AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
One way that nuclear weapons release energy is by breaking atoms apart. This is called nuclear fission and is the basis for atomic bombs. Specific isotopes of uranium or plutonium are typically used in these weapons. These elements can be made to undergo nuclear fission and have a nuclear chain reaction.
Another process can be used to create nuclear weapons that create even bigger explosions and release much more energy by fusing atoms together. This process is called nuclear fusion, and weapons based on this process are called hydrogen bombs or thermonuclear weapons. Specialized isotopes of hydrogen are typically used in these weapons.
Nuclear weapons produce a very large amount of energy and radiation, which can kill people or animals within several kilometers. Most of the radiation is X-rays, which heats the air to produce a huge nuclear fireball. The rapid expansion of the fireball creates a dangerous shock wave that can destroy houses or buildings several kilometers away. The radiation can cause radiation poisoning and also has the potential to cause mutations in the DNA, which can cause cancer.
Nuclear bombs also release fallout, which is nuclear material and dust that has been irradiated and become radioactive. Over time the radioactive fallout can potentially kill people farther away, depending on how much was released. Fallout from a nuclear explosion can be blown by the wind over large distances from where the explosion occurred, and can remain dangerous for long periods of time.
A hydrogen bomb, also known as a fusion bomb, is a nuclear weapon which utilizes hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium) in addition to uranium or plutonium. Hydrogen bombs have the potential to be much more powerful than fission bombs. Despite the name, a typical hydrogen bomb only has enough hydrogen to produce additional neutrons to detonate a casing made of natural uranium. The fuel in hydrogen bombs is thus mostly unrefined uranium.
Nuclear weapons are difficult to build because they need special isotopes of uranium or plutonium, as well as specialized technology. This is why few countries have nuclear weapons. When countries without nuclear weapons create their own, this is commonly referred to as nuclear proliferation.
Getting a nuclear weapon to its target can be as hard as making one. The explosive material can be placed in a bomb or artillery shell, or into a missile. When a nuclear device is placed on a missile it will commonly be called a nuclear missile. Nuclear missiles can be carried by airplanes, submarines, or trucks, or they can be placed into underground missile silos. Some kinds of airplanes like the B-29 Superfortress, B-36 Peacemaker, B-52 Stratofortress and B-2 Spirit have carried nuclear weapons.
They are also carried by missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Some missiles travel to the border of space, and then launch a number of separate nuclear weapons back toward the ground, with each weapon travelling to a different target. This is called a MIRV Warhead, or Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles. Very large nuclear bombs have been produced, but in practice a weapon with multiple warheads can produce much more damage by attacking more targets.
Nuclear weapons take many resources to make, because the materials they are made of are very rare and it takes many scientists to make them. But several countries have managed to create nuclear weapons and many have them today. The countries that possess nuclear weapons are listed here in the order that they were invented: United States (1945), Russia (1949), United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), China (1964), India (1974), and Pakistan (1998). Other countries are believed to secretly have nuclear weapons or develop them. Some countries used to have nuclear weapons, but have since then said that they had gotten rid of their nuclear weapons.
Some countries have lost nuclear weapons while transporting them. There are 92 known instances of atom bombs being lost at sea by all the countries known to posses them. Bombs have been lost in 15 different cases. However, there could be more lost bombs.
This is a list is of the main nuclear explosions which have happened. As well as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first nuclear test of a given weapon type for a country is included, and tests which were otherwise notable (such as the largest test ever). All yields (explosive power) are given in their estimated energy equivalents in kilotons of TNT.
Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were done at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. As public awareness and concern grew over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to nuclear fallout, various studies were done. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study says that nuclear fallout might have led to 11,000 excess deaths, most caused by thyroid cancer linked to exposure to iodine-131.
Notable individuals who have been associated with nuclear weapons and related issues include:
Chojnów
Chojnów is small city in Poland. As of the year 2000, 14,900 people live in the city. The city is on the river Skora. The city belongs to the county Legnica. It is in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The average height of the city is 170 meters above sea level.
Chojnów is first mentioned in a note dated 1272 as a Haynow settlement. In 1288 it's called city (civitas) in documents of Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby. In 1333 in gained the status of a city (civitas).
Every year in first days of June, Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized in Chojnów once a year for the past few years.
Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.
The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the 13th century (currently used as a museum), two old churches, Baszta Tkaczy (Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls.
The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), named after Piast dynasty as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.
Wild animals that live around Chojnów are roe-deers, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats.
In Comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together. In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels. The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.
There are many kinds of comics. Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers. Comic books are thin comics magazines. Graphic novels are books of comics. In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world. The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.
The first comic strips in the United States were funny. "Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips". The first comic books were collections of comic strips. Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".
In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons. There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".
A diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is a re-arrangement of carbon atoms (those are called allotropes).
Diamonds have the highest hardness of any bulk (all one type) material. Because of this, many important industries use diamonds as tools for cutting and polishing things. Many of them are clear, but some of them have colors, like yellow, red, blue, green and pink. Diamonds of a different color are called "fancies".
Big diamonds are very rare, and are worth a lot of money. Only 20% of diamonds are fit for jewellery. The other 80% are of lower quality. Those lower quality diamonds are called industrial diamonds, and are used to make things like drill bits and diamond saws. Even if a diamond is not of gem quality, it still has a value because It is very hard.
Cut and faceted diamonds can be attractive hence their use in jewellery. Diamonds are very effective electrical insulators, but also very good conductors of heat. On Mohs scale of mineral hardness, diamonds are scored as 10 (the highest score possible).
There are natural and synthetic diamonds. The Earth makes natural diamonds, and people make synthetic diamonds. Diamonds are the hardest natural substance known to man. Diamonds are made of pure carbon, the same chemical element as graphite, fullerene, and coal. But diamonds are very hard and in crystalline form. It is commonly believed that diamonds are formed from coal, but this is not true.
Diamonds are made deep in the Earth where there is an intense amount of pressure and heat. The formation of natural diamonds needs specific conditions. These are exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature, between about . These conditions are found in two places on Earth: in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.
People find diamonds where volcanoes were a long time ago. They sometimes find tiny ones at the site of a meteorite strike. Sometimes people find diamonds on the top of the ground. But in places like South Africa, they must dig deep down into a diamond mine to get diamonds. Diamonds were first found in India.
Small synthetic diamonds are made for abrasives. Large synthetic ones are even more expensive to make than to find and dig up, so people don't make large synthetic diamonds.
For many decades the trading of diamonds was controlled by the De Beers group of companies, who controlled most of Africa's rich diamond mines. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, new diamond mines opened in Canada and Australia that De Beers wasn't able to control. When the USSR collapsed in 1991, many cheap Russian diamonds entered the market, overwhelming De Beers and their efforts to control it. De Beers still runs most of Africa's diamond mines, but their mines now only produce about one third of the world's diamonds.
Thanksgiving is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks. In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November. In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October.
In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States. American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872. The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941. In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday. Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.
The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there. More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year. Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.
Every year, the Nobel Prizes () are given to people and institutions around the world. These prizes are for the study of science and for world peace. The science prizes include Literature, Science, and Medicine. The Nobel Prize was started by Alfred Nobel. His 1895 testament gave money for the Prizes. The Nobel Foundation now controls the money. The Foundation asks different committees or academies to decide who receives the prizes. For many people, a Nobel Prize is a very great honor. People who receive a Nobel Prize are called "Nobel laureates".
Each prize winner gets a medal, a diploma and a sum of money. In 1901, the winners of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK. This is same as 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007. In 2008, the winners were awarded a prize of 10,000,000 SEK. The awards are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, in a ceremony on December 10. This day is the anniversary of Nobel's death.
These are the committees and institutions who decide which people receive a Nobel Prize:
The "Nobel Prize in Economics" was not a part of Nobel's will. It was started in 1969 by Sveriges Riksbank, the Bank of Sweden. The bank donated money to the Nobel Foundation for the Economics Prize in 1968. The Economics Studies Prize is in the memory of Alfred Nobel. It is awarded each year with the other Nobel prizes.
Some people have received more than one Nobel Prize. They are:
Some families have received multiple laureates.
A graph is a picture designed to express words, particularly the connection between two or more quantities. You can see a graph on the right.
A simple graph usually shows the relationship between two numbers or measurements in the form of a grid. If this is a "rectangular graph" using Cartesian coordinate system, the two measurements will be arranged into two different lines at right angle to one another. One of these lines will be going up (the "vertical" axis). The other one will be going right (the "horizontal" axis). These lines (or "axes", the plural of axis) meet at their ends in the lower left corner of the graph.
Both of these axes have "tick marks" along their lengths. You can think of each axis as a ruler drawn on paper. So each measurement is indicated by the length of the associated tick mark along the particular axis.
A graph is a kind of chart or diagram. However, a chart or a diagram may not relate one quantity to other quantities. "Flowcharts" and "tree diagrams" are charts or diagrams that are not graphs.
Let's say you wanted to make a graph showing your height as you were growing up. You might show your height in centimeters on the vertical axis and your age in years on the horizontal axis.
For example, say you were 60 centimeters tall at age 1, 85 centimeters tall at age 2 and 95 centimeters tall at age 3. You would draw an imaginary straight line passing through the 50 centimeters height mark on the vertical axis. Then you would draw a second imaginary line passing through the age of 1 year on the horizontal axis. At the place where the two imaginary lines meet (called their "intersection"), you would then draw a dot. Really, the imaginary lines are usually replaced by "graph paper" (see below). The drawing of this intersection is called ""plotting" the point 50 centimeters for year 1".
You would then plot 85 centimeters for year 2 and 95 centimeters for year 3. If you had more heights for more years, you would plot years 4, 5 and so forth. When you had enough points on your graph, you could draw a line through each of the plotted points, making your graph a "line graph". For example, the line graph at the upper right shows the unemployment rate (as a percent) on the vertical axis and the year (from 1950 to 2005) on the horizontal axis.
Let's say you wanted a single graph showing both your height and your brother's height. This could be expressed as two sets of plotted points: one for you and one for your brother. You could use different colors to tell your plot from your brother's. Or you might plot the Gross Domestic Product (in billions of dollars) as a second line against the same years on the unemployment graph above. This would show you the relationship between GDP and unemployment.
Graphs make information easier to see. This is especially true when two or more sets of numbers are related in some way.
For example, the unemployment rates graph at the beginning of this article could be expressed in the form of a "table". Like this:
But a long string of numbers makes it difficult to see the underlying meaning. It is much simpler to understand when the table is expressed in the form of a graph. In particular, it is easier to see the relationships between the two sets of data. For example, by looking at the graph you can see at a glance that unemployment was relatively low in the late sixties but relatively high in the early eighties.
Scientists and engineers use graphs so that they can get a better understanding of the broad meaning and importance of their data. Salesmen and businessmen often use graphs to add importance to their points in a sales or business presentation. Graphs with many plotted points may be created on a computer rather than being drawn by hand.
Mathematicians use graphs that "plot themselves", without taking measurements. For example, the formula "x = y" says that the value of x will always be equal to the value of y. If you plot this formula as a graph, with x as the horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, you will get a graph that looks like a straight line angled at precisely 45 degrees. The use of these graphs forms a branch of mathematics called analytic geometry.
Usually, graphs are created on specially designed paper called "graph paper". This paper has evenly drawn horizontal and vertical lines on it. On the right is an example of a sheet of graph paper.
Different types of graphs require different forms of graph paper. What we have been talking about in the article above is the commonest form of graphs and graph paper. It is known as rectangular or Cartesian graphs. However the evenly drawn vertical and horizontal lines on the paper are "not" the graph itself but are part of the "graph paper". The "graph" is the set of plotted points, along with its axes.
There are various types of graphs (and graph paper) other than Cartesian. These include: bar graphs, pie graphs, polar graphs, scatter graphs, three-dimensional graphs, logarithmic graphs and many others.
Collision detection is a program used on computers to help it understand when two objects will hit into each other. When a computer shows two things on the screen, or controls two things in real life (like robots), it sometimes needs a special program to detect where objects to understand where things are. This might be used to help make sure things like planes do not hit each other, or just to display a video game.
It is also called CD (for collision detection) or "interference detection".
Berkeley Software Distribution
Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) is a kind of the UNIX operating system that is distributed for free since 1989. It was started by people in Berkeley, California, USA in the year 1977. Now, people from around the world work on it.
There are many different kinds of BSD that many people have worked on. Some of them are DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Mac OS X.
Jacques Cartier
Jacques Cartier was a French trader and explorer. He was born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France), and lived until 1 September 1557. He sailed three times to Canada.
He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called "Huron" and "Wyandot", an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived. In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored coast of Labrador.
European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World. Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas . Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish.
Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534. His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip. On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died. Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations. This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.
On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land. The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France.
Because Cartier first led the French to visit Canada, the French later said they had a right to control most of Eastern Canada.
Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - December 24th, 1524) was a Portuguese sailor. He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa. He went to India three times by ship.
Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal. His birthday was June 5th. According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.
On the 4th of July 1497 da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the "São Gabriel", the "São Rafael", the "Berrio", and a storage ship of unknown name. He intended to sail to India. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name "Natal", which means "Christmas" in Portuguese. They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas. The coast is still called Natal.
By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast. Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya. There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.
The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut. However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499. A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut.
Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502. He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind. During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean. Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal.
Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1524 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony. He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve. He was not a pirate, but he looted and killed many men only to take revenge.
Kayseri is a city in the center of Turkey. Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia. The city has a population of nearly 1 million. Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti. Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey. It is 3917m high.
The city of Kayseri consists of the following metropolitan districts:
Iodised salt
Iodized salt (also spelled "iodized salt") is table salt mixed with tiny amounts of iodide and is used to prevent disease of the thyroid gland.
People only need a very small amount of iodine to prevent disease. Food crops usually get iodine from the soil, but some places around the world have low amounts of iodine. Iodized salt is a very cheap and good way of getting the necessary iodine.
Ordinary table (cooking) salt is a chemical compound called "sodium chloride" (its chemical formula is NaCl). "Sodium iodide" (NaI) is added to the NaCl to make iodized salt.
College is a kind of school or university, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs. Most college students go to college right after high school but others choose to go later in life. Most students are there because it will help them to earn more money and live better lives.
In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, "college" also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.
A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy by a chemical reaction. Usually the chemicals are kept inside the battery. It is used in a circuit to power other components. A battery produces direct current (DC) electricity (electricity that flows in one direction, and does not switch back and forth).
Using the electricity from an outlet in a building is cheaper and more efficient, but a battery can provide electricity in areas that do not have electric power distribution. It is also useful for things that move, such as electric vehicles and mobile phones.
Batteries may be primary or secondary. The primary is thrown away when it can no longer provide electricity. The secondary can be recharged and reused.
A Battery can be one "cell" or many "cells". Each cell has an anode, cathode and electrolyte. The electrolyte is the main material inside the battery. It is often a type of acid, and can be dangerous to touch. The anode reacts with the electrolyte to produce electrons (this is the "negative" or "-" end). The cathode reacts with the electrolyte and takes electrons (this is the "positive" or "+" end). An electric current happens when a wire connects the anode to the cathode, and the electrons move from one end to the other. (But a battery can be damaged by just a wire connecting the two ends, so a "load" is also needed between the two ends. The load is something that slows the electrons down, and usually does something useful, like a lightbulb in a flashlight, or the electronics in a calculator).
The electrolyte can be liquid or solid. A battery is called a wet cell or dry cell battery, depending on the type of electrolyte.
The chemical reactions that occur in a battery are exothermic reactions. This type of reaction makes heat. For example, if you leave your laptop on for a long time, and then touch the battery, it will be warm or hot.
A rechargeable battery is recharged by reversing the chemical reaction that occurs within the battery. But a rechargeable battery can only be recharged a given number of times (recharge life). Even built-in batteries, cannot be recharged forever. Moreover, each time a battery is recharged, its ability to hold a charge goes down a bit. Non-rechargeable batteries should not be charged as various harmful substances can leak out, such as potassium hydroxide.
The cells can be connected to make a bigger battery. Connecting the positive of one cell to the negative of the next cell is called connecting them "in series". The voltage of each battery are added together. Two six volt batteries connected in series will make 12 volts.
Connecting the positive of one cell to the positive of the other, and the negative to the negative is called connecting them "in parallel". The voltage stays the same, but the current is added together. Voltage is the pressure pushing the electrons through the wires, it is measured in volts. Current is how many electrons can go at once, it is measured in amps. The combination of current and voltage is the power (watts = volts x amps) of the battery.
Batteries come in many different shapes, sizes and voltages.
AA, AAA, C, and D cells, including alkaline batteries, are of standard sizes and shapes, and have about 1.5 volts. The voltage of a cell depends on the chemicals used. The electric charge it can supply depends on how large the cell is, as well as what chemicals. The charge a battery delivers is usually measured in . Since the voltage stays the same, more charge means a bigger cell can supply more amps, or run for a longer time.
The first battery was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta. Nowadays, his battery is called the voltaic pile.
In small, modern batteries, the fluid is immobilized in a kind of paste and everything is put in a sealed case. Because of this case, nothing can spill out of the battery. Larger batteries, such as car batteries, still have liquid inside and are not sealed. A kind of battery that uses molten salts as the electrolyte was invented during World War II.
Fuel cells and solar cells are not batteries because they do not store the energy inside them.
A capacitor is not a battery because it does not store the energy in a chemical reaction. A capacitor can store electricity and create electricity much faster than a battery, but it usually costs too much to make it as big as a battery can be. Scientists and chemical engineers are working to make better capacitors and batteries for electric cars.
Small electrical generators operated by hand and foot can supply power in small electrical devices. Clockwork radios, clockwork torches and similar devices also have a wind-up spring to store mechanical energy.
A knife is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives."
There are many kinds of knives, depending what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.
Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.
Nyngan, New South Wales
Nyngan is a town in New South Wales, Australia. It is built on the banks of the Bogan River. It is north west of Dubbo, and south east of Bourke in the Central West Plains of New South Wales. It is a town of 2500 people. It exists because of the people who work on the farms and in a copper mine, 50 kilometres to the west.
It remains also well known as one of the last depots of Cobb and Co, the famous inland transporter of the 19th century (1801 to 1900). One of the overnight depots was at Nyngan because it is about half way between Dubbo and Bourke. In the days of Cobb and Co, the trip from Dubbo and Bourke would have taken at least 4 days.
However, the route they took is not the route that is used today. The new route runs beside the railway. The railway is a direct line from Dubbo to Nyngan. There is not a single bend for almost 160 kilometres. In the other direction, the track goes 190 kilometres dead straight the whole way to Bourke.
Film (disambiguation)
Film may refer to:
Photographic film
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic used to record pictures. The plastic has been specially treated, so it is sensitive to light. That way, it is possible to record an invisible image with the plastic when it is exposed to light. Normal film is shipped in small canisters (boxes) that protect it from the light. A normal photographic film can hold up to 40 pictures.
Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called "developing a film" or Film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light.
Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light.
Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets.
Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays.
Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record.
Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.
Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the <nowiki>"ASA number" or the "film speed"</nowiki>. When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.
Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, most cameras don't use film anymore.
A compass is a navigational tool that uses magnetism. It has an arrow which points in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. A compass is very useful for navigating on oceans and in deserts, or other places where there are few landmarks.
The first compass was invented by ancient Chinese in the Han Dynasty. It was a large spoon-like magnetic object made of magnetite ore set upon a square bronze plate.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer. He became the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean, and the first to sail around the world. Magellan's voyage proved that the Earth was round.
Born in 1480, his birthplace is recorded as either Sabrosa or Porto in Portugal. He worked in the royal court. Since his parents were members of the Portuguese nobility and after their deaths, Magellan became a page for the queen at the age of 10. In the royal court where he learned many important skills, including map making, navigation and astronomy. In 1505 he joined the navy. When he worked for Portugal, he went to many parts of the world, such as India, the Spice Islands, East Africa, and Morocco. When in Morocco in 1513 Magellan was wounded, and walked the remainder of his life with a limp. After he lost his job for the King of Portugal, he went to work for the King of Spain.
He was also the first to sail through the Strait of Magellan, so it was named after him. Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines, on 27 April 1521 in Mactan during a battle with the natives after he was accused of stealing.
Charles V of Spain provided him with five ships for the voyage round the world. Only one ship, the "Victoria", completed the voyage.
Henry the Navigator
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) was a prince from Portugal, the third son of King John I of Portugal. He was called Infante Dom Henrique in Portuguese. He was never a navigator himself. He got his name because he organized many ocean voyages on which lands were found. He is seen as the man who started the Age of Discovery. He also opened a navigation school in Portugal, so the technology of tools and ships could be made better. His explorers discovered the first shipping routes directly from Europe to Asia for the Portuguese monarchy.
Concrete is an important material for making different buildings and structures. It is a composite made of Portland cement, sand, gravel or aggregate, and water in varying proportions depending on the task.
Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.
The ingredients are mixed together into a paste, a bit like making dough for bread. The concrete is then poured into a frame. After a few hours it sets hard. Concrete solidifies due to a chemical reaction known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a strong stone-like material.
Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe, architectural structures, foundations, motorways, bridges, multi-story parking, walls, footings for gates, fences and poles and even boats.
Its biggest advantage is that it bonds together bricks and stones better than any other method known to mankind.
Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. For some purposes it needs to be reinforced with steel rods. Reinforced concrete buildings can be made to link all the parts together, the foundations, walls, floors and roofs, but concrete construction does not make buildings earthquake-proof.
Concrete is as old as 5600 BC. It was not invented by Romans, but much used by them. Some kinds of concrete are waterproof, and some kinds even set underwater.
There are many additives to make concrete set faster, set slower, set stronger, reduce corrosion and so on. The Romans discovered that adding volcanic ash produced a concrete which would set under water. The Romans also knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack as it set, and that adding blood made it more frost-resistant.
Modern concrete was made in 1756 by British engineer John Smeaton. He added pebbles and powdered brick to the cement. In 1824, English inventor Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement, which has remained the main cement used in concrete production. He burnt ground-up limestone and clay together. The burning process changed the chemical properties of the materials and Aspdin created a stronger cement than plain crushed limestone alone could produce.
The 19th century saw the invention of reinforced concrete by French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849 (patented in 1867). François Coignet studied and improved it. This is concrete with steel bars in it, called rebars (reinforcing bars). Glass fibre or plastic fibre is beginning to replace steel bars.
Many modern chemicals can be added to the mixture to achieve special objectives. 'Superplasticizers' are chemicals which improve workability, which means the ability to shape the concrete before it has set. Pigments can change the dull grey colour. Corrosion inhibitors can reduce rusting on the steel bars. 'Air entrainment' is blowing little bubbles in the concrete before it sets. This helps the concrete survive the freezing and thawing of a cold climate. Blast furnace slag can be mixed with concrete. It turns the colour into almost pure white and makes the concrete stronger.
A marathon is a long distance running sport event where an athlete must run 42.195 kilometres (26 miles and 385 yards). There are many marathons held all over the world each year. It is a very difficult event and runners are advised to run many miles before they compete. This event was named after a battle of the Greco-Persian wars.
The famous battle of Marathon was fought in 490 B.C. An army from Persia came to fight the army of Athens. The army from Athens was not expected to win, but they did. After the victory, they sent their best runner, a man named Pheidippides back to Athens to tell everyone the good news. He ran about 25 miles and died of exhaustion when he arrived.
In 1896 the first modern Olympics was held. There was a race called the Marathon there. It was only about 25 miles (40 km) then.
The Holy Roman Empire (; ), occasionally but unofficially referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, was a group of regions and free cities in central Europe which all came under the rule of an emperor who was elected by the princes and magistrates of the regions and cities within the empire. When Charlemagne died, his Frankish Empire was given to his children and divided into three different countries: West Francia, Lotharingia and East Francia. The Holy Empire started when Otto I of East Francia became emperor in 962, and it was ended by Napoleon in 1806. The emperors claimed to be heirs of Charlemagne and that the Empire dates from 800, when Charlemagne became Frankish Emperor.
In the 16th century the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) had to deal with the rebellion of the Frisians lead by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama. This lasted from 1515 until 1523.
In the 17th century the Empire was shattered by the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Nearly thirty percent of the population of the Empire was killed. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" lost parts of its territory.
Until the 13th century, the Holy Roman Empire was powerful. Later, all the duchies and counties inside the Empire started to get more power. At the end, the emperors had little real power anymore, and the country existed only in name. The last emperor abolished the empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
Voltaire, a French philosopher in the 18th century, once joked that the nation was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire.
The Empire was in fact Germanic and not Roman since it was mainly in the regions of present-day Germany and Austria. It was not really holy since, after Charles V in 1530, no emperors were crowned by the Pope. It was only really an Empire by name: the territories it covered were mostly independent. The Empire had its own central government and armed forces that acted as one. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg before that fell in 1806. Napoleon forced the emperor to abdicate when France began invading the Holy Roman Empire during the First French Empire. The Emperor made himself emperor of Austria and ended the Holy Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers. They were collectively known as princes. The Emperor directly ruled some areas. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.
The Empire was one of the rare countries in Europe that had an elective monarchy. This meant that the Emperor was chosen by a small group of Prince-electors. Common practice was to just elect the deceased Emperor or Empress 's heir to the throne.
Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian, Friesland in Dutch) is a province in the north of the Netherlands. The capital (city) of Friesland is Leeuwarden ("Ljouwert" in Frisian). People in Friesland speak West Frisian and Dutch. People also speak Frisian in a small part of Groningen (province), and in East Friesland and North Friesland in Germany. In North Holland there is a region called West Friesland, but people who live there are not called Frisians.
Agriculture and tourism, on the lakes and the isles in the Wadden Sea, are important sources of income.
The province is also famous for its ice skaters and its Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), an ice skating race of 200 kilometers.
It is also known for being home to some breeds of animals, such as the Stabyhoun and Wetterhoun dog breeds, the Friesian horse breed and the Holstein Friesian cattle breed.
In Friesland the Frisians live. They are an old ethnic group. Members of this ethnic group are:
In 2020, Friesland had a population of 649,944 and a population density of .
The years 1880–1900 showed slower population growth due to a farm crisis during which some 20,000 Frisians emigrated to the United States.
Since the late Middle Ages, Friesland is known for the exceptional height of its inhabitants. Even early Renaissance poet Dante Alighieri refers to the height of Frisians in his "Divine Comedy" when, in the canticle about Hell, he talks about the magnitude of an infernal demon by stating that "not even three tall Frieslanders, were they set one upon the other, would have matched his height".
Groningen (province)
Groningen is a province in the Northeast of the Netherlands. At the east is the German region Lower Saxony, in the south is Drenthe, in the west is Friesland (or Fryslân in Frisian) and in the north is the Wadden Sea.
The capital of Groningen is also called Groningen. People from Groningen often call Groningen City "stad" ("city") and the rest of the province "Ommelanden" (which means something like "surrounding lands").
Important sources of income are agriculture and natural gas extraction Slochteren.
Noticeable things in Groningen are the Gronings dialect, which is related to Low Saxon, and the strong support for the communist party in the Northeastern part of the province.
Groningen (disambiguation)
Groningen might mean:
Burgundy () is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It was also a historic region in eastern France. The French adjective and name of the inhabitants of the region is "Bourguignon".
With over , it is one of the largest region of France. It covers about 6% of the territory of the country.
The four departments in the region were Côte-d'Or, Nièvre, Saône-et-Loire and Yonne. Its capital was Dijon.
Burgundy was named for the Germanic Burgundian tribe who moved there from an island in the Baltic Sea. They moved when the Roman Empire fell apart to set up a kingdom with its own laws. This included part of what is now Switzerland.
During the Middle Ages, Burgundy was ruled by dukes. In the 15th century it was very powerful. The dukes ruled lands as far north as the Netherlands. After Duke Charles the Bold died when he wanted to conquer the city of Nancy in 1477, France took southern Burgundy. It was a province until 1790. The House of Habsburg got the northern part, which later became the Southern Netherlands.
The Burgundy region is one of the largest regions of Metropolitan France. It has an area of . It bordered with five other regions: Champagne-Ardenne to the north, Franche-Comté to the east, Rhône-Alpes to the southeast, Auvergne to the southwest, Centre-Val de Loire to the west and Île-de-France to the north.
Most of the territory of Burgundy is occupied by a plateau of low hills (the Burgundy Hills) surrounded by valleys of the main rivers. The valley of the Yonne river and its tributaries is to the north of the region. To the southeast is the valley of the Saône river.
In the centre of the plateau (and of the region), there is a group of low mountains: the Morvan. The highest point in Burgundy, the Haut-Folin (), is in these mountains, in the Saône-et-Loire department. It is high.
The main rivers of the region are Yonne, Armançon, Loire, Seine and Saône.
The climate of Burgundy is an oceanic climate with temperate summers, "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.
The Burgundy region is formed by four departments:
The Burgundy region has a population, in 2012, of 1,641,130, for a population density of inhabitants/km.
The ten main cities in the region are:
The region is known for its wines, both red and white. Many well-known wines, such as Macon and Beaujolais, were first made here. A few wines are also the 'Arbois'-type. Arbois wines are between red and white and almost yellow in colour.
A Duke is someone part of nobility. In monarchies, like the UK, the title has legal status, and is inherited in the male line.
The first English dukes were created by Edward III in 1337, when he gave his eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, the title of Duke of Cornwall.
Dukes are formally referred to as 'The Duke of (place name)', and addressed as "Your Grace". On State occasions, dukes rank below Royal Dukes, and above Earls. This is called the order of precedence, because in procession to the opening Parliament, or on other state occasions, they walk in order of their rank.
The office or position of a duke is called a dukedom.
The wife of a duke is a Duchess. This is an honorary title, given for life to the lawfully wedded wife of a Duke. If she divorces and remarries a commoner, (person with no title) their children have no title. The children of a duke, on the other hand, do have honorary titles (so long as they are born in lawful wedlock). The eldest son may bear what is called a junior title which an ancestor was given before the dukedom was created. Other children would be called 'Lady' Jane (or other Christian name) and 'Lord' James (or other Christian name). Children use the family surname, not the Dukedom.
Historically, the land that is ruled by a duke is a duchy. The eldest son of a duke inherits the duchy when the duke dies. The word comes from the Latin word "dux", which means leader.
Latin is an Italic language that was used in Ancient Rome. Short Latin texts have been found from about the 5th century BC and longer texts from about the 3rd century BC.