AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Otherkin is a neologism—a new word—and it is usually used only by people who say they "are" otherkin. The definition can change depending on who uses the word. Some otherkin say that their souls or minds are not human, that they were another species in a past life, or that being not-human is part of their religion. (Otherkin practice many different religions, however.) A few of them say that their physical bodies are not human, either, but there is no proof either for or against that.
Pedro Romeiras
Pedro Romeiras was a Portuguese principal ballet dancer born 3 July 1961, in Lisbon. He was the gold medal winner of the II Prix Français de la Danse 1982.
A bonfire or balefire is a large controlled outdoor fire made from bales of straw or wood. The word is believed to come from "bone fire". In the time of the Celts, there were midsummer festivals where animal bones were burnt to ward off evil spirits.
In Great Britain, bonfires are particularly associated with "Guy Fawkes Night". This night is also known as "fireworks night" or "bonfire night". On this night, people celebrate that the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. This discovery took place on 5 November 1605. They do this celebration each year. (It is called an "annual celebration".)
In Northern Ireland, "bonfires" are associated with celebrations on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne.
In Japan, large fires called bon-bi are set to welcome the return of the spirits of the ancestors. Though the two terms are not etymologically or historically related, they serve similar purposes and indicate the universal importance of large fires.
Bonfires were also used for rituals. The idea was that the fire would purify. It was used to consecrate things, or people, that is to make them sacred, in some way. In ancient times, cattle were important symbols of wealth and status. Such cattle were led through the smoke of a bonfire. Couples who were to be wed on May Day would leap through the flames of the bonfire to seal their vows. Coals from a bonfire would be taken home to light the fires in family hearths. This practice was thought to bring good fortune. People also believed that the residents of the Faery realm were incapable of producing fire themselves; embers of bonfires would be carried to the underworld and tended there.
Along with the Maypole, the bonfire is an important component of the Wiccan and Neopagan celebration of Beltaine, also known as May Day.
Nine woods are placed into a traditional Wiccan balefire. These woods are rowan, dogwood, elder, poplar, oak, juniper, holly, cedar, and apple. Occasionally, pine is also used instead of holly or elder, as are a handful of other woods. In some regions, superstition, religious belief, or tradition prohibits the cutting of certain trees.
Bic Runga
Bic Runga (born January 13, 1976) is a singer from New Zealand. She was born in Christchurch. She has sold lots of albums in New Zealand.
The names of her albums are:
Sputnik programme
The Sputnik programme was a Soviet Union spacecraft programme. Sputnik 1, the first satellite in the programme, was launched on October 4, 1957. This was the first man-made satellite ever to enter orbit.
The United States was very surprised when the Soviet Union sent Sputnik 1 into space. It did not want to fall behind. So, it began spending more money on science and education. This was when the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States began.
The word "Sputnik" comes from the ,
Carnival is a public festival which takes place in many cities and towns in many countries around the world. It is in February or March each year. Carnival can sometimes last for several weeks. In some places there is only one day of celebration. There are often street parades, bands, costumes and many people wear masks. Carnival is linked to religious traditions in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and it is also linked to local customs.
Many Christian churches have a 40-day "season" of fasting called Lent, in which Christians prepare for Easter which is one of the two most important feasts in the Christian year (the other being Christmas). Easter is in late March or April. Lent always begins on a Wednesday, which is called Ash Wednesday in February or March. On that day, many people go to church and have some ash smeared on their forehead as a sign of sorrow for their sins. Then for 40 days, they try to work hard on improving themselves and thinking about the teachings of Jesus. It is usual for people to "give up" something for Lent. They might stop smoking or stop watching TV so they can spend more time reading the Bible or talking with the family. Many people give up all their favourite foods and have no cake, wine, beer, chocolate, ice cream or other luxury foods.
The name "carnivale" comes from Italian and means "putting aside the flesh". This means that during Lent people were not to think about their "flesh" (their bodies) but do things that were good for their souls. The word "flesh"" also means "meat" so many people would eat no meat during Lent.
Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday". This was the day just before Lent. The first day of Lent was called Mecredi Meagre meaning "Mean Wednesday". ("Mean" used to mean "poor" and "thin" rather than "nasty".)
During the Middle Ages in Europe, it was normal for people to have a big feast on the Tuesday before the Lenten fast started. In many towns this developed into a big public party, with entertainment in the town square. There is a famous painting by Pieter Bruegel dating from the 1550s and showing the "Battle of Carnival and Lent". (See top of page)
In this picture by Pieter Bruegel, a man representing Carnival is pushed on a barrel by people in costumes and masks. He is about to do battle with Lent. His weapon is a skewer covered with pieces of roast meat. He balances a blackbird pie on his head. Lent, who is very skinny, fights him with two little fish on a bread-board. The person at the front wears a mask and plays a very noisy instrument called a "rummelpott".
Nowadays many cities and towns around the world celebrate Carnival for a week or more. The final day of the celebration is Mardi Gras, when there is often a parade. In some cities the Mardi Gras parade is held on the weekend before Lent begins, rather than on the Tuesday, so as not to disturb the business and traffic of the town.
In some towns such as the Belgian town of Binche the preparations for the Carnival are complex and start many weeks before Carnival takes place, with most of the town's people taking part in some way. The Carnival of Binche is listed with UNESCO as an event of great historic importance because it has been held there in almost the same way for more than 500 years.
Carnival is celebrated differently around the world, but there are some things that are similar:
In the Carnival of Rio de Janeiro, which is one of the biggest and most famous in the world, a major feature is the glamorous costumes as both men and women wear bright colours and wonderful headdresses to dance down the street to the sound of many bands. In Rio there are many very large and expensive decorated "floats".
In New Orleans the bands are one of the most important parts of the Carnival celebrations. In Düsseldorf in Germany, one of the features of the Carnival parades are the enormous models of politicians and other well-known people. In Sydney, the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardis Gras which started out as a parade for Sydney's homosexual community, now includes exhibitions, live theatre and competitions, and stretches over two weeks.
In Venice the Carnival was celebrated from December 26 until Lent began. During that time, people were allowed to disguise themselves by wearing masks in the street. In the 1930s this was forbidden by the Italian Government, but in 1980 a mask-makers shop was set up in Venice again. Soon the old tradition was brought back, and now many people dress in costume and wear masks for two weeks before Lent begins.
In Brussels in Belgium, the main Carnival procession is held in the Grande Place, the town square in front of the Gothic Town Hall with its huge tower. Every part of the procession is ruled by a tradition, but some of the traditions are so old that no-one remembers what they mean anymore. At the beginning of the procession is a large group of people dressed in beautiful costumes of silk and velvet, who act out an historic scene of the coming of the King of Spain and his royal court to Brussels 500 years ago. When they have taken their seats, there comes an amazing procession which includes stilt walkers, fire eaters, Goldilocks with a dancing bear, a mad camel, a wizard, lots of men in huge feathery headdresses, and the Archangel Michael whose job is to frighten the Devil. These characters are traditional to Brussels. In every city, the characters that take part are different.
The country of Uruguay in South America is a fun place to be during Carnival. In Uruguay, Carnival has its own special musical performance.
During February and March, it is summer in Uruguay. Everybody goes into the streets, from old people to children. There are people dancing, singing, and playing a special kind of music. This kind of dance and music is called murga.
People do murga performances in groups. The biggest groups have 17 people. They wear funny clothes with lots of colors. They play the drums and sing. The members of the groups are not professional singers or dancers. They are people with other jobs. Each group prepares and practices their own dance and songs for months. Then, they try to be the best group at the festival. Each group's dance and songs last about 45 minutes. The songs are stories about important people or events in the news, so people think watching murga is like watching a play at the theater.
Uruguay’s Carnival started over 100 years ago. It is the world's longest and is about 40 days long. People still work during that time, but in the evenings and on weekends, they enjoy the festival.
Although the word "carnival" still has its old meaning, it is often used to mean public entertainments of different kinds. Some towns have carnivals that have nothing to do with Lent and are at different times of year. Nowadays there are all sorts of different carnivals. Some of these carnivals, like the Notting Hill Carnival in London and the Melbourne Cup Racing Carnival in Australia are very famous.
The word "carnival" is now used for festivals, parades and competitions of all sorts. There are school sports carnivals, folk carnivals, multi-cultural carnivals, horse racing carnivals, wine and food carnivals and boating carnivals.
Fasting is a kind of abstinence. It is when someone does not eat or drink for some specified period of time. It is only the case if the person does so of his or her own will. It may also be that the person only eats and drinks certain kinds of food. Most often, fasting is done for religious reasons. Depending on the tradition, fasting practices may forbid sexual intercourse, (or any sexual desire), masturbation, as well as refraining from eating certain types or groups of food (e.g. meat).
Fasting for religious and spiritual reasons has been a part of human custom since pre-history. It is mentioned in the Qur'an, in the Mahabharata, in the Upanishads, and in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testament. In Buddhism it is also taught as a way to getting Nirvana.
In almost all cases, there are exceptions for observing the fasting. These are made for the following groups of people
Fasting as a form of protest is called a hunger strike.
Timed fasting is known as Intermittent fasting.
There are different ways to time your fast. You can:
Walpurgis Night ("Valborgsmässoafton" in Swedish, "Vappu" in Finnish, "Volbriöö" in Estonian, "Valpurģu nakts" or "Valpurģi" in Latvian, "Walpurgisnacht" in German), "Čarodějnice" in Czech is a holiday celebrated on April 30 or May 1, in Finland, Sweden, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Estonia, Latvia and Germany.
The festival is named after Saint Walburga (known in Scandinavia as "Valborg"; alternative forms are "Walpurgis", "Wealdburg", or "Valderburger"), born in Wessex in 710 a niece of Saint Boniface. According to legend, she was a daughter to the Saxon prince St. Richard. Together with her brothers she travelled to Württemberg, Germany where she became a nun and lived in the convent of Heidenheim, which was founded by her brother Wunibald. Walburga died on 25 February 779 and that day still carries her name in the Catholic calendar. However she was not made a saint until 1 May in the same year, and that day carries her name in the Swedish calendar.
Historically the Walpurgisnacht is derived from Pagan spring customs, where the arrival of spring was celebrated with bonfires at night. Viking fertility celebrations took place around April 30 and due to Walburga being declared a saint at that time of year, her name became associated with the celebrations. Walburga was worshipped in the same way that Vikings had celebrated spring and as they spread throughout Europe, the two dates became mixed together and created the Walpurgis Night celebration.
In Germany, Walpurgisnacht, the night from April 30 to May 1, is the night when allegedly the witches hold a large celebration on the Blocksberg and await the arrival of Spring. When the travel to that mountain is too far, they may also chose another hill in the region they live.
""Walpurgis Night (in German folklore) the night of April 30 (May Day's eve), when witches meet on the Brocken mountain and hold revels with their Gods...""
""Brocken the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of the Brocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputably took place there on Walpurgis night.
The Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken.""
—Taken from Oxford Phrase & Fable.
Bird flu (also called avian influenza, avian flu, bird influenza, or grippe of the birds), is an illness caused by a virus. The virus, called "influenza A" or "type A", usually lives in birds, but sometimes infects mammals, including humans. It is called influenza when it infects humans.
There are many types of influenza A, which was first found in a bird in Italy in 1878. Most types have weak symptoms, such as breathing problems, similar to the common cold.
But some types kill birds, and a few kill humans and other mammals. One type of bird flu, called "Spanish flu", killed 50 to 100 million people in 1918/1920. Another type, called "Asian Flu" killed one million in 1957, and another one, called "Hong Kong Flu", also killed one million people in 1968.
A subtype, called "H5N1", killed six people in Hong Kong in 1997, but did not kill again until 2003, this time in China. Until the middle of 2005, it was primarily found in southeast Asia but since then has spread to parts of Africa and Europe. It has killed tens of millions of birds and resulted in the slaughter of hundreds of millions of other birds to limit its spread. So far it is mostly a bird disease and rarely infects humans. The concern about H5N1 is that it is constantly evolving at a very fast rate and could create a human flu pandemic that could kill many millions of people. Governments around the world are spending billions of dollars to deal with this problem: studying H5N1, creating vaccines, conducting pandemic practice exercises, stockpiling useful flu medication, and many other important activities.
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
The "Jyllands-Posten" Muhammad cartoons controversy is a controversy about a series of cartoons. They were first published in a Danish newspaper. The publication led to an outcry, and sparked violent protests in the Islamic world, with many people dying.
The crisis began after cartoons depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad were published in the Danish newspaper "Jyllands-Posten" on September 30, 2005. Danish Muslim organizations staged protests in response. As the controversy has grown, some or all of the cartoons have been reprinted in newspapers in more than fifty other countries. The protests got worse when fake cartoons were released.
One of the cartoons showed Muhammad with a bomb in his turban. Some people thought this was saying that all Muslims are terrorists. But other cartoons made fun of the Jyllands-Posten newspaper. One insulted the editors of the newspaper, by using the language Farsi.
Critics claims that the cartoons are culturally insulting, Islamophobic, blasphemous, and intended to humiliate a "marginalized" minority. However, supporters of the cartoons claim they illustrate an important issue and their publication exercises the right of free speech. They have also claimed that similar cartoons are made relative to other religions, arguing that Islam and its followers have not been targeted in a discriminatory way.
Blasphemy is a word that means "speaking badly about a religion", or "insulting a god". Some religions see blasphemy as a religious crime. Many countries witha state religion have laws that make blasphemy a crime. For example, blasphemy can be punished with the death penalty in Saudi Arabia or Pakistan. In other countries, the punishment for the crime is a fine, or imprisonment.
Some countries do not have laws against blasphemy. For example, after the French Revolution, France made blasphemy legal to make sure people would have freedom of religion and the freedom of the press.
The United States, Canada, and many European countries, have laws to protect people who speak badly about religion. Sometimes people do this in a satirical way, like with a movie that makes fun of a religion. In these countries, profanity is often protected by freedom of speech as well.
1180s
Brie is a type of soft cheese with a yellowish interior and a white layer (the "rind") on the outside of the cheese. The rind is eaten as well as the inside of this cheese. Like other cheeses, Brie is a dairy product made from cows' milk. Brie cheese may be served with fruit as a dessert at the end of a meal, or with a relish.
The cheese is sometimes served slightly melted or baked, in a round, lidded ceramic dish, and topped with nuts or fruit, or both.
Brie is a French cheese, and protected by AOC ("Appellation d'origine contrôlée"). This means only this cheese from this region (near Paris) can properly call itself "brie". This is ignored by some countries outside Europe, but the system of AOC is used in the wine business, so many parts of the world do honour it, and have similar arrangements.
The milk of soft cheeses ("à pate molle" in French) is not heated during the production of the cheese. Talleyrand said about this kind of cheese that it was the "king of cheeses". He said that in the 19th century. This kind of cheese has been made for at least 1000 years.
In Europe this cheese is usually not treated chemically, so it might change in consistency or color. It will go bad if it is not kept cool. If that means it is kept in a refrigerator, note that it should not be eaten that cold. It is best eaten when it is somewhat below normal room temperature. In most countries, brie-style cheeses are made with Pasteurized milk.
Brie can be aged, that is, carefully treated for up to a year. Then it has a darker colour and a stronger taste. This is rarely seen outside of France.
The following kinds of Brie exist:
Other French "Bries" are:
Bries from outside France:
Cheeses are made into round loaves, of about 36 cm in diameter. The cheeses then weight about 2.5 kilograms. It is best tasted from April to October, after a ripening period of 8 to 10 weeks. About 2% of the production occurs on farms.
The Brie de Melun is smaller than the Brie de Meaux, but more salt is added to it. The ripening period is 10 weeks. It is best consumed April to September, but it can be found March to November, in some locations. About 5% of production occurs on farms.
When people buy Brie, they should make sure that it has the following traits:
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (February 2, 1754 - May 17, 1838) was a French diplomat.
He was a bishop and worked successfully for Louis XVI. He changed sides and served the French Revolution and Napoleon I. When Napoleon started losing his wars, Talleyrand changed sides again and served Louis XVIII. He represented France at the Congress of Vienna. He changed sides once more and served Louis Philippe I. Since the beginning of the 19th century he was known simply as "Talleyrand". He is widely seen as one of the most pragmatic and influential diplomats in European history. He was known to accept bribes from other European powers, especially while he served under Napoleon.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is a process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria to make the food safe to eat. It involves heating the food to kill most harmful microorganisms. Producers pasteurize dairy and other foods to make them safe to eat. The process is named after Louis Pasteur. He was the first person to learn how to do it successfully. The first pasteurization was done by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on 20 April 1862.
Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food. Instead, pasteurization gets a "log reduction" in the number of microorganisms. It brings their number down so they are unlikely to cause disease if the product is kept in the refrigerator and consumed before its sell-by date. Commercial sterilization of food is not common, because it tends to destroy the flavour of the food.
Pasteurization is usually done to milk, which was first suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. There are two popular ways to pasteurize milk. First, high temperature/short time (HTST), and second, ultra-high temperature (UHT). HTST is the most common method. Milk only labeled "pasteurized" (or "past") is usually treated with the HTST method, whereas milk labelled "ultra-pasteurized" or "UHT" must be treated with the UHT method. HTST is when the milk is at a temperature of 72 degrees Celsius (or 161.5 degrees Fahrenheit) for at least 15 seconds. UHT is when the milk is at a temperature of 138 °C or 280 °F for at least two seconds.
Pasteurization rules are usually set by national food safety agencies (like the USDA in the United States and the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom). These agencies say milk has to be HTST pasteurized to have the "pasteurized" label. There are different rules for different dairy products, depending on the fat content and what they will be used for. For example, the pasteurization rules for cream are different than the rules for fluid milk, and the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to keep the phosphatase enzyme fresh, which helps in making the cheese.
HTST pasteurized milk normally has a refrigerated shelf life of two or three weeks, but ultra pasteurized milk can last much longer when refrigerated, sometimes two or three months. When UHT pasteurization is mixed with safe handling and container technology, it can even be stored unrefrigerated for even longer periods of time.
In addition to the standard HTST and UHT pasteurization standards, there are other lesser-known pasteurization techniques. The first technique, called "batch pasteurization", involves heating large batches of milk to a lower temperature, typically . The other technique is called higher-heat/shorter time (HHST), and it lies somewhere between HTST and UHT in terms of time and temperature. Pasteurization causes some irreversible and some temporary denaturization of the proteins in milk.
In most legislations, double pasteurization is not allowed. A heat treatment at a lower temperature or for a shorter time is sometimes performed. Possibly, such milk could be called "raw milk" or, confusingly, "unpasteurized milk". It cannot be called "pasteurized", even though a significant number of pathogens are destroyed during the process.
In recent years, there has been some consumer interest in raw milk products, due to perceived health benefits. Advocates of raw milk maintain, correctly, that some components survive in milk that has not been pasteurized. Specifically, raw milk contains immunoglobulins and the enzymes lipase and phosphatase, which are inactivated by heat. Raw milk also contains vitamin B6 of which up to 20% may be lost on heat treatment. It is also claimed to contain beneficial bacteria which aid digestion and boost immunity.
Commercial distribution of packaged raw milk is not allowed in most US states.
Some doctors (and some raw milk advocates) acknowledge that certain people should not drink raw milk, including pregnant or breast-feeding mothers, those undergoing immunosuppression treatment for cancer, organ transplant, or autoimmune diseases; and those who are immunocompromised due to medical conditions such as AIDS.
In fact, some doctors suggest that babies and breast-feeding mothers avoid all but UHT pasteurized dairy products.
In Africa, it is common to boil milk whenever it is harvested. This intense heating greatly changes the flavor of milk, which the people in Africa are accustomed to.
Milk pasteurization standards have been subject to increasing scrutiny in recent years, due to the discovery of pathogens that are both widespread and heat resistant (able to survive pasteurization in significant numbers). Researchers have developed more sensitive diagnostics, such as real-time PCR and improved culture methods, that have enabled them to identify pathogens in pasteurized milk.
One bacterium in particular, the organism "Mycobacterium avium" subspecies "paratuberculosis" (MAP), which causes Johne's disease in cattle and is suspected of causing at least some Crohn's disease in humans, has been found to survive pasteurization in retail milk in the U.S., the U.K., Greece, and the Czech Republic. The food safety authorities in the U.K. have decided to re-evaluate pasteurization standards in light of the MAP results and other evidence of harmful, pasteurization-resistant pathogens.
The USDA (which is responsible for setting pasteurization standards in the U.S.) has not re-evaluated their position on pasteurization adequacy. They do not dispute the studies, which are at this point accepted by the scientific community, but maintain that the presence of MAP in retail pasteurized milk must be due to post-pasteurization contamination. However, some researchers within the FDA, which is responsible for food safety in the U.S., have begun pushing for a re-evaluation of these results. There is a small but growing body of criticism directed at these agencies by Crohn's disease sufferers, scientists, and doctors. Some have suggested that the U.S. dairy industry has been successful in suppressing the agencies' response to a potential health crisis, for fear of consumer panic which would lead to a decrease in milk consumption. It is worth noting that while MAP has not been definitely proven to be harmful in humans, all other mycobacteria are pathogenic, and it has been definitively shown to cause disease in cattle and other ruminants.
A newer method called flash pasteurization involves shorter exposure to higher temperatures, and is claimed to be better for preserving color and taste in some products.
The term cold pasteurization is used sometimes for the use of ionizing radiation (see food irradiation) or other means (e.g. chemical) to kill bacteria in food. Food irradiation is also sometimes called "electronic pasteurization".
Soft cheese
Soft cheese (in French: "Fromage à pate molle") is any kind of cheese that does not get heated during production.
An example of soft cheese would be Brie.
A cult is a group of people who have a religion or a set of beliefs. In modern times the term "cult" usually does not mean a mainstream religion, but a group set up "in opposition to a centre of established authority". New Age religions were often called cults because they were thought to be deviant social movements.
The word cult originally meant a system of ritual practices. It was first used in the early 17th century to mean homage paid to a divinity. It came from an ancient Latin word "cultus" meaning "worship".
A cult is often a small, newly started religious movement. Cults have beliefs or practices that many people think of as being odd, or that have practices that most people in the world do not practice. More than that, cults have often been led by people who are not elected, and control the group according to their own wishes. Some cult leaders have been dangerous criminals (Charles Manson; Peoples Temple) or even lunatics. Killings and mass suicides have occurred in cults (Order of the Solar Temple; Heaven's Gate). Of course, a "suicide" enforced by armed guards carrying sub-machine guns (Peoples Temple; Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God) is not a simple suicide as generally understood. It is at least an assisted and coerced suicide.
Whether a religious group is or is not a cult can be a hard question to answer. What is at one point in time considered a cult may later be accepted as a religion and what at one point of time is considered an accepted religion may later become a cult.
Some form of persuasion or mind control can be used to recruit and maintain members. The objective is to prevent the faithful from thinking critically, and making choices in their own best interest.
The following methods have been used in some or all cults studied:
This view is disputed by some. "Society for the Scientific Study of Religion" stated in 1990 that there was not sufficient research for a consensus, and that "one should not automatically equate the techniques involved in the process of physical coercion and control with those of nonphysical coercion and control".
An oft-repeated criticism of cults is that their management style is dictatorial and exploitative. The following is one example:
Ownership of weapons and violence has occurred in some cults. The Branch Davidians under the direction of David Koresh used violence against Federal agencies, with tragic results for both sides. The later FBI report reveals the extent of their arms stockpile.
The People's Temple included guards armed with submachine guns. These guards killed the visiting U.S. Congressman Ryan, and stood around the believers as they committed suicide. Members of the Manson Family were convicted of several murders.
The Cult are a English rock band. They formed in 1982 under the name Death Cult and later renamed to Southern Death Cult in 1983, then was again renamed to their current name The Cult.
1028 (MXXVIII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the twenty-eighth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
James A. Michener
James Albert Michener (February 3, 1907 - October 16, 1997) was an American writer. His books include "Tales of the South Pacific", "Hawaii", "The Drifters", "Texas", and "Poland". Most of his 40 books are very large sagas. They are about the lives of many generations in a particular place. His non-fiction writings include the 1992 book "The World is My Home" and "Sports in America".
Michener wrote that he did not know who his parents were or exactly when and where he was born. He was raised by an adoptive mother, Mabel Michener, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. Some have argued that Mabel was his birth mother. He graduated from Swarthmore College, where he played basketball, in 1929. He later studied at the Colorado State Teachers College. He taught there for several years. He also taught at Harvard University.
His writing career began during World War II. He was assigned to the South Pacific Ocean as a naval historian. He used his time there as the basis for "Tales of the South Pacific", his first book. This book was the basis for the musical "South Pacific".
Michener met his wife Mari while in Japan. His novel "Sayonara" is autobiographical.
On January 10, 1977, he was given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Gerald R. Ford.
In his final years, he lived in Austin, Texas, where he died of kidney failure on October 16, 1997 at the age of 90.
1150s
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was fought between the British Empire and the United States from 1812 to 1815 on land in North America and at sea. The British forces were helped by Canadian militia (volunteers) and Native Americans because British soldiers were busy fighting Napoleon I in Europe.
In nearly every battle, the British defeated the attacking American forces. The war increased nationalism in both Canada and the United States.
One reason given by Americans for declaring war was that the British were bothering American ships. The British claimed to be looking for British sailors who had deserted. Many British sailors deserted from the
miserable conditions and the harsh discipline. Originally, many of the sailors had been pressed into service. It was the practice of the British to arrest any man they found on a street and to force him to serve on their ships. Many British sailors who escaped signed on as crew aboard American merchant ships. The British claim was somewhat true.
In 1807, an American ship was boarded and then fired on, which created outrage among the American public. The British were also seizing American sailors at sea and forcing them to serve in the navy.
The numbers of American seamen pressed into British service is not well known and may have been greatly exaggerated. The British were also sponsoring Native American territories in the Midwest to stop the United States from expanding westward. That made 10,000 Native Americans fight for the British.
Napoleon I started the French invasion of Russia in 1812, just as the war started in North America. The Americans thought that the British would be busy fighting the French during the Napoleonic Wars to do much in North America.
Fighting began when the United States started to attack the Canadian provinces in 1812. However, the British and the Canadians successfully defended their borders. In 1813, British and American ships fought in the Battle of Lake Erie. Americans under Oliver Hazard Perry won, which gave them control of Lake Erie. American forces raided and burned Toronto, which was then called York.
In 1814, Napoleon I abdicated the French throne. That freed up experienced British troops to be sent to North America. They burned the unfinished Washington, DC, and also attacked Baltimore. An American lawyer, Francis Scott Key, wrote a poem about the Battle of Baltimore. The poem was later used to give the words to a song that later became the US national anthem: "The Star Spangled Banner." The war ended in 1815. The British attacked New Orleans but were stopped by the Americans under General Andrew Jackson.
Unknown by both sides, a peace treaty had already been signed.
The two countries signed the Treaty of Ghent to end the war, on December 24, 1814 in Belgium. Fighting continued into January 1815 because the forces did not know about the treaty, but no great changes took place afterward. The British stopped impressing sailors because the Napoleonic Wars had been finished.
Most Americans heard of the victory in the Battle of New Orleans before they heard of the treaty. The Federalist Party, which had opposed the war, became disliked as pro-British and soon disappeared.
From the British perspective, the War of 1812 was a minor sideshow. The Americans called it their victorious "Second War for Independence". The British remembered it as the Americans trying to take advantage of their being involved in a war against the French Empire and paid no attention to American grievances.
In Canada, the War of 1812 was an unwanted war. It concerned the distant capitals of Washington, DC, and London, not them. In Lower Canada, now Quebec, it was considered an Anglo-Saxon war. In Quebec there was little love for the British, but the British had guaranteed their right to speak French. Since they did not know what would happen if the Americans took over, they chose the lesser evil and supported the British.
Upper Canada (later part of the Province of Ontario) had been settled by American Loyalists who fled after the Revolutionary War. They had little love of their former countrymen in the US but had become outnumbered by Americans who later came north to settle. When the Americans attempted to invade Canada, the Canadian militias were eager to defend their homeland.
In US history, the War of 1812 is the most obscure conflict. The average American remembers very little about the war. Some may remember The Star Spangled Banner, the Burning of Washington, or the Battle of New Orleans. Otherwise, it is a little-understood conflict. The issues are complex. Most scholars would agree it was fought over maritime issues. Since the British Navy was then the most powerful in the world, it was easier to attack the British on land by invading Canada. Former US President Thomas Jefferson predicted the "acquisition of Canada, will be a mere matter of marching."
British who knew about the little war felt that they had won, no matter what Americans thought. Canadians kept their independence from the US and so felt that they had won. The Americans felt they won although they lost in Canada since they lost none of their territory, repelled the invasion of Maryland, were free to fight the Indians without British interference, and were no longer impressed on the high seas. Of all three, the British are perhaps the happiest because they have completely forgotten about the war.
Chandigarh
Chandigarh, also called "The Beautiful City", is a city in India. It is a union territory, because it is the capital of two states: Punjab and Haryana. As a territory it does not belong to either state. Before 1 november,1966 it was capital of Punjab, but after formation of Haryana on 1 November, 1966 it become a union territory.There are many tourism places in Chandigarh like Rock garden, Rose garden and Sukhna lake.
Chandigarh came into existence in 1952 when its first stone was laid. It is one of the modern cities of India, designed by a French architect Le Carbusier. It was the dream city of India's first Prime Minister, Sh.Jawahar Lal Nehru.
It is well known for its mixed cultural background and its fast development in the field of Information Technology. It has outlets of many famous multinational companies established here and is emerging as a hub for business development. The territory covers an area of 44 mi² or 114 km², it is bigger than Montserrat but smaller than Jersey. It's also the proposed capital of Khalistan.
Convection is the movement of heat because of the movement of warm matter.
For example, atmospheric circulation moves warm air to cool places, causing wind. Wind, in turn, can enter and cool a room if the window is open. The movement of the clouds, the ocean currents and many types of heaters are examples of convection.
Convection can happen naturally ("natural convection") or because of a moving device ("forced convection").
The fan is a device that produces the movement of the air artificially. The air in this case is moving because of the rotation of the fan. This is an example of "forced convection".
Natural convection happens because a fluid is lighter if is hot and it is heavier if is cold, so if a fluid has a hot part and a cold part, the hot part will naturally move upward and the cold part naturally moves downward. For example, if the water in a pot is hotter near the bottom because of the fire, it moves from the bottom to the surface. At the same time the water near the surface is colder so it moves to the bottom.
Convection currents occur when there are significant differences in temperature between two parts of a fluid. When this happens, hot fluids rise and cold fluids sink. This causes movements or currents in the fluid. Atmospheric circulation, for example, is made by convection currents.
A chipmunk is a small squirrel-like rodent. It is in the Sciuridae family. About twenty-three species fall under this title, with one species in North America.
The name may have originally been spelled "chitmunk" (perhaps from a Native American word meaning "red squirrel"). However, the earliest form comes from the Oxford English Dictionary (in 1842) as "chipmonk". Other early forms include "chipmuck" and "chipminck".
Chipmunks are hoarders, meaning they store food for winter.
Chip 'n Dale, two Disney cartoon characters, are famous chipmunks in pop culture. Another such trio is Alvin, Simon and Theodore (created by Ross Bagdasarian).
Vicente Mondéjar Piccio
Major General Vicente Mondéjar Piccio (1 March 1927 – 28 April 2015) was a Filipino soldier. He was Chief of the Philippine Air Force during the last years of the dictatorship of Marcos, notably during the 1986 People Power Revolution.
Piccio
Donald Fauntleroy Duck is a cartoon character created by Walt Disney. He is a white duck with an yellowish-orange bill and legs. He usually wears a sailor cap, a blue sailor shirt and a black or red bow tie. He first appeared on-screen in "The Wise Little Hen" on 9 June 1934. Donald is Scrooge McDuck's nephew. His girlfriend is Daisy Duck. His nephews are Huey, Dewey and Louie. Donald appeared in animated shorts, comic books, and newspaper comic strips. Donald Duck appears frequently in "The Mickey Mouse Clubhouse".
Donald Duck is the third most popular cartoon character of all time, after Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny. Donald Duck has had a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame since 2004.
Esther is the name of a book in the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and the Old Testament, and also its title heroine. It is the basis for the Jewish celebration Purim.
Although it is never said who wrote the book of Esther, from inside evidence it is possible to make some guesses about the author and when it was written. The author was a Jew, because he emphasizes where the Jewish festival came from and from the Jewish nationalism inside the story. The author probably lived in a Persian city, because he knew Persian customs well, and does not say anything about the land of Judah or Jerusalem. The earliest date of the book would be a little while after the events were told, for instance, about 460 B.C. (before Ezra's return to Jerusalem). It is also thought that the festival of Purim had been celebrated some time before this book was written.
The author's main purpose was to write about how the yearly festival of Purim started and to make people remember the saving of the Jewish people during King Xerxes' reign. The book shows both the start of the festival and why it should continue to be celebrated.
In the book, the author repeatedly talks about the conflict between Israel and the Amalekites, a conflict that began during the exodus and continued through Israel's history. The author of Esther views them as the symbol of all the powers of the world against God's people. Now that Israel has been released from captivity, Haman's dangerous edict is the final try in the Old Testament time to get rid of them. When Haman is defeated, Israel enjoys a time of rest.
Feasting is another important theme in Esther, as seen in the picture on the left. Banquets are the setting for important parts of the story. There are ten banquets.
Repetition is one of the main stylistic features of the book of Esther. The three groups of banquets come in pairs; there are two lists of the king's servants; two reports that Esther hid her identity; two gatherings of women; two houses for the women; two fasts; two talks by Haman with his wife and friends; two sudden visits to the king by Esther; two coverings of Haman's face; two royal commands; two cool-downs of the king's anger; two days for the Jews to protect themselves and take vengeance; and two letters about how Purim started.
Another important feature of this book that has often been wondered about is that it never directly talks about God, worship, prayer, or sacrifice. This has made some people think the book is not as religious as other books. However, it is possible that the author purposefully did not say anything about God or anything religious to show more clearly that it is God who controls all the "unimportant" coincidences that are in the story and ends in saving the Jews.
The Book of Esther is about a Jewish girl adopted by her uncle, Mordecai, after her parents died.
The Persian King Xerxes kicked out his wife, Queen Vashti, after she refused his demand, and fell in love with Esther at a beauty contest. He took Esther as the new Persian queen, not knowing she was an Israelite.
Haman, Xerxes' prime minister, developed a grudge against Mordecai because he would not bow down to him, but only to the God of Israel. He despised Mordecai because he was a Jew, and tried to trick the king into making a law to kill all Jews. Haman was unaware that Queen Esther herself was a Jew.
Queen Esther discovered the plot by Haman and worked to stop it. She invited the king to dine with Haman present so she could tell him about the plot. But her courage failed her and she said nothing.
She again invited King Xerxes and Haman to dine and this time she told the king of Haman's plot. The king, furious, stormed out and Haman begged Esther for mercy. When the king returned, he mistakenly believed Haman had molested his queen, and had him hanged on the same gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai. In the end, thanks to Esther's courage and influence, the king changed the law and saved the Jewish people.
Clay is a fine-grained silicate mineral made when rocks break down. Wet clay is soft and can be shaped to make pottery, bricks and other things. When it is shaped and then fired in a kiln to make it hard, it becomes pottery.
Clay often contains some water because the water molecules stick to the tiny grains. There may also be some organic materials in the clay.
There are 35 recognized clay mineral species on Earth, they make muds stick together ('cohesive'), or able to flow ('plastic'). The thixotropy of clay sometimes causes landslides.
Quartz, feldspars, iron oxides, and carbonates can weather to sizes of a typical clay mineral. The formation of clay is well understood. It can come from soil, volcanic ash, and glaciation. Ancient mudrocks are another source, because they weather and disintegrate easily.
Clay is by far the smallest particles recognized in mudrocks. A clay particle is about 1/1000th the width of a sand grain. This means a clay particle will travel 1000 times further at constant water velocity, thus requiring quieter conditions for settlement. Where the grains are more than a few millimeters wide, the material is called silt, not clay.
Rifle
The rifle is a gun with a stock to brace against the shoulder and a barrel with twisting grooves. The grooves are called rifling and make bullets spin as they fly through the air. Rifles are made to shoot many different sizes of bullets using different amounts of gunpowder. Rifles are usually made to be able to hit targets at long ranges. Modern rifles are made for many different purposes. Some are made for hunting animals. Some are made for soldiers to use in war. Others are made for police to have in case they need them. Some rifles are made for target shooting.
Rifles can work in different ways. Some rifles have what is called a bolt action. A small handle is used to move a part of the rifle called a "bolt". By moving the bolt backward, then forward, allows the shooter put a bullet in the chamber ready for firing. It also ejects any spent shells still in the chamber from any previously fired rounds. The rifle in the picture above is a bolt action. Some rifles are semi-automatics, where a bullet is loaded (automatically) and fired each time the trigger is pulled. Some are fully automatic, which work like semi-automatics but allow the shooter to fire more than one bullet at a time by holding down the trigger. The automatic rifle stops firing when the trigger is released or it runs out of ammunition.
Deuterocanonical books
Deuterocanonical books means "second canon" in Greek. It usually means the parts of the Bible that are only used by some Christian churches (mostly Roman Catholic and Orthodox). The books were originally written in Greek language and they were written between 250 and 50 BC.
The books are not part of the Jewish Tanakh (also called the "Hebrew Bible") since their original language is Greek and not Hebrew. Some books considered deuterocanonical by Catholics are:
The "Book of Daniel" and the "Book of Esther" are longer in Catholic Bibles than in Protestant Bibles because they have more stories.