AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Territory of Louisiana or Louisiana Territory was an organized incorporated territory of the United States. It was made from the former Louisiana (New France) on July 4, 1805. It lasted until June 4, 1812, when it was renamed the Missouri Territory.
On March 3, 1805, Congress passed legislation organizing the District of Louisiana into the Louisiana Territory, starting July 4, 1805.
The Territory was governed like how the Indiana Territory was governed.
The capitol of government was in St. Louis.
The first territorial governor was James Wilkinson. He was chosen by President Thomas Jefferson. He also was a Senior Officer of the United States Army while he was governor.
Guo Shoujing
Guo Shoujing (, 1231–1316), or Ruosi (若思), was a Chinese astronomer, engineer, and mathematician. He lived during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). He is considered one of the greatest scientists in Chinese history. Guo was a major influence in the development of science.
He improved the Grand Canal, built a human-made lake (Kunming lake), created one of the most accurate calendars in history, invented some of the most accurate clocks during his time, and made many other contributions to math, astronomy, and hydraulics (water engineering).
He was born in 1231 in Xingtai, Hebei province. His family was poor. He grandfather, Guo Yong, was famous for his study of the Five Classics to astronomy, mathematics, and hydraulics. Guo Shoujing was a child prodigy. As a teenager, he learned how to build a water clock. He then improved it. His new invention was called the lotus clepsydra (a bowl shaped like a lotus flower that water dripped into). At 16 he began to study math and from there hydraulics and astronomy.
At 20, Guo became a hydraulic engineer and government official. He helped fix a bridge over the Dahuoquan River.
In the late 1250s, Kublai Khan (of the Mongol Empire, Yuan dynasty) thought hydraulic engineering, irrigation, and water transport would help the country and people. He sent Liu Bingzhong and his student Guo to improve irrigation systems between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River.
Guo helped build a 30 km canal from Baifu spring in the Shenshan Mountain to Dadu,
The Grand Canal linked the Yangzi river, the Huai, and Yellow river since the early 7th century. Guo helped extend it to Dadu 1292–93.
It worked. Kublai Khan was happy, and Guo did similar things for the rest of the empire. He was promoted to chief advisor of hydraulics, mathematics, and astronomy.
He created a human-made Kunming Lake in Beijing. This was one of his most memorable engineering feats.
The lake provided water for all areas surrounding Beijing and led to the best grain transport system in the world.
He built other reservoirs, thereby allowing people in inner China to access to fresh water for planting, drinking, and trading.
For irrigation, he provided hydraulics systems which distributed water equally and quickly, which allowed communities to trade more effectively, and therefore prosper.
In 1292, he became the head of the Water Works Bureau.
Guo invented many astronomy devices: the gnomon, the square table, the armilla, and a water powered armillary sphere called the Ling Long Yi.
Even when young Guo was revolutionizing old inventions. His clocks, watches, irrigation, reservoirs, and equilibrium stations were the most accurate of his time, allowing for an extremely accurate recording of time.
Kublai Khan noticed Guo was a genius in astronomy. So he asked Guo, Zhang, and Wang Xun to build a very accurate calendar. It would be the most accurate of its time. They built 27 observatories in the empire to collect data for calculations.
In 1280, Guo finished the calendar, calculating a year to be 365.2425 days, just 26 seconds off modern measurements. He invented many tools in the process.
The calendar revolutionized China and the world. It allowed more accurate recording of history, gave a sense of unification, and helped later emperors rule over China. His calendar would be used for the next 363 years, the longest a Chinese calendar has been used in history.
Guo was also able to more accurately establish the location of celestial bodies and the angles of the Sun relative to Earth. He invented a new type of compass, helping people find north using the stars instead of magnets.
In 1283, Guo was promoted to director of the Observatory in Beijing.
Guo’s work in mathematics was regarded as the most knowledgeable for 400 years. Throughout his life he worked a lot on spherical trigonometry, using a system of approximation to find arc lengths and angles. He approximated pi was equal to 3. But this allowed him to solve some equations much faster and more accurately than if he said pi was 3.14...
He also used mathematical functions for spherical trigonometry, building upon the knowledge of Shen Kuo's (1031–1095).
The next important work in trigonometry would only be printed 300 years later by Xu Guangqi in 1607, during the Ming Dynasty.
Tang Shunzhi 唐順之 (1507-1560) said Guo's work was an example of "practical scholarship" (applying advanced knowledge to solve practical problems).
Guo influenced the Changzhou School of Thought and spread of "evidential learning" (learning through experience).
A number of things are named after Guo, including the Asteroid 2012 Guo Shou-Jing and the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fibre Spectroscopic Telescope near Beijing.
Grand Canal (China)
The Grand Canal or Dayunhe or Jing–Hang Grand Canal () is the longest and oldest canal and artificial river in the world.
It starts in Beijing; passes through Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang; and ends in Hangzhou.
It connects China's two longest rivers: the Yellow River and the Yangzi.
The oldest parts of the canal were built during the 5th century BC.
The Sui dynasty (581–618 AD) added some other parts. Between 1271–1633, the Yuan dynasty (through Guo Shoujing and others) and the Ming dynasty improved it and built parts to direct water to Beijing.
The total length is . Its greatest height is 42 m (138 ft) near the Shandong mountains.
Song Dynasty (960–1279) engineer Qiao Weiyue invented the pound lock in the 10th century. This allowed ships to travel higher and lower through the canal.
The canal amazed many people throughout history including Japanese monk Ennin (794–864), Persian historian Rashid al-Din (1247–1318), Korean official Choe Bu (1454–1504), and Italian missionary Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).
Historically, flooding of the Yellow River threatened to break the canal. During wartime the canal was even used as a weapon: the dikes of the Yellow River were sometimes broken to flood the enemy troops. But this caused disasters and hurt the economy.
The Canal has greatly improved China's economy and increased trade between the north and south. It is still used heavily to this day.
Slavery in the United States
Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human slavery in the United States. Slaves were mostly Africans and African Americans. Slavery existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries. Slavery existed in British America from early colonial days. Slavery was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It lasted in about half the states until 1865. This was when it was banned in the entire country by the Thirteenth Amendment.
By the time of the American Revolution (1775–1783), slaves had been institutionalized as a racial caste. The caste associated with African ancestry. When the United States Constitution was ratified in 1789, a small number of free people of color were able to vote. This was because they were men who owned property. During and shortly after the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, and there was a movement created to end slavery. Slave states tried to extend slavery into new Western territories. They wanted to do this to keep their share of political power in the country. Southern leaders also wanted to annex Cuba as a slave territory. The United States became split over the issue of slavery. It was split into slave and free states. The Mason–Dixon line divided the country. The line divided (free) Pennsylvania from (slave) Maryland.
While Jefferson was president, Congress prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808. Although smuggling (illegal importing) through Spanish Florida was common. Slave trading within the United States, however, continued at a fast pace. This was because there was a need for labor due to the creation of cotton plantations in the Deep South. New communities of African-American culture were created in the Deep South. There were 4 million slaves in the Deep South before they were set free.
The first Africans came to the New World with Christopher Columbus in 1492. An African crew member named Juan Las Canaries was on Columbus's ship. Shortly after, the first enslavement happened in what would later be the United States. In 1508, Ponce de Leon created the first settlement near present-day San Juan. He started enslaving the indigenous Tainos. In 1513, to supplement the decreasing number of Tainos people, the first African slaves were imported to Puerto Rico.
The first African slaves in the continental United States came via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina). It was created by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526.
The colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership. During the fight, the slaves revolted, and they ran away from the colony to hide among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly after from a sickness. The colony was abandoned. The settlers and the slaves who didn't run away went back to Haiti, from where they came.
On August 28, 1565, St. Augustine, Florida was created by the Spanish conquistador Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles. He brought three African slaves with him. During the 16th and 17th centuries, St. Augustine was the where a lot of the slave trade in Spanish colonial Florida happened. It was the first permanent settlement in the continental United States to have African slaves.
60 years later, in the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to convince people to come and work for them. This was because the weather and environment of the settlements was very harsh. There was a very high chance that people would die. Most people came from Great Britain as indentured laborers. They signed contracts that said they would pay with work for their transportation, their upkeep, and their training, usually on a farm. The colonies had agricultural economies. These people were often young people who wanted to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were sent to the colonies as indentured laborers, rather than being sent to prison. These people were not slaves, but they were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay for the cost of their transportation and maintenance. Many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south.
The first 19 or so Africans to reach the English colonies arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. They were brought by English privateers who had seized them from a captured Portuguese slave ship. Slaves were usually baptized in Africa before sending them. As English custom then considered baptized Christians exempt from slavery, colonists treated these Africans as indentured servants. The African indentured servants joined about 1,000 English indentured servants already in the colony. The Africans were freed after a period of time. They were also given the use of land and supplies by their former masters.
There were no laws about slavery in Virginia's early history. However, in 1640, a Virginia court sentenced John Punch, an African, to slavery. This was because he tried to run away from his service. He ran away with two white people. The two white people were sentenced only to one more year of their indenture, and three years' service to the colony. This is the first legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies. It was one of the first legal distinctions made between Europeans and Africans.
In 1641, Massachusetts became the first colony to allow slavery through law. Massachusetts passed the Body of Liberties. It banned slavery in many cases, but it allowed slaves to be held if they were prisoners of war, if they sold themselves into slavery or were bought somewhere else, or if they were sentenced to slavery as punishment by the government. The Body of Liberties used the word "strangers" to refer to people bought and sold as slaves; they were generally not English subjects. Colonists believed this term referred to Native Americans and Africans.
During most of the British colonial period, slavery existed in all the colonies. Slaves in the North usually worked as house servants, artisans, laborers, and craftsmen. Most were in cities. Many men worked on the docks and in shipping. In 1703, more than 42 percent of New York City households had slaves. New York City had the second-highest proportion of slaves of any city in the colonies after Charleston, South Carolina. Slaves were also used as agricultural workers in farming communities. This included areas of upstate New York and Long Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey. By 1770 there were 397,924 Blacks in a population of 2,170 million. They were not spread out evenly. There were 14,867 in New England where they were 2.7% of the population; 34,679 in the mid-Atlantic colonies where they were 6% of the population (19,000 were in New York or 11%); and 347,378 in the five southern colonies where they were 31% of the population.
The South developed an agricultural economy. It relied on commodity crops. Its planters quickly got more slaves. This was because its commodity crops were labor-intensive.
While there were some African slaves that were kept and sold in England, slavery in Great Britain had not been allowed by statute there. In 1772, it was made unenforceable at common law in England and Wales by a legal decision. The big British role in the international slave trade continued until 1807. Slavery continued in most of Britain's colonies. Many rich slave owners lived in England and had a lot of power.
In early 1775 Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, wrote to Lord Dartmouth. He wrote he was going to free slaves owned by Patriots in case they rebelled. On November 7, 1775, Lord Dunmore issued Lord Dunmore's Proclamation which declared martial law. He promised freedom for any slaves of American patriots who would leave their masters and join the royal forces. Slaves owned by Loyalist masters, however, were not going to be freed by Dunmore's Proclamation. About 1500 slaves owned by Patriots ran away and joined Dunmore's forces. Most died of disease before they could do any fighting. Three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain.
Many slaves used the war to run away from their plantations. They would run into cities or woods. In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30% of the total enslaved population) ran away, migrated, or died during the war. In the South, many slaves died, with many due to escapes. Slaves also escaped throughout New England and the mid-Atlantic, joining the British who had occupied New York.
Slaves and free blacks also fought with the rebels during the Revolutionary War. Washington allowed slaves to be freed who fought with the American Continental Army. Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in 1778. Rhode Island promised money to owners whose slaves enlisted and lived to gain freedom. During the course of the war, about one fifth of the northern army was black. In 1781, Baron Closen, a German officer in the French Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment at the Battle of Yorktown, estimated the American army to be about one-quarter black. These men included both former slaves and free blacks.
In the 18th century, Britain became the world's biggest slave trader. Starting in 1777, the Patriots made importing slaves illegal state by state. They all acted to end the international trade. However, it was later reopened in South Carolina and Georgia. In 1807 Congress acted on President Jefferson's advice and made importing slaves from other countries a federal crime, as the Constitution permitted, starting January 1, 1808.
In the United States in the early nineteenth century, owners of female slaves could freely and legally use them as sexual objects. This is similar to the free use of female slaves on slave ships by the crews.
"Fancy" was a code word that meant the girl or young woman was able to be used for or trained for sexual use. Sometimes, children were also abused like this. The sale of a 13-year-old "nearly a fancy" is documented.
Furthermore, females who were able to become pregnant were supposed to be kept pregnant, so they could make more slaves to sell. The differences in skin color found in the United States make it obvious how often black women were impregnated by whites. For example, in the 1850 Census, 75.4% of "free negros" in Florida were described as mulattos, of mixed race. Nevertheless, it is only very recently, with DNA studies, that any sort of reliable number can be provided, and the research has only begun. Light-skinned girls, who contrasted with the darker field workers, were preferred.
Some slave owners were black. An African former indentured servant who settled in Virginia in 1621, Anthony Johnson, became one of the earliest documented slave owners in the American colonies. This was documented when he won a civil lawsuit to own a man named John Casor. In 1830, there were 3,775 black slave owners in the South. They owned a total of 12,760 slaves. 80% of the black slave owners lived in Louisiana, South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland.
Primatologist
Primatology is the study of nonhuman primates. It is a diverse discipline, and primatologists can be found in biology, anthropology, psychology and other departments.
Nebraska Territory
The Territory of Nebraska was an organized incorporated territory of the United States. It existed from May 30, 1854, until March 1, 1867, when the part of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Nebraska. The Nebraska Territory was created by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The territorial capitol was Omaha. The territory included areas of what is today Nebraska, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, Colorado, and Montana.
Hancock County, Mississippi
Hancock County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 43,929 people lived there. Its county seat is Bay St. Louis. The county was created in 1812. It is named for Founding Father John Hancock.
The county is along the Gulf of Mexico and the state line with Louisiana.
Holmes County, Mississippi
Holmes County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 19,198 people lived there. Its county seat is Lexington.
Humphreys County, Mississippi
Humphreys County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 9,375 people lived there. Its county seat is Belzoni.
Issaquena County, Mississippi
Issaquena County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 1,406 people lived there. Its county seat is Mayersville.
Itawamba County, Mississippi
Itawamba County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 23,401 people lived there. Its county seat is Fulton.
Jackson County, Mississippi
Jackson County is a county in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 139,668 people lived there which makes it the fifth-most populous county in Mississippi. Its county seat is Pascagoula.
The county was founded in 1812 and named for Andrew Jackson, general in the United States Army and afterward President of the United States.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (31%) is water. It is the largest county in Mississippi by total area.
Jasper County, Mississippi
Jasper County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 17,062 people lived there. Its county seats are Bay Springs and Paulding.
Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi
Jefferson Davis County is a county located in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 12,487 people lived there. Its county seat is Prentiss. The county was founded on March 31, 1906. It is named in honor of Mississippi Senator and Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
Kemper County, Mississippi
Kemper County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 10,456 people lived there. Its county seat is De Kalb.
Lafayette County, Mississippi
Lafayette County is a county in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 47,351 people lived there. Its county seat is Oxford.
Union County, Mississippi
Union County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 27,134 people lived there. Its county seat is New Albany.
Lamar County, Mississippi
Lamar County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 55,658 people lived there. Its county seat is Purvis.
Smith County, Mississippi
Smith County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 16,491 people lived there. Its county seat is Raleigh.
Raleigh, Mississippi
Raleigh is a town in, and the county seat of, Smith County, Mississippi, United States. The population was 1,462 at the 2010 census, making it the largest town in Smith County.
Gainesville, Texas
Lauderdale County, Mississippi
Lauderdale County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, 80,261 people lived there. Its county seat is Meridian. The county was founded in 1833. It is named for Colonel James Lauderdale, who was killed at the Battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812.
Songtsen Gampo
Songtsen Gampo (Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ, "srong btsan sgam po;" 569–649) or Songzan Ganbu (), was the 33rd Tibetan king and founder of the Tibetan Empire.
He helped introduce Buddhism to Tibet. He had a Nepali wife named Bhrikuti and a Tang wife named Princess Wencheng. Both of them were Buddhists. He also helped invent the Tibetan alphabet and made Classical Tibetan the official language of Tibet at the time.
He may have been born in 569 or 605. Tibet used their own calendar so we are still trying to figure it out.
Songtsen Gampo was born at Gyama in Meldro, northeast of modern Lhasa. His dad was the Yarlung king Namri Songtsen. The book "The Holder of the White Lotus" says Gampo was the human form (incarnation) of the Avalokiteśvara. Dalai Lamas are also thought to be human forms of the Avalokitesvara. In the 11th century, Buddhists started calling him a cakravartin and incarnation of Avalokiteśvara.
Some Dunhuang documents say Gampo had a sister Sad-mar-kar and a younger brother. His younger brother was betrayed and died in a fire after 641. There may have been fighting between his sister and brother.
Songtsen Gampo's mother was part of the Tsépong clan ("Tibetan Annals"). She helped unify Tibet. Her name is Driza Tökarma ("the Bri Wife [named] White Skull Woman", "Tibetan Annals").
According to Tibetan tradition, Songtsen Gampo became king when 13 after his father was poisoned around 618. He was the 33rd king of the Yarlung Dynasty. He was born in the Ox year. Yarlung kings usually took throne at 13. This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were 13, when they were old enough to ride a horse. If this is true, then Gampo may have been born in the Ox year 605 CE. The "Old Book of Tang" confirms that he "was still a minor when he succeeded to the throne."
Gampo had six wives. Five are listed:
In Tibetan tradition, these last two wives helped bring Buddhism to Tibet. The two great influences on Tibetan Buddhism are Indo-Nepali and Han Buddhism.
Gampo's son, Gungsong Gungtsen, died before his father. So Gampo's son, Mangsong Mangtsen, took the throne. His mother may have been Wencheng or Mangmoje Trikar. Trikar is mentioned in "Genealogy," in a hidden library in the caves in Dunhuang, and the "Tibetan Annals", which list the names of the Tibetan emperors, their mothers, and their clans.
Some sources tell a different story. When Gungsong Gungtsen turned 13 (nowadays 12 as Tibet used a different calendar), his dad Gampo retired, so Gungsong ruled for five years. They say Gungsong married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen, and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE). Gungsong then died when he was 18. His dad Gampo then took the throne again. Gungsong Gungtsen may be buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). The dates for these events are very unclear.
Songtsen Gampo sent Thonmi Sambhota to India to create a new alphabet for Classical Tibetan. This led to the first written works, literature, and constitution.
He brought new culture and tech to Tibet.
The "Old Book of Tang" ("Jiu Tangshu" 旧唐书) says in 648 a northern Indian army attacked some some Tang Chinese (including Wang Xuanze). So with the Nepali and Tang, Gampo helped defeat the army and protect the Chinese. In 649, the Tang Emperor Gaozong, a fellow Buddhist, gave him the title "Binwang", "Guest King" or "Zongwang", "Cloth-tribute King" and 3,000 rolls of colorful silk. Gaozong also gave Gampo "silkworms' eggs, mortars and presses for making wine, and workmen to manufacture paper and ink."
Tools and astrology was imported from Tang and the Western Xia; the dharma and the art of writing came from India; treasures from the Nepalis and the Mongols; laws from the Uyghurs of the Turkic Khaganate to the North.
Gampo brought Buddhism to the Tibetan people. He built many Buddhist temples During his reign, people began translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
He defeated the Sumpa in northeastern Tibet around 627 ("Tibetan Annals" ["OTA"] l. 2).
He may have conquered the Zhangzhung (around northern India, western Tibet), or that may have happened after he died. The "Old Book of Tang" say that in 634, the Yangtong (the Zhangzhung) and various Qiang peoples "altogether submitted to him."
He then unified Yangtong, defeated the 'Azha (Tuyuhun), and then conquered two more Qiang tribes before threatening Songzhou with an army of more than 200,000 men.
He conquered the Tangut people (who later formed the Western Xia in 942), the Bailang, and Qiang tribes. The Bailang people were west of the Tanguts and east of the Domi. The Tang previously ruled them since 624.
The "Old Book of Tang" says: Naling Deva's father was king of 泥婆羅 Nepal (Licchavi kingdom) died. The king died, and then Naling Deva's uncle took over. "The Tibetans gave [Naling Deva] refuge and reestablished him on his throne [in 641]; that is how he became subject to Tibet."
The Tibetans traveled to Nepal, and the Naling Deva was happy. Then the Tibetans were attacked by the northern Indian king Harsha. So Naling Deva helped Tibet defeat Harsha's army. Gampo then married Princess Bhrikuti, daughter of Naling Deva.
The "Jiu Tangshu" records that Gampo sent the first embassy from Tibet to the Tang in 634 CE. It was a "tribute mission" with Tibet giving gifts to the Tang. He gave gifts of gold and silk to the Tang emperor and asked for a Tang princess in marriage in return (heqin). Tang said no. So he attacked Songzhou (part of Tang) in 637 and 638. But he then gave up and said sorry. He asked for a wife again, and this time the Tang said yes. And so he married Wencheng, niece of Emperor Taizong of Tang. So there was peace between the Tang and Tibetan empires of China.
Both wives Wencheng and Bhrikuti are considered to be Tara, the Goddess of Compassion and female Chenrezig:
Gampo built a city for Wencheng and a palace just for her.
Chinese monk Xuanzang visited Harsha. Harsha then sent some people to China. China then sent Wang Xuanze and some others back. They traveled through Tibet. Their journey is written in stuff at northern India (Rajgir and Bodhgaya).
Harsha was then overthrown by Arjuna. In 648 Wang Xuanze made a second journey, but Arjuna treated him badly. So the Tibetans and Nepalese defeated Arjuna.
So in 649, Chinese emperor Tang Gaozong rewarded Gampo with the title of King of Xinhai Jun (Himalayan plateau, China).
Gampo died in 649. In 650, the Tang emperor sent an envoy with a "letter of mourning and condolences". Gampo's tomb is in the Chongyas Valley near Yalung, 13 m high and 130 m long.
2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
The 2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation. The North Indian Ocean cyclone season has no official bounds, but cyclones tend to form between April and December, with two peaks in activity in May and November. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northern Indian Ocean. The season's first named storm, Pabuk, entered the basin on January 4, becoming the earliest-forming cyclonic storm of the North Indian Ocean on record.
The season currently contains 3 depressions, 3 deep depressions, 3 cyclonic storms and 2 very severe cyclonic storms.
Due to the presence of an weak El Niño to continue through the season, the season's first named storm, Pabuk, entered the basin on January 4, becoming the earliest-forming cyclonic storm of the North Indian Ocean on record, tying with 2014 season. The second Cyclonic Storm of the season was formed, Fani on April 26. Fani became an extremely severe cyclonic storm on April 30, reaching an Category 4-equivalent tropical cyclone on the Saffir-Simpson Scale, then made landfall in India killing 89 people between Odisha and Bangladesh; Fani caused $1.812 billion in damages. In early June, a strong pulse of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), led to the development of the third cyclonic storm, Vayu, which formed June 10 in the Arabian Sea, near the Maldives. The storm subsequently intensified into a very severe cyclonic storm on June 12, after moving northwestward towards northwestern India and Pakistan.
Deal barracks bombing
Tropical Storm Pabuk (2019)
Tropical Storm Pabuk, also referred to as Cyclonic Storm Pabuk, was a weak storm that hit the Malay Peninsula in January 2019. It was also the earliest storm in both the Western Pacific and North Indian Ocean basins on record. Forming on the last day of 2018, Pabuk went into 2019 and crossed into the North Indian Ocean basin several days later. The first storm of the 2019 Pacific typhoon and North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons, Pabuk first appeared as a tropical disturbance in the South China Sea on December 28, 2018, which organized into a tropical depression on December 31.
A tropical disturbance formed over the southern portion of the South China Sea on December 28, 2018, absorbing the remnants of on December 30. Under high vertical wind shear, the low-pressure area remained messy until December 31 when it was upgraded to a tropical depression by both the JMA and the JTWC.
Under good conditions, including warm sea surface temperatures, good outflow but strong vertical wind shear, Pabuk did not manage to intensify further for
another two days until it started to move west-northwestward and entered the Gulf of Thailand on January 3, where vertical wind shear was slightly weaker.
Soon after Pabuk crossed over into the basin, the IMD started to make warnings on the storm, making Pabuk the earliest-forming cyclonic storm for this basin, as well as the first cyclonic storm with a name originally assigned by RSMC Tokyo. Over the few days days, Pabuk continued moved west-northwestward, before weakening into a well-marked low on January 7. The system's remnant low then turned to the northeast. Finally, it disappeared on January 8.
The storm caused 10 deaths in total, and total damages were estimated to be ~$157.2 million (2019 USD).
On Thailand, 8 of the 10 people were killed with many trees downed. Elsewhere, many people were forced to evacuate coastal areas of Thailand. In Bangkok, rain and storm surge flooded roads in the large city. Pabuk killed 8 people in Thailand, including one Russian tourist.
United States Naval Research Laboratory
Mobility as a service
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is transportation that you can buy but do not have to own.
For example, you can pay an Uber car to pick you up, but you do not own that car.
Or you can pay for a city bike to travel around the city, but you do not own the bike.
In each case, you pay for the transportation.
Public buses, taxis, subways, high-speed rail, and airplanes are already forms of MaaS.
MaaS is already becoming popular around the world from the US, Europe, Japan, Korea, to China.
Examples include
MaaS may decrease how many people own cars. This is already the case in China, where more than half of the population do not have cars--they just do not need it.
MaaS can decrease traffic.
Uber, Tesla, General Motors, Waymo, Apple, and Local Motors are building self-driving vehicles (or autonomous vehicles, AVs).
Self-driving cars could take people where they wanted to go at a lower cost than a taxi or ridesharer. It could help benefit the environment, make transportation faster, and even improve healthcare.
The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people. They formed an empire called Khazaria in Russia from the 6th to 10th century CE. They came from the Western Turkic Khaganate of the Eurasian steppe, after it was conquered by Tang China.
Khazaria was an international trading center. It was an important place on the Silk Road that linked China, the Middle East, and the Kievan Rus'. For three centuries (c. 650–965) the Khazars conquered the area from the Volga-Don steppes to Crimea and the Caucasus.
Khazaria was between the Byzantine Empire, the steppe nomads, and the Umayyad Caliphate. It helped Byzantine defend itself from the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance ended around 900. Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus replaced Khazaria.
Tengrism may have been the main religion, as it was for the Huns and Turkic peoples. Abrahamic religions were also popular. The ruling class may have converted to Judaism in the 8th century.
Some people think that the Cossacks, Muslim Kumyks, Kazakhs, and some Jews, like the Ashkenazi Jews, descended from the Khazars. Some disagree.
Khazar or "Xazar" may have come from *Qasar. The Turkic root "qaz-" means "to ramble, to roam" (used in Qazaqsa or Kazakh). It is similar to the Common Turkic "kez-".
Others say it is from "qas-" ("tyrannize, oppress, terrorize") because it is similar to the Uyghur name Qasar.
Others think it is a person or tribe's name. For example the Chinese name Kesa for "Khazars" may be one of the tribal names of the Uyğur Toquz Oğuz (of the Gokturks), namely the "Gésà". But others say Kesa was not a tribal name but the name of the chief of the 思结 "Sijie" tribe of the Toquz Oğuz. Also in Middle Chinese the name "Khazars" always comes before the word "Tūjué" ("Tūjué Kěsà bù": 突厥可薩部; "Tūjué Hésà": 突厥曷薩).
Khazar language is extinct. But modern Turkic languages still refer to the Caspian Sea as the "Khazar Sea".
No known records of the Khazar language survive. The state was polyglot (spoke multiple languages) and polyethnic. The ruling elite probably spoke an eastern dialect of Shaz Turkic. The ordinary people may have spoken Lir Turkic, such as Oğuric, Bulğaric, Chuvash, and Hunnish. The Persian historian al-Iṣṭakhrī said that the Khazar language was different from any other known language.
After the Khazars became Jewish they may have written in the Hebrew alphabet. Though they spoke a Türkic language, they may have also spoke Hebrew.
They appear to have came from Mongolia or northern China after the Xiōngnú (Huns) were defeated by Han dynasty of China (Han–Xiongnu war). The tribes probably had Iranian, proto-Mongolic, Uralic, and Palaeo-Siberian people.
The Turkic tribes may have conquered the Western Eurasian steppe as early as 463.
In 552, they conquered the Rouran Khaganate and moved westwards, taking more people from Sogdia.
The ruling family may have came from the Āshǐnà (阿史那) clan of the West Türkic tribes. The Chinese and Arabic records are almost identical, indicating strong support for this theory. The leader may have been Yǐpíshèkuì (乙毗射匱). He died around 651. Moving west, the Khazars reached Akatziroi, one of the important friends of Byzantium fighting Attila's army.
Khazaria began after 630. It came from the Göktürk Qağanate, after it was crushed by Tang China between 630–650.
Göktürk armies conquered Volga by 549. The Āshǐnà clan whose tribal name was 'Türk' ("the strong one") arrived in 552. They overthrew the Rourans and created the Göktürk Qağanate.
The Chinese Tang Dynasty defeated the Turkic Qağanate and established the Anxi protectorate (Tang dynasty in Inner Asia). The Khaganate split into many tribes. Some tribes went west to the Sea of Azov area. Ashina and the Khazars went further west.
In 657, General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定方) dominated the Turks and Central Asia. They imposed Chinese overlordship to the east of those Turkic tribes. In 659 the Chinese defeated the remaining tribes. The Khazars did not dare return.
Instead the Khazars defeated the Bulgars further west.
And so the Khazars Qaganate was born, from the ruins of a nomadic empire destroyed by the Tang armies to the east. It became the westernmost successor state of the Gokturks.
The Khazars conquered the lower Volga region and the area between the Danube and the Dniepr. In 670, they also conquered the Onoğur-Bulğar union and made the Onogur-Bulgar language the official language of the empire (lingua franca).
The empire is sometimes called a 'steppe Atlantis' ("stepnaja Atlantida," Степная Атлантида).
Historians often call this period the Pax Khazarica. The state became an international center of trade.
Ibn al-Balḫî wrote in "Fârsnâma" (c. 1100) that the Sasanian Shah (ruler), Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân, said there were three kings who had as much power as he did: the King of China, the King of Byzantium, and the king of the Khazars.
Eminem singles discography
This is the singles discography page of American rapper Eminem. This list has his 78 singles, he had made in his music career. To date, Eminem has sold over 42 million track downloads in the United States alone.
Batam (also called Batam City) is an industrial city in the province of Riau Islands, Indonesia. Over 1 million people live in it. It is the biggest city in Riau Islands, and the third biggest city in Sumatra. It is part of the Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand and Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore free-trade zone.
The city administrative covers an area of 3 big islands with some small islands surround them. The 3 big islands are Batam, Rempang, and Galang. The islands are conected by bridges called Barelang Bridges () that is a short name for Batam-Rempang-Galang Bridges.
Republic of Upper Volta
Spaceship Earth (or Spacecraft Earth or Spaceship Planet Earth) is a world view encouraging everyone on Earth to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good.
The earliest known use is a passage in Henry George's best known work, "Progress and Poverty" (1879).
From book IV, chapter 2:
It is a well-provisioned ship, this on which we sail through space. If the bread and beef above decks seem to grow scarce, we but open a hatch and there is a new supply, of which before we never dreamed. And very great command over the services of others comes to those who as the hatches are opened are permitted to say, "This is mine!"
George Orwell later paraphrases Henry George in "The Road to Wigan Pier":
The world is a raft sailing through space with, potentially, plenty of provisions for everybody; the idea that we must all cooperate and see to it that everyone does his fair share of the work and gets his fair share of the provisions seems so blatantly obvious that one would say that no one could possibly fail to accept it unless he had some corrupt motive for clinging to the present system.
In 1965 Adlai Stevenson made a famous speech to the UN in which he said:
We travel together, passengers on a little space ship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. We cannot maintain it half fortunate, half miserable, half confident, half despairing, half slave—to the ancient enemies of man—half free in a liberation of resources undreamed of until this day. No craft, no crew can travel safely with such vast contradictions. On their resolution depends the survival of us all.
The following year, "Spaceship Earth" became the title of a book by a friend of Stevenson's, the internationally influential economist Barbara Ward.
Also in 1966, Kenneth E. Boulding, who was influenced by reading Henry George, used the phrase in the title of an essay, "The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth". Boulding described the past open economy of apparently illimitable resources, which he said he was tempted to call the "cowboy economy", and continued: "The closed economy of the future might similarly be called the 'spaceman' economy, in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system".
The phrase was also popularized by Buckminster Fuller, who published a book in 1968 under the title of "Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth". This quotation, referring to fossil fuels, reflects his approach:
…we can make all of humanity successful through science's world-engulfing industrial evolution provided that we are not so foolish as to continue to exhaust in a split second of astronomical history the orderly energy savings of billions of years' energy conservation aboard our Spaceship Earth. These energy savings have been put into our Spaceship's life-regeneration-guaranteeing bank account for use only in self-starter functions.
United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of Spaceship Earth on Earth Day March 21, 1971 at the ceremony of the ringing of the Japanese Peace Bell: "May there only be peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life."
Spaceship Earth is the name given to the diameter geodesic sphere that greets visitors at the entrance of Walt Disney World's Epcot theme park. Housed within the sphere is a dark ride that serves to explore the history of communications and promote Epcot's founding principles, "[a] belief and pride in man's ability to shape a world that offers hope to people everywhere." A previous incarnation of the ride, narrated by actor Jeremy Irons and revised in 2008, was explicit in its message:
Like a grand and miraculous spaceship, our planet has sailed through the universe of time, and for a brief moment, we have been among its many passengers….We now have the ability and the responsibility to build new bridges of acceptance and co-operation between us, to create a better world for ourselves and our children as we continue our amazing journey aboard Spaceship Earth.
David Deutsch has pointed out that the picture of Earth as a friendly "spaceship" habitat is difficult to defend even in a metaphorical sense. The Earth environment is harsh and survival is a constant struggle for life, including for whole species trying to avoid extinction. Humans wouldn't be able to live in most of the areas where they are living now without the knowledge necessary to build life-support systems such as houses, heating, water supply, etc.
The term "Spaceship Earth" is frequently used on the labels of Emanuel Bronner's products to refer to the Earth.
Mutesa II of Buganda
Sir Edward Frederick William David Walugembe Mutebi Luwangula Muteesa II (19 November 1924 – 21 November 1969) was Kabaka of the Kingdom of Buganda from 22 November 1939 until his death. He was the thirty-fifth Kabaka of Buganda and the first President of Uganda. The foreign press often referred to him as King Freddie, a name rarely used in Uganda
Er Wang San Ke
Erwang Sanke (二王三恪) or "the two crownings and the three respects" is something Chinese emperors did to honor the previous dynasty. For example the Sui dynasty came directly before the Tang. So the Tang may honor descendants of the Sui royal family. The Tang would do this by giving these Sui descendants land to rule over. The Tang said you can control these lands and use laws of the previous Sui dynasty if you wish. There may also be a sacrifice at a religious place.
This was done to show respect to previous dynasties. This was also to make a peaceful transition of power.
It has been done in every major Chinese dynasty from the Xia to the Qing.
Sometimes people would pretend to be the descendants of the previous dynasty just to get this benefit.
Er wang 二王 means two rulers. This refers to the current ruler and the previous ruler.
San ke 三恪 means three respects. This could refer to how this was done for the first three generation descendants of the previous ruler (their children, grandchildren, and great grandchildren).
NEC was the world's fourth biggest PC manufacturer by 1990. Its NEC Semiconductors business unit was the global semiconductor sales leader between 1985 and 1990, the second largest in 1995, one of the top three in 2000, and one of the top 10 in 2006. It was still one of the top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group.
NEC was #463 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list.
Neoconservatism refers to things that are pro-American nationalist interest in international affairs. This includes bigger military, pro-democracy, nationalism, anti-communism. It started in the United States during the 1960s. Neocons supported the Vietnam war, but disliked the Democratic party, Great Society, and the New Left.
Neoconservative sometimes refers to people who started as anti-Stalinists and then became American conservatives during the 1960s and 1970s.
Some neocons are Republicans, like the presidents between from the 1970s to the 2000s. For example, George W. Bush started the 2003 invasion of Iraq. His neocon friends include Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, and Paul Bremer. Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld also listened to these neocons. Together they supported the defense of Israel and the American invasion of the Middle East.
Neocon started in the 60s with Jewish magazine "Commentary", edited by Norman Podhoretz and published by the American Jewish Committee. They opposed the New Left and thus started the neocon movement.
Han Buddhism
Han Buddhism () or Chinese buddhism refers to Buddhism written in Chinese characters (hanzi) or that of the East Asian cultural sphere. It is one of the three main existing schools of Buddhism: the other two are Tibetan Buddhism and Theravada. It is mainly practiced in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It has had a great impact on East Asian culture.
Like Tibetan Buddhism, Han Buddhism comes from Mahayana, the branch of Buddhism written mainly in Sanskrit and from northern India.
Han Buddhism has a lot of interaction between the Indian religions and Chinese religions (like Taoism).
There are legends that Laozi was the Buddha himself, or that the Buddha came from the Tibetan kingdom of Zhangzhung. There are other legends that Buddhism had existed in China since ancient times (before the Qin dynasty).
The Shiji 《》has a section called「禁不得祠」(jin bude ci). It says:
“徙謫，實之初縣。禁不得祠。明星出西方。”
In the 20th century, Japanese scholar Fujita Toyohachi () said Buddhism entered China during the Qin dynasty. The word 不得 (pinyin: "bude"; rough pronunciation: boo-duh) is pronounced nearly exactly like the Sanskrit word "Buddha". It was used to write down Buddha in the Chinese language. Others (like ) disagreed. Moreover it is unlikely 得 would be used to transliterate. And based on the evolution of Chinese tones, 不得 would sound something like putug ( says “不得” is [pɯtɯːɡ]).
It is generally believed Buddhism was introduced during the (Western, before 1 BC) Han dynasty. It came from the western regions and Silk Road.
According to the Weilüe《‧西戎傳》、《‧釋老志》and other records, Emperor Ai of Han's men gave the people the Pagoda Sutra《浮屠经》。
In 67, Emperor Ming of Han dreamed of the "Golden People". He sent people to meet monks in the western regions. These monks brought back more Buddhist texts. He built the White horse temple () and translated 42 chapters of the scripture 《》。