AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
When the horse could answer the question, it started to tap more slowly when it got near to the right answer. Then it stopped when it got to the right answer. This showed that the horse was watching the person asking the question, and could sense when the person was expecting him to stop. Von Osten probably did not realize that he was giving the horse signals just by looking at him. The horse was, indeed, clever to guess what was wanted of him, but of course it did not understand the mathematics. The final proof was that Pfungst discovered how to signal to the horse, by slightly raising his eyebrows. Then he could get the horse to give any response he wanted.
This effect is often called the "Clever Hans effect". It is used in psychology to describe when an animal or a person senses what someone wants them to do, even though they are not deliberately being given signals. It is important to take this effect into account when testing animals' intelligence or human intelligence. An animal may need to be separated from its trainer if their true intelligence is to be observed. On the other hand, an animal may be upset when it cannot see its trainer, so it might not give the right answer. This problem can often be solved by creating a situation in which the trainer does not know the right answer.
The Clever Hans effect is famous, and has been used in popular culture. For example, there is an episode of "The Simpsons" ("Smart and Smarter"), in which Lisa Simpson becomes jealous of her baby sister Maggie because Maggie seems to be even more intelligent than Lisa. Then it is discovered that Maggie has been watching Lisa so carefully that she could sense what the answers were. Lisa is relieved to discover this.
Rick Mercer
Richard Vincent "Rick" Mercer (born October 17, 1969) is a Canadian comedian who has been on shows like "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" and his own show "The Rick Mercer Report".
Mercer is openly gay.
London Passenger Transport Board
The London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) was the organisation responsible for public transport in London, England, United Kingdom, and its environs from 1933 to 1948. In common with all London transport authorities from 1933 to 2000, the public name and operational brand of the organisation was London Transport.
Historically, bus routes run by London Transport were grouped by the type of service that they provided.
The 1924 London Traffic Act imposed a numbering scheme known as the Bassom Scheme, named after Chief Constable A.E. Bassom of the Metropolitan Police who made it. Changing and short lines used letter suffixes. The numbers were grouped also by the company that operated the route.
The numbering was revised in 1934 after London Passenger Transport Board was formed:
County of London
Brockley
Downham
Archway, London
Archway is an area of north London in the London Borough of Islington.
Howie Morenz
Howard William Morenz (June 21, 1902 – March 8, 1937) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player. He played centre for three National Hockey League (NHL) teams: the Montreal Canadiens (in two stints), the Chicago Black Hawks, and the New York Rangers. Before joining the NHL, Morenz was a very good player in the junior Ontario Hockey Association, where his team played for the Memorial Cup, the championship for junior ice hockey in Canada. In the NHL, he was one of the best players in the league and set several league scoring records. A strong skater, Morenz was called the "Stratford Streak" and "Mitchell Meteor" because he was very fast.
Considered one of the first stars of the NHL, Morenz played 14 seasons in the league. He was a member of a team that won the Stanley Cup three times, all of them being the Canadiens. During his NHL career he was in the top 10 leading scorers ten times. For seven seasons in a row Morenz led the Canadiens in both goals scored and points. Three times in he was named the most valuable player of the league, and he led the league once in goals scored and twice in points scored. He was named to the NHL All-Star Team three times.
Morenz died from problems with a broken leg, an injury he suffered in a game. After his death, the Canadiens stopped using his jersey number, the first time the team had done so for any player. When the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in 1945, Morenz was one of the first 12 people to be added. In 1950, the Canadian Press named him the best ice hockey player of the first half of the 20th century.
Waterloo station
Highbury
Highbury is an area in the London Borough of Islington.
Leyton
Leyton is an area of East London and part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest, northeast of Charing Cross. It borders Walthamstow and Leytonstone; Stratford in Newham; and Homerton and Lower Clapton in the London Borough of Hackney.
There is a professional football team based in Leyton called Leyton Orient F.C.
Tooting
Atomic radius
The atomic radius of an element is the distance between the nucleus and the edge of the electron cloud.
The atomic radius is rather hard to define, because it is impossible to know where all of the electrons are at a given time.
In the periodic table of the elements, the atomic radius tends to increase as you move down a group because the number of electrons is greater, and so the radius of the circle of electrons in the element is bigger. As you move to the right across a period, the atomic radius tends to decrease due to the shielding effect.
Underpinning
Epistasis
Epistasis is the interaction between genes at different loci. It was a term invented by William Bateson in 1909.
When Gregor Mendel did his experiments on the sweet pea, he chose seven traits, such as round vs wrinkled peas, and tall vs short plants. He found the plants had pairs of 'factors' (genes) which controlled their appearance (phenotype). However, one pair of factors "never affected the other pairs". But with epistasis, the action of one gene does affect another gene, even one on a different chromosome.
Use of the term has varied somewhat. Its original meaning was quite narrow: for instance, a gene for "no wings" in "Drosophila" will obviously mask genes for any other aspect of the wings. In general, however, epistasis denotes any departure from independence of the effects of different genetic loci.
Holborn tramway station
Holborn tramway station (not to be confused with Holborn tube station) was a tram stop underneath Kingsway in central London. It was part of the Kingsway tramway subway route. When the station opened opened it was named "Great Queen Street".
Services from Angel Islington to Aldwych started on 24 February 1906. Services rom Highbury station to Tower Bridge and from Highbury station to Kennington Gate started on 10 April 1908.
The station closed just after 12.30am on 6 April 1952. Much of the station remains in the disused tunnel but there is no public access.
These changes in gene activity may stay for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism. Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently. Epigenetics works by specific mechanisms, such as DNA methylation.
Epigenetic factors may last into adulthood.
A general definition is "the study of... gene activity during the development of complex organisms". Thus "epigenetic" can be used to describe anything other than DNA sequence that influences the development of an organism.
A stricter or narrower definition is "the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in DNA sequence".
The term "epigenetics" has been used to describe processes which are not heritable. An example is histone modification. So some definitions do not require heritability. Adrian Bird defined epigenetics as "the structural adaptation of chromosomal regions so as to register, signal or perpetuate altered activity states". This definition includes DNA repair or cell division phases, and stable changes across cell generations. It excludes others such as prions unless they affect chromosome function.
The NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project uses the definition: "...For purposes of this program, epigenetics refers to both heritable changes in gene activity and expression (in the progeny of cells or individuals) and also stable, long-term alterations in the transcriptional potential of a cell".
In 2008, a consensus definition of the epigenetic trait, "stably heritable phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence", was made at a Cold Spring Harbor meeting.
A reliable and readable account is from "The Guardian" newspaper.
Imprinting in this context means taggimg a gene for the lifetime of the individual. Tagging is the basic operation where cytosine amino acids have a methyl group added by the enzyme DNA methyltransferase. This changes the operation of the gene concerned to be (usually) more favourable to the individual. In general, the advantage of this is to keep the gene output in the most favourable condition for the lifetime of the particular individual.
Imprinting is giving rise to much medical research at present.
Imprinting evolved only about 150 million years ago, and is largely confined to mammals.
The best example of epigenetic changes in eukaryotes is the process of cell differentiation. During morphogenesis, generalised stem cells become the cell lines of the embryo which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, a single fertilized egg cell – the zygote – divides and changes into all the many cell types: neurons, muscle cells, epithelium, blood vessels etc.
As the embryo develops, some genes get switched on, while others are switched off or moderated. This process is called gene regulation. There are many molecules inside the cell nucleus which do the job of adjusting the genes' output.
DNA and histones make up what is called chromatin. Epigenetic modifications to the chromatin are copied during cell division. This produces a line of cells, all of which are alike. This is called a tissue.
Meiosis cancels epigenetic changes, and resets the genome to its baseline state, so the process unfolds in each new generation. There are some exceptions to this rule, but none of these exceptions involve changes to DNA base pair sequences.
This process is different from mutations of the DNA. Genetic mutations change the primary DNA sequence, and mutations can happen in any cell. However, only mutations in cells involved in reproduction can affect the offspring.
Cell differentiation
Cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. It is part of developmental biology. Different tissues have different kinds of organelles inside the cells.
Differentiation occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism. The organism changes from a single zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is also a common process in adults: adult stem cells divide to make fully-differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover.
Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to changes in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. It does involve switching off many genes not needed in a particular tissue. Thus, cells in different tissues may have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.
"Cell potency" is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in higher plants. A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types is known as "totipotent". In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent, while in plants many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques.
Morphogenesis (meaning the "beginning of shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape.
It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation.
The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is a phase early in the development of most animal embryos. In it the embryo is dramatically restructured by cell migration.
Gastrulation varies in different phyla. It is followed by "organogenesis", when individual organs develop within the newly formed "germ layers".
The gastrula is the double-walled stage of the embryo. During gastrulation, some of the cells of the blastula migrate inwards to make an inner layer, the "endoderm". In some animals another cell layer forms, the "mesoderm", between the endoderm and the "ectoderm".
Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Cnidaria and ctenophores show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the "endoderm" and "ectoderm". All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) possess a "mesoderm" as well as ectoderm and endoderm.
The purpose of gastrulation is to position the 3 embryonic germ layers, the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. These layers later develop into certain bodily systems.
Wat Phra-sri Rattana Mahathat
Jikji is the oldest extant movable metal type book in the world.
"Jikji" is the short title of a Korean book whose full title can be translated as "Anthology of the Great Priests' Zen Teachings". It is a Buddhist document, and was printed during Korea's Goryeo era in 1377.
"Jikji" is a book about Zen Buddhism published in Heungdeok temple. It was written by the Buddhist monk Baegun who died three years before this edition was printed. Baegun was the chief priest of the Anguk and Shingwang temples in Haeju.
"Jikji" was published 78 years before Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible". "Jikji" consists of two volumes. Only the second volume is extant. This volume is held in the National Library of France. UNESCO confirmed "Jikji" as the world's oldest metalloid type book in September 2001, and includes it in the "Memory of the World" program.
Bibliothèque nationale de France
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France in Paris.
The National Library of France was founded at the Louvre by Charles V in 1368. It grew under Louis XIV and opened to the public in 1692.
Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 it moved to new buildings on the Rue de Richelieu. In 1896, the library was the largest collection of books in the world.
In 1988, President François Mitterrand agreed to build a new modern library. It now contains more than twenty million volumes.
The library has 5,000 Greek manuscripts and the Jikji (the oldest printed document with movable type).
Fitness in biology is the relative ability of an organism to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation. It is a central idea in evolutionary theory. Fitness is usually equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation.
Like all terms in evolutionary biology, fitness is defined in terms of an interbreeding population, which might or might not be a whole species. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over generations; the genotypes with higher fitness become more common. This is the process called natural selection.
An individual's fitness is caused by its phenotype, and passed on by its genotype. The fitnesses of different individuals with the same genotype are not necessarily equal. It depends on the environment in which the individuals live, and on accidental events. However, since the fitness of the genotype is an averaged quantity, it reflects the reproductive outcomes of "all" individuals with that genotype.
Fitness measures the number of the "copies" of the genes of an individual in the next generation. It doesn't really matter how the genes arrive in the next generation. For an individual, it is equally "beneficial" to reproduce itself, or to help relatives with similar genes to reproduce, "as long as similar number of copies of individual's genes get passed on to the next generation". Selection which promotes this kind of helper behaviour is called kin selection.
Our closest relatives (parents, siblings, and our own children) share on average 50% (half) of our genes. One step further removed are grandparents. With each of them we share on average 25% (a quarter) of our genes. That is a measure of our relatedness to them. Next come first cousins (children of our parents' siblings). We share 12.5% (1/8) of their genes.
William Hamilton added various ideas to the notion of fitness. His rule suggests that a costly action should be performed if:
Fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity.
Inclusive fitness is a term which is essentially the same as fitness, but emphasises the group of genes rather than individuals.
Biological fitness says how well an organism can reproduce, and spread its genes to its offspring. The theory of inclusive fitness says that the fitness of an organism is also increased to the extent that its close relatives also reproduce. This is because relatives share genes in proportion to their relationship.
Another way of saying it: "the inclusive fitness of an organism is not a property of itself, but a property of its set of genes". It is calculated from the reproductive success of the individual, plus the reproductive success of its relatives, each one weighed by an appropriate coefficient of relatedness.
The British social philosopher Herbert Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" in his 1864 work "Principles of biology" to mean what Charles Darwin called natural selection. The original phrase was "survival of the best fitted".
Cilla Black
Cilla Black (27 May 1943 – 1 August 2015) was a English television personality, singer and actress. Her birth name was Priscilla Maria Veronica White and she was born in Liverpool. She became known for her songs "Anyone Who Had A Heart" and "You're My World" as well as her long-running TV shows "Blind Date" (1985-2003) and "Surprise Surprise" (1984-2001).
In the early 1960s, young Cilla worked at the Cavern Club in Liverpool, where the Beatles often performed, as a hat check girl. She also sang onstage at the Cavern sometimes, backed by the band that was playing at the time. "Swinging Cilla" was well-liked by the Cavern's members and guests.
One day Brian Epstein visited the Cavern to meet the Beatles, and ask about a record they made, so he could sell copies at his family's music store. Stories rose later that Cilla was working, and she first met Epstein when he gave her his hat and coat. Neither one remembered this later, though, and each believed the story was not true.
Epstein's getting to know the Beatles led to his becoming their manager, and with his help, they won a recording contract. The Beatles' talent and work with music producer George Martin led to hit records. Epstein decided to manage other Liverpool musicians. Along with the bands and male singers he signed up, Epstein chose Cilla as his only female performer. He suggested her stage name (changing White to Black), so she and her family could keep their privacy. Martin also agreed to record her, helping choose songs that would showcase her voice.
Cilla became popular first in England and Europe, then in America as the Beatles' music started the "British Invasion" there in 1964. One of her first hits, "Anyone Who Had A Heart", was recorded earlier by American singer Dionne Warwick. The two records sounded similar, even though Cilla had not heard Warwick's version, and a few people believed she had copied it. Both women later also recorded the theme song for the movie "Alfie", but they sounded different.
Cilla had other hit records, including "You're My World" and a television theme song, "Step Inside, Love". Epstein enjoyed working with her, even helping her choose wardrobe for performances and looking after her backstage, but personal problems later took away his attention. He died in 1967, after a drug overdose.
In time, Cilla Black stopped having hits. She remained popular in England, though, and was a welcome hostess and guest on television. She also made appearances from time to time, to sing the songs from the time she was most popular.
In later years, her health became poor. Arthritis made walking painful, and she was nearly deaf. She admitted that she did not want to live past 75 years old, because she enjoyed her life less and less as she aged.
Cilla Black died of a stroke after a fall at her holiday home near Marbella, Spain, on 1 August 2015, aged 72. Her funeral took place in Liverpool on 20 August 2015.
Paulista Avenue
Paulista Avenue (in Portuguese: "Avenida Paulista") is the most important avenue and one of the main financial centers of the city of São Paulo, Brazil.
Didcot
Didcot is a town in Oxfordshire about south of Oxford. Until 1974 it was part of Berkshire.
During the Roman Empire the Romans dug a ditch that runs north through what is now known as the Ladygrove area north of the town near Long Wittenham.
Didcot first appears in historical records in the 13th century as Dudcotte, Berkshire. Parts of the original village still exist in the Lydalls Road area and part of All Saints' Church dates back to the 11th century.
The Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, reached Didcot in 1839. In 1844 the Didcot railway station was opened. The original station burnt down in the later part of 19th century.
Didcot is junction of the routes to London, Bristol and Oxford. It was formerly a junction for Southampton via the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway but that closed in the 1960s.
The traffic to Southampton meant that the town had strategic importance to military logistics, in particular during the First World War campaign on the Western Front and the Second World War preparations for D-Day.
The Didcot Power Stations (which are next to each other, and actually in "Sutton Courtenay") supply electricity to the National Grid. The power station has also proved a popular man-made object for local photographers. One power station was closed in 2013 and has been demolished. The other is still operating in 2018.
Mason Raymond
Mason Evan Raymond (born September 17, 1985) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He currently plays for the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks and Toronto Maple Leafs. He was drafted 51st overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft.
On June 28, 2014, Raymond was signed as a free agent by the Calgary Flames to a three-year, $9.5 million contract.
Pavol Demitra
Pavol Demitra (November 29, 1974 – September 7, 2011) was a Slovak professional ice hockey centre who last played for the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). He first played in the NHL in 1993, having previously played with the Ottawa Senators, who selected him in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft, St. Louis Blues, Los Angeles Kings and Minnesota Wild. Before he joined the NHL, Demitra played in Slovakia, as well as the American Hockey League (AHL) and International Hockey League (IHL), minor professional leagues in North America. In Demitra's NHL career spanning 16 years, he has achieved the 300-goal mark and won the Lady Byng Trophy for sportsmanship in 2000. On September 7, 2011, at 4:02 PM local time, Demitra died when a Yakovlev Yak-42 passenger aircraft, that was carrying the entire hockey team of Lokomotiv Yaroslavl crashed near Yaroslavl, Russia. The plane was on its way to Minsk, Belarus, to start the 2011-12 KHL season.
Kevin Bieksa
Kevin Francesco Bieksa (born on June 16, 1981 in Grimsby, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently plays for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL). After playing junior hockey in Ontario, Bieksa was awarded a scholarship to Bowling Green University, where he spent four years. While at university, Bieksa was selected by the Canucks in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft, and joined their minor league partner, the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League (AHL), after graduating. After spending time with the Moose, he joined the Canucks. A physical defenceman, Bieksa has increased his scoring totals in each of the full seasons he has played in the NHL.
1992 United States presidential election
The 1992 United States presidential election happened on November 3, 1992. Bill Clinton, the Democratic candidate and Governor of Arkansas, won the election. He defeated the incumbent president, George H. W. Bush, who was a Republican, and Ross Perot, an independent candidate.
Clinton got 370 electoral votes, Bush got 168, and Perot got 0. A person running for president needs to get 270 to win.
George H.W. Bush may have lost the election for several reasons. He broke his promise of "Read my lips: no new taxes" by increasing taxes during his term. Some of his most well-known accomplishments during his presidency came from his foreign policy, and because of the Cold War and Gulf War being over, foreign policy became a smaller issue, as the economy became a bigger issue, since the economy was bad.
Prior to 2020, this was the last election where a candidate won the presidency without winning Florida.
Republican candidates
Democratic candidates
Meliaceae
Meliaceae is a family of dicotyledonous plants in order Sapindales, most of which have spirally pinnate leaves.
The family includes about 50 genera and 550 species, with a pantropical distribution; one genus ("Toona") extends north into temperate China and south into southeast Australia, and another ("Melia") nearly as far north.
South Jakarta
South Jakarta () is a city in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the second largest administrative city in Jakarta after East Jakarta.
South Jakarta is divided into five subdistricts: Kebayoran Baru, Kebayoran Lama, Pesanggrahan, Setiabudi, Cilandak, Pasar Minggu, and Jagakarsa.
Alexandre Bolduc
Alexandre Bolduc (born June 26, 1985 in Montreal, Quebec) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who currently plays for the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL).
Bolduc was selected by the St. Louis Blues with the 127th pick in the 2004 NHL Draft but never played for them. He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks. He signed a contract with the Coyotes on July 2, 2011.
Manitoba Moose
The Manitoba Moose are a professional ice hockey team that play in the American Hockey League (AHL). They play in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, at the MTS Centre. They are the farm team of the Winnipeg Jets.
The team originally played as the Manitoba Moose from 1996 until 2011. They were relocated to St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador and became the St. John's IceCaps, which is the AHL farm team of the Winnipeg Jets. The team played in St. John's for four seasons.
In May 2015, it was announced that the team would be returning to Winnipeg and would be once again be called the Manitoba Moose.
Sticklebacks are fish of the Gasterosteidae family. FishBase currently recognises sixteen species in the family, grouped in five genera. Several of the species have a number of recognised subspecies, and the taxonomy of the family is thought to be in need of revision.
An unusual features of sticklebacks is that they have no scales, although some species have bony armour plates. They are related to pipefish and seahorses. Stickleback species are found in fresh water environments in Europe, Asia and North America. They feed on small crustaceans and fish larvae.
Sticklebacks have strong separated spines in the dorsal fin. All species show similar mating behaviour, with co-operation between the sexes, and protection of the eggs. The males construct a nest from vegetation held together by secretions from their kidneys. The males then attract females to the nest. The females lay their eggs inside, where the males fertilise them. The males then guards the eggs until they hatch.
Mikhail Bulgakov
Mikhaíl Bulgakov ( – 10 March 1940) was a Soviet Russian writer and playwright active in the first half of the 20th century.
He is best known for his novel "The Master and Margarita", which has been called one of the masterpieces of the 20th century.
Much of Bulgakov's work is best described as magic realism, where fantasy intrudes into what seemed at first to be a straightforward everyday scene.
Mikhail Bulgakov was born in Kiev on May 15 1891. Two of his grandparents were priests and his father was an assistant professor. At school Bulgakov developed an interest in Russian writing, European writing, the theatre and the opera.
In 1913 Bulgakov married Tatiana Lappa. When the First World War started he volunteered with the Red Cross as a doctor. Bulgakov was sent to an area where fighting was heavy, and he was badly injured at least twice. In 1916, he graduated from the Medical School of Kiev University. Bulgakov then joined the White Army with his brothers. They fought against the communists who were taking control of Russia. Bulgakov also fought in the Ukrainian People's Army.
After the Russian Civil War, Mikhail and his brothers went to the Caucasus in Western Russia. Mikhail worked as a journalist. Many members of Bulgakov's family left Russia for Western Europe. Bulgakov was not allowed into other countries, however, as he had a disease: typhus.
The injuries Bulgakov received in the First World War continued to cause him a lot of pain. To ease the pain, he started injecting himself with morphine. He eventually became addicted. He wrote a book about this period called "Morphine", which was finally released in 1926.
Bulgakov left medicine behind as he was now sure he wanted to be a writer. He moved to Moscow with his wife Tatiana in 1921. Bulgakov eventually divorced Tatiana, and married Lyubov' Belozerskaya in 1924. He published a number of works in the early 1920s. By 1927, however, he was criticised by people who said he was writing against the Soviet government. By 1929, Bulgakov's writing career was in ruins. Government censorship stopped his work and plays being released in the USSR.
In 1931, Bulgakov got married again, to Yelena Shilovskaya. Yelena inspired one of the main characters in Bulgakov's most famous novel, "The Master and Margarita". In the last ten years of his life, Bulgakov continued to write novels, plays and translate works in other languages. Many could still not be published in the USSR of the 1930s. Those that were published were often heavily criticised.
Bulgakov did not like the way Soviet system prevented his works being published. He wrote a letter to the Soviet government asking permission to leave the country. He even spoke directly to Stalin on the telephone, asking to be allowed to leave the USSR. Stalin's reply implied that if Bulgakov attempted to leave, he would be killed.
Stalin did allow Bulgakov to work at a small theatre in Moscow, however. Bulgakov eventually worked at the Moscow Art Theatre, but the Soviet system still did not allow him to write as he really wanted. This, and the fact that he was not allowed to go abroad to see his family, made Bulgakov very unhappy.
Bulgakov died from problems with his kidneys on March 10, 1940. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.
The novel is a satire on the Soviet society. It is covered by a plot in which two apparently unrelated stories alternate chapter by chapter. The first plot theme is the Devil in modern Moscow; the second is the story of Pontius Pilate. Connecting these two themes are Satan himself, and the Master with his devoted lover Margarita. The Master is an embittered author, whose historical novel about Pontius Pilate had been rejected by the Soviet literary committee .
By means of the plot, Bulgakov deals with some of the deepest issues in life: the interplay of good and evil, innocence and guilt, courage and cowardice.
Bulgakov started writing the novel in 1928. He burnt the first manuscript of the novel in 1930, seeing no future as a writer in the Soviet Union. The work was restarted in 1931. The second draft was completed in 1936 by which point all the major plot lines of the final version were in place. The third draft was finished in 1937. Bulgakov continued to revise the work, helped by his wife, but was forced to stop work on the fourth version four weeks before his death in 1940.
A censored version (12% of the text removed and still more changed) of the book was first published in "Moscow" magazine (#11, 1966 and #1, 1967). The text of all the omitted and changed parts, with indications of the places of modification, was published on a samizdat basis. In 1967 the publisher "Posev" (Frankfurt) printed a version produced with the aid of these inserts.
In the Soviet Union, the first complete version, prepared by Anna Saakyants, was published in 1973, based on the version of the beginning of 1940 proofread by the publisher. In 1989 the last version was prepared by literature expert Lidiya Yanovskaya based on all available manuscripts.
The novel is autobiographical. Bulgakov is the Master, and his trials and difficulties are very similar to those the Master faces. Margarita is Yelena Shilovskaya, his long-term girlfriend who became his third wife. The burning of the Master's manuscript is just what Bulgakov did, and for the same reasons of despair and frustration. Of course a state literary committee prevented its publication, just as did in the novel. And Bulgakov was fascinated with the confrontation between Christ and Pontius Pilate.
Bulgakov never lived to see the manuscript published, nor to enjoy his post-war fame. He died from nephrosclerosis (an inherited kidney disorder) on 10 March 1940. His father died of the same disease, and Bulgakov had long expected his fate.
The novel has been the basis of films, stage productions, opera, ballet, and television versions.
J.B.S. Haldane
John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS (3 November 1892 – 1 December 1964), known as Jack (but who used 'J.B.S.' in his printed works), was a British geneticist and evolutionary biologist who emigrated to India towards the end of his life. He was one of the founders (along with Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright) of population genetics.
Jack Haldane was a communist, atheist and a writer of popular science books, and articles for the "Daily Worker". His major professional work was his contribution of mathematical papers on the theory of evolution, which assisted the modern evolutionary synthesis.
Between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford University, then moved to Cambridge University, where he accepted a Readership in Biochemistry at Trinity College and taught there until 1932. During his nine years at Cambridge, Haldane worked on enzymes and genetics, particularly the mathematical side of genetics. Haldane wrote many popular essays on science that were eventually collected and published in 1927 in a volume entitled "Possible Worlds".
He then accepted a position as Professor of Genetics and moved to University College London where he spent most of his academic career. Four years later he became the first Weldon Professor of Biometry at University College London.
Haldane's move to India, initially to the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) was influenced by a number of factors. Officially he stated that his chief political reason was in response to the Suez Crisis. He wrote: "Finally, I am going to India because I consider that recent acts of the British Government have been violations of international law."
His interest in India was also because of his interest in biological research, belief that the warm climate would do him good and that India offered him freedom and shared socialist dreams. At the ISI, he headed the biometry unit and spent time researching a range of topics and guiding other researchers around him.
The "Lost Generation" is a term used to describe a number of American writers and artists who went to live in Europe after the First World War. People associated with the Lost Generation include Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Sherwood Anderson and John Steinbeck.
The term has also been used more recently to describe those unable to find work after the global financial crisis of 2008-2009.
The writer and poet Gertrude Stein is often considered to have come up with the term She supposedly heard her French garage owner speak of his unskilled young workers as "une generation perdue" (a generation lost). Ernest Hemingway then used the term in the introduction to his novel "The Sun Also Rises".
The term is generally used for the period from the end of the First World War to the beginning of the Great Depression.
After the First World War, members of the "Lost Generation" decided that they did not want to live a normal life in America. They went to Europe, often Paris. Away from America, the "Lost Generation" often drank heavily, had affairs and tried to find meaning in life. The "Lost Generation" produced some of the finest writing of all time, and arguably created a new style of writing.
W.D. Hamilton
William Donald Hamilton FRS (1 August 1936 – 7 March 2000) was an English evolutionary biologist whom Richard Dawkins praised as one of the greatest evolutionary theorists of the 20th century.
Hamilton became famous through his theoretical work on kin selection and altruism. He explained its genetic basis, and this was a key part of the gene-centered view of evolution. In doing this, he became one of the forerunners of sociobiology, as popularized by E.O. Wilson. Hamilton was certainly a big influence on Dawkins. He also published important work on sex ratios and the evolution of sex. From 1984 to his death in 2000, he was the Royal Society Research Professor at Oxford University. He died of malaria contracted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Hamilton started to publish his collected papers starting in 1996, with short essays giving each paper context. He died after the preparation of the second volume, so the commentaries for the third volume came from his coauthors.
John Maynard Smith
John Maynard Smith, FRS (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War, he then took a second degree in genetics under the well-known biologist J.B.S. Haldane. Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution and theorized on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory.
He won most of the awards available to scientists:
Maynard Smith has an Erdős number of four.
Kawasaki Station
Kawasaki Station (川崎駅,かわさきえき) is a railway station of JR East, in Kawasaki, Japan.
Mudvayne
Mudvayne is an American heavy metal band. They formed in Peoria, Illinois in 1996. They play for the record label Epic Records.
In 1996, the band was formed with it's original line-up. In 1997, the band released their very first EP, Kill, I Oughta. In 1998, the band got signed under Epic Records.
In 1999, the band started working on their debut album, which was released on August 22, 2000. The album peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart and No. 85 on the Billboard 200. The band participated in the Tattoo to Earth tour, along with many other bands. This album contains the singles "Dig" and "Death Blooms".
In 2001, the band was working on their second album. It was released on November 19, 2002. It was certified Gold by the RIAA in 2003. Also in 2003, the band had participated in the Summer Sanitarium Tour. This album contains the singles "Not Falling" and "World So Cold".
The album was worked on all throughout 2004, it was set to be released in November 2004, but was pushed back due to production issues, it was eventually released on April 12, 2005. The album sold 100, 000 copies at the week of it's release. It debuted at No. 2 and was certified Gold by the RIAA later that same year. This album contains the singles "Determined" (which was nominated at the 2006 Grammy Awards), "Happy?", "Forget to Remember" and "Fall into Sleep".
On November 27, 2007, Mudvayne released their compilation album. Also in 2007, they have been working on a new album. Which was released on November 18, 2008. The album debuted at No. 15 on the Billboard 200. It sold 48, 000 copies at the week of it's release. This album contains the singles "Do What You Do", "A New Game" and "Scarlet Letters".
In 2008, they started to work on their final album, which was their self titled album. It was released on December 21, 2009. The album debuted at No. 54 on the Billboard 200 and sold around 34, 000 copies at the week of it's release. By the next week, sales dropped drastically. This album contains the single "Scream with Me".
Alastair Campbell
Alastair John Campbell (born 25 May 1957) was the Director of Communications and Strategy for the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Tony Blair) between 1997 and 2003.
He used to work for the Daily Mirror as their politics reporter, and was an alcoholic. Then he had a breakdown, gave up drinking, and started working for Tony Blair in 1994. He was seen as one of the main spin doctors in the Labour Party. He eventually resigned over the 45 minute claim in the dossier prepared over the Iraq War, after the Hutton report had come out and Dr. David Kelly was dead.
He currently works as a broadcaster, journalist and spokesman for Leukaemia Research. He is said to be re-joining the Labour campaign team for the 2010 election. He is an atheist.
A cave is a natural underground hollow space. They can have narrow passageways (corridors) and chambers (caverns). They are usually formed when underground acidic (sour) water wears away softer stones, such as limestone. Only the hard rock, such as granite, is left. Caves can also be formed during natural catastrophes, such as earthquakes, or by ice and glaciers.
Caves can have formations in them such as stalagmites and stalactites. These are made over thousands of years by water dripping and leaving mineral deposits.
Many creatures live in the entrance areas of caves, for example snakes, mice, spiders & porcupines. Only a few animals are found deep in caves. Bats often live in caves. Another common creature found in caves is cave crickets.
In the past, people lived in caves. People used to live in many European caves in the Stone Age. Caves still provide shelter for trekkers. Some caves have beautiful paintings on the walls.
People who explore caves are called cavers or speleologists. (The study of caves is called speleology.) They go into caves for fun, exercise and to see the different formations. This can be a dangerous sport because caves sometimes have deep holes. Cavers also have to climb and crawl through the passages. Cavers usually go into caves with four or more people. Each person has 2 or 3 light sources. One light is attached to each helmet. People go into caves to try and explore more about the world.
An automobile (or car) is a land vehicle used to carry passengers. Automobiles usually have four wheels (round things which turn in order to lead to movement), and an engine or motor to make them move.
The word "automobile" comes from the Greek prefix "αυτό" (self) and the Latin word "mobilis" (moving). This name means "self-moving", as cars run on their own power and do not need horses or other power from outside to move.
Automobiles are made in different shapes and sizes, for people with different needs. Here are some common types.
To make an automobile move, it must have energy to turn the wheels. This energy might be chemical energy in gasoline or electrical energy in a battery. How quickly the engine or motor can send the energy to the wheels, and how much energy is sent, is called the power of the motor. The power of an automobile is usually measured in kilowatts or horsepower.
As of 2019, most automobile burn a fuel to make an internal combustion engine (sometimes called a "motor") run. The power from the engine then goes to the wheels through a transmission, which has a set of gears that can make the automobile go faster or slower. The most common fuel is petrol, which is called ""gasoline"" or ""gas"" in American English.
Gasoline is called a fossil fuel because it comes from tiny fossils that were made millions of years ago. Over millions of years, they turned into oil, which was then drilled up from deep inside the Earth, and then turned into fuel by chemical changes. Old gasoline-powered automobiles are noisy and their exhaust makes city air dirty, which can make people ill. But automobiles made after the mid-2010s are cleaner.
Burning gasoline, like any kind of fossil fuel, makes carbon dioxide, which makes global warming. Since 2017, less gasoline powered automobiles are being made, and some places will not allow gasoline-powered automobiles in future, like Amsterdam in 2030.
The cleanest automobiles are electric vehicles. They are usually plugged into a power outlet or a charging station and store electricity in a battery at the bottom of the automobile. The electricity then drives an electric motor, which turns the wheels. Some electric automobiles have 2 motors: one at the front, and one at the back. A few have 4 motors (one for each wheel).
Some automobiles burn diesel fuel, which is used in big trucks and buses, and a few use wood gas. In some countries, such as Brazil and Sweden, a mixture of ethanol and gasoline, called ""gasohol"" in Brazil and ""E85"" in Sweden, is used as automobile fuel. Other fuels include propane, natural gas, compressed air, and ethanol (which comes from plants). There are automobiles designed to run on more than one type of fuel — these are called ""flex-fuel"" and are rare.
A few automobiles generate electricity from hydrogen fuel cells (like the Honda Clarity). As of 2019, most of the hydrogen that people use comes from burning fossil fuels, but scientists and engineers are trying to make hydrogen from renewable energy a lot cheaper and easier to use.Some automobiles even use solar cells for their electricity, but they are not very practical. There is a competition every year where people try to design a automobile that can last the longest and go the farthest on solar energy alone.
There is also a type of automobile that uses both an engine and an electric motor. This is called a hybrid electric vehicle; an example is the Toyota Prius.
All automobiles have brakes which work by friction to stop the automobile quickly in an emergency or stop it rolling when parked. Electric automobiles also have "regenerative" brakes, which slow the automobile by turning the energy in its movement back into electricity, like an electric motor working the opposite way. So "regenerative" means the electricity is generated again.
The earliest recorded automobiles were actually steam engines attached to wagons in the late 18th century. The steam engines were heavy, making these wagons slow and hard to control. Better and faster steam automobiles became common late in the 19th century.
Some automobiles in the early 20th century were powered by electricity. They were slow and heavy and went out of use until the idea came back later in the century.
The internal combustion engine changed the way many automobiles were powered. The engine used either gasoline, diesel, or kerosene to work. When the fuel is exploded in a cylinder it pushes the piston down and turns the wheels.
Although many people tried to make a good automobile that would work and sell well, people say that Karl Benz invented the modern automobile. He used a four-stroke type of internal combustion engine to power his "Benz Patent-Motorwagen" in 1886. He began to make many automobiles in a factory and sell them in Germany in 1888.