AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut as the youngest of fourteen children of the Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College, graduating in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as Captain in this unit on the northern frontier. At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine, then was appointed sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut, serving from about 1751 to 1771.
He participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776-78, and served again in Congress from 1778-1784.
He served again as an Indian Commissioner, and was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1786, assuming the Governorship on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796, and was reelected to the position, dying in office at the age of seventy-one in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.
The town of Wolcott, Connecticut was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr. His home in Litchfield was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.
His son, Oliver Wolcott, Jr., served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.
Thomas Paine (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British American colonies during the American Revolution. His main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet "Common Sense" (1776). It promoted the idea of colonial America's independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain. He also wrote "The American Crisis" (1776–1783), a pro-revolutionary pamphlet series.
Thomas Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. He wrote "The Age of Reason" while in prison there. This pamphlet was critical of organized religion. Paine along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison liked to apply reason to religion instead of revelation. This was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment movement that dated back to about the early 17th century. Paine died at the age of 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, on the morning of June 8, 1809.
Richard R. Schrock
Richard Royce Schrock (born on January 4, 1945) is an American Professor of Chemistry. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 2005 for his work on the metathesis reaction used in organic chemistry.
Professor Schrock was born in Berne, Indiana, and went to Mission Bay High School in San Diego, California. He was given a B.A. degree in 1967 from the University of California, Riverside and a Ph.D., in 1971, from Harvard University. At Harvard he was a student of J. A. Osborn. Between 1971 and 1972, he studied at the University of Cambridge with Lord Jack Lewis. In 1972, he began working for George Parshall in the Experimental Station of the E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company in Wilmington, Delaware. He joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1975 and became a professor in 1980.
Schrock now works as the Frederick G. Keyes Professor of Chemistry, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He has worked there since 1989. Schrock is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Sciences and was elected to the Board of Overseers of Harvard University in 2007.
He married Nancy Carlson in 1971 and has two children, Andrew and Eric. Nancy Schrock is the Thomas F. Peterson, Jr. Conservator of Special Collections for the MIT Libraries. The family live in Winchester, Massachusetts.
In 2005 Professor Schrock received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Robert H. Grubbs and Yves Chauvin, for his work on olefin metathesis, which is a method of organic synthesis. Schrock was the first scientist to make sense of 'black box' olefin metathesis. Olefin Metathesis is used when making petroleum and reduces the amount of dirty waste.
Professor Schrock's work is continuing with metathesis as well as projects such as dinitrogen fixation and single molecule catalysts which make ammonia from dinitrogen, similar to nitrogenase enzymes in biology.
Schrock carbenes are named after Schrock.
"All your base are belong to us" (often shortened to "All Your Base", "AYBABTU", or simply "AYB") is a broken English phrase that began an internet phenomenon in 2001 and 2002, with the use of a Flash animation. The phrase is taken from the first part of a European Sega Mega Drive version of the video game "Zero Wing", made in Japan by Toaplan. The words in the game were translated into English so quickly that they did not make very much sense. The words "All your base are belong to us" were at first popular on the Something Awful message forums.
The phrase and similar phrases from the game has been shown in articles, books, comics, clothing, movies, radio shows, songs, television shows, video games, webcomics, and websites.
A gall is a growth on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites.
Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.
What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites.
Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues. Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.
Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.
Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time.
The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics says that if a change to the temperature(T) from one object (for example 'A') changes the temperature of another object ('B'), and a change to the temperature of 'B' changes the temperature of 'C' (a third object), then a change to the temperature of 'A' will mean a change to the temperature of 'C'. Heat naturally flows from areas that are hot to areas that are cold.
More simply:
It is called the zeroth (0) law of thermodynamics because it was discovered after the others, but scholars thought it was more important so they wanted to give it a number before the other laws.
Peach (color)
Peach is a color that represents the color of the peach fruit.
Peach paint can be made by mixing orange paint and white paint.
The first written use of "peach" as a color name in English was in 1588.
The word "peach" comes from the Middle English "peche", from Middle French, in turn from Latin "persica", i.e., "the fruit from Persia". In actuality, the origin of the peach fruit was from China.
Third law of thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics says:
The definition is: at absolute zero , the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero.
Experimentally, it is not possible to obtain −273.15°C, as of now. It is found that most of the gases either liquify or solidify before reaching such a temperature, gaseous molecules no longer remaining. So far, scientists have been able to get close to, but not exactly, absolute zero. This may change in the future.
Dion Dublin
Dion Dublin is an English former footballer. He has played for England national team.
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Danny Murphy
Danny Murphy (born 18 March 1977) is an English footballer. He plays for Fulham.
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Stéphane Henchoz
Stéphane Henchoz (born 7 September 1974) is a former Swiss football player. He has played for Switzerland national team.
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Milan Baroš
Milan Baroš (born 28 October 1981) is a Czech football player. He plays for Galatasaray and Czech Republic national team.
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Gabriel Batistuta
Gabriel Batistuta (born 1 February 1969) is a former Argentine football player. He has played for Argentina national team.
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Bentley is a British car maker. It is based in Crewe, Cheshire.
Bentley is famous for their fast, luxury vehicles. In 1998, the German Volkswagen Group purchased Bentley for £430 million.
Chloe O'Brian
Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department
Allauch
Allauch is a commune of 19,400 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Alleins
Alleins is a commune of 2,368 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Aubagne
Aubagne is a commune of 42,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Aureille
Aureille is a commune of 1,463 people (2007). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Auriol, Bouches-du-Rhône
Auriol is a commune of 11,057 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Aurons
Aurons is a commune of 515 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Barben
La Barben is a commune of 649 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Barbentane
Barbentane is a commune of 3,660 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Ehrenbreitstein
Festung Ehrenbreitstein is a fortress. It was built on a mountain called Ehrenbreitstein on the right side of the Rhine opposite to the town of Koblenz in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.
It was built as part of the "Festung Koblenz" (Fortress Koblenz), by Prussia between 1817 and 1832 and guarded the middle Rhine region. This area had often been invaded by French. The fortress was never attacked.
Les Baux-de-Provence
Les Baux-de-Provence is a commune of 381 people (2006). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Beaurecueil
Beaurecueil is a commune of 568 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Belcodène
Belcodène is a commune of 1,731 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Berre-l'Étang
Berre-l'Étang is a commune of 14,300 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Bouc-Bel-Air
Bouc-Bel-Air is a commune of 13,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Jeep is a brand of American automobiles that is a division of FCA US LLC (formerly Chrysler Group, LLC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. The former Chrysler Corporation acquired the Jeep brand, along with the remaining assets of its owner American Motors, in 1987. Jeep's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles and off-road vehicles, but has also included pickup trucks in the past.
The original Jeep was the prototype Bantam BRC. Willys MB Jeeps went into production in 1941 specifically for the military. Arguably that makes them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs. The Jeep became the primary light 4-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Army and the Allies during World War II. It remained so in the postwar period. The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war. Doug Stewart notes:
The first civilian models were produced in 1945. It inspired a number of other light utility vehicles, such as the Land Rover. Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations. In 2007 Jeep began manufacturing crossover SUVs with its Compass and Patriot models. This led to the 2013 Jeep Cherokee midsize crossover.
La Bouilladisse
La Bouilladisse is a commune of 4,904 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Boulbon
Boulbon is a commune of 1,510 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cabannes
Cabannes is a commune of 4,119 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cabriès
Cabriès is a commune of 8,073 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cadolive
Cadolive is a commune of 2,087 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Carnoux-en-Provence
Carnoux-en-Provence is a commune of 7,042 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Carry-le-Rouet is a commune of 6,355 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cassis is a commune of 7,766 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Ceyreste
Ceyreste is a commune of 4,034 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Charleval, Bouches-du-Rhône
Charleval is a commune of 2,080 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Filipino language
Filipino is a form of the Tagalog language. It is the national language of the Philippines. About one third of the people in the Philippines speak Tagalog as a first language.
"Filipino" is used as the formal name of Tagalog. Sometimes it even means the same thing. It is usually called Tagalog in the Philippines and among Filipinos to show that it is different from other Philippine languages.
Châteauneuf-le-Rouge
Châteauneuf-le-Rouge is a commune of 2,070 people (as of 2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Châteauneuf-les-Martigues
Châteauneuf-les-Martigues is a commune of 11,900 people (). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Châteaurenard
Châteaurenard is a commune of 14,817 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Ciotat
La Ciotat is a commune of 32,126 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cornillon-Confoux
Cornillon-Confoux is a commune of 1,327 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Coudoux
Coudoux is a commune of 3,352 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Cuges-les-Pins
Cuges-les-Pins is a commune of 4,708 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Destrousse
La Destrousse is a commune of 2,736 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Éguilles
Éguilles is a commune of 7,544 people (2007). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Ensuès-la-Redonne
Ensuès-la-Redonne is a commune of 5,096 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Eygalières
Eygalières is a commune of 1,900 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Eyguières
Eyguières is a commune. It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 6,312 people lived there in 2007.
Eyragues
Eyragues is a commune of 4,179 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Fare-les-Oliviers
La Fare-les-Oliviers is a commune of 6,334 people (1999). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Fontvieille
Fos-sur-Mer
Fos-sur-Mer is a commune of 15,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Fuveau
Fuveau is a commune of 8,558 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Gardanne
Gardanne is a commune of 20,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Gémenos
Gémenos is a commune in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France. As of 1999, 5,481 people lived there.
Gignac-la-Nerthe
Gignac-la-Nerthe is a commune. It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 9,140 people lived there in 2004.
Grans
Grans is a commune of 4,078 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Graveson
Graveson is a commune of 3,836 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
The village is very attractive for holidaymakers, because it is located between Arles and Avignon. Neighbour villages are Châteaurenard, Maillane and Rognonas.
Graveson is birthplace of the painter Auguste Chabaud.
Gréasque
Gréasque is a commune of 3,705 people (2004). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Istres
Istres is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the south of France. About 45,000 people live there.
La fête des bergers (The shepherds' festival) is held at the end of November and beginning of December.
Jouques
Jouques is a commune of 3,321 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Lamanon
Lamanon is a commune of 1,713 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France. It's known because of the archaeological site of Grottes de Calès, a cave dwelling from prehistoric to medieval times.
Lambesc
Lambesc is a commune of 7,934 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Lançon-Provence
Lançon-Provence is a commune of 7,674 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Maillane
Maillane is a commune of 2,013 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mallemort
Mallemort is a commune of 5,501 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Marignane
Marignane is a commune of 33,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Mandaic: Mandaiuta, "Mandā'iyya") is a monotheistic religion. The religion has a strong dualistic world view. Its followers, the Mandaeans, think highly of Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist.
Originally, Mandaeism was practiced mainly in the countries around the lower Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway. Today, this area belongs to Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran. Because they were persecuted in that area, many Mandaeans have left that area and now live abroad. This is commonly called diaspora. Most left for Europe, Australia and North America.
There are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide, and until the 2003 Iraq war, almost all of them lived in Iraq. The 2003 Iraq War reduced the population of Iraqi Mandaeans to approximately 5,000 by 2007. Most Iraqi Mandaeans fled to Syria and Jordan under the threat of violence by Islamic extremists and the turmoil of the war.
The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private—what has been reported of them and their religion has come primarily from outsiders, particularly from the Orientalists J. Heinrich Petermann, Nicholas Siouffi, and Lady Ethel Drower.
Mandeism is the religion of the Mandaean people. It is based on a common history and heritage. There is no fixed set of religious creeds and doctrines. A basic guide to Mandaean theology does not exist. The corpus of Mandaean literature is quite large. It also covers topics such as eschatology, the knowledge of God, and the afterlife. It only does this in an unsystematic manner. Apart from the priests, very few people know it.
According to E.S. Drower, the Mandaean Gnosis is characterized by nine features, which also appear in various forms in other gnostic sects:
Mandaeans believe in marriage and procreation, and in the importance of leading an ethical and moral lifestyle in this world. They put a high priority on family life. Consequently, Mandaeans do not practice celibacy or asceticism. Mandaeans will, however, abstain from strong drink and red meat. They look forward to a future liberated from the influence of the Torah, which they consider to be evil in origin. While they agree with other gnostic sects that the world is a prison governed by the planetary archons, they do not view it as a cruel and inhospitable one.
The Mandaeans have many religious texts. The most important of them is the "Genzā Rabbā" or Ginza. The Ginza is a collection of history, theology, and prayers. The "Genzā Rabbā" is divided into two halves — the "Genzā Smālā" or "Left Ginza" and the "Genzā Yeminā" or "Right Ginza".
Before the printing press was invented, people copied texts by hand. The people doing this were called scribes. Each person's handwriting is special in certain ways. This was the same with scribes. A scribe might join two letters in a certain way, or he might do the dots on those letters that have them in a special way. Jorunn J. Buckley looked at these special marks the copyists left in the Left Ginza. That way he was able to show that the copying of that text goes back to the to the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. These special marks show that the Mandaeans existed during the late Arsacid period at the very latest. A legend called "Harrān Gāwetā" also strengthens this. According to this legend, the Mandaeans left Palestine after the destruction of Jerusalem in the 1st century AD and settled inside the Arsacid empire. Although the Ginza continued to evolve under the rule of the Sassanians and the Islamic empires, few textual traditions can lay claim to such extensive continuity.
Other important books include the "Qolastā", the "Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans," which was translated by E.S. Drower. One of the most important works of Mandaean scripture is the "Draša d-Iahia" "the Book of John the Baptist". This book is accessible to both laymen and initiates. There are also many other religious texts such as ritual commentaries, which are generally only consulted by the members of the priesthood.
The language in which the Mandaean religious literature was originally written is known as Mandaic, and is a member of the Aramaic family of dialects. It is written in a cursive variant of the Parthian chancellory script. The majority of Mandaean lay people do not speak this language. Some members of the Mandaean community in Iran ( about 300-500 out of a total of ca. 5000 Iranian Mandaeans) continue to speak Neo-Mandaic, a modern version of this language.
Mandaeans have several prophets. Iahia or Iuhana "John the Baptist" has a special status, higher than his role in Christianity and Islam. Mandaeans do not consider John to be the founder of their religion. They only worship him as one of their greatest teachers. They trace their beliefs back to Adam.
Mandaeans maintain that Jesus was a "mšiha kdaba" "false messiah" who changed the teachings given to him by John. The Mandaic word "k(a)daba", however, comes from two roots: the first root, meaning "to lie," is the one traditionally given to Jesus; the second, meaning "to write," might provide a second meaning, that of "book". Some Mandaeans, who are motivated perhaps by an ecumenical spirit, maintain that Jesus was not a "lying Messiah" but a "book Messiah". The "book" in question presumably being the Christian Gospels. This seems to be a folk etymology without support in the Mandaean texts.
Likewise, the Mandaeans believe that Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad were false prophets, but recognize other prophetic figures from the monotheistic traditions, such as Adam, his sons Hibil (Abel) and Šitil (Seth), and his grandson Anuš (Enosh), as well as Nuh (Noah), his son Sam (Shem) and his son Ram (Aram). The latter three they consider to be their direct ancestors.
There is a strict division between Mandaean laity and the priests. According to E.S. Drower ("The Secret Adam", p. ix):
There are three grades of priesthood in Mandaeism: the "tarmidia" "disciples" (Neo-Mandaic "tarmidānā"), the "ganzibria" "treasurers" (from Old Persian "ganza-bara" "id.", Neo-Mandaic ') and the "rišamma" "leader of the people." This last office, the highest level of the Mandaean priesthood, has lain vacant for many years. At the moment, the highest office currently occupied is that of the ', a title which appears first in a religious context in the Aramaic ritual texts from Persepolis (ca. 3rd c. BCE) and which may be related to the "kamnaskires" (Elamite <qa-ap-nu-iš-ki-ra> "kapnuskir" "treasurer"), title of the rulers of Elymais (modern Khuzestan) during the Hellenistic age. Traditionally, any ' who baptizes seven or more ' may qualify for the office of "rišamma", though the Mandaean community has yet to rally as a whole behind any single candidate.
The contemporary priesthood can trace its immediate origins to the first half of the 19 century. In 1831, an outbreak of cholera devastated the region and eliminated most if not all of the Mandaean religious authorities. Two of the surviving acolytes ("šgandia"), Yahia Bihram and Ram Zihrun, reestablished the priesthood on the basis of their own training and the texts that were available to them.
According to the "Fihrist" of ibn al-Nadim, Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, was brought up within the Elkasaites ("Elcesaites" or "Elchasaite") sect. The Elkasaites were a Christian baptismal sect which may have been related to the Mandaeans. The members of this sect wore white and performed baptisms like the Mandaeans. They lived in east Judea and northern Mesopotamia. According to the "Harran Gawaitā" legend, the Mandaeans migrated to southern Mesopotamia from there. Mani later left the Elkasaites to start his own religion. Mandaean scholar Säve-Söderberg showed that Mani's "Psalms of Thomas" were closely related to Mandaean texts. This would imply that Mani had access to Mandaean religious literature.
Other groups which have been identified with the Mandaeans include the "Nasoraeans", described by Epiphanius, and the Dositheans, mentioned by Theodore Bar Kōnī in his "Scholion". Ibn al-Nadim also mentions a group called the "Mughtasila", "the self-ablutionists," who may be identified with one or the other of these groups. The members of this sect, like the Mandaeans, wore white and performed baptisms.
It is difficult to say if groups such as the Elkasaites, the Mughtasila, the Nasoraeans, and the Dositheans are related to the Mandaeans or to one another.
The names say that there are a number of different groups. Much of the teaching of these groups is secret. This makes it difficult to see the nature of these groups or the relationships between them.
Under Saddam Hussein, the Mandeans were recognised as a religious minority. Many of them are craftspeople, like smiths or traders of gold and silver. These people belonged to the middle classes. Since the change of government in Iraq, islamic extremists have harassed them. There are also reports of attacks on women who refuse to veil themselves. Most Iraqi Mandaeans have fled as a result, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.
In Iran, Mandeans do not have a problem with violence, but they are prohibited from fully participating in civil life because of "Gozinesh" Law. This law and other "gozinesh" provisions require a "religious screening" for people who want to access employment, education, and a range of other areas. A very important part of this screening procedure is devotion to the tenets of Islam. These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans.
There were over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s. In 2007, only about 5,000 to 7,000 remain there; over 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan. This is a result of the Iraq War. There are small Mandaean populations in Australia (c. 3,500 as of 2006), Canada, the USA (c. 1,500), the UK (c. 1,000) and Sweden (c. 5,000).
The current status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call for their government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, the New York Times ran an op-ed in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community:
Substitution box
In cryptography, a S-Box ("Substitution-box") is a basic component of symmetric-key algorithms. In block ciphers, the S-Boxes are used to make the relation between the key and the ciphertext (coded text) difficult to understand–Shannon's property of confusion. The S-Boxes are carefully chosen to resist cryptanalysis (decoding).
In general, an S-Box takes some number of input bits, "m", and transforms them into some number of output bits, "n": an "m"×"n" S-Box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2 words of "n" bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key; e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms. Bruce Schneier describes IDEA's modular multiplication step as a key-dependent S-Box.
One good example is this 6×4-bit S-Box from DES (S):
Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits, and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".
The 8 S-Boxes of DES were the subject of intensive studies for many years cause of a concern that a method of bypassing the DES cipher to obtaining access to the plaintext–a "vulnerability" ("susceptibility") known only to its designers–might have been "planted" (inserted) in the cipher. In 1994, the S-Box design criteria were finally published by its designers after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned the design to increase resistance against differential cryptanalysis attacks. Other research had already indicated that even a very small modification to one of the 8 S-Box used by the DES could weaken it very much.
The design of good S-Boxes was the subject of a great amount of research; now much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when the DES S-Boxes were released.
Martigues
Martigues is a commune of 46,200 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles
Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles is a commune of 373 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Maussane-les-Alpilles
Maussane-les-Alpilles is a commune of 2,155 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Meyrargues
Meyrargues is a commune in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 3,400 people lived there in 2006.
Meyreuil
Meyreuil is a commune of 4,450 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mimet
Mimet is a commune of 4,400 people (2004). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Miramas
Miramas is a commune of 23,800 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mollégès
Mollégès is a commune of 2,171 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Mouriès
Mouriès is a commune of 3,085 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Noves
Noves is a commune of 4,845 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Orgon
Orgon is a commune of 2,913 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Paradou
Paradou is a commune of 1,162 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Pélissanne
Pélissanne is a commune of 9,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Les Pennes-Mirabeau
Les Pennes-Mirabeau is a commune of 19,043 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Penne-sur-Huveaune
La Penne-sur-Huveaune is a commune of 6,150 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Peynier
Peynier is a commune of 2,900 people (2005). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Peypin
Peypin is a commune of 5,097 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Peyrolles-en-Provence
Peyrolles-en-Provence is a commune of 4,286 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Plan-de-Cuques
Plan-de-Cuques is a commune of 10,503 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Plan-d'Orgon
Plan-d'Orgon is a commune of 2,738 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Confusion and diffusion
In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher.
Confusion and diffusion were identified by Claude Elwood Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" published in 1949. In Shannon's original definitions:
Diffusion is associated with the dependency of the output bits on the input bits. In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change each output bit with a probability of one half (this is termed the Strict Avalanche Criterion).
Substitution (a rule for replacing plaintext symbols by another) has been identified as a mechanism for primarily confusion (see S-box); on the other hand transposition using P-box (rearranging or swapping the order of symbols) is a technique for diffusion, although other mechanisms are also used in modern practice, such as linear transformations (e.g. in AES). Product ciphers use alternating substitution and transposition phases (rounds) to achieve both confusion and diffusion respectively.
Port-de-Bouc
Port-de-Bouc is a commune of 17,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône
Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône is a commune of 8,524 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Puyloubier
Puyloubier is a commune of 1,671 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade
Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade is a commune. It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 5,112 people lived there in (2006).
Rognac
Rognac is a commune of 11,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Rognes, Bouches-du-Rhône
Rognes is a commune of 4,194 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Rognonas
Rognonas is a commune of 3,623 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
La Roque-d'Anthéron
La Roque-d'Anthéron is a commune of 4,722 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is a paper published by Claude Shannon discussing cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory. It is one of the "foundational treatments" ("primitives") of modern cryptography. It is also a proof that all theoretically "unbreakable" ("un-crack-able") ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad encryption algorithm.
Shannon published an earlier version of this research in the classified report A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, Memorandum MM 45-110-02, Sept. 1, 1945, Bell Laboratories.
In 1948, Shannon published his great paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which is considered one of the founding works of the field of information theory.
Come as You Are
"Come as You Are" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the second single from their second album, "Nevermind", the first was the enormously popular "Smells Like Teen Spirit". It is one of the band's most famous songs. "Rolling Stone" magazine named it as the 445th on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
There was a music video for the song. It has a lot of random scenes, such as Kurt Cobain sitting on a chandelier hanging from a ceiling, a handgun floating in a swimming pool, and a baby swimming in that pool (a reference to the cover art of "Nevermind".)
After the single was released, the English post-punk band Killing Joke became angry at Nirvana for supposedly ripping off their song "Eighties".
Nirvana thought that "Smells Like Teen Spirit", the previous single from "Nevermind", would not be very popular, and that "Come as You Are" would be a big hit. However, "Smells Like Teen Spirit" became the band's most famous song and one of the most famous songs ever, even though Come as You Are was also popular.
On November 18, 1993, Nirvana played "Come as You Are" on their show on MTV Unplugged. The show contained mostly their unpopular songs and covers of other artists' songs; "Come as You Are" was the only hit they played.
In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) is a block cipher designed by Xuejia Lai and James Massey of ETH Zurich in 1991. It was meant to be a replacement for the Data Encryption Standard. IDEA very like an earlier cipher called Proposed Encryption Standard (PES), but with some improvements. Because of this, IDEA was first called IPES (Improved PES).
The cipher is patented in a number of countries but can be used by anyone for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a trademark. The patents will expire in 2010–2011. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by a company called MediaCrypt.
IDEA was used in Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) v2.0 after the cipher used in v1.0, BassOmatic, was found to be breakable. IDEA can be used with the OpenPGP standard.
IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks, using a 128-bit key. It contains a series of eight identical transformations ("rounds") and one output transformation (the "half-round"). It does this for a total of 8.5 rounds. The processes for encryption and decryption are similar.
IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups — modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise eXclusive OR (XOR) — which are chosen to be "algebraically incompatible".
Each of the eight round uses six sub-keys, while the half-round uses four; for a total of 52 sub-keys. Each sub-key is a 16-bit in length. The first eight sub-keys are extracted directly from the 128-bit key, with K1 being the lowest sixteen bits and K8 is the highest sixteen bits; further groups of eight keys are created by rotating the main key left 25 bits after the creation of the previous group; six rotations generate all sub-keys.
The designers analyzed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is unsusceptible only under certain assumptions. No successful linear or differential attacks have been reported. Some classes of weak keys have been found — E.g. (Daemen "et al.", 1994) — but these are of little importance, being so rare to be explicitly avoided. As of 2007, the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA if reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds).
In 1996, Bruce Schneier wrote about IDEA, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." ("Applied Cryptography", 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster cryptographic algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents.
Luduş
Luduş (German: "Ludasch", Hungarian: "Marosludas") is a town in Mureş County, Romania. It is the fourth biggest city in the county by population. The name of the town in Hungarian means "gooses at Maros"
2008 Yemen floods
The 2008 Yemen floods took place on October 23, leaving 65 dead and 20,000 without shelter. The Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Lahij, Al Mahrah and Ta'izz were affected the worst by the floods, and most of the deaths were in Hadhramaut.
Before the flooding was several days of rain starting on October 23, as the remains of a tropical cyclone moved over the area. Rain continued, with weather systems coming in from neighbouring Saudi Arabia and northern Somalia, causing severe flooding in some areas of Yemen. Better conditions are expected by Sunday.
Thousands of families fled Hadhramaut alone; many schools were used as evacuee shelters, but these could only hold 10% of the affected. Search and rescue teams said that the number of deaths may increase due to the likelihood of people trapped in flooded houses. Electricity and telephone lines were cut off, and many homes were damaged.
The Yemeni government promised to supply tents as a means of emergency shelter, along with other emergency supplies, with six transport aircraft loaded with supplies taking off from Sanaa on Saturday and more scheduled for later. President Ali Abdullah Saleh ordered the creation of a committee to provide aid to affected civilians. Also, the United Arab Emirates declared their intent to provide relief. However, several residents in the city of Shibam say that government assistance and support, if any, is low.
The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a "national catastrophe" and started a drive on Saturday to collect funds for the relief of flood victims.
Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh said, "The damages... are great and the catastrophe is also great."
Along with deaths, about 730 homes were destroyed, along with businesses and other building projects. The severe thunder of the thunderstorms resulted in at least nine deaths from lightning in the Al Mahrah, Ta'izz and Lahij governorates. The rain also destroyed large amounts of farmland and killed large numbers of livestock.
Alexander Ramsey (September 8, 1815– April 22, 1903) was an American politician. He was born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.
In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War (he happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out). He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.
Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota. Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, and Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota are also named for him.
Lounge Act
"Lounge Act" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the ninth song on their second studio album, "Nevermind", which is credited with bring grunge music to the mainstream. The song is much like the post-grunge songs that were very popular starting in the mid-1990s, after Nirvana broke up.
The title "Lounge Act" came from when the band thought it sounded like a song they would play in a lounge.
It is one of the songs in the soundtrack of the video game "Skate.", a skateboarding video game from 2007 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.
Hurricane Dean