AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Jagged Little Pill is the third studio album and the first to be released internationally by Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette. The album saw Morissette changing her style and genre. Morissette's sound in the album was rock, but her previous songs were dance pop. The title is a metaphor for lessons of life that are hard to accept. The album was Morissette's breakthrough album, and contained six hits, "You Oughta Know", "Ironic", "You Learn", "Hand in My Pocket", "Head over Feet", and "All I Really Want". The album spent twelve weeks at number one on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 albums chart. By 2009, the album had sold 33 million units worldwide. It was ranked by the "Billboard" 200 as the number one selling album of the 1990s.
During the three consecutive years in the late 1990s of Grammy Awards, Morissette received five wins out of nine nominations from the album. In 1996, she won the Album of the Year & Best Rock Album. Her 1997 nominations such as "Ironic" for Record of the Year & Best Music Video in Short Form did not win her an award. But in 1998, she won again for Best Music Video in Long Form from her release of "Jagged Little Pill, Live". In October 2002, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 31 on its "Women In Rock - The 50 Essential Albums" list, and in 2003 the magazine ranked it number 327 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The album also holds a title in "The Definitive 200 Albums" list, in which it is placed at number 26.
Jack Layton
John Gilbert "Jack" Layton (July 18, 1950 – August 22, 2011) was a Canadian politician and the Leader of the Official Opposition. He was the leader of the New Democratic Party from 2003 to 2011, and previously sat on Toronto City Council. He was the Member of Parliament for the riding of Toronto—Danforth from 2004 until his death.
He was a son of Progressive Conservative cabinet minister Robert Layton (1925-2002). He was born in Montreal and raised in Hudson, Quebec. He rose to prominence in Toronto municipal politics where he campaigned tirelessly for the needs of ordinary citizens and for environmental issues. Eventually, he became head of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. In 2003, he was elected leader of the NDP on the first ballot of the convention, and the NDP almost doubled its popular vote in the 2004 election.
Thirty seven NDP MPs were elected under Layton in the 2008 election. In the 2011 federal election, he led the NDP to a historic total of 103 seats and formed the Official Opposition. Although recovering from illness, Layton campaigned tirelessly, and inspired many people. Importantly, the NDP had increased its number of Quebec MPs from one to fifty-nine seats, almost eliminating the previous Bloc Québécois MPs.
Layton died at his home in Toronto on August 22, 2011, aged 61, after suffering from cancer of unknown primary origin. Layton's body had a lying-in-state before a state funeral was held in Toronto. He was married to fellow MP Olivia Chow.
Green politics is a kind of politics that has been on the rise since the 1970s. The parties and movements that follow these ideas are usually called "green":
Greens have been most successful in Germany.
QRpedia
QRpedia is a web system for mobile devices, like mobile phones. It uses QR codes to show Wikipedia articles to people. The articles are shown in the user's own language.
A user uses their mobile device to scan a QRpedia QR code. The device decodes the QR code into a web address. The address has the domain name "qrwp.org". The last part of the web address is the title of a Wikipedia article.
The device sends a request for the article to the QRpedia web server. It also transmits the name of the language used by the device.
The QRpedia server then uses Wikipedia's API to find out if there is a version of the specified Wikipedia article in the language used by the device. If there is, it sends back the article in a mobile-friendly format. If there is no translation of the requested article, then the QRpedia server offers a choice of the available languages. It also offers a Google translation.
In this way, a single QRcode can be used to find the same article, in many languages. QRpedia also records usage statistics.
QRpedia was invented by Roger Bamkin, then chairman of Wikimedia UK, and Terence Eden. who is a mobile web consultant. It was unveiled on 9 April 2011 It was unveiled at Derby Museum's "Backstage Pass" event. The event was part of the GLAM/Derby collaboration between Derby Museum and Art Gallery and Wikipedia. During the collaboration, over 500 Wikipedia articles were also created. The articles were in several languages. The project's name is a made-up word, using the initials "QR" from "QR (Quick Response) code" and "pedia" from "Wikipedia".
The project's source code is has a MIT License. This means that anyone can use it, free.
QRpedia is used at:
QRpedia is also used in other kinds of places. For example, the Occupy movement uses it on their posters.
Gun Hägglund
Karin Gunvor Sjöblom Hägglund (2 March 1932–19 August 2011) was Swedish television star. She is better known as Gun Hägglund. Hägglund is the first female in Sweden who presented news on television. She was the news presenter of Aktuellt in 1958.
Hägglund was born in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden and died in Visby. She was married to the Swedish news editor Karl-Axel Sjöblom. Both hosted and moderated the popular Swedish TV show "Halv sju". Her husband died in 1982. Hägglund died in 2011 after a short illness.
Her career started in 1955 when she started working for the Swedish radio. She was a secretary and program announcer. In 1958, she moved to television shows and became the first female in Sweden to present the news. Hägglund presented the national news show Aktuellt. Furthermore, she worked as a translator. She translated movies and TV shows.
For 30 years, until 1997, Hägglund was involved in the "Swedish National Association of Promotion of Cycling". First she was Secretary-General and later Executive Chairman. In that position, she published some books about cycling.
Conrotatory and disrotatory
These terms describe two classes of an electrocyclic reaction (a type of organic chemical reactions). In a conrotatory mode, the substituents located at the ends of a conjugated double bond system move in the same (clockwise or counterclockwise) direction during ring opening or ring closure. In a disrotatory mode, they move in opposite directions.
An example is the conversion of trans-cis-trans-2,4,6-octatriene to cis-dimethylcyclohexadiene (top of figure). The orbital mechanics of the reaction needs a disrotatory mode. The orbital symmetry of the octatriene's highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) requires for the end pi orbitals to move in opposite directions to form the correct symmetry found in the sigma bond.
Thermal rearrangements of all conjugated systems containing 4n + 2 pi electron are stereospecific. This is based on preservation of orbital symmetry in the highest occupied molecular orbital. Systems containing 4n pi electrons show the opposite conrotatory mode. This is also true for rearrangements of 4n + 2 pi (where n is a whole number) electrons driven by light (photoinduced). Photoinduced rearrangements of 4n pi electron systems (where the number of electrons is divisible by 4) follow the disrotatory rule.
The Woodward–Hoffmann rules summarize the above different reactions.
The following picture also shows the difference between conrotatory and disrotatory reactions:
Catherine Deneuve
Catherine Deneuve (born 22 October 1943) is a French actress. She is the daughter of two well-known actors. She has two sisters; Françoise Dorléac (1942-1967) and Sylvie (born 1946), also both actresses, the former was killed in a car accident. She has a maternal half-sister, Danielle (born 1937).
She began acting on movies as a teenager. Her first major role is in Jacques Demy's 1964 movie "Les Parapluies de Cherbourg". She has since then worked with some of the greatest movie directors, notably Roman Polanski's in "Repulsion" (1965), and Luis Buñuel's in "Belle de Jour" (1967) and "Tristana" (1970) and François Truffaut's in "Le Dernier Métro" (1982). She made a commercial for the perfume "Chanel No 5". She is a close friend of fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent.
She married British photographer David Bailey from 1965 to 1972. She has had relationships with movie director Roger Vadim (1928-2000), with whom she had a son, Christian Vadim (born 1963), and Italian actor Marcello Mastroianni (1924-1996), with whom she had a daughter, Chiara Mastroianni (born 1972). Both her children are actors.
Samir Bargachi
Samir Bargachi, ( , (born 10 September 1987) is a Moroccan LGBT rights activist. He is the founder and leader of Kifkif, the first LGBT organization in Morocco.
Bargachi is an atheist.
Odontoceti
The Odontoceti is a suborder of the cetaceans. They are the toothed whales.
The Odontoceti includes all the whales which eat prey larger than plankton. Examples are: sperm whales, beaked whales, dolphins, and others. As the name suggests, the suborder has teeth rather than the baleen of Mysticeti whales. This means they are predators of small to large sized prey.
The Sperm Whale "Physeter", the Killer Whale "Orca" and the Pilot Whale "Globicephala" all take large prey. By means of co-operation, Killer Whales can take prey larger than themselves, up to and including Blue Whale calves. Sperm Whales are specialist feeders on giant squid.
There are about 73 species.
Allen Telescope Array
The Allen Telescope Array (ATA) was developed by the SETI Institute and the Radio Astronomy Laboratory (RAL) at the University of California, Berkeley to construct a radio interferometer that is dedicated to radio astronomy observations. At the same time, it is also used for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.
The ATA is at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory, northeast of San Francisco, California. The goal is to have 350 antennas. To start, 42 antennas (ATA-42) were put to work on 11 October 2007. However, a lack of money stopped operations in April 2011. In August 2011, ATA got short-term funding. In 2012 UC Berkeley quit the project.
It is named after Paul Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft. Its old name was the One Hectare Telescope (1hT).
Herring gull
The herring gull ("Larus argentatus" or European herring gull) is a large gull (up to 26 inches or 66 cm long). It is the most abundant and best known of all gulls along the shores of western Europe. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Scandinavia and the Baltic states.
Some herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. in the British Isles, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. European herring gulls are also abundant around inland garbage dumps, and some have even adapted to life in inland cities.
The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.
This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.
Lesser black-backed gull
The lesser black-backed gull ("Larus fuscus") is a large gull that breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. It is migratory, wintering from the British Isles south to West Africa. It is a regular winter visitor to the east coast of North America, probably from the breeding population in Iceland.
This species breeds in colonies on coasts and lakes. It makes a lined nest on the ground or a cliff. Normally, three eggs are laid. In some cities the species nests in towns and cities, often with herring gulls.
They are similar in size but slightly smaller than the herring gull. The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated. Different authorities recognise between two and eight species. This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.
The only species it might be confused with in Europe is the great black-backed gull. Lesser is a smaller bird, with slimmer build, yellow rather than pinkish legs, and smaller white "mirrors" at the wing tips.
The bill is yellow with a red spot. When the young peck the red spot, The adults feed them by regurgitation. This is an inherited behaviour called a fixed action pattern or releaser.
Arab Indonesians
Arab Indonesians are citizens of Indonesia. Their origin is Arab, and they are mainly from Hadrami. Until 1919, they were part of Dutch East Indies' law. Some people later gained economic power through real estate investment and trading. Currently, most of them can be found in Java and South Sumatra. They are almost all (generally orthodox) Muslims.
Indonesia has had contact with the Arab world for hundreds of years. This was even before the development of Islam in Indonesia. Most contact was with spice traders. The first Arab settlements in the archipelago may have started in the fifth century. These early communities took over much of the local culture. Some of them disappeared completely while others formed ethnic groups.
Modern Arab Indonesians are descended from Hadramis, who came to Indonesia during the Dutch colonial period. The men often married native women. They were classified as "foreign orientals" along with Chinese Indonesians. This class stopped them from going to certain schools and also restricted their travel. They were also only allowed to live in special Arab districts, called "kampung Arab" in Indonesian. These laws were removed in 1919.
The community elites began to build economic power through trade and real estate investment. They bought large amounts of real estate in Batavia (modern-day Jakarta), Singapore and other parts of this area. Arab Indonesians did charity work, and built and protected their social capital. Eventually, some Arab Indonesians joined the "Volksraad", the people's council of the Dutch East Indies.
During the Indonesian National Awakening, Arab Indonesians began to oppose native Indonesians and the Dutch. This caused the formation of organizations which were only for Arab Indonesians in 1913. These organizations viewed the Arabian peninsula as their homeland. In 1934, Abdurrahman Baswedan founded an Arab Indonesian nationalistic movement, Persatoean Arab Indonesia.
Azyumardi Azra described Arab Indonesians as people who wish to remove local religious elements from Indonesian Islam. Indonesian critics of Arab influence in Indonesia point to the founding of the radical group Jemaah Islamiah (JI). Their leader is Laskar Jihad (LJ). After the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 and the 2002 Bali bombing, the community came under suspicion.
First generation immigrants are called "wulāytī" or "totok". They are a small minority of the Arab Indonesian population. The majority, "muwallad" (plural form: "muwalladīn"), were born in Indonesia and may be of mixed heritage.
The majority of Arab Indonesians live on Java, mostly in East Java. Some live in South Sumatra.
Arab Indonesians are almost all Muslim. According to the 2000 census, 98.27 percent of Arab Indonesians are Muslim, compared to 88.22 percent of the whole population. Historically, most have lived in "kauman", or the area around mosques, but this has changed in recent years. The majority are Sunni, people who follow the Shafi'i school of Islamic law. The Shia are a growing minority. Children are often sent to madrasahs.
The Islam practiced by Arab Indonesians is more orthodox than the local, indigenous-influenced forms like "abangan". Many Arab Indonesians try to convince local Muslims to follow a more orthodox form of Islam as well.
Christina Aguilera (album)
Christina Aguilera is the first album by American singer Christina Aguilera, released on August 24, 1999. The success of this album made Aguilera the Best New Artist at Grammy Awards of 2000.
Alien Hand Syndrome (also known as anarchic hand, AHS or Doctor Strangeglove Syndrome) is a condition that seems to cause a person's hand to move on its own.
Christina Aguilera discography
Stripped is the fourth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera. The album sold over 13 million copies. Music critics gave it mixed reviews.
It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2004 Grammy Awards.
"Dirrty" was released as the album's first single. The video was directed by Dave LaChapelle. It was protested in Thailand.
The album's second single "Beautiful" won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance in 2004.
The third single, "Fighter", got good reviews from music critics.
"Can't Hold Us Down" had Lil' Kim rapping in it. It was nominated a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards.
The album's last single "The Voice Within" was released October 27, 2003.
Back to Basics is the fifth studio album by Christina Aguilera. Released on August 10 2006.
Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits
Keeps Gettin' Better – A Decade of Hits is the first greatest hits by American singer Christina Aguilera, released on 2008.
Bionic is the sixth studio album by American pop singer Christina Aguilera, released on June 4 2010, the album was produced by new group of producers.
Burlesque (soundtrack)
Burlesque: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the studio album by Christina Aguilera and Cher. It was recorded for the movie "Burlesque".
Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg
Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg (Dorothea Sophie; 5 July 1670 – 15 September 1748) was a Countess Palatine of Neuburg by birth and later the wife of the two sons of Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma.
Married to the Hereditary Prince of Parma in 1690, she was the mother of two children including the future Queen Elisabeth of Spain. Her first husband died after just three years of marriage. Remaining in Parma she was engaged to her brother-in-law, the new Duke of Parma.
Retiring from the court at the death of her last husband, her grandson the future Charles III of Spain conquered Parma after the extinction of the Farnese and Dorothea Sophie acted as regent of the state till his official majority in January 1735. She died aged seventy-eight just weeks before her second grandson Infante Felipe of Spain became the next duke of Parma.
F.C. Blau-Weiß Linz
FC Blau-Weiß Linz is a Austrian football club from Linz, Upper Austria. The team is playing in the Austrian Football First League .
The club was founded in 1997 as follow up team for FC Linz and SV Austria Tabak Linz. They played with the licence of SV Tabak in the Upper Austrian Landesliga (4th division). After three years they reached the title and were promoted to the Regionalliga Mitte. In the 2003/04 season the won this league but failed in the relegation matches versus BSV Bad Bleiberg, so they stayed in the league. After this there was a decline they were even relegated to the Landesliga, but came back the following season. In the 2010/11 season they finished second behind the LASK Juniors, which were not allowed to promote. In the relegation matches they won versus WSG Wattens after penalty shooting and were promoted to the First League.
The club is thought as successor to the former club VOEST Linz.This team merged with LASK to FC Linz but soon was inhaled by LASK. The club colours blue and white are that of former VOEST Linz. Also the fans see themself in this tradition.
Yinghuo-1
Yinghuo-1 was a Chinese spacecraft. People planned for it to be China's first interplanetary mission. Yinghuo-1 was supposed to orbit and study the planet Mars. It was launched with the Russian spacecraft Phobos-Grunt. The spacecraft got into space, but something went wrong and it could not escape earth's gravity.
The name "Yinghuo" means firefly in Chinese.
Aldershot () is a town in the English county of Hampshire, about 60 km (37 miles) southwest of London. The town is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council. The town has a population of 33,840, while the Aldershot Urban Area, a loose conurbation (which also includes other towns, such as Camberley, Farnborough, and Farnham) has a population of 243,344, making it the 30th-largest urban area in the UK
Aldershot is home to professional football team Aldershot Town who compete in the Football Conference. Prior to 1992 the local club was Aldershot, which folded on 25 March 1992, while playing in the Football League Fourth Division
Aldershot is known for its connection with the British Army. This led to rapid growth from a small village to a Victorian town. Today, Aldershot is known as the ""Home of the British Army"".
Cuckoo (Mineral, Virginia)
Cuckoo is a Federal style house in the small unincorporated area Cuckoo, Virginia near Mineral, Virginia. The house was built in 1819 for Henry Pendleton. On August 19, 1994, Cuckoo was added to the list of National Register of Historic Places. The house is near the U.S. Route 33, which curves around the house. Cuckoo has Federal details and Colonial Revival elements from the early 20th century. The house is known for its design, prominence and its association with the Pendleton family of doctors. The house was named for the Cuckoo Tavern. The Pendleton family owns the house since its construction.
The first construction had a two storied front section with a one-story extension to the rear. The dining room and the winter kitchen were in the one-story section. Between 1839 and 1907 the house was owned by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton. He added a second floor to the rear part of the house and extended the main roof to cover the new rooms of the house. A later generation of Pendletons rebuilt the house in the Colonial Revival style after 1910. They added the present Neoclassical portico. The next owners, Anne Pendleton Forrest and Dr. William Mentzel Forrest, added to the back a design by architect Stanislaw J. Makielski of Charlottesville. The complex includes a number of outbuildings, including two separate doctor's office buildings, a garage, barn, a house for smoking, and the Pendleton family cemetery.
Cuckoo is a house made of bricks. It has two floors and a center-hall which is divided into three parts. Single rooms are flanking the stair hall. The house has a porch on its entire front. A semicircular closet with a small window is between the fireplaces of the rooms to the right of the center hall. The fireplaces and chimneys are on both sides of the elevation. The Makielski addition to the back of the house has a porch that echoes the curve of the closet. The addition includes a back stairway.
The small doctor's office was probably built in the early-to-mid 19th century for Dr. Robert Barret. It is to the north of Cuckoo, and was moved to Cuckoo by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton before the American Civil War. The large doctor's office was built around 1888 for Dr. Eugene Pendleton. It was expanded to also include his son's practice around 1908. It was moved to Cuckoo in 1910 when Eugene moved there. The office was moved again in 1972 when the highway was built, and was used as a medical office by Dr. Eugene Barbour Pendleton until 1979. A house for smoking was built in the late 19th century, and a barn in the early 20th century. A garage was built in the 1930s.
The Pendleton cemetery is in an oak grove at the top of a small rise about 1/4 mile from the house. It is surrounded by a low stone wall. The cemetery has three gravestones and several unmarked graves.
Cuckoo was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 19, 1994. The house was damaged in the 2011 Virginia earthquake. The tall chimneys broke down.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) are a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services. CDC main office is in Druid Hills, a neighborhood in northeastern Atlanta, Georgia. It works to protect public health and safety. It provides information to enhance health decisions. It promotes health as a partner with state health departments and other organizations. When an infectious disease or bad food can cause health problems, the CDC will tell the nation how to fight it. The CDC works on environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and education activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States.
The CDC Foundation is separate from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization. It is incorporated in the State of Georgia. Section 399F of the Public Health Service Act created the foundation to help the CDC work with the private sector.
Maria Anna of Austria
Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha; 7 September 1683 – 14 August 1754) was an Archduchess of Austria as she was a daughter of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. She would become Queen consort and regent of Portugal by her marriage to John V of Portugal. She was the Regent of Portugal from 1742 until 1750 during the illness of her spouse. In Portugal she was commonly known as "Mariana".
The fifth of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperors children by Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, she was baptised "Maria Anna Josepha". She was born in Linz as the Austrian royal family had to flee Vienna from the Turkish army which destroyed the capital. Maria Anna was a sister of two future Holy Roman Emperors Joseph I and Charles VI. Through Charles VI, she was an aunt of Empress Maria Theresa. Her first cousins included Elisabetta Farnese as well as Charles II of Spain.
On 27 October 1708 she married her first cousin John V of Portugal. Both of their mothers were sisters. Maria Anna thus became Queen of Portugal as the wife of the ruling king. She was the mother of six children:
In 1742 Maria Anna took over power as regent after her husband suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralyzed. When John V died on 31 July 1750 she gave up power to their eldest son Joseph I of Portugal. She died at he Palace of Belém in 1754. Her body was buried in Lisbon, her heart was brought to Vienna and buried there in the imperial crypt.
SKN St. Pölten
Sportklub Niederösterreich St. Pölten is a football club from St. Pölten the capital of the Austrian federal state Lower Austria. St. Poelten plays in the Austrian Football First League, the second division in the Austrian football league system.
SKN St. Poelten was founded in June 2000. The new club took over all belongings of the predecessor, FCN St. Poelten .Most important was the ownership of the Bundesliga junior center. Through this the club did not enter in the lowest class but was allowed in the 2nd League West, the fifth level of Austrian football.
The next two seasons they won the championships and reached the Regionalliga Ost(3rd division).In the 2003/04 season the club reached the 4th place. The following season the club reached sixth place in the league reached in the Austrian Cup the quarter-finals. They won over SV Wörgl (3-0), SW Bregenz (2–1) and a sensational 5-1 victory overAustria Salzburg in the third round. In the quarter-finals, St. Poelten, was beaten by Austria Wien 6-0.
In autumn 2009 the club could present the plans for the new stadium which is currently built in the Ratzersdorf district of St.Pölten.
In the 2007/08 season they won the Regionalliga and were promoted to the First League.
"As of 15 August 2011"
The SKN St. Poelten currently has ten youth teams for children from the age of 7 to 15, with a total of 150 children and youths. In addition to the junior teams, the club has a second team (SKN II), which plays their games in the Mid Western League, with the squad mostly consisting of squad players under the age of 18.
House of Bourbon-Parma
The Bourbons of Parma are a royal family who ruled the Duchy of Parma from 1748 till 1860 when Italy was created. The family was founded by the Infante Philip of Spain, third son of Philip V of Spain and Elisabetta Farnese. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of the Austrian Succession, and gave the land to Philip.
Philip married Louise Élisabeth of France and the present pretending duke of Parma (Carlos/Carlo of Parma) is a direct descendant. The duchy was taken by the House of Savoy when the state of Italy was created.
The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to today. Over this period, English poets have written some of the longest-surviving poems in Western culture. The language and its poetry have spread around the world.
The earliest surviving poetry from the area now called England was probably transmitted orally (or passed from person to person by mouth, without being written down). It was then written down in versions that do not now survive. Because of this, it is difficult to say which poems were the earliest. There is a lot of controversy over this issue.
A number of major national poetries have developed. These include American, Australian, New Zealand, Canadian and Indian poetry. It may be controversial to describe Irish literature as English or British, even though it is in the English language.
Rearrangement reaction
A rearrangement reaction are organic reactions where the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged. The result is a structural isomer of the original molecule. Often a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in the same molecule. In the example below, the substituent R moves from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 2:
Intermolecular rearrangements also take place.
Sometimes chemists draw diagrams with arrows that show how electrons are transferred between bonds during a rearrangement reaction. Many organic chemistry text books have such diagrams. But they do not tell the full story of the reaction mechanism. The actual mechanism of a rearrangement with an alkyl group moving is for the group to slide smoothly along a bond, not ionic bond-breaking and forming. One example of this is the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:
In pericyclic reactions, the orbital interactions are important. The reactions can not be explained by a series of simple discrete electron transfers. But, the curved arrows showing a sequence of discrete electron transfers can give the same result as a rearrangement reaction. Yet, the diagrams are not necessarily realistic. In allylic rearrangement, the reaction is ionic.
Three important rearrangement reactions are 1,2-rearrangements, pericyclic reactions and olefin metathesis.
A 1,2-rearrangement is an organic reaction where a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in a chemical compound. In a 1,2 shift, the substituent moves between two adjacent atoms. But moves over larger distances are possible. Examples are the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:
and the Beckmann rearrangement:
A pericyclic reaction is a type of reaction with multiple carbon-carbon bond making and breaking. The transition state of the molecule has a cyclic geometry. The reaction progresses in a concerted fashion. Examples are hydride shifts
and the Claisen rearrangement:
Olefin metathesis is a formal exchange of the alkylidene fragments in two alkenes. It is a catalytic reaction with carbene. It has transition metal carbene complex intermediates.
Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer science to help solve chemical problems. These programs calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids. Computational chemistry normally complements the information obtained by chemical experiments. It can predict chemical phenomena that have not yet been observed. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and materials.
Computational chemistry can predict structure (that is, the expected positions of the molecule's atoms), absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles.
Computational chemistry looks at both static and dynamic systems. In all cases, as the size of the system being studied grows, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) used also grows. That system can be a single molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from highly accurate to very approximate. Highly accurate methods are typically feasible only for small systems.
Polymer chemistry (also called macromolecular chemistry) is the science of chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. According to IUPAC recommendations, macromolecules refer to the individual molecular chains and are the domain of chemistry. Polymers describe the bulk properties of polymer materials and belong to the field of polymer physics (a part of physics).
The different kinds of macromolecules include:
Polymers are formed by polymerization of monomers. Chemists describe a polymer by its degree of polymerization, molar mass distribution, tacticity, copolymer distribution, the degree of branching, by its end-groups, crosslinks, and crystallinity. Chemists also study a polymer's thermal properties such as its glass transition temperature and melting temperature. Polymers in solution have special characteristics for solubility, viscosity and gelation.
Polymer chemistry started by studying the long fibers in plants. The work of Henri Braconnot in 1777 and the work of Christian Schönbein in 1846 led to the discovery of nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose treated with camphor makes celluloid. Chemists dissolve celluloid in ether or acetone to make collodion. Doctors have used collodion as a wound dressing since the U.S. Civil War. Cellulose acetate was first prepared in 1865. In 1834, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber (polyisoprene) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky. In 1844 Charles Goodyear received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing rubber with sulfur and heat. Thomas Hancock had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before.
In 1884, Hilaire de Chardonnet started the first artificial fiber factory based on regenerated cellulose, or viscose rayon, as a substitute for silk, but it was very flammable. In 1907 Leo Baekeland invented the first synthetic polymer, a thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin called Bakelite. Around the same time, Hermann Leuchs reported the synthesis of N-carboxyanhydrides and their high molecular weight products upon reaction with nucleophiles. But Leuchs did not call them polymers, possibly due to the strong views held by Emil Fischer, his direct supervisor, denying the possibility of any covalent molecule exceeding 6,000 daltons. Cellophane was invented in 1908 by Jocques Brandenberger who squirted sheets of viscose rayon into an acid bath.
In 1922, Hermann Staudinger (a German chemist) proposed that polymers were long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds. He also proposed to name these compounds "macromolecules". Before that, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown force. Staudinger received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953.
Wallace Carothers invented the first synthetic rubber called neoprene in 1931. Neoprene was the first polyester. Carothers went on to invent nylon, a true silk replacement, in 1935. Paul Flory was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 for his work on polymer random coil configurations in solution in the 1950s. Stephanie Kwolek developed an aramid, or aromatic nylon named Kevlar, patented in 1966.
There are now a large number of commercial polymers. They include composite materials such as carbon fiber-epoxy, polystyrene-polybutadiene (HIPS), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). Chemists design commercial polymers to combine the best properties of their various components. For example, special polymers used in automobile engines are designed to work at high temperatures.
It took a long time before universities introduced teaching and research programs in polymer chemistry.
An "Institut fur Makromolekulare Chemie was founded in 1940 in Freiburg, Germany under the direction of Hermann Staudinger. In America a "Polymer Research Institute" (PRI) was established in 1941 by Herman Mark at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now Polytechnic Institute of NYU). Several hundred graduates of PRI played an important role in the US polymer industry and academia. Other PRI's were founded in 1961 by Richard S. Stein at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in 1967 by Eric Baer at Case Western Reserve University and in 1988 at the University of Akron.
Chemical synthesis
In chemistry, chemical synthesis means using chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations. Often, several different chemical reactions are used; one after another. In modern laboratory usage, a chemical synthesis is reproducible (if the experiment is done a second time, it will have the same results as the first time), reliable (not broken by small changes in conditions), and established to work in multiple laboratories.
Chemists start to design a chemical synthesis by selecting compounds to combine. These starting chemicals are known as reagents or reactants. Chemists do various things to these reagents to synthesize the product, or an intermediate product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel. The vessel can be a chemical reactor or a simple flask. Many reactions require some form of work-up procedure before the final product is isolated.
The amount of product in a chemical synthesis is the reaction yield. Typically, chemical yields are expressed as a weight in grams or as a percentage of the total theoretical quantity of product that could be produced. A side reaction is an unwanted chemical reaction taking place that reduces the yield of the wanted product.
The chemist Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe was the first to use the word "synthesis" in its present-day meaning.
In most cases, a single reaction will not convert a reactant (starting chemical) into the desired reaction product. Chemists have many strategies to find the best sequence of reactions to make the desired product. In cascade reactions multiple chemical changes take place within a single reactant. In multi-component reactions up to 11 different reactants form a single reaction product. In a telescopic synthesis, one reactant goes through multiple transformations without isolating intermediates after each step.
Organic synthesis is a special type of chemical synthesis. Only organic compounds are created in organic synthesis. The total synthesis of a complex product may take many steps to reach the goal product. These steps can take too much time. Chemists want to have skill in organic synthesis and being able to find a synthesis path with the least number of steps. The synthesis of very valuable or difficult compounds has earned chemists, such as Robert Burns Woodward, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
If a chemical synthesis starts from basic laboratory compounds and yields something new, it is a "purely synthetic process". If it starts from a product isolated from plants or animals and then proceeds to a new compounds, the synthesis is called a "semisynthetic process".
Most times, chemical synthesis means the overall, many step procedure for making a desired product. Sometimes, chemists use "chemical synthesis" to mean just a "direct combination reaction". In a direct combination reaction, two or more reactants combine to form a single product. The chemical equation for a direct combination reaction is:
where A and B are elements or compounds, and AB is a compound consisting of A and B. Examples of combination reactions include:
Four special synthesis rules are:
Organic synthesis
A total synthesis is the complete chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules from simple, commercially available (petrochemical) or natural precursors. In a "linear" synthesis—often used for simple structures—several steps are performed one after another until the molecule is complete. The chemical compounds made in each step are usually called "synthetic intermediates". For more complex molecules, a different approach may be preferable: convergent synthesis involves the individual preparation of several "pieces" (key intermediates), which are then combined to form the goal product.
Robert Burns Woodward, who received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for several total syntheses (for example, his 1954 synthesis of strychnine), is regarded as the father of modern organic synthesis. Some latter-day examples of total synthesis include Wender's, Holton's, Nicolaou's and Danishefsky's synthesis of Taxol.
Each step of a synthesis involves a chemical reaction, and reagents and conditions for each of these reactions need to be designed to give a good yield and a pure product, with as little work as possible. A method may already exist in the literature for making one of the early synthetic intermediates, and this method will usually be used rather than "trying to reinvent the wheel". However most intermediates are compounds that have never been made before. These will normally be made using general methods developed by methodology researchers. To be useful, these methods need to give high yields. They must also be reliable for a broad range of substrates. For practical applications, additional requirements include industrial standards of safety and purity. Methodology research usually involves three main stages: "discovery", "optimization", and studies of "scope and limitations". The "discovery" requires extensive knowledge of and experience with chemical reactivities of appropriate reagents. "Optimization" is where one or two starting compounds are tested in the reaction under a wide variety of conditions of temperature, solvent, reaction time, etc. Researchers try different conditions until they find the best conditions for product yield and purity. Finally, researchers try to extend the synthesis method to a broad range of different starting materials, to find its scope and limitations. Total synthesis (see above) are sometimes used to highlight the new method and demonstrate its value in a real-world application. Major industries focused especially on polymers (and plastics) and on pharmaceuticals have used this research.
Most complex natural products are chiral. Each enantiomer can have a different bioactivity. Traditional total syntheses targeted racemic mixtures, i.e., as an equal mixture of both possible enantiomers. The racemic mixture might then be separated via chiral resolution.
In the latter half of the twentieth century, chemists began to develop methods of asymmetric catalysis and kinetic resolution. These reactions could be directed to produce only one enantiomer rather than a racemic mixture. Early examples include Sharpless epoxidation (K. Barry Sharpless) and asymmetric hydrogenation (William S. Knowles and Ryōji Noyori). For their achievement, these workers went on to share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001. Such reactions gave chemists a much wider choice of enantiomerically pure molecules to start an organic synthesis. Previously only natural enantiomer starting materials could be used. Using techniques pioneered by Robert Burns Woodward and other new synthetic methods, chemists became more able to make complex molecules without unwanted racemisation. This is called stereocontrol. This allowed the final target molecule to be synthesised as one pure enantiomer without any resolution being necessary. Such techniques are referred to as asymmetric synthesis.
Elias James Corey brought a more formal approach to synthesis design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1990. In this approach, the research is planned backwards from the product, using standard rules. The steps are shown using retrosynthetic arrows (drawn as: =>), which in effect means "is made from". Computer programs have been written for designing a synthesis based on sequences of generic "half-reactions".
Alexander Morozevich
Alexander Morozevich (born Moscow, 18 July 1977) is a Russian chess Grandmaster. He was ranked second, in the July 2008 FIDE rating list, but is now ranked ninth.
Morozevich has been one of the best chess players in the world for nearly a decade. He is famous for employing unusual openings, for example the Chigorin Defense (1. d4 d5 2. c4 Nc6), and more recently the Albin Countergambit (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e5); both systems are hardly ever seen at the top level. He is also well known for preferring complicated rather than clear positions. Perhaps because of his style, which produces relatively few draws, Morozevich is popular among chess fans.
Among his most notable results are 7.5/10 at the 2000 Chess Olympiad (winning Bronze Medal for board 2) and 7/11 at the 2002 Chess Olympiad. He took first place in the overall standings at the Amber tournament in 2002, 2004 (shared with Kramnik) and 2006 (shared with Anand); first place in Biel tournament three times: 2003, 2004 and 2006; and twice winning the Russian championship (1998 and 2007).
Peter Leko
Peter Leko (; born 8 September 1979) in Subotica, Yugoslavia is the leading Hungarian chess grandmaster.
He became a grandmaster in 1994 at the age of 14 years (a world record at the time). He was the challenger in the Classical World Championship 2004 against Vladimir Kramnik. He tied with Kramnik 7-7, so Kramnik kept his title. Leko's best world ranking was fourth, first achieved in April 2003.
Abilene Ruff Riders
The Abilene Ruff Riders are an American football team. They play their games at the Taylor County Expo Center in Abilene, Texas. Their team colours are red, black and white. The team logo (the picture they have on their shirts) is a cowboy on a horse. They have a team mascot called Rowdy the Ruffrider, who is a cowboy too.
At first, the Ruff Riders were called the Katy Ruff Riders, because they played their games in a city called Katy, Texas. In 2008, they moved to Abilene and changed their name. They were part of the Intense Football League until 2010. For the 2010 - 2011 season, they were part of the Southern Indoor Football League, but now they are a part of the Lone Star Football League.
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Jerry Koosman
Jerry Koosman (born December 23, 1942) is a former baseball player with the New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Chicago White Sox and Philadelphia Phillies. He was a pitcher. He won more than 200 games in his career. In 1969, he was on the Mets team that won the baseball championship the World Series. Koosman won two games for the Mets in the 1969 World Series.
In 1968, Koosman finished 2nd by one vote to Johnny Bench in the voting for National League Rookie of the Year, given to the best first year player in the league. In 1976, Koosman finished 2nd to Randy Jones in the voting for National League Cy Young Award, given to the league's best pitcher. Koosman won at least 20 games in both 1976 and 1979.
Tom Cleverley
Thomas (Tom) William Cleverley (born 12 August 1989) is an English footballer. He was born in Basingstoke, Hampshire and grew up in Bradford, West Yorkshire.
Cleverley plays for Premier League club Everton and the England national team.
Johnny Bench
Johnny Bench (born December 7, 1947) is a former baseball player who played for the Cincinnati Reds. He mostly played catcher. He hit 389 home runs. He was the National League Most Valuable Player in both 1970 and 1972. He was also the National League Rookie of the Year, or best first year player, in 1968. He was chosen for the All Star Game 14 times.
He won the baseball championship, the World Series, with Reds in both 1975 and 1976, and was voted the Most Valuable Player of the World Series in 1976. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1989.
Most analysts think either Bench or Iván Rodríguez is the greatest catcher of all time.
Gali Akish
ALI AKISH (January 14, 1918, Hailar, China - July 17, 2011, Ankara, Turkey) is a famous journalist, one of the leaders of the Tatar nationalist movement, the Honorary President of the World League of Tatars.