. For years, the Loire was very important for France's commerce. When the railway developed in the 19th century, it put an end to its importance.
The Loire's tributaries include the following rivers, in order going upstream:
Massif Central
The Massif Central is a high region in south-central France. It has mountains and plateaux. it covers 15% of the country. The geological history of the massif is complicated. It is ancient, and many things have happened to it.
Many extinct volcanos can be found there. It has the largest concentration in the world with 450 volcanos. The Auvergne Volcanoes National Park is in the massif. The Massif is separated from the Alps by the valley of the Rhone.
These departments are usually considered as part of the Massif Central: Allier, Ardèche, Aveyron, Cantal, Corrèze, Creuse, Haute-Loire, Haute-Vienne, Loire, Lot, Lozère, and Puy-de-Dôme.
Here are some well-known mountains in the massif central:
The Massif Central is a very important mountain range in France. It is the fourth highest, the Alps, the Pyrénées, and Corsica are higher; Jura, Vosges, Morvan and Ardennes are lower.
Furius ISO Mount
Furius ISO Mount is a program to mount and burn iso files.
Tiktaalik
Tiktaalik is a genus of extinct fish. This sarcopterygian (lobe-finned) fish from the later Devonian has many features similar to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals).
"Tiktaalik" lived about 375 million years ago. It is part of the transition between fish such as "Panderichthys", known from fossils 380 million years old, and early tetrapods such as "Acanthostega" and "Ichthyostega", known from fossils about 365 million years old. Its mixture of basal fish and derived tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers, Neil Shubin, to call "Tiktaalik" a 'fishapod'.
This, and other species like it, prove that legs started to develop before these animals were land-based. They were shallow-water carnivorous fish, or fishapods. "Tiktaalik" was therefore a transitional fossil, and an example of mosaic evolution.
Game (food)
Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated. Small birds, ground game (such as squirrels and rabbits), and big game (such as deer and moose) are usually hunted. Game animals are also hunted for sport. In Britain, "game birds" usually means partridge, grouse, and quail. Today, most countries have game laws. In some countries hunting is a part of well preserved tradition that is kept alive as a part of national identity.
In physics, polarity describes an attribute that can usually have two values:
Chemical polarity is a feature of chemical bonds, where two different atoms in the same molecule have different electronegativity. As a result, the electrons in the bond are not shared equally by the two atoms. This causes an asymmetrical (polar) electric field. Molecular covalent bonds can be described as polar or nonpolar. Entire molecules can also be described as polar.
Johnny Shines
Johnny Shines (April 26, 1915 – April 20, 1992) was an American blues singer and guitarist.
He was called John Ned Shines when he was born, in Frayser, Tennessee. He spent most of his childhood in Memphis playing slide guitar for money on the streets. He listened to and was inspired by Blind Lemon Jefferson and Howlin’ Wolf, but he was taught to play the guitar by his mother. Shines moved to Hughes, Arkansas in 1932 and worked on farms for three years. "First time I came to Helena was 1932, I think it was. That's the time I met Robert the first time." When he met Robert Johnson, his greatest influence, that gave him inspiration to return to music. In 1935, Shines began playing with Johnson around the south and heading as far north as Ontario where they appeared on a local radio program. The two split up in 1937, one year before Johnson died. "He (Johnson) was alright to travel with, he was a good companion to travel with, 'cos he talked a lot and I didn't."
Shines played more in the U.S. South until 1941 when he decided to go back to Canada and then to Africa. He never made it past Chicago. In Chicago, Shines found work in the construction trade and continued to play in bars.
He made his first recording in 1946 for Columbia Records, but the music was never released. He later recorded for Chess was still the music was never released. He kept playing with blues musicians in the Chicago area for several more years. In 1952, Shines recorded for J.O.B. Records record label. The recordings were a failure and Shines sold his guitar and went back to construction.
In 1966, Vanguard Records found Shines taking photographs in a Chicago blues club and had him record tracks for the third installment of "Chicago/The Blues/Today!" The album has since then become a blues classic.
Shines played with the Chicago All Stars and Lee Jackson, Big Walter Horton and Willie Dixon. In the late 1960s and 1970s, Shines played with Robert Johnson's stepson, Robert Lockwood, Jr.. In 1980, Shines stopped played after he suffered a stroke. He managed to release one last album, "Back To The Country".
In 1989, Shines met a young, blues player called Kent Duchaine, and the two of them played together for the next several years until Shines died.
Shines died on April 20, 1992, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. He was put into the Blues Hall of Fame later the same year.
Oklahoma State University
Oklahoma State University is a public university in Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Oklahoma State's men's athletic teams are called the Cowboys. The women's athletic teams are called the Cowgirls. Oklahoma State has 16 varsity teams. They compete in the Big 12 Conference.
Mexico, Illinois
People traveled on the Oregon Trail in wagons in order to settle new parts of the United States of America during the 19th century. The Oregon Trail started in Missouri near the area where Kansas City, Missouri is today and ended in the Willamette Valley in Oregon. The Trail was about 2,170 miles (3,500 km) long, and could take up to six months to travel.
People went to Oregon for many reasons. Some people wanted land. Some thought Oregon would be a better place to live. Most of them went because they wanted a new life.
The Oregon Trail was first traveled around 1841. Once a railroad was built across the United States in 1869, people could take trains to the western United States, so fewer people began to travel west in wagons. By that time, about 400,000 people had crossed the Oregon Trail in wagons. However, some people kept traveling the Trail until the 1880s.
Nobody traveled the Oregon Trail alone. Instead, travelers formed groups so they could help and protect each other. Often, relatives or people from the same town would travel together. They would hire a guide that knew the Trail and would elect leaders. The groups that did best on the Trail wrote constitutions or rules that they could use to settle disagreements or problems on the Trail.
People who traveled the Oregon Trail could use three types of animals to pull their wagons: oxen, mules, or horses. Most people used oxen. They were less expensive than horses and mules, and also less stubborn than mules.
They could eat grass along the Trail, unlike horses, who needed special food. Oxen were easy to train, and they usually traveled at a steady pace of 2 miles per hour, even in mud and snow.
It was very important for travelers to carry enough food and water for the trip. However, food for the trip was expensive. To feed four people for six months, food would cost about $150 - over $4,500 in today's dollars.
Travelers often brought along a lot of dried meat and "bread stuff" (like flour, crackers, and hardtack). Boiling water was difficult on the Trail, so cooking was not always possible. Some travelers also brought other foods, like rice, peas, dried beans, or dried fruit.
Along the Trail, travelers could fish and hunt for food. Bison, antelope, and deer were the best animals to hunt for food. Travelers also ate berries that grew along the Trail, partly to help prevent scurvy.
Most travelers used covered wagons to travel the Trail. There were a few different styles of covered wagons. One common style, called the "Independence-style" wagon, was usually about 11 feet long, four feet wide, and two feet deep. Pieces of wood held up a cover, made of something like dried ox skin, that rose about five feet above the bottom of the wagon.
There were many dangers along the Oregon Trail, including disease, bad weather, drowning during river crossings, attacks by Native Americans, and many others.
It is difficult to know how many people died along the Oregon Trail. Many travelers would bury their dead in unmarked graves and would disguise the graves. For example, they would bury people right in the middle of a trail and then have their oxen run over the graves. They did this so that animals and robbers would not dig up the graves. Because of this, historians can only estimate the total number of people who died along the Oregon Trail.
Disease was the most common cause of death on the Trail. While travelers usually brought some medicines with them, they usually were not very helpful.
Cholera was the most common illness and cause of death on the Trail. From 1849-1855, there was a cholera epidemic along the trail. Up to 3% of all travelers during this time may have died from cholera. One of the causes of the epidemic was that there was no sanitation along the Trail.
For example, travelers liked to camp along the Platte River in Colorado, so they could easily get fresh water. However, as thousands of travelers used the same campsites over and over again, sewage from travelers with cholera got into the Platte River. After this, any traveler that drank water from the Platte River, or made food with that water, could get cholera. Often, cholera's symptoms would be so bad that travelers would die within 12 hours of getting sick.
Other diseases common on the Trail included:
The travelers used turpentine (a poison), vinegar, and whiskey to treat headaches, muscle pain, and coughs.
Historians do not agree on how many people died from disease along the Trail. One historian, John Unruh, estimates that 6,000 to 12,500 travelers died from disease on the Trail, and another 300-500 died specifically from scurvy. However, the United States National Park Service says that as many as 30,000 people may have died from disease along the Trail.
There were many other dangers along the Trail. John Unruh estimates the number of people who died from these other dangers:
Unruh estimates that 4 percent of the Oregon Trail travelers died: 16,000 out of 400,000 total travelers. However, the National Park Service says:
"The Oregon Trail is this nation’s longest graveyard. Nearly one in ten [travelers] who set off on the trail did not survive."
A usual day on the Trail started very early, just before dawn. Nobody actually rode in the wagons unless they were sick or very young. The ride was too bumpy, too dusty, and added too much work for the oxen. Instead, people walked beside their wagons. Usually, groups traveled almost all day, except for an hour around noon for lunch. Then they kept moving until just before sunset, when they would stop to set up a campsite. Most groups traveled about 15 miles per day, though on the best days they could move 20 miles a day. Since oxen moved at about 2 miles per hour, this meant a day's travel could last up to ten hours.
About 40,000 of the travelers were children. Unless they were babies, they walked alongside the wagons and worked just like adults. Their jobs included herding animals, driving wagons, washing dishes, helping with meals, watching younger children, and collecting firewood and "buffalo chips" (dry buffalo manure, which could be used to start fires if there was no firewood).
At night, the group would move the wagons into a circle ("circle the wagons") and put their animals inside the circle. This kept them from wandering away, or being killed or stolen. If the weather was dry, people slept outside. If it was wet, people slept under their wagons.
Many travelers were very afraid of attacks from Native Americans. However, most Native Americans left the travelers alone, or even helped them by trading with them and helping them cross rivers in canoes. When Native Americans did attack travelers, the stories were told over and over again, which may have made attacks seem more common than they actually were.
Travelers who did reach Oregon looked back on the Trail with different feelings. One man named Loren Hastings said in 1847:
"I look back upon the long, dangerous and precarious emigrant road with a degree of romance and pleasure; but to others it is the graveyard of their friends."
In the 1970s, three student teachers in Minnesota made an educational computer game based on the Oregon Trail. The goal of the game was to successfully travel the trail from Independence, Missouri to Oregon City, Oregon. Dangers of the trail included river crossings, illnesses, sick oxen, and hunger. Over the next two decades, new versions of the game were made that added more options and included better graphics. The second version included zombies and oxen. The goal was to survive as long as you can before you die.
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation was an order by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln to free slaves in 10 states. It applied to slaves in the states still in rebellion in 1863 during the American Civil War. It did not actually immediately free all slaves in those states, because those areas were still controlled by the Confederacy. It did, however, free at least 20,000 slaves immediately, and nearly all 4 million slaves (according to the 1860 United States census) as the Union army advanced into Confederate states. Until the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865, only the states had power to end slavery within their own borders. Thus, Lincoln issued the Proclamation as a war measure in his role as commander-in-chief.
The Proclamation made emancipation a goal of the Civil War. It also weakened efforts within England and France to officially recognize the Confederacy. As Union troops advanced into Rebel (Confederate) territory, they freed thousands of slaves per day. Many did not wait, but fled their owners to claim their freedom.
Five slave states (the Border States) had remained loyal to the Union and were not at war with the federal government. Thus, Lincoln did not have authority to free slaves in those states, and so this Proclamation was not applied in those states. The Proclamation also did not apply to Tennessee, nor to areas within Virginia and Louisiana which Union forces already controlled.
The Proclamation was issued in two parts. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln said that in 100 days, he would free all slaves in areas not then under Union control. On January 1, 1863, he named the ten states in which the proclamation would then apply: Texas, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Virginia, Kentucky, and Louisiana. The five border states where slavery was still legal were exempt, and so not named, because they had remained loyal to the Union and were not in rebellion. Tennessee also was not named because Union forces had already regained control there. Several counties of Virginia that were in the process of separating from that state to form the new state of West Virginia were specifically named as exemptions, as were several parishes around New Orleans in Louisiana. The next paragraph is part of a quote from the Emancipation Proclamation.
Only a small number of slaves already behind Union lines were immediately freed. As Union forces advanced, nearly all four million slaves were effectively freed. Some former slaves joined the Union army.
Before the war was over, some of the exempted border states ended slavery within their own borders. While the Proclamation had freed slaves, it had not made slavery illegal. Thus, Lincoln sponsored a constitutional amendment to ban slavery. The Thirteenth Amendment, which made slavery illegal everywhere in the United States, was passed late in 1865, eight months after Lincoln was killed.
The Brooklyn Bridge is one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States. It is long. The bridge goes over the East River. It connects the New York City boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. It is one of the leading landmarks of New York City.
The bridge was built from 1869 to 1883. It was the first fixed crossing of the East River. It was designed by John Roebling. The construction was directed by his son Washington Roebling and Washington's wife, Emily. When it was finished, it was the tallest structure in North America.
The bridge is an official landmark. It has been a National Historic Landmark since 1964. It became a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.
Shelf life
Shelf life is length of time that food can be stored safely. Food cannot be kept forever. After a certain time it will go bad. After this time it is no longer safe to eat it. Shelf life is also used for drugs, drinks and other things that can go bad.
In some countries, a "best before", "use by" or "freshness date" must be put on packaged foods.
During this time, if the food is kept under proper conditions the quality of the food does not change. Frozen food that does not remain frozen will go bad earlier, for example. Most of these labels do not guarantee the safety of food. They should only be used as a guide.
Shelf life is different from "expiration date". Shelf life is linked to food quality, expiration date to food safety. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, shelf life is controlled by using stock rotation. This means moving products with the earliest sell by date to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and take them out of the store. This is important, as stores can be fined for selling out of date products. Most shops, if not all, will have to mark such products down as wasted, leading to a loss of profit.
Shelf life is can be changed by many things: exposure to light and heat, transmission of gases (including humidity), mechanical stresses, and contamination by things such as micro-organisms.
Mathematically, product quality is often modelled using only one parameter, for example the concetration of a chemical substance, a microbiological index, or a physical parameter. Sometimes, the parameter picked is irrelevant.
The shelf life is an important factor to health. Bacteria are everywhere, and foods left unused too long will often get large amounts of bacterial living in them. It may be dangerous to eat them and lead to food poisoning. The shelf life itself cannot always be trusted to tell how safe it is to eat a certain item of food. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly. In contrast, if milk already has harmful bacteria, the use-by dates do not matter.
For drugs the situation is different. If drugs are used within the expiration date, the manufacturer guarantees that they work as expected. After that date, they may still work, but only to a lesser extent. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular damage said to have been caused by out of date tetracycline. A study done by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The results showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as far as 15 years past their expiration date. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective.
Preservatives and antioxidants may be put into some food and drug products to make their shelf life longer. Some companies use induction sealing and vacuum pouches to add to the shelf life of their products.
Some degradation factors can be controlled by provisions in the ed packaging. For example, the amber bottle used for many beers blocks damaging wavelengths of light. Transparent beer bottles do not. Packaging with barrier materials (e.g., (low moisture vapor transmission rate, etc.) extends the shelf life of some foods and pharmaceuticals.
Nearly all chemical reactions will occur (at various rates depending on the individual nature of the reaction) at common temperatures. Examples are the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e., liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get sticky as they age.
These breakdown processes usually happen more quickly at higher temperatures. The usually quoted rule of thumb is that chemical reactions double their rate for each temperature increase of 10 Celsius degrees (C°) because of activation energy barriers become more easily surmounted at higher temperatures. However, as with all rules of thumb, there are many caveats and assumptions. This particular one is most applicable to reactions with activation energy values around 50 kJ/mole; many of these are important at the usual temperatures we encounter. It is often applied in shelf life estimation, sometimes wrongly. There is a widespread impression. for instance in industry, that "triple time" can be simulated in practice by increasing the temperature by 15 C°, e.g. storing a product for one month at 35 °C simulates three months at 20 °C. There is enough variation that this practical rule cannot be routinely relied upon .
The same is true, to a point, of the chemical reactions of life. They are usually enzymatically catalyzed which changes reaction rates, but with constant catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the particular case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce increase at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to breakdown, or denature, so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is the reason high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro organisms; 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels.
Just as temperature increase speeds up reactions, temperature decreases reduce them. Therefore, to make explosives stable for longer periods, or to keep rubber bands springy, or to force bacteria to slow down their growth, they can be cooled. This is the reason shelf life is generally extended by temperature control: (refrigeration, insulated shipping containers, controlled cold chain, etc.) and the reason some medicines and foods "must" be refrigerated.
"Best before" is sometimes put on food and drink wrappers, followed by a date. It shows the date before which the supplier intended the food should be consumed. The term "best before" is also used to show the date by which the item will have outlived its shelf life, and is intended to ensure that customers will not unwittingly purchase or eat stale food. Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the "best before" date in a clearly visible location. In this case, a term like "best before see bottom" or "best before see lid" might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.
"Best Before" is usually advisory and refers to the quality of the product, in contrast with "Use By" which indicates that the product is no longer safe to eat after the specified date.
Generally, foods that have a "use by" date written on the packaging must not be eaten after it has expired. This is because such foods usually go bad quickly and may be dangerous to eat. It is also important to follow storage instructions carefully for these foods (for example, product must be refrigerated).
Foods that have a "best before" date are usually safe to eat after the date has passed, although they are likely to have deteriorated either in flavour, texture, appearance or nutrition.
Bathroom products/toiletries usually state a time in months by which, once the product is opened, they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., "12M" means use the product within 12 months of opening).
"Open Dating" is the use of a date or code stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. It is also helpful to the customer and ensures that the product is at its best quality when bought. An Open Date does not supersede a Use by date, which should still be followed.
These dates are meant to help keep track of the stock in stores. Food that has passed its "sell by" or "display until" date, but is still within its use by / best before can still be eaten, if it has been stored correctly. It is common practice in large stores to throw away such food, as it makes the stock control process easier. It also reduces the risk of customers buying food without looking at the date, only to find out the next day that they cannot use it. Changing the posted date is illegal in many countries.
Most stores will rotate stock by moving the products with the earliest dates to the front of shelving units, which allows them to be sold first and saving them from having to be either marked down or thrown away, both of which contribute to a loss of profit.
It is also common for food approaching the use by date to be marked down for quick sale, with greater reductions the closer to the use by date it gets.
In a metaphorical sense, much software also has a shelf life. Most software products are released to market with defects, xecurity vulnerabilities, and design flaws. Over time, some of these are discovered and patches issued by the vendor (and possibly others, as in the open source environment) which fix bugs and add functionality. The result is that, after some time, the software application is rather different than it was at first release, even with the same version level. Since correct inclusion of patches at end user sites is spotty, the actual population of that software application in the field is quite varied; some will have patches 1 and 2, others 1, 2, and 3, some others none, in all possible variations. This increases support difficulty. There have been a few attempts to address this. One commercial attempt is from Preemptive.
The Food & Drug Administration, which controls packaged foods and drugs, only requires a use-by, or expiration, date on infant formula and some baby foods. That's because formula must contain a certain quantity of each nutrient that is described on the label. And if formula is stored too long, it loses its nutritional quality. It also separates or form lumps that will clog the bottle nipple. Except for infant formula and some baby foods, product dating is not required by federal regulations.
The Agriculture Dept., which controls fresh produce and meats, only requires labeling of the date when poultry is packed at the farm. However, many manufacturers are allowed to also add sell-by or use-by dates.
A "freshness date" is the date used in the American brewing industry to indicate either the date the beer was bottled or the date before which the beer should be consumed.
Beer is does not keep forever. It can be affected by light, air, or the action of bacteria. Although beer in the USA does not have to have a shelf life, freshness dates serve much the same purpose and are a marketing tool.
The Boston Beer Company, maker of Samuel Adams, was among the first to start adding freshness dates to their product line in 1985. For ten years there was a slow growth in brewers adding freshness dates to their beer. The practice rapidly grew in popularity after the Anheuser-Busch company's heavily marketed "Born-On dates" starting in 1996. Many other brewers have started adding freshness dates to their products, but there is no standard for what the date means. For some companies, the date on the bottle or can will be the date that the beer was bottled; others have the date by which the beer should be consumed.