AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A microbial cyst is a resting or dormant stage of a microorganism, usually a bacterium or a protist or rarely an invertebrate animal, that helps the organism to survive in unfavorable environmental conditions. It can be thought of as a state of suspended animation in which the metabolic processes of the cell are slowed down and the cell ceases all activities like feeding and locomotion. "Encystment" also helps the microbe to spread easily, from one host to another or to a better environment. When the encysted microbe reaches an environment good for its growth and survival, the cyst wall breaks down by a process known as "excystation".
Unfavorable environmental conditions trigger the making of a cyst. These include the lack of nutrients or oxygen, extreme temperatures, lack of moisture and presence of toxic chemicals, which are not good for the growth of the microbe.
Different organisms have cyst walls made of different things. The cyst walls of bacteria are formed by the thickening of the normal cell wall with added peptidoglycan layers. The walls of protozoan cysts are made of chitin, a type of glycoprotein. Nematode cyst walls are made of chitin reinforced by collagen.
Content delivery describes the delivery of media content such as audio, video, computer software and video games over a delivery medium such as broadcasting or the Internet.
Content delivery has two parts:
Specialist networks known as content delivery networks have distribute digital content on the Internet. Alternative technologies for content delivery include peer-to-peer file sharing technologies. Content can only be delivered if it exists. If it does not exist, several techniques and methods can be used for content creation or content regeneration. Alternatively, content delivery platforms create and syndicate content remotely, acting like hosted content management systems.
Kitano Tenman-gū
, also called Kitano Tenjin-jinja and Kitano Temmangū, is a Shinto shrine in Kamigyō-ku, Kyoto, Japan.
The shrine was built in 947, to appease the angry spirit of Sugawara no Michizane. He had been wrongly sent into exile.
The current buildings date from the early 17th century.
From 1871 through 1946, the Kitano Tenman-gū was officially designated one of the , meaning that it stood in the second rank of government supported shrines.
Tommy &quot;Hurricane&quot; Jackson
Tommy "Hurricane" Jackson (1931-1982) was an American heavyweight boxer. He fought from 1951 until 1961. He had a total of 44 fights. His statistics were 34 wins (16 by knockout), 9 losses and 1 draw. In February 1956, he was rated behind Bob Baker for the heavyweight championship title.He fought Floyd Patterson in June 1956 to see who would be the heavyweight champion after Rocky Marciano retired and gave up the title. Jackson lost a very close controversial 12 round split decision. He fought Patterson again in July 1957, when Patterson was the champion. Patterson beat him at the end of 10 rounds when the referee ended the match.
Pentium F00F bug
Skeleton key
A skeleton key (also master key or pass key) is a key that can open all of the locks in a set.
For example, in an office building, each employee would have a key that only opens his/her office, and the manager or owner would have a key that opens all of the offices in that building.
More complicated setups are also possible. For example, if there are cleaners in the office building, and each cleaner only cleans one floor, the cleaner for a each floor could have a "sub-master" key that opens only the offices on that floor, while each employee still has a key that opens only his/her office and the manager still has a key that opens all of the doors. The exterior doors might also be configured so that they can be opened by any employee key, cleaner key, or the manager's master key. The more complicated the setup, the more important it is to use locks that have a large number of key possibilities. Disc-detainer locks are especially suitable for master keying due to their large number of key possibilities.
Patent attorney
A patent attorney is an attorney who has the specialized skills and training necessary for representing clients in obtaining patents and acting in all matters and procedures relating to patent law and practice. For example, the patent attorney can not only file an application for a new patent but he can also try to stop the patent office from giving the patent to somebody else. The term is used differently in different countries, and thus may or may not require the same legal qualifications as a general legal practitioner (i.e., a lawyer).
The titles patent agent and patent lawyer are also used in some jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions the terms are interchangeable. In other countries, a patent lawyer must also be qualified as a lawyer.
Each patent office regulates the people who make filings. Patent attorneys can do this, but the patent office will not accept filings from other attorneys. Each patent office has its own rules about what a person has to do to become a patent attorney.
In Europe, requirements for practicing as patent attorney before national patent offices differ from those needed for practicing before the European Patent Office (EPO). On the national level, the requirements are not harmonized across the European Union, except that the EU makes sure that respective professional qualifications are mutually recognized to some degree. In the United States, the patent attorney must pass a special examination to test his knowledge of patent office procedures. Some countries allow lawyers who are not citizens to practice. Some countries will allow lawyers from a second country to make filings if the second country will do the same for lawyers from that first country. Many times, a patent attorney from a foreign country will work with a local attorney to make sure that the patent application for that country is filed correctly and quickly.
Bungo Province
Bungo had borders with Buzen, Hyūga, Higo, Chikugo, and Chikuzen Provinces.
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Bungo Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Sasamuta-jinja" and "Yusuhara Hachiman-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Bungo.
Aberystwyth
Aberystwyth (Mouth of the River Ystwyth) is a historic market town, administrative centre and holiday resort. It is in the area of Ceredigion in West of Wales. Locals call the area 'Aber'.
The people who live there mostly speak English, though many are also fluent in the Welsh language. It is a university town. The small town of over 13,000 grows by another 10,000 in term time when the students are there. The nearby suburb of Llanbadarn Fawr has another 3,400 people.
Aberystwyth has a train station at the western end of the Cambrian Line from Shrewsbury.
Aberystwyth is twinned with :
Transition-minimized differential signaling
Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (or TMDS) is a standard that is used to transport uncompressed data to a digital device. The data transmitted is digital. By using a digital signal instead of an analogue signal, the impact of Electromagnetic interference on the signal is reduced. This mode of transmission is mainly used for audio and visual data.
TMDS uses 8b/10b encoding. The code set is different from the original, developed by IBM. Encoding is a two-stage process that uses XOR and XNOR gates. Whether to use XOR or XNOR operation is selected, so that the number ofsignal transitions is minimal; this is where the name is from.
S/PDIF is a similar standard, used in consumer audio equipment.
Maxi single
Refrain
A refrain is a verse or group of verses that is repeated at intervals in a piece of music or poetry. In song, it is often called the chorus. The refrain is often very different to the verse in melody, rhythm and harmonics. It usually has a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation.
In music, a refrain has two parts: the lyrics of the song, and the melody. Sometimes refrains use slightly different words as they are repeated. Such lines are still able to be recognised as part of the refrain by the fact that it is always has the same tune or melody. The rhymes, if present, are also kept even if the words are sometimes different. In popular music, the chorus contrasts with the verse, which leads into it, while the bridge contrasts with and leads into both. Many popular songs from the middle of the 20th century consist only of a chorus.
The word comes from Vulgar Latin word "refringere", and later from Old French "refraindre", both of which mean "to repeat".
Willimantic, Connecticut
Willimantic, Connecticut is a census-designated place and former city. It is in the town of Windham, Windham County. About 15,823 people lived there at the 2000 census. Eastern Connecticut State University and the Windham Textile and History Museum are in Willimantic.
Windham, Connecticut
Windham is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. It contains the city of Willimantic and the villages of Windham Center, North Windham, and South Windham. The city of Willimantic was made part of the town in 1983. The population was 23,733 in 2009 and 22,857 at the 2000 census.
Eastern Connecticut State University
Windham County, Connecticut
Windham County is a county in the northwest of the US state Connecticut.
Ashford, Connecticut
Ashford is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The town had a population of 4,098 at the 2000 census. Ashford was founded in 1714. Eastford was a part of Ashford until 1848 or 1847. Eastford split into its own town. Ashford has the largest Boy scout camps in the US state of Connecticut.
Jadeite Cabbage
The Jadeite Cabbage (), or Jadeite Cabbage with Insects, is a Chinese sculpture. It is a piece of jadeite carved into the shape of a Chinese cabbage head. It also has a locust and a katydid hiding in the leaves.
The work is part of the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.
The Jadeite Cabbage is a small sculpture. It measures only . It is think. It is "hardly larger than a human hand".
Jade is translucent: it lets light pass through the sculpture. The combination of several colors in the jade gives the leaves the various colors of a real cabbage. The sculpture was made from one piece of half-white, half-green jadeite. The piece of jade has many imperfections. These include cracks and patches of different colors. These were used as the veins in the cabbage's stalks and leaves.
The sculpture is seen as a symbol of female virtue. The white stalk is a symbol of purity, the leaves show fertility and the locust and katydid symbolize children.
The sculptor of the Jadeite Cabbage is not known. It was first shown in the Forbidden City's Yonghe Palace. This is the home of the Qing Empire's Guangxu Emperor's Consort Jin. She likely got the sculpture as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu in 1889. After the end of the Qing Empire in the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the sculpture became part of the collection of the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City. The piece survived the Second Sino-Japanese War (World War II) and the Chinese Civil War. It was finally made a part of Taiwan's National Palace Museum.
The Jadeite Cabbage has been called the "most famous masterpiece" of the entire National Palace Museum. It is said the be one of the "Three Treasures of the National Palace Museum". The other two are the Meat-shaped Stone and the Mao Gong Ding. It was picked by the public as the most important item in the museum's entire collection. people thought it was a bad thing in 2009 when it was learned that souvenir copies of the sculpture were being made in China and not in Taiwan. These copies were being sold at the museum.
Brooklyn, Connecticut
Brooklyn is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 7,173 at the 2000 census. East Brooklyn is listed as a census-designated place and is located on the east side of Brooklyn. The town was founded in 1786 and is known for being one of Windham's "fastest growing towns".
East Brooklyn, Connecticut
East Brooklyn is a census-designated place in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 1,473 at the 2000 census. Danielson is located in East Brooklyn. East Brooklyn is the urban side of Brooklyn. The racial makeup of the city was 94.30% White, 2.04% African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.75% Asian, 0.41% from other races, and 1.70% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.
Canterbury, Connecticut
Canterbury is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 5,132 at the 2010 census. The racial makeup of the town was 97.34% White, 0.36% African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 1.45% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.
The town was founded in the 1680s as Peagscomsuck until 1703. In 1832, Prudence Crandall, a school teacher, opened the first school for African American girls. The "Black Law" did not allow the education of black people. However, Crandall taught until she was sent to prison in 1832 for a short time. Angry mobs forced the school to close in 1834. Crandall later married and moved out of the state. Connecticut ended the "Black Law" in 1838. They also gave Crandall a small pension in 1886, four years before her death. The school is now the Prudence Crandall Museum.
Chaplin, Connecticut
Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong. The surface can hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball shape. Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even though they normally could not float. Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the surface of water because of this. This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.
In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.
Another way to view it is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules). So, the boundary molecules have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.
As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can. Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy. So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.
Studying water shows several effects of surface tension:
A. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.
B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.
C. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.
D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same.
E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol. It is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.
Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:
Surface tension, represented by the symbol "γ" is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, "L". The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2"formula_1L" (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces). Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used. One dyn/cm corresponds to 0.001 N/m.
An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, "δA", a quantity of work, "formula_1δA", is needed. This work is stored as potential energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.
The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.
If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young–Laplace equation:
The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalization).
Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension. (Another example is the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).
The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)
It is hard to find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using just mathematics. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.
The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.
The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. Where the two surfaces meet, the geometry will balance all forces.
Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, formula_5, which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, formula_6, is less than the liquid-air surface tension, formula_7, but is still positive, that is
In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of formula_9 is canceled by the adhesive force, formula_10.
The more important balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of formula_9 must exactly cancel the force, formula_13.
Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:
This means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, formula_20, is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid-air surface tension, formula_17, and the equilibrium contact angle, formula_5, which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).
This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:
Observe that in the special case of a water-silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference is exactly zero.
Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180°. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180° occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.
Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.
An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.
We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere at all to glass. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have "negative" surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.
If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height the column is lifted to is given by:
Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.
The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only if the liquid does not adhere to the flat surface material. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.
The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180° is given by:
In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:
For mercury on glass, γ = 487 dyn/cm, ρ = 13.5 g/cm and θ = 140°, which gives h = 0.36 cm. For water on paraffin at 25 °C, γ = 72 dyn/cm, ρ = 1.0 g/cm, and θ = 107° which gives h = 0.44 cm.
The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0°, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.
In day-to-day life we all observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau–Rayleigh instability, which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.
The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream.
The Suite Life on Deck
The Suite Life on Deck was an American television series on Disney Channel. It premiered on September 26, 2008. It is a sequel to "The Suite Life of Zack and Cody". The series is about twin brothers Zack and Cody Martin and hotel heiress London Tipton in a new setting, the SS "Tipton". The group goes to classes at a school on the boat that is called "Seven Seas High". On the boat, they meet Bailey Pickett. Mr. Moseby manages the ship. The ship travels around the world to nations such as Italy, Greece, India, Sweden and the United Kingdom In the places where the ship travels, the characters experience different cultures, adventures, and situations.
The show's first episode premiered on the Disney Channel in the US on September 26, 2008. Around 5.7 million people watched it on the night of its premiere.. The series premiere in Canada was also the most watched series premiere on Family channel. In December 2008, Business Wire reported that the show was 2008's #1 scripted television series for children between the ages 6 to 11 and older children between the ages 9 to 14, beating the older series "Hannah Montana" and "Wizards of Waverly Place" in the ratings.<ref name="Disney Channel/DisneyChannel.com Highlights For 2008"></ref> The show was in the #1 spot for the best rated children's television series for many months. The show has been one of the best 4 live-action television series for many months. Since then, “The Suite Life on Deck” had a large lead in the time slot (Friday 8:00 p.m.), ranking as TV's #1 program among the important children's age groups. The series is also #1 in total viewers on all cable, doing better than #2 rank (Fox News and Nickelodeon) by 800,000 more viewers.
As of August 2009, the highest rated episode of "The Suite Life on Deck" was "Double-Crossed," the second part of "Wizards On Deck with Hannah Montana", three episodes where guest stars from "Wizards of Waverly Place" and "Hannah Montana" came onto the show. It premiered on July 17, 2009 on Disney Channel. The special episode was viewed by more than 10.6 million people. It is one of the highest-rated episodes for a Disney Channel original series.
In early October 2009, the one hour special episode "Lost at Sea" became the most watched episode of the series. It had 7.6 million total viewers. In 2009, the series was the most watched scripted series in the children and older children group of viewers (6-14). The series second season's ratings were 25% higher than the show's season one ratings. The second season has averaged around 5.1 million viewers.
Before the series officially started airing, the first episode named "The Suite Life Sets Sail" was made available as a free download on iTunes. All series have since been made available.
Atmospheric chemistry
Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines. Research is connected with other areas of study such as climatology.
Studying the atmosphere includes studying the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from the Sun's corona. It has also been changed by human activity. Some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases and global warming. Atmospheric chemists study the causes of these problems. Atmospheric chemists offer theories about these problems, then test the theories and possible solutions. Atmospheric chemists also note the effects of changes in government policy.
Notes: the concentration of CO and CH vary by season and location. The mean molecular mass of air is 28.97 g/mol.
The ancient Greeks regarded air as one of the four elements. The first scientific studies of atmospheric composition began in the 18th century. Chemists such as Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and Henry Cavendish made the first measurements of the composition of the atmosphere.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries interest shifted towards trace constituents with very small concentrations. One important discovery for atmospheric chemistry was the discovery of ozone by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840.
The concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and so have the chemical processes which make and destroy compounds in the air. Two important examples of this were the explanation by Sydney Chapman and Gordon Dobson of how the ozone layer is created and maintained, and the explanation of photochemical smog by Arie Jan Haagen-Smit. Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland.
In the 21st century the focus is now shifting again. Atmospheric chemistry is increasingly studied as one part of the Earth system. Before, scientists focused on atmospheric chemistry in isolation. Now, scientists study atmospheric chemistry as one part of a single system with the rest of the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere. A reason for this is the links between chemistry and climate. For example, changing climate and the recovery of the ozone hole affect each other. Also, the composition of the atmosphere interact with the oceans and terrestrial ecosystems.
Observations, lab measurements and modeling are the three central elements in atmospheric chemistry. All three methods are used together. For example, observations may tell that more of a chemical compound exists than previously thought possible. This will stimulate new modelling and laboratory studies which will increase scientific understanding to a point where the observations can be explained.
Observations of atmospheric chemistry are important. Scientist record data about the chemical composition of air over time to watch for any changes. One example of this is the Keeling Curve - a series of measurements from 1958 to today which show a steady rise in of the concentration of carbon dioxide. Observations of atmospheric chemistry are made in observatories such as that on Mauna Loa and on mobile platforms such as aircraft, ships and balloons. Observations of atmospheric composition are increasingly made by satellites giving a global picture of air pollution and chemistry. Surface observations have the advantage that they provide long term records at high time resolution but provide data from a limited vertical and horizontal space. Some surface based instruments such as LIDAR can provide concentration profiles of chemical compounds and aerosol but are still restricted in the horizontal region they cover. Many observations are shared on-line.
Measurements made in the laboratory are essential to our understanding of the sources and sinks of pollutants and compounds found in nature. Lab studies tell which gases react with each other and how fast they react. Scientists measure reactions in the gas phase, on surfaces and in water. Scientists also study photochemistry which quantifies how quickly molecules are split apart by sunlight and what the products are. Scientists also study thermodynamic data such as Henry's law coefficients.
Buzen Province
Buzen had borders with Bungo and Chikuzen Provinces.
The ancient capital city of the province was near Toyotsu, Fukuoka.
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Buzen Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Usa-jinjū" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Buzen.
Chikugo Province
Chikugo had borders with Hizen, Chikuzen, Bungo, and Higo Provinces.
The ancient capital city of the province was near Kurume, Fukuoka.
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Chikugo Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Kōra taisha" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Chikugo.
Chikuzen Province
Chikuzen had borders with Buzen, Bungo, Chikugo, and Hizen Provinces.
The ancient capital city of the province was near Dazaifu.
At the end of the 13th century, Chikuzen was the landing point for a Mongol invasion force. But the main force was destroyed by a typhoon which was later called "kamikaze".
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Chikuzen Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Sumiyoshi-jinja" and "Hakosagi-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Chikuzen.
Higo Province
Higo Province (肥後国; Higo no kuni) was an old province of Japan in the area that is today Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. Along with Hizen Province, it was sometimes called .
Higo had borders with Chikugo, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Provinces.
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Higo Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Aso-jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Higo.
Hizen Province
Hizen had borders with the provinces of Chikuzen and Chikugo.
The ancient capital city of the province was near Saga.
The name "Hizen" dates from the Nara Period, when the province was divided from Higo Province. The name appears in the "Shoku Nihongi".
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Hizen Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Kawakami jinja" and "Chiriku Hachiman-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Hizen.
Hyūga Province
Hyūga had borders with Bungo, Higo, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Province.
The ancient capital city of the province was near Saito.
In Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Hyūga is called in Tsukushi-no-shima, with Tsukushi, Toyo and Hi Province.
In 713 ("Wadō 6, 3rd month"), the province of Hyūga was separated from Ōsumi.
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Hyūga Province were reformed in the 1870s.
"Tsuno jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Hyūga.
Apollo 4
Alfred Maurer
Alfred Henry Maurer (April 21, 1868 – August 4, 1932) was an American modernist painter. He exhibited his work in avant-garde circles during the early 20th century.
Maurer was born in New York City, the son of a German lithographer. At age sixteen, Maurer quit school to work at his father's lithographic firm. In 1897 Maurer left for Paris, where he stayed the next four years, joining a circle of American and French artists. At the time, Maurer's style was realist.
Briefly returning to New York, he was determined to show his skeptical father that he could paint. Maurer painted what arguably is his most famous painting "An Arrangement", using a woman next door as a model and completing the work (on a borrowed piece of cardboard) in a matter of hours. The painting received first prize at the 1901 Carnegie International Exhibition. Other awards received by Maurer included the Inness Jr. prize of the Salmagundi Club in 1900 and a bronze medal at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York in 1901. In 1905 he won the third medal at the Liège International Exposition and a gold medal at the International Exposition in Munich.
At age thirty-six, in Paris, Maurer changed his methods sharply. From that point on he painted only in the cubist and fauvist manner. By 1909 he was an important American avant-garde painter. He had a two-man exhibition with John Marin in New York City at the 291 Gallery. Four of his paintings were included in the Armory Show of 1913.
Leaving Paris shortly before World War I, he returned to his father's house, but was denied support. For the next 17 years, Maurer painted in a garret in his father's house, and gained no critical acclaim. However, he took part in exhibitions at the Anderson Galleries and others. He exhibited regularly at the New York Society of Independent Artists and was elected their director in 1919. In 1924 the New York dealer Erhard Weyhe bought the contents of Maurer's studio and represented the artist for the remainder of his career.
Virgin Interactive
Virgin Interactive was a British video game publisher. It was formed as Virgin Games Ltd. in 1981. The company became much larger after purchasing the budget label, Mastertronic in 1987. It was part of the Virgin Group. In 1994 it was renamed Virgin Interactive.
It published games for PC and systems, including the Amiga, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, C64, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Sega Game Gear, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Saturn, Sony PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast.
It helped the career of many developers, including Westwood Studios (who developed Command & Conquer Series and the PC port of Resident Evil) and Synergistic. Also, many workers for Shiny Entertainment, including David Perry, worked for Virgin before splitting off to create "Earthworm Jim".
Also among Virgin Interactive alumni are famed video game composer Tommy Tallarico, artist Doug TenNapel, designer David Bishop, animator Bill Kroyer, animator/artists Andy Luckey and Mike Dietz and programmer Andy Astor.
In 1993 Virgin Interactive created the "Digicel" process, originally for an unpublished game called "Dynoblaze". Key to developing the process were Dr. Stephen Clarke-Willson, David Perry, designer David Bishop, animator Bill Kroyer, animator artists Andy Luckey, animator Mike Dietz and programmer Andy Astor. The technology was first released to the general public in "Disney's Aladdin" for the Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis and subsequently on such projects as "The Lion King" video game.
The worldwide operations were acquired in a management buyout backed by Mark Dyne who became its Chief Executive Officer in 1998. Tim Chaney, the former Managing Director was named as President. The U.S. operations were spun out to Electronic Arts as part of its acquisition of Westwood Studios that same year.
The Company's assets were acquired by the French publisher Titus Software -- its name was changed to Avalon Interactive on July 1, 2003.
In May 2002, the Spanish division of Virgin Interactive, known as Virgin Interactive España, was purchased by Tim Chaney along with former Spanish president and founder Paco Encinas. The branch was then separated from the main Virgin Interactive company, already part of Titus Software, and kept its own identity as a Virgin brand. Renamed Virgin Play in October 2002, this Spanish publisher remains as the sole representation of the Virgin Group in the video game industry.
Charles Cecil
Charles Cecil MBE (born 11 August 1962) is an English video game designer. He has worked in the interactive entertainment industry for 25 years. He is currently the Managing Director for UK based company Revolution Software which has released such critical and commercial hits as "Beneath a Steel Sky" and the "Broken Sword" series. Cecil is on the advisory panel of the Edinburgh Interactive Entertainment Festival, and Develop Conference and regularly talks at events and to mainstream press about creative and commercial aspects of the video games industry. He is also a co-founder and director of Game Republic, an alliance of game developers, and is a Board member of Screen Yorkshire, a regional agency that supports movie, television and interactive entertainment in Yorkshire. In 2006, Cecil was awarded the status of ‘industry legend’ by Develop, Europe’s leading development magazine.
Barrington Pheloung
Barrington Somers Pheloung (born 1956 in Sydney, New South Wales) is an Australian composer, now living in England. He is one of the most prolific television and movie composers in the UK, known for his wide range of compositional genres.
Best known for the theme and incidental music to the "Inspector Morse", for which he was nominated for 'Best Original Television Music' at the British Academy Television Awards in 1991, the sequel " Lewis", and the prequel "Endeavour". He has also composed for dance companies, such as the London Contemporary Dance Theatre, and for events, including the opening night of the Millennium Dome.. Pheloung also wrote the theme music for the BBC television series Dalziel & Pascoe.
His film work, includes "Hillary and Jackie", based on the life of the cellist Jacqueline du Pré, for which he was nominated for the 'Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music' at the 52nd British Academy Film Awards. Other works include "A Previous Engagement", "The Little Fugitive", "Shopgirl", "Touching Wild Horses", "Twin Dragons", "Shopping" and "The Mangler". He also made the music to Revolution Software's adventure games In Cold Blood and the first two Broken Swords.
Pheloung's other work includes music for the Sydney Opera House's Twentieth Birthday Celebrations and he contributed to the music for the movie, "Truly, Madly, Deeply" in which he also appeared. He composed the incidental music for the first series of "Boon".
In 2009 he composed the music for "1983", the concluding episode of the acclaimed Channel 4 drama series "Red Riding".
Don Bluth
Donald Virgil "Don" Bluth (born September 13, 1937) is an American animator and independent studio owner. He is best known for leaving The Walt Disney Company in 1979 and later directing of animated movies such as "The Secret of NIMH" (1982), "An American Tail" (1986), "The Land Before Time" (1988), "All Dogs Go to Heaven" (1989), "Anastasia" (1997), and "Titan A.E." (2000), as well as his work on the laserdisc game "Dragon's Lair".
He is also often credited for providing competition to Disney, and making them improve from their streak of less-successful movie efforts to the movies that would make up the Disney Renaissance.
Manierre Dawson
Manierre Dawson (December 22, 1887, Chicago, Illinois – August 15, 1969, Sarasota, Florida) was an avant-garde painter and sculptor. He was born and raised in Chicago, but lived most of his life in Michigan.
The case of Manierre Dawson is interesting, and his work been called "surprising and prophetic". During a tour of Europe in 1910, he started painting true abstract works. Back in America, he became convinced that he could not earn a living at art, and became a farmer. He was forgotten until a rediscovery in 1963. He may have been the first person to paint a completely abstract work. He was probably the earliest American abstract artist, slightly ahead of Arthur Dove.
After working for a year with a firm of architects, he was granted a six-month leave-of-absence for an educational tour of Europe. He departed in mid-June 1910 for his only trip abroad. He made his way across England to France, south through Germany, across Switzerland to Italy, back north for a second stay in Paris, and around northern Germany before embarking from Bremerhaven in late-November. In Sienna, he met and exchanged ideas on painting with John Singer Sargent. During his return visit to Paris he attended a Saturday evening soirée at the apartment of Gertrude Stein and he saw paintings by Paul Cézanne in the gallery of Ambroise Vollard.
1911 through 1914 were the most productive years of his career. In 1914, Dawson participated in two group exhibitions. Summers spent at the family’s retreat in Mason Country, Michigan were his most productive periods during his early career and provided rudimentary knowledge of growing and marketing fruit. He met Lilian Boucher, the daughter of a local farmer, and fell in love. They married in July 1915 and three children were born over the next five years.
Living in rural Michigan and struggling financially he made art from what was available (Portland cement, scraps of lumber, pieces of plywood). Sheets of composite wood (brand names Novoply and Timblend) were laminated together for thickness and carved into freestanding sculptures.