AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
To locate a ship on the sea during the darkest night we could use a searchlight, and that light would not disturb the position or direction of travel of the ship, but locating an electron with light would require hitting it with one or more photons each having enough momentum to disturb the position and trajectory of the electron. Locating the electron with other means would involve holding it in some kind of physical restraint that would also terminate its forward movement.
To locate a photon, the best that can be done without terminating its forward movement is to make it go through a circular hole in a barrier. If one knows the time at which the photon was emitted (by a laser, for instance) and the time that the photon arrives at a detection screen such as a digital camera, then it is possible to compute the time required to travel that distance and the time at which the photon was passing through the hole. However, to permit the photon to pass through it, the circular hole must have a diameter greater than the size of the photon. The smaller the circular hole is made, the closer we come to knowing the exact position of the photon as it goes through it. However, we can never know whether the photon is off-center at that time. If the hole is exactly the same size as the photon it won't pass through. As the diameter of the hole is decreased, the momentum or the direction of the photon as it leaves the hole is more and more greatly changed.
Niels Bohr and his colleagues argued that we get into big trouble if we assume to be true of the things that are too small to be seen even with a microscope anything that we have proof for only on the scale of everyday life. In everyday life, things have a definite position at all times. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, things have a definite time at which they occur. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, if one observes a factory from the night shift of day one to the day shift of day two and one sees a finished automobile rolled out to the shipping dock it would make no sense to say that it is impossible to tell whether it was delivered during the night shift or during the day shift. But on the atomic scale, we can show instances when we have to count a single photon as having been produced at two times. (If that is not bad enough, we can also show instances where a single photon is produced from two adjacent lasers.)
Part of the difficulty with finding out what is happening on the atomic scale is that we would like to know both where something is and what its trajectory is, and to know both things for the same time, but we cannot measure both position and trajectory at the same time. We either measure the momentum of a photon or electron at one time and then without any more delay than necessary measure its position, or we switch things around and measure position first and momentum second. The problem is that in making the first one take on a pretty definite form (by squeezing down on it in some way) we increase the uncertainty involved in the next measurement. If our initial measurements were so crude that lots of error was introduced in each, then we could improve things by using a lighter touch to do each of them, but we could never get beyond a certain limit of accuracy.
We know from everyday life that trying to weigh something on a bathroom scale placed on a washing machine in spin cycle will produce inaccurate results because the needle on the scale will jiggle badly. We can turn off the washing machine. But for very accurate measurements we find that trucks going by in the neighborhood make the needle jiggle, so we can put the scale on a something to insulate it from the outside disturbances. We believe that we can eliminate vibrations enough to give us results just as accurate as we want. We never consider that the thing on the scale is itself vibrating or that it possesses an indefinite momentum.
Arguing backwards from the Uncertainty Principle, it looks as though there is in fact no definite position and no definite momentum for any atomic scale thing, and that experimenters can only force things into definiteness within the limit stated by the Uncertainty Principle. Bohr and his colleagues only argued that we could not know anything without making measurements, and when measurements were made we can push things in the direction of more definite position or more definite momentum, but that we can't get the absolute definiteness or certainty that we would like. But others took the possibility seriously, and argued that if the math is right then there cannot be definiteness or certainty in the world of the ultra small. The nature of science is that the math is only a model of reality, and there is no guarantee that it is a correct model.
The math and the practical consequences of the things that the math predicts are so reliable that they are very hard to disagree with, but what the math says about the real world has produced several different ideas. Among the scientists who worked with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form. Rather, it is a collection of probabilities or potentials.
Counter to the story woven around the math by the Copenhagen group, there are other stories such as the "multiple universes interpretation" that says that every time there are multiple possible outcomes according to quantum theory, each outcomes occurs in its own new universe. Einstein argued that there are no multiple possible outcomes, so there is only one universe and it is determinate, or, as he put it, "God does not play dice."
Albert Einstein saw that the new quantum mechanics implied a lack of position and momentum in the time prior to measurements being made, and he objected strongly. He firmly believed that things had definite positions and definite momentums before they were measured, and that the fact that measuring one of a pair of things and disturbing the possibility of accurately measuring the other does not argue for there being a lack of either of them beforehand. He and two of his colleagues wrote what has come to be known as the "EPR paper." That paper argues that there must be characteristics that do determine position and momentum, and that if we could see them, or if we can get information about them, then we can mathematically know and predict position and momentum. For a long time people thought that there was no way to prove or disprove what was for Einstein an article of faith. The argument was very productive because it led to all the modern developments in entanglement.
Mathematically, Einstein has been proven wrong. In 1964 John Stewart Bell developed a math method to distinguish between the behavior of two particles that have determinate states that are merely unknown to the two individuals that investigate them, and two particles that have entangled states that are indeterminate or uncertain until they are measured. His method shows that the probabilities for getting certain results are different under the two different assumptions. His work is called Bell's theorem or Bell's Inequality. Experiments have shown that nature behaves as Bell describes it.
The initial discussions of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle depended on a model that did not consider that particles of matter such as electrons, protons, etc. have a wavelength. In 1926 Louis de Broglie showed that all things, not just photons, have their own frequency. Things have a wave nature and a particle nature, just as photons do. If we try to make the wave of a thing like a proton narrower and taller, that would make its position clearer, but then the momentum would get less well defined. If we try to make the momentum part of a wave description clearer, i.e., make it stay within a narrower range of values, then the wave peak spreads out and its position becomes less definite.
The wave that is part of the description of a photon is, in quantum mechanics, not the same kind of thing as a wave on the surface of the ocean or the regions of compressed air and rarefied air that make up sound waves. Instead, these wave have peaks or high amplitude regions that have to do with probability of finding something at that point in space and time. More precisely, it is the square of the amplitude that gives the probability of some phenomenon showing up.
The wave that applies to a photon might be a pure sine wave. In that case, the square of the value of every peak would give the probability of observing the photon at that point. Since the amplitudes of the sine waves are everywhere the same, the probability for finding the photon at each of them would be the same. So, practically speaking, knowing the wave for one of these photons would not give a clue about where to look for it. On the other hand, the momentum of a photon is mathematically related to the amplitude of its wave. Since in this case we have a pure sine wave, the amplitude of every cycle of the wave is the same and therefore there is only one momentum value associated with this wave. We would not know where the photon would hit, but we would know exactly how hard it would hit.
In beams of light that focus on some point on a detection screen, the waves associated with the photons are not pure sine waves. Instead, they are waves with high amplitude at one point and much lower amplitudes on either side of that highest peak. Mathematically it is possible to analyze such a wave into a number of different sine waves of different wavelengths. It is a little easier to visualize the reverse of this process by looking at an initial sine wave of one frequency to which is added a second sine wave of a different wavelength, then a third, then a fourth, and so on. The result will be a complex wave showing one high peak and containing a large number of waves of different wavelengths and therefore of different momentums. In that case, the probability that the photon will appear at a certain point is extremely high, but the momentum it delivers can turn out to be related to the wavelength of any one of the component waves. In other words, the value of p = ħ/λ is no longer a single value because all the lengths of the assembled "waves of different wavelength" have to be taken into account.
The simulation shows how to mathematically model the sharpening up of the location of a particle: Superimpose many different wave forms over the original sine wave. The center will form a higher and higher peak, and the rest of the peaks will be increased in number but decreased in height because they will interfere with each other. So in the end there are many different waves in the superposition, each with a different wavelength and (by p = ħ/λ) a different momentum, but only one very high peak, one that grows higher and narrower and gives us something closer and closer to a determinate position.
To make momentum more and more definite, we would have to take away more and more of the superimposed sine waves until we had only a simple sine wave left. In so doing we would progressively diminish the height of the central peak and progressively increase the heights of the competing places where one might find the particle.
So when we start with a wave picture of subatomic particles we typically will always deal with cases with relatively tall central peaks and relatively many component wavelengths. There never will be an exact position or an exact momentum predicted under these circumstances. If the mathematical model is an accurate representation of the real world, then no photon or other subatomic particle has either an exact position or a definite momentum. When we measure such a particle we can choose a method that further squeezes the peak and makes it narrower, or we can choose a method that lowers the peak and evens out the component wavelengths. Depending on what we measure and how we measure it, we can make our location come out more definite or we can make our momentum range narrower. We can take care in designing the experiment to avoid various ways of jiggling the apparatus, but we cannot get rid of the fact that there was nothing completely definite to begin with.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle has greatly influenced arguments about free will. Under the theories of classical physics it is possible to argue that the laws of cause and effect are inexorable and that once the universe began in a certain way the interactions of all matter and energy to occur in the future could be calculated from that initial state. Since everything is absolutely the result of what came before it, they argued, every decision a human being makes and every situation into which that human being enters was predetermined since the beginning of time. We then have no choice in what we do.
People who believe in free will argue that the laws of quantum mechanics do not predict what will happen but only what is more and what is less likely to occur. Therefore every action is the result of a series of random "coin tosses" and no decision could be traced back to a set of necessary preconditions.
The expressions "quantum leap" and "quantum jump" have become ordinary ways of talking about things. Usually people intend to describe something as involving a huge change that occurs over a short period of time. The term actually applies to the way an electron behaves in an atom either when it absorbs a photon coming in from the outside and so jumps from one orbit around the atom's nucleus to a higher orbit, or when it emits a photon and so falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. The idea of Niels Bohr and his colleagues was that the electron does not move between orbits but instead it disappears from one orbit and instantaneously appears in another orbit. So a quantum jump is really not some earth shattering change, but a sudden tiny change.
When humans measure some process on the subatomic scale and the uncertainty principle manifests itself, then human action can be said to have influenced the thing that was being measured. Making a measurement intended to get a definite indication of a particle's location will inevitably influence its momentum and whatever is done to measure that momentum as soon as possible after measuring its position, the probabilities of what momentum will be discovered cannot fail to have been changed. So the uncertainty principle can explain some kinds of interference produced by investigators that influence the results of an experiment or an observation. However, not all observer effects are due to quantum effects or the uncertainty principle. The remainder are "observer effects" but not quantum uncertainty effects.
Observer effects include all kinds of things that operate at our ordinary human scale of events. If an anthropologist tries to get a clear idea of life in a primitive society but his or her presence upsets the community he or she is visiting, then the observations made may be very misleading. However, none of the relevant interactions occur at the level described by quantum mechanics or the uncertainty principle.
Sometimes the word "quantum" will be used for advertising purposes to indicate something new and powerful. For instance, the manufacturer of small gasoline motors, Briggs and Stratton, has one line of four-cylinder low horsepower motors for gasoline mowers and similar garden tools that it calls "Quantum."
Louis de Broglie, Noonday, 1958
Originally published in German, "Zs. Phys. 33 (1925) 879-893. English translation:
"Sources of Quantum Mechanics," pp. 261–276. B. L. Van Der Waerden, Dover.
Ian J. R. Aitchison, David A. MacManus, Thomas M. Snyder. https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0404009
http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/8590/1/Heis1935_EPR_Final_translation.pdf <br>
In translation, its title is: "Is a deterministic completion of quantum mechanics possible?" and the translators are Elise Crull and Guido Bacciagaluppi. The translation is dated 02 May 2011.
J.P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate
In the Middle Bronze Age,Assyria was a city state on the Upper Tigris river, named after its capital, the ancient city of Assur.
The Assyrians were just to the north of their rivals, the Babylonians. All the kingdoms of ancient Mesopotamia used the cuneiform writing system invented by the Sumerians.
Assyrians are an ethnic group whose descendents remain in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria, but who have gone to the Caucasus, North America and Western Europe during the past century. Hundreds of thousands more live in Assyrian Diaspora and Iraqi Refugees Communities in Europe, the former Soviet Union, The United States, Australia, New Zealand, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon.
Forum (plural "forums" or "fora") may mean:
Yuri Andropov
Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (1914-1984) was a Soviet politician. He was born in Nagutskoye, Russian SFSR.
Andropov was Director of the KGB for an unusually long time: 19671982 (Jan-May). He was General Secretary of the CPSU from November 12, 1982 until his death fifteen months later. He had diabetes mellitus and died of renal failure in Moscow, Russian SFSR.
Van (disambiguation)
A van is a road vehicle used for transporting goods or groups of people.
Van or may also refer to:
In Turkey:
Van, Turkey
Van (Armenian ) is a city in eastern Turkey and the seat of Van Province, and is on the eastern shore of Lake Van. The city's population in 2005 was 284,464. According to the "Encyclopedia of the Orient", Kurds form the majority though no census based on ethnicity was ever held in Turkey.
Van Province
Van () is a province in eastern Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border. It is 19,069 km in area and has a population of 1,035,418 at the end of 2010. Kurds form the majority.
In the 9th century BC, the Van area was the center of the Urartian kingdom. For centuries after that, the area was a major Armenian population center. After World War I Armenian population was forced to leave and was cleansed during the Armenian Genocide.
Urartian language
Urartian is the name for the language spoken by the people of the ancient kingdom of Urartu in northeast Anatolia (present-day Turkey), in the region of Lake Van.
Urartian was a language isolate, which was neither Semitic nor Indo-European, but a member of the Hurro-Urartian family.
There is a hypothesis that suggests that besides the cuneiform inscriptions of the Urartian language, Urartu had a native hieroglyphic writing system. Armenian scientist Artak Movsisyan published a partial attempt deciphering of Urartian hieroglyphs, saying that they were written in an early form of Armenian.
Yamaha Corporation
Yamaha is a Japanese company that makes different products, including musical instruments such as keyboards.
Yamaha was founded in 1887 by "Torakusu Yamaha". It was named Nippon Gakki Company, Limited and produced pianos and reed organs at that time. In October 1987, on the 100th anniversary, its name was changed to The Yamaha Corporation. Yamaha produces several musical instruments including keyboards, flutes, guitars and things in a band. Yamaha also produces motorbikes, as well as the voice synthesizer Vocaloid. Yamaha is a big corporation and was founded 125 years ago.
In 1989, Yamaha shipped the world's first CD recorder.
Grease (movie)
Grease is a 1978 American romantic comedy musical movie directed by Randal Kleiser and produced by Robert Stigwood. The movie tells the story of high-schoolers Rizzo (Stockard Channing), Kenickie (Jeff Conaway), Danny (John Travolta), Frenchy (Didi Conn) and Sandy (Olivia Newton-John).
Danny Zuko (John Travolta) and Sandra Dee (Olivia Newton-John) meet in Los Angeles, California in summer 1959 and they fall in love. When Sandy has to leave to go back to Australia, they believe it is the end of their romance. However, Sandy gets transferred to his school and they meet again. When Danny sees Sandy again he acts as if he does not care about her. He does this to keep up his reputation, but Sandy does not know this and wishes she has never met him. She and Danny date on and off, but Sandy becomes frustrated with him because of the way he treats her. At the end of the movie, Sandy transforms herself into the kind of woman Danny could truly love forever and they get back together after much heartbreak and trivial matters.
Eastern Time Zone
Eastern Time Zone (ET) is the time zone for the eastern part of the Americas including the United States, Canada and parts of South America and the Caribbean. ET is five hours behind UTC in winter, which is called Eastern Standard Time (EST). It is four hours behind UTC during summer Daylight saving time, when it is called Eastern Daylight Time (EDT).
In Canada, the following provinces and territories are part of the Eastern Time Zone:
In the United States, the following states are part of the Eastern Time Zone:
Parts of several other states use Eastern Time as well:
The following countries that use Eastern Time Zone include:
In South America this time zone is observed in:
Armenian Legion
The Armenian Legion or Armenische Legion was the name given to the 812th Armenian Battalion which was a foreign unit comprised of several thousand men.
Leaders Kanayan and Garegin Njdeh counted the support of over 18,000 Armenians.
In addition to this exclusively Armenian unit, Nazi Armenians also served in the thirty eight other SS divisions, including the elite Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler.
Garegin Njdeh
Garegin Njdeh (, real name: Garegin Ter-Harutiunian, 1 January 1886 - late 1955) was an Armenian statesman, military, and political thinker. He was a native of Nakhchivan.
Njdeh fled Armenia after the triumph of Bolsheviks, and was involved in patriotic activities in Iran, Bulgaria and the United States. A controversial person, he was expelled from Dashnak party. Njdeh was very much against communism. He worked with Nazi Germans during the World War II. He was arrested in Sofia, Bulgaria in 1944 and sent to Moscow, then to Yerevan. He spent the rest of his life in prison in the Russian city of Vladimir, where he dide in 1955.
Wehrmacht was the name of the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. The "Wehrmacht" consisted of the "Heer" (army), the "Kriegsmarine" (navy) and the "Luftwaffe" (air force).
The "Waffen-SS", an initially small armed section of Heinrich Himmler's Allgemeine SS that grew to nearly a million strong during World War II, was not part of the Wehrmacht, but subject to its Supreme Command.
Before the rise of the NSDAP, the term "Wehrmacht" was used in a generic sense to describe armed forces of any nation, being utilized as the "home defence" version of the more general "Streitmacht". For example, the term "Britische Wehrmacht" would identify the British armed forces. Article 47 of the Weimar Constitution of 1919 declared "Der Reichspräsident hat den Oberbefehl über die gesamte Wehrmacht des Reiches" (meaning: "The "Reichspräsident" holds supreme command of all armed forces of the "Reich""). To make a distinction, the term "Reichswehr" was commonly used to identify the German armed forces.
In 1935, the "Reichswehr" was renamed "Wehrmacht". After World War II and under the Allied occupation of Germany, the "Wehrmacht" was abolished.
Today the term "Wehrmacht" refers to Germany's armed forces during the Nazi Germany era and World War II, both in German and English. Note: The "Wehrmacht" was not only the army ("Wehrmacht Heer"). Wehrmacht vehicles used by "Heer", "Luftwaffe" or "Kriegsmarine" had license plates with WH, WL or WM.
World War I ended with the armistice (ceasefire) of 11 November 1918. The armed forces were called "Friedensheer" (peace army) in January 1919. In March 1919, the national assemby passed a law founding a 420,000 strong preliminary army as "Vorläufige Reichswehr". The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in May and, in June, Germany was forced to sign the contract. Among other terms, the army was limited to one hundred thousand men with fifteen thousand more in the navy. Tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air force was dissolved. A new post-war military (the Reichswehr) was established on 23 March 1921.
Germany immediately found ways not to keep to these conditions. A secret collaboration with the Soviet Union began after the treaty of Rapallo. Germany helped the Soviet Union with industrialisation and Soviet officers were to be trained in Germany. German tank and air force specialists could exercise in the Soviet Union. German chemical weapons research and manufacture would be done there, plus other projects. Around three hundred German pilots received training at "Lipetsk", some tank training took place near "Kazan" and toxic gas was developed at "Saratov" for the German army.
After the death of President Paul von Hindenburg on 2 August 1934, Hitler assumed the office of Reichspräsident, and thus became commander in chief. All officers and soldiers of the German armed forces had to swear a personal oath of loyalty to the "Führer", as Adolf Hitler now was called. By 1935, Germany was openly breaking the military restrictions of the Versailles Treaty, and conscription was reintroduced on 16 March 1935.
The size of the standing army remained at about the 100,000-man mark decreed by the treaty, but a new group of conscripts equal to this size would receive training each year. The conscription law formalized the name "Wehrmacht". The existence of the Wehrmacht was officially announced on 15 October 1935 under Nazi authority. The insignia was a simpler version of the Iron Cross (the straight-armed so-called "Balkenkreuz" or beamed cross). This had been used as an aircraft and tank marking late in World War I.
The Wehrmacht entered the war with a minority of its formations motorized; infantry remained approximately 90% foot-borne throughout the war, and artillery primarily horse-drawn. The motorized formations received much attention in the world press in the opening years of the war, and were cited as the reason for the success of the German invasions of Poland (September 1939), Norway (April 1940), Denmark, Belgium, France and Netherlands (May 1940), Yugoslavia (April 1941) and the early campaigns in the Soviet Union (June 1941).
With the entry of the United States in December 1941, the Wehrmacht found itself engaged in ground campaigns against two major industrial powers. At this critical juncture, Hitler assumed personal control of the Wehrmacht high command, and his personal failings as a military commander arguably contributed to major defeats in the spring of 1943, at Stalingrad and Tunis in North Africa.
The German Air Force, led by Hermann Göring, contributed many units of ground forces to the war in Russia as well as the Normandy front. In 1940, the Fallschirmjäger paratroops conquered the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael and took part in the airborne invasion of Norway, but after suffering heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, large scale airdrops were discontinued. Operating as ordinary infantry, the 1st Fallschirmjäger Division took part in the Battle of Monte Cassino.
The German Navy (Kriegsmarine) played a major role in the Second World War as control over the commerce routes in the Atlantic was crucial for Germany, Britain and later the Soviet Union. In the Battle of the Atlantic, the initially successful German U-boat fleet arm was eventually defeated due to Allied technological advances like sonar, radar, and the breaking of the Enigma code. Large surface vessels were few in number due to construction limitations by international treaties prior to 1935. The "pocket battleships" Admiral Graf Spee and Admiral Scheer were important as commerce raiders only in the opening year of the war. No aircraft carrier was operational as German leadership lost interest in the Graf Zeppelin which had been launched in 1938. Following the loss of Bismarck in 1941, with Allied air superiority threatening the remaining battlecruisers in French Atlantic harbours, the ships were ordered to go back to German ports.
Although the Waffen-SS was not technically a part of the Wehrmacht, they were under the control of the Wehrmacht High Command during World War 2. They were considered as elite troops, and suffered heavy losses (more than the normal army).
The Wehrmacht was used as a tool of state policy in the Second World War, for both military and political aims. There is considerable controversy over the allegations that the Wehrmacht was found to be significantly rather than incidentally involved in the Holocaust, especially because the elements of the SS involved in the Holocaust were not the Waffen-SS and not under the control of the OKW or field commanders. The Wehrmacht ordered and participated in massacres of civilians for reprisals, executions of prisoners of war, summary executions of Soviet political officers and executions of military and civilian hostages as punishment for partisan activities in occupied territories.However, the oft-repeeated claim of breaking the Geneva convention by its treatment of Russian prisoners of war is not correct. Common Clause 2 of the Geneva Convention states that the treatment requirements apply where both parties are signatories of the Conventions. The Germans were signatories, The Russians refused to sign.
Drastamat Kanayan
General Drastamat Kanayan (May 31, 1884 – March 8, 1956) was an Armenian politician, revolutionary, and general. He was the commander of the Armenian Legion of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany and part of Armenian national liberation movement.
Drastamat Kanayan was born in Iğdır, Surmalu, Russian Empire (present-day Turkey) in 1884.
Jack White
Jack White (born John Anthony Gillis, July 9, 1975 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American singer, guitarist, composer and actor. He is best known as one half of The White Stripes with his ex-wife Meg White.
Because of his successful career with The White Stripes, he has gotten the chance to work many other famous musicians, including Bob Dylan and Loretta Lynn. He has performed many different genres of music, including blues music, folk music, alternative rock, garage rock, and indie music, among other music, in his songs.
He married model Karen Elson in 2005. They currently have two children, Scarlett Teresa White and Henry Lee White. As of today, they live in Nashville, Tennessee.
Meg White
Meg White was born on December 10, 1974 in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan. She is an American drummer and vocalist. She is one half of The White Stripes with her ex-husband Jack White.
Meg's playful yet simple style of drumming has drawn so much debate about her ability that is referenced in the movie "School of Rock". In reference to her simple approach to drumming, Meg said "That is my strength. A lot of drummers would feel weird about being that simplistic."
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water and is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula was sepatated by the sea. Countries that have a coastline in the Adriatic Sea are Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania.
The average width of the sea is about 160 km. The Strait of Otranto joins the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea and is only 85 to 100 km wide. The sea is very shallow. Its average depth is 240 m (133 fathoms). The sea is deepest east of Monte Gargano and south of Dubrovnik where it dips below 1,460 m (800 fathoms).
Time in Australia
Mainland Australia has three official time zones. The full names of the time zones are usually shortened by dropping the "Australian". Most Australian external territories are in different time zones. Many parts of Australia have daylight saving time.
The three official standard time zones were set up in February 1895.
Originally South Australia was nine hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) but in May 1899 they added another thirty minutes to that. Some people have disliked having this non-whole number of hours difference. In 1986 and 1994 they tried to take the thirty minutes away again or add another thirty minutes but they failed.
When the Australian Capital Territory separated from New South Wales they kept using Eastern Standard Time. When the Northern Territory separated from South Australia they kept using Central Standard Time.
There have been some other changes.
Australia's many outside territories follow their own time zones. None follow daylight saving time.
South Australia, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania use daylight saving time every year. In these regions daylight saving time begins on the first Sunday in October at 2:00 am local standard time, and ends on the first Sunday in April at 3:00 am local daylight saving time. The starting and finishing times are sometimes changed when there are special events, such as the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, in Australia.
The Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia do not have daylight saving time. People living in the northern parts of Australia tend not to be in favour of daylight saving.
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing a human being as an offering to a deity or other, normally supernatural, power.
It was practiced in many ancient cultures. The practice was different in different cultures.
Some like the Mayans and Aztecs are notorious for their ritual killings, others have looked down on the practice as primitive.
Victims were ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease gods or spirits. Victims ranged from prisoners to infants to Vestal Virgins whose stomach's were cut open, with a dull,stone knife and their hearts were burned.
Over time human sacrifice has become less common around the world, and sacrifices are now very rare. Most religions condemn the practice and present-day laws generally treat it as a criminal matter. Nonetheless it is still occasionally seen today, especially in the least developed areas of the world where traditional beliefs persist.
The ancient Middle Eastern kingdom of Phoenicia practiced sacrifice of children to their god Moloch. It was believed to be evil by the Jewish authors of the Bible.
The Aztecs were particularly noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale; an offering to Huitzilopochtli would be made to restore the blood he lost, as the sun was engaged in a daily battle. Human sacrifices would prevent the end of the world that could happen on each cycle of 52 years. In the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan many prisoners were sacrificed.
Tlaloc would require weeping boys in the first months of the Aztec calendar to be ritually murdered.
A number of mummies of sacrificed children have been recovered in the Inca regions of South America.
Tomomi Kahala
Tomomi Kahala, sometimes spelled Kahara ( "Kahara Tomomi" born August 17, 1974 in Tokyo) is a Japanese female singer. Her nickname is "Tomochan", and special skill is Horse riding. Her most famous song is ""I'm Proud"", ""I Believe"".
Observer effect
The observer effect, or observer bias, means several things in different situations, although there are similarities.
In science, the term observer effect means that the act of observing will influence the phenomenon being observed.
For example, for us to "see" an electron, a photon must first interact with it, and this interaction will change the path of that electron. It is also theoretically possible for other, less direct means of measurement to affect the electron; even if the electron is simply put into a position where observing it is "possible", without actual observation taking place, it will still (theoretically) alter its position.
In physics, a more mundane observer effect can be the result of instruments that by necessity alter the state of what they measure in some manner. For instance, in electronics, ammeters and voltmeters usually need to be connected to the circuit, and so by their very presence affect the current or the voltage they are measuring. Likewise, a standard mercury-in-glass thermometer must absorb some thermal energy to record a temperature, and therefore changes the temperature of the body which it is measuring.
A common lay misunderstanding of the term refers to quantum mechanics, where, if the outcome of an event has not been observed, it exists in a state of '', which is something like being in all possible states at once. In the famous thought experiment known as Schrödinger's cat, the cat is empirically neither alive nor dead until observed – until that time, the cat is theoretically "both" alive and dead (technically half-alive and half-dead in probability terms). However, most quantum physicists, in resolving Schrödinger's seeming paradox, now understand that the acts of 'observation' and 'measurement' must also be defined in quantum terms before the question makes sense. From this point of view, there is no 'observer effect', only one vastly entangled quantum system. A significant minority still find the equations point to an observer; , who probably worked more deeply on this subject than any physicist thus far, devised a graphic in which the universe was represented by a "U" with an eye on one end, turned around and viewing itself, to describe his understanding.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is also frequently, confused with the "observer effect". The uncertainty principle actually describes how precisely we may measure the position and momentum of a particle at the same time – if we increase the precision in measuring one quantity, we are forced to lose precision in measuring the other. Thus, the uncertainty principle deals with "measurement", and not "observation". The idea that the Uncertainty Principle is caused by disturbance (and hence by observation) is not considered to be valid by some, although it was discussed in the early years of quantum mechanics, and is often repeated in popular treatments.
There is a related issue in quantum mechanics relating to whether systems have pre-existing – prior to measurement, that is – properties corresponding to measurements that could possibly be made on them. The assumption that they do is often referred to as "realism" in the literature, although it has been argued that the word "realism" is being used in a more restricted sense than philosophical realism. A recent experiment in the realm of quantum physics has been quoted as meaning that we have to "say goodbye" to realism, although the author of the paper states only that "we would [..] have to give up certain features of realism". These experiments demonstrate a puzzling relationship between the act of measurement and the system being measured, but it is unclear if they require a conscious observer or not.
In information technology, the observer effect refers to potential impact of the act of observing a process output while the process is running. For example, if a process records its progress in a log file, the act of viewing the file while the process is running could cause an I/O error in the process, which could, in turn, cause it to stop.
Another example would be observing the performance of a CPU by running both the observed and observing programs on the same CPU. This will lead to inaccurate results because the observer program itself affects the CPU performance (modern, heavily cached and pipelined CPUs are particularly affected by this kind of observation).
Observing (or rather, "debugging") a running program by modifying its source code (such as adding extra output or generating log files) or by running it in a debugger may sometimes cause certain bugs to diminish or change their behavior. This makes more difficulty for the person trying to isolate the so-called "Heisenbug".
In the social sciences and general usage, the effect refers to how people change their behavior when aware of being watched (see Hawthorne effect). For instance, in the armed forces, an announced inspection is used to see how well soldiers can do when they put their minds to it, while a surprise inspection is used to see how well prepared they generally are.
The related social-science term observer bias is error introduced into measurement when observers overemphasize behavior they expect to find and fail to notice behavior they do not expect. This is why medical trials are normally organized as double-blind tests. Observer bias can also be introduced because researchers see a subject doing something, and interpret it according to what it means to them, whereas it may mean something else to the subject.
Canton Township, Michigan
Canton, Michigan is a township in Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. About 93,704 people live in it according to an educated guess of the U.S. Census Bureau. The FBI decided that it is the 20th safest city in the United States.The average household in Canton earns $84,000 dollars.
Probability theory is the part of mathematics that studies random situations. Probability theory usually studies random events, random variables, stochastic processes, and non-deterministic events (events that do not follow a simple pattern).
Tossing a coin, winning the lottery, or rolling a die are random events. However, random events have certain patterns, which can be studied and predicted, using probability theory.
Scientists can use probability theory to obtain information about things that would be too complex to deal with, like statistical mechanics. Also, scientists discovered (in the 20th century) that atoms, and everything that we know, obeys something called quantum mechanics, which uses lots of probability theory.
The theory of probability was created by Gerolamo Cardano, a medical doctor and gambler who tried to calculate his luck. Years later, Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal helped develop Cardano's theory.
Today, probability theory is used in statistics, which is useful to all kinds of areas: like medicine, economy, Science, Mathematics...
"The Raven" is a narrative poem by American writer Edgar Allan Poe, first published in January 1845. It tells the story of a mysterious talking raven who visits a lover; it shows how the lover is slowly going insane. It is often called Poe's most famous poem, its publication made him famous in his day, and today it is still one of the most recognized and respected poems in American literature.
Mayan civilization
The Maya civilization and Maya religion. They lived there for a long time and some of the Maya people live there even today.
The Maya lived there 4,000 years ago (about 2000 BC). At that date complex societies were living in the Maya region. The staple foods of the Maya diet were cultivated. Their food included maize, beans, squashes, and chili peppers. The first Maya cities developed around 750 BC.
The Maya people used a written language and a numeral system. They were good at art, building, and Their priests studied stars and planets, which helped them make calendars.
The Maya civilization was biggest between the years of 420 AD and 900 AD. The Maya civilization spread all the way from central Mexico to Honduras, Guatemala, and northern El Salvador. It is estimated that at its maximum, the civilization had at least ten million people. The Maya people traded with other people in the Americas. Their art and buildings have many different styles. This shows they traded a lot. They made changes to their buildings to make them even better. The Maya civilization started getting smaller after 900 AD.
The Conquistadors arrived in the 15th century and took over Mexico and later Central America, even in the Mayan areas. However, the Maya people still live there today. They live in the same areas the Mayan civilization used to live in. They keep the old Mayan traditions and beliefs.
There are many Mayan languages still spoken today, including one called the Achi language. A play called "Rabinal Achi" is considered important.
The people of the Maya civilization lived in three different areas: the southern Maya highlands, the central lowlands, and the northern lowlands. They had many different types of land, including mountains and dry plains. People living in the low plains by the sea were affected by hurricanes and tropical storms from the Caribbean.
The area covered what we now call the southern Mexican states of Chiapas and Tabasco, and the Yucatán Peninsula states of Quintana Roo, Campeche and Yucatán. They also included where we now call Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and western Honduras.
The first Maya settlements started about 1800 BC. They lived in the Soconusco region, now the state of Chiapas in Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean. This is called the "early pre-classic period" in Mayan history'. People in Central America had been nomads who went from place to place to find food and shelter. Around this time they began to settle down.They started to farm animals and make pottery and small clay figures. They buried their dead in simple burial mounds. Later they started to make these mounds into step pyramids.
There were other people around at the time, especially in the north. The Olmec, the Mixe-Zoque, and Zapotec civilizations mostly lived in the area we now call Oaxaca. We don't know exactly where the borders of the Maya civilization were. Many of the most important early examples of writing and buildings appeared in north, so these cultures probably affected the Maya civilization.
From about 250 to 909, the Maya civilization built many monuments and cities, and made many important carvings. The "southern lowlands" were an important place at the time. The Maya civilization made many discoveries about art and thinking there.
Like Ancient Greece, their civilization was made up of numerous cities, which all worked in different ways. People gathered around these cities to farm. Well-known cities were Tikal, Palenque, Copán and Calakmul. Lesser-known cities were Dos Pilas, Uaxactun, Altun Ha, and Bonampak, among others. In general, we know more about where the cities were in the south than we do in the north. Some northern cities we do know about were Oxkintok, Chunchucmil, and Uxmal.
Their most famous monuments are the pyramids they built as part of their religious centers, and the palaces. The palace at Cancuén is the largest we know about in the Maya area. The Maya also made carved stone slabs which they called "tetun", or "tree-stones". These slabs show rulers along with hieroglyphic writing describing their family, military victories, and other things that they did well.
The Maya had trade routes that ran over long distances. They traded with many other Mesoamerican cultures, such as Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico. They also traded with groups that were farther away. For example, people who study the Maya civilization found gold from Panama in the Sacred well at Chichen Itza.
Some important things they traded were cacao, salt, sea shells, jade and obsidian.
Between 900 AD and 1000 AD, the cities in the southern lowlands had more and more problems until all the people left. The Maya civilization there stopped making big monuments and carvings. People who study the Maya civilization are not sure why this happened. They have many different ideas - some people think there was a big environmental disaster, or a disease affected a lot of people, or there were just too many people for the amount of food they could grow.
In the north, the Maya civilization kept going. Other cultures started mixing with Mayan culture much more. Some of the important sites in this time were Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Edzná, and Coba. At some point, the families who ruled over Chichen and Uxmal got weaker and the rulers in the city of Mayapan ruled all of the Mayan civilization in the Yucatán peninsula until there was a revolt in 1450. After the revolt, the whole area broke up into different cities who fought against each other, until the Spanish conquest of Yucatán.
The Itza Maya, Ko'woj, and Yalain groups around what is now Guatamela were still around, but there were not very many of them. By 1520, they had built themselves back up again and started to build cities. The Itza had their capital at Tayasal (also known as Noh Petén), and people who study the Maya civlisation think what's left of this city is below the modern city of Flores, Guatemala on Lake Petén Itzá. The Ko'woj had their capital at Zacpeten. Some Mayan cultures were still living in the southern highlands.
The Quiché kingdom produced the most famous Mayan work, the Popol Vuh. It talks about the creation of the world, the Mayan gods and goddesses, how humans and animals were created and why the Quiché kingdom was the best one in the Maya civilization.