AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Saint Catherine of Alexandria, also known as Saint Catherine of the Wheel and The Great Martyr Saint Catherine (Greek "") is a Christian saint and martyr. She is believed to have been a well-known scholar in the 4th century. In the 15th century it was claimed she had spoken to Joan of Arc. The Orthodox Church venerates her as a "great martyr", and in the Catholic Church she is traditionally revered as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers.
Catherine was the daughter of Costus, a pagan governor of Alexandria. She announced to her parents that she would only marry someone who was more beautiful, intelligent and rich than herself. In addition, that person needed to have a better social status than she had. Eventually, she discovered Christ. "His beauty was more radiant than the shining of the sun, His wisdom governed all creation, His riches were spread throughout all the world."
She was a martyr, because she died for her beliefs in God. According to legend, she was supposed to die on a breaking wheel, but the wheel broke as soon as she touched it, so her head was cut off instead. Because of this, her main symbol is the spiked wheel, which is known as a Catherine wheel. The Catholic Church of St. Catherine, one of the first Catholic churches built in Russia, was named after her.
Seed plants
Seed plants are a group of plants. Gymnosperms and angiosperms form the group. Their seeds have three parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat. They are also called spermatophytes or phanerogams. The seed plants dominate almost all the environments on land.
The living spermatophytes form five groups:
The fossil seed ferns (Pteridospermatophyta) were one of the earliest successful groups of land plants, and forests dominated by seed ferns were prevalent in the Permian. "Glossopteris" was the most prominent tree genus in the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana during the Permian period. By the Triassic period, seed ferns had declined, (perhaps were extinct) and modern gymnosperm groups were abundant and dominant to the Upper Cretaceous, when angiosperms radiated.
Andros
Andros is an island of Greece. It is the second biggest island of the Cyclades group. It is in the northwest of Cyclades group near Euboea island. Its total area is . 10,009 people lived there according to the 2001 Greek census. The biggest town of Andros is Andros city.
Andros is mountainous island with gorges and cliffs which end up at the sea. The plants include many flowers, bushes and a few trees mainly in the center of island. The island has many beautiful beaches and beautiful landscape and thanks to these the island is popular for tourists.
Dietzenbach
Dietzenbach is a city in the Offenbach Rural District in the state of Hesse, Germany. The town is also the capital of the Offenbach Rural District ("Landkreis Offenbach")
Dietzenbach is in the "Rhine-Main area" 25 km southeast of Frankfurt. The whole area of the town is 21,67 km large and it is 135 m above sea level. It is a plain area with nearly no hills.
The city consists out of the urban districts "Neue Stadtmitte", "Spessartviertel", "Altstadt", "Steinberg", "Hexenberg" and "Wingertsberg".
The neighbours of Dietzenbach are:
Dietzenbach has 33,067 inhabitants (2008). About 30% of the people living here are from foreign countries. They come from many different nations.
Some local people are speaking a regional type (dialect) of the German language with a certain tone and special words. It is a Hessian dialect (German: "Hessisch") and is spoken in the south of Hesse. This language type is related to other dialects in the south of Germany. In former times mostly every place had its own special dialect, sometimes hard to understand for people of other parts of Germany. Today the dialect speakers are a minority and the majority of them does not speak the real dialect. They rather speak a kind of regular German with a certain pronunciation.
In the 13th century the name of Dietzenbach was written down in a document for the first time.
Formerly the people in the Dietzenbach area were mostly farmers and craftsmen but not tradesmen. Every family had land to grow their food. When the property was handed to the next generation it was divided within the children. Therefore most families had only small farms and were poor. With the industrial revolution the Rhine-Main area got lots of factories and developed to a center for metal working, leather manufacturing and chemical processing. Many men became workmen and found a job in the factories and earned money. This increased living conditions partly.
Octet rule
The octet rule is a general rule of thumb that applies to most atoms. It states that every atom might want to have eight valence electrons in its outermost electron shell.
According to the Bohr model, an atom consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons orbited by a number of electrons. In an ordinary atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. If it has more or fewer electrons, it is an ion. In addition, the electrons orbit in electron shells. Each shell can only contain a certain number of electrons before new electrons must migrate to the next shell or "energy level." Starting with the third energy level, however, electrons sometimes move up a level even before the current one is full.
Every atom tries to have 8 electrons in its outermost (or valence) shell. This may require them to give up, share, or take electrons. As stated above, the number of electrons normally equals the number of protons. This means that some atoms are "happier" than others. For example, neon, as with other noble gases, naturally has 8 valence electrons. (10 total - 2 in the 1st energy level = 8 in the 2nd) Not surprisingly, neon hardly ever reacts with anything. (Neon lights require high voltages to work.) By contrast, the atoms in the Alkaline metals column, such as sodium, have only one valence electron, with a layer containing 8 electrons in the shell below. This means that sodium only has to give up one valence electron in order to complete the octet rule, and will do so if given the chance, hence why sodium is so chemically reactive.
Dreieich
Dreieich is a city in the Offenbach Rural District in the state of Hesse, Germany.
Dreieich is in the "Rhine Main area". Its northern urban district Sprendlingen is 10 km south of Frankfurt. In the south it touches the City of Darmstadt. The whole area of the town is 53.33 km large and it is 140 m above sea level. It is a plain area with no hills.
About 35 to 20 million years ago in the Age of Tertiary the whole region was lying under sea level. At that time it was covered by an ocean which was warm and not very deep. Lots of sediments sank to its bottom. Then the region rose again and the water left, leaving soil which is mostly sandy and poor.
The city consists out of the towns Dreieichenhain and Sprendlingen and the 3 former independent villages Buchschlag, Götzenhain and Offenthal, all now urban districts of Dreieich. On 1 January 1977 they were united and became the City of Dreieich.
The name Dreieich means "three oaks". This is a hint to the former landscape. In the Middle Ages the Dreieich area was a huge forest with a lot of wild animals, where only the emperor had the right of hunting.
The neighbours of Dreieich are:
Dreieich has 40,432 inhabitants (2008).
Some local people are speaking a regional type (dialect) of the German language with a certain tone and special words. It is a Hessian dialect (German: "Hessisch"). This language type is related to other dialects in the south of Germany. In former times mostly every place had its own special dialect, sometimes hard to understand for people of other parts of Germany. Today the dialect speakers are a minority and the majority of them does not speak the real dialect. They rather speak a kind of regular German with a certain pronunciation.
In the 9th century the names of Sprendlingen and Offenthal were written down in documents for the first time. But people think, that especially Sprendlingen is much older because of its name. They say the name was given by the Alamanni, a band of west germanic tribes (see also: germanic peoples), which had settled in the area a long time before.
Formerly the people in the Dreieich area were mostly farmers and craftsmen but not tradesmen. Every family had land to grow their food. When the property was handed to the next generation it was divided within the children. Therefore, most families had only small farms and were poor. With the industrial revolution the Rhine Main area got lots of factories and developed to a center for metal working and leather manufacturing, also chemical processing. Many men got workmen and found a job in the factories and earned money. This increased living conditions partly.
The beach of Pichilemu is called one of the best beaches in the world for surfing. The most famous beach in Pichilemu is Punta de Lobos, where competitions are often held. The city has become a beach resort.
Promoucaes were the first people that populated Pichilemu. They were hunter gatherers and fishermen.
In 1887, President José Manuel Balmaceda decreed Pichilemu as a minor dock.
José Toribio Medina did his first archeological investigations in Pichilemu, and he published in 1908 "Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu". He said there that Pedro de Valdivia gave land in what is now central Chile to Juan Gómez de Almagro on February 24, 1544. Pichilemu was between the areas of the Palloquierbico, Topocalma, and Gulaquien.
The name Pichilemu comes from the Mapudungún words ' (little) and ' (forest).
Some of the first land owners of Pichilemu were the Ortúzar family. Daniel Ortúzar is known as one of the founders of the original village of Pichilemu. The family of Ortúzar Cuevas, from the San Antonio de Petrel Hacienda, made a mid-century maritime dock which was as a fishing port for some years. They also built homes along the dock on what is now Ortúzar Avenue. More recently, other large land owners are Pedro Pavez Polanco and the Hacienda of San Antonio de Petrel. In 1891, during the Chilean Civil War, Daniel Ortúzar and the priest of Alcones were taken prisoners from Pichilemu through the dock. During the war, the dock was burned down. After the civil war, Pichilemu got its formal name and status. President Jorge Montt and his Minister, Manuel José Irarrázabal, the city was officially established on December 22, 1891.
Pichilemu has become the historic capital of the province called Cardenal Caro which is named for the first Chilean Catholic Church Cardinal. His father was the first mayor in the city.
Agustín Ross Edwards was a Chilean writer, Member of Parliament, minister and politician.
Ross was very rich and based on his European background, he bought a 300-hectare piece of land and named it ""La Posada"" (), or Petren Fund, in 1885. Ross designed an urban place of high environmental value and landscape, turning ""La Posada"" into a hotel ("Great Hotel Pichilemu", later "Hotel Ross", or "Ross Hotel"), and building a casino, embankments, stone walls, a balcony facing the beach. Additionally, he built a park and a forest of more than 10 hectares. Agustín Ross turned Pichilemu into a summer resort town for the people from Santiago. Some of his buildings were named National Monuments.
Pichilemu is located west of San Fernando, Chile and just east of the Pacific Ocean. It is around a three-hour drive to the Andes Mountains. It is also near the coastal mountain range.
Even though most of the forest areas around Pichilemu are covered in Pine and Eucalyptus trees, a native forest (now Municipal Forest) is still there It contains species such as Litres, Quillayes, Boldos, Espinos and Peumos.
Pichilemu borders Litueche to the north, Paredones to the south, Marchigüe and Pumanque to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west .
In the 17th century, Pichilemu had 1,468 inhabitants. In 1787, Pichilemu had 1,688 inhabitants. In 1907, Pichilemu had 7,787 inhabitants. However, the city's population progressively decreased; in 1920, it was 7,424; in 1930, it was 6,929, and in 1940, it was 6,570. In 1952, the city's population increased to 7,150 inhabitants; in 1992, that figure had increased to 10,510. As of the 2002 census, 12,392 people live in the town. The census recorded that 9,459 people (76.3%) are from urban places of the city, and 2,933 people (23.7%) are from rural places of the city, there are 6,440 (52.0%) men and 5,952 (48.0%) women. The area of Pichilemu is . According to the CASEN 2002 census, 544 inhabitants (4.4%) of the population of Pichilemu live in extreme poverty compared to the average in the greater Region of O'Higgins of 4.5%, and 1,946 inhabitants (15.7%) live in mild poverty, compared to the regional average of 16.1%.
Pichilemu, along with the communes of Placilla, Nancagua, Chépica, Santa Cruz, Pumanque, Palmilla, Peralillo, Navidad, Lolol, Litueche, La Estrella, Chile, Marchihue and Paredones, is part of the Electoral District N° 35 and belongs to the 9th Senatorial Constituency (O'Higgins) of the electoral division of Chile.
The current Mayor of Pichilemu is Roberto Córdova. The last popularly-elected mayor was Marcelo Cabrera, elected in 2008 with 42.08% of the vote, who served from May 2009 to August 2009 due to legal action. The municipal council selected Córdova as the new mayor on September 9, 2009, almost a year after the municipal elections. The current councilors are Aldo Polanco Contreras, Andrea Aranda Escudero, Viviana Parraguez Ulloa, Juan Cornejo Vargas and Marta Urzúa Púa.
Surfing is one of the tourist attractions, particularly at Punta de Lobos. According to travel guide Fodor's,
Every October and December the International Championship of Surf takes place at La Puntilla Beach. Punta de Lobos hosts the "Campeonato Nacional de Surf" () each summer.
Pichilemu has many dark sand beaches. The water is cool year-round, though many tourists choose to swim during the summer months. Bodyboarding, surfing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing can be practiced.
The beach that is farthest north is San Antonio Beach or Main Beach (), which is found in front of the Ross Park. It is known for good surfing.
Las Terrazas Beach () is the busiest beach during the summer. Many surf schools, "La Ola Perfecta" and "Lobos del Pacífico", are found near the beach, as is the Caleta de Pescadores (), where fisherman sell their fish. found at the south of the town and around the other side of the Puntilla, the Infiernillo Beach is found. It is used for fishing. At the south of Infiernillo, Playa Hermosa is found, which is great for walking and fishing.
Further south, from Pichilemu, Punta de Lobos is found .It is an increasingly popular destination for tourists and specially for surfers. Several surf contests are held there, including an international big-wave contest during the Chilean fall. The size of waves varies throughout the year, but large swells in fall and winter can reach heights of up to 50 feet (15 metres). It is widely considered one of the best beaches for surfing worldwide.
The Queen of Sheba ruled over the ancient kingdom of Sheba, and is mentioned in the Bible and the Qur'an.
The Queen of Sheba appears in the Bible to King Solomon, because of the fame of his riches and wealth and wisdom. She comes, "with a very great caravan - with camels carrying spices, large quantities of gold, and precious stones - she came to Solomon and talked with him about all that she had on her mind" (1 Kings 10:2).
Solomon answered all the questions she asked; returned her quizzes and riddles with wit and correct wisdom; and was kind to her. Awed and astonished by all these things, she rewarded his achievements with "120 talents of gold, large quantities of spices, and precious stones. Never again were so many spices brought in as those the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon" (1 Kings 10:10), and Solomon returned it by giving "all she desired and asked for, besides what he had given her out of his royal bounty" (1 Kings 10:13).
Taqwa
Taqwa (Arabic: تقوى‎ taqwā / taqwá ") is an Islamic word which means to become more aware of Allah.
Cynodont
The Cynodonts are a sub-order of the Therapsida. Cynodonts, one of the most diverse groups of therapsids, are named after their dog-like teeth.
The taxon is a clade which includes modern mammals and their extinct close relatives, the Mammaliaformes.
The cynodonts lived in all continents, and their fossil record begins in the Upper Permian 256 million years ago.
The extinct members of the group were victims of the End-Triassic extinction event, but the line that led to the mammals survived.
A reflex (/ˈriːfleks/) or reflex action is an automatic and fast movement in response to a stimulus.
A true reflex is a behaviour done by the reflex arc. This is the path the signal of a reflex takes. That path is from the outside stimulus to the central nervous system (CNS), then the path from the CNS to the appropriate muscle.
The nerve cells responsible for reflexes are not always in the brain, but often in the spinal cord. This way, reflexes are processed faster. Nerve cells in the brain still get feedback that the reflex action occurred. And, of course, reflex actions involving sight and sound are done by the brain. With invertebrate animals, the brain is not so dominant, and more is done by local reflex arcs in the segments.
Reflexes may take place even after death. The bite of a poisonous snake can be triggered up to several hours after it has died.
If the behaviour is complex, the stimulus is called a releaser, and the behaviour which follows may involve the whole animal for a long time in what is called a fixed action pattern. However, this is not the usual use of the term "reflex". It is studied in ethology because it usually involves two animals of the same species.
Kobe Bean Bryant ( ; August 23, 1978 – January 26, 2020) was an American former professional basketball player. He most recently played for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association. Bryant played as a shooting guard. During the 2005-2006 season, he scored 81 points in a game against the Toronto Raptors. He is considered one of the greatest basketball players of all time.
Bryant retired on April 13, 2016 after scoring 60 points in a Lakers win against the Utah Jazz. He won an Oscar and Emmy for his movie "Dear Basketball".
Bryant was born in Wynnewood, Pennsylvania. He is the youngest child of three children of his family. His father was a basketball player and coach Joe Bryant.
Kobe Bryant won five championship rings from 2000-2002 and again in 2009-2010. He was awarded the Most Valuable Player in the 2007-08 NBA season after the Los Angeles Lakers went to the 2008 NBA Playoffs as the first seed in the Western Conference was the winner of 18 times NBA all-star, 15-time member of the NBA, 12-time member of the all-defensive team and 1-time slam dunk champion.
In 2008, Bryant won a gold medal with the United States national team at the Olympics in Beijing.
Bryant earned 14 selections for All-NBA teams and 12 for All-Defensive teams. He led the league in scoring twice. He received 4 all-star game MVPs in 14 appearances. He also won 2 finals MVP awards. He was also the youngest player to reach 30,000 points, passing Shaquille O Neal and Michael Jordan and becoming third on the all-time scoring list. Bryant is widely considered to be one of the greatest basketball players in NBA history.
In the summer of 2003, the sheriff's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19-year-old hotel employee. In September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser refused to testify at the trial.
On January 26, 2020, Bryant was killed in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California at the age of 41. His 13-year-old daughter, Gianna Bryant, and seven others also died in the crash.
Turks in Germany
The Turks in Germany are the largest ethnic minority in Germany. Most of these immigrants came from Turkey when Germany invited them to work as guest workers between 1961-73 due to labour shortages.
Babenhausen
Babenhausen is a town in the Darmstadt-Dieburg Rural District in the state of Hesse, Germany.
Babenhausen is in the "Rhine-Main area" 35 km south east of Frankfurt. The whole area of the town is 66,87 km large and it is 127 m above sea level. It is a plain area with no hills.
The city consists out of the town "Babenhausen" and the 5 former independent villages "Hergershausen", "Harpertshausen", "Harreshausen", "Sickenhofen" and "Langstadt".
The neighbours of Babenhausen are:
Babenhausen has 16,066 inhabitants (2008).
Some local people are speaking a regional type (dialect) of the German language with a certain tone and special words. It is a Hessian dialect (German: "Hessisch") spoken in the south of Hesse. This language type is related to other dialects in the south of Germany. In former times mostly every place had its own special dialect, sometimes hard to understand for people of other parts of Germany. Today the dialect speakers are a minority and the majority of them does not speak the real dialect. They rather speak a kind of regular German with a certain pronunciation.
Babenhausen and the former villages are early places where people lived. In the time of the 7th to the 9th century new places to live got name endings like "-hausen" and -"stadt". But the names of the places were not written down.
In 1236 the name of Babenhausen was written down in a document for the first time. About 50 years later it got the town privileges (1295). During the Thirty Years' War the military made a lot of damages to the city. Many people died because of diseases and hunger (Bubonic plague).
Formerly the people in the Babenhausen area were mostly farmers and craftsmen but not tradesmen. Every family had land to grow their food. When the property was handed to the next generation it was divided within the children. Therefore, most families had only small farms and were poor. With the industrial revolution the Rhine-Main area got lots of factories and developed to a center for metal working, leather manufacturing and chemical processing. Many men became workmen and found a job in the factories and earned money. This increased living conditions partly.
In World War II Babenhausen was a central place for Russian soldiers, who where caught in the fights with the German. They lived here as war prisoners and had to work for the German people. After World War II it became a central place for Jewish people that were prisoners of the NAZI concentration camps.
Alamosaurus
Alamosaurus was a titanosaur, a gigantic plant-eating dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous period, about 73 million to 65 million years ago.
"Alamosaurus" was a long-necked, whip-tailed dinosaur. It was about 69 feet (21 m) long and weighed perhaps 33 tons (30000 kg). Fossils have been found in New Mexico, Texas, and Utah. Fossils include fragmentary skeletons (and no skulls).
Skeletal elements of "Alamosaurus" are among the most common Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils found in the American Southwest and are now used to define the fauna of that time and place. There was a climate change in this area, it became drier, and this caused changes in the fauna. Thomas M. Lehman describes it as "the abrupt reemergence of a fauna with a superficially 'Jurassic' aspect". These faunas are dominated by "Alamosaurus" and feature abundant "Quetzalcoatlus" in Texas. The "Alamosaurus" "Quetzalcoatlus" association probably represent semi-arid inland plains.
Computer Space is a video arcade game released in November 1971 by Nutting Associates. It was created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, who later started the company Atari.
Iron is a chemical element and a metal. It is the most common chemical element on Earth (by mass), and the most widely used metal. It makes up much of the Earth's core, and is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust.
The metal is used a lot because it is strong and cheap. Iron is the main ingredient used to make steel. Raw iron is magnetic (attracted to magnets), and its compound magnetite is permanently magnetic.
In some regions iron was used around 1200 BCE. That event is considered the transition from bronze age to iron age.
Iron is a grey, silvery metal. It is magnetic, though different allotropes of iron have different magnetic qualities. Iron is easily found, mined and smelted, which is why it is so useful. Pure iron is soft and very malleable.
Iron is reactive. It reacts with most acids like sulfuric acid. It makes ferrous sulfate when reacted with sulfuric acid. This reaction with sulfuric acid is used to clean metal.
Iron reacts with air and water to make rust. When the rust flakes off, more iron is exposed allowing more iron to rust. Eventually, the whole piece of iron is rusted away. Other metals like aluminum do not rust away. Iron can be alloyed with chromium to make stainless steel, which does not rust under most conditions.
Iron powder can react with sulfur to make iron(II) sulfide, a hard black solid. Iron also reacts with the halogens to make iron(III) halides, like iron(III) chloride. Iron reacts with the hydrohalic acids to make iron(II) halides like iron(II) chloride.
Iron makes chemical compounds with other elements. Normally the other element oxidizes iron. Sometimes two electrons are taken and sometimes three. Compounds where iron has two electrons taken are called ferrous compounds. Compounds where iron has three electrons taken are called ferric compounds. Ferrous compounds have iron in its +2 oxidation state. Ferric compounds have iron in its +3 oxidation state. Iron compounds can be black, brown, yellow, green, or purple.
Ferrous compounds are weak reducing agents. Many of them are green or blue. The most common ferrous compound is ferrous sulfate.
Ferric compounds are oxidizing agents. Many of them are brown. The most common ferric compound is ferric oxide, the same thing as rust. One reason why iron rusts is because ferric oxide is an oxidizing agent. It oxidizes iron, rusting it even under paint. That is why if there is a small scratch in the paint, the whole thing can rust.
Compounds in the +2 oxidation state are weak reducing agents. They are normally light colored. They react with oxygen in air. They are also known as ferrous compounds.
These compounds are rare; only one is common. They are found in the ground.
Compounds in the +3 oxidation state are normally brown. They are oxidizing agents. They are corrosive. They are also known as ferric compounds.
There is a lot of iron in the universe because it is the end point of the nuclear reactions in large stars. It is the last element to be produced before the violent collapse of a supernova scatters the iron into space.
The metal is the main ingredient in the Earth's core. Near the surface it is found as a ferrous or ferric compound. Some meteorites contain iron in the form of rare minerals. Normally iron is found as hematite ore in the ground, much of which was made in the Great Oxygenation Event. Iron can be extracted from the ore in a blast furnace. Some iron is found as magnetite.
There are iron compounds in meat. Iron is an essential part of the hemoglobin in red blood cells.
Iron is made in large factories called "ironworks" by reducing hematite with carbon (coke). This happens in large containers called blast furnaces. The blast furnace is filled with iron ore, coke and limestone. A very hot blast of air is blown in, where it causes the coke to burn. The extreme heat makes the carbon react with iron ore, taking off the oxygen from iron oxides, and making carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is a gas and it leaves the mix. There is some sand in with the iron. The limestone, which is made of calcium carbonate, turns into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide when the limestone is very hot. The calcium oxide reacts with the sand to make a liquid called a slag. The slag is drained, leaving only the iron. The reaction will leave pure liquid iron in the blast furnace, where it can be shaped and hardened after cooling down. Almost all ironworks are today part of steel mills, and almost all iron is made into steel.
There are many ways to work iron. Iron can be hardened by heating a piece of metal and splashing it into cold water. It can be softened by heating it and allowing it to slowly cool. It can also be stamped by a heavy press. It can be pulled into wires. It can be rolled to make sheet metal.
In the United States, much of the iron was taken from the ground in Minnesota and then sent by ship to Indiana and Michigan where it was made into steel.
Iron is used more than any other metal. It is strong and cheap. It is used to make buildings, bridges, nails, screws, pipes, girders, and towers.
Iron is not very reactive, so it is both easy and cheap to extract from ores. It is very strong once made into steel, and is used to reinforce concrete.
There are different types of iron. Cast iron is iron made by the way described above in the article. It is hard and brittle. It is used to make things like storm drain covers, manhole covers, and engine blocks (the main part of an engine).
Steel is the most common form of iron. Steels come in several forms. Mild steel is steel with a low percentage of carbon. It is soft and easily bent, but it does not crack easily. It is used for nails and wires. Carbon steel is harder but more brittle. It is used in tools.
There are other types of steel. Stainless steel, because of the chromium content, is rust resistant, and nickel-iron alloys can remain strong at high temperatures. Other steels can be very hard, depending on the alloys added.
Wrought iron is easily shaped and used to make fences and chains.
Very pure iron is soft, and can rust (oxidize) easily. It is also fairly reactive.
Iron compounds are used for several things. Iron(II) chloride is used to make water clean. Iron(III) chloride is also used. Iron(II) sulfate is used to reduce chromates in cement. Some iron compounds are used in vitamins.
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world.
Our bodies need iron to help oxygen get to our muscles, because it is at the heart of some essential macromolecules in our bodies such as hemoglobin that cause it to work better. Many cereals have some added iron (the element "metal" iron). It is added to cereal in the form of tiny metal filings. It is even possible to see the slivers sometimes by taking an extremely strong magnet and putting it into the box. The magnet will attract these pieces of iron. Eating these small metal shavings are not harmful to our body.
Iron is most available to the body when added to amino acids – iron in this form is ten to fifteen times more digestible than than it is as an element. Iron is also found in meat, for example steak. Iron provided by diet supplements is in the form of a chemical, such as Iron(II) sulfate, which is cheap and is absorbed well. The body will not take up more iron than it needs, and it usually needs very little. The iron in red blood cells is recycled by a system which breaks down old cells. Loss of blood by injury or parasite infection may be more serious.
Iron is toxic when large amounts are taken into the body. When too many iron pills are taken, people (especially children) get sick. Also, there is a genetic disorder which damages the regulation of iron levels in the body.
Prime Minister's Questions
Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs) is a weekly event in the British Parliament. It is a chance for the Leader of the Opposition and other Members of Parliament to ask the Prime Minister questions. Until 1997 there were two short PMQs each week. Now there is one longer event, which is on a Wednesday. It can often be a loud and rowdy event with lots of MPs shouting. Once Michael Heseltine grabbed the mace and waved it around his head.
Leader of the Opposition
The Leader of the Opposition is the name given to the leader of the largest party not in government in a Westminster System of parliamentary government. The Leader of the Opposition is often seen as the alternative Prime Minister, Premier or Chief Minister. They lead an alternative government known as the Shadow Cabinet or Opposition Front Bench.
In many Commonwealth realms the full title is "Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition". This is not used in Australia. It is the duty of the Opposition party to ask questions to the Prime Minister or other ministers during Question Time.
The following is a list of Leaders of the Opposition:
Age of the Earth
The age of the Earth is estimated at a little over 4.5 billion years. Working this out was a difficult problem to solve. For most of human history, the basic facts about the planet were unknown. The problem was tackled by Earth scientists in the twentieth century.
Modern estimates are based on radioactive dating methods. The oldest minerals on Earth – small crystals of zircon from the Jack Hills of Western Australia – are at least 4.4 billion years old. Ca-Al-rich inclusions – the oldest known solid bits in meteorites formed within the solar system – are 4.567 billion years old. This gives an age for the solar system and an upper limit for the age of Earth.
The first facts about the Earth were worked out by the Ancient Greeks. A good estimate of the Earth's size was made by Eratosthenes (276 –194 ), using trigonometry. The first estimate of the Earth's age based on evidence was by Benoît de Maillet (1656–1738), a French diplomat, philosopher and naturalist. He thought the Earth must have developed by slow, natural forces. He studied geology in the field. He could see signs of erosion on land and sedimentation in the sea. He hid his ideas under the guise of a talk with an Indian philosopher, to avoid conflict with the Catholic Church. His work stayed in manuscript until after his death, when it was published after its editor had made changes which damaged it. Now there is a better modern edition based on the manuscripts. de Maillet estimated that the Earth was older than two billion years. He also recognized the true nature of fossils, and had early ideas about evolution.
In the last quarter of the 19th century there was a long-running debate on the age of the Earth. In Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology" (1830–33), he showed that the Earth had changed slowly, and that what we see is the result of gradual changes. This uniformitarianism clearly meant that the Earth was ancient, though Lyell did not try to work out how old.
His younger friend Charles Darwin believed this, too. Darwin saw that if evolution had taken place, it would have required a long time. Also, a huge amount of sedimentary rock lies between the early fossils in the Cambrian strata, and the present land surface. Darwin and Lyell agreed that it would have taken a very long time for so much rock to be deposited.
In the first edition of "On the origin of species" (1859), Darwin had estimated that the erosion of the Sussex Weald must have taken 300 million years. Both he and Lyell were surprised when the physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) said the Earth could not be as old as they thought. He made the calculation based on how long it must have taken the Earth to cool down to its present temperature, given a starting point of 2,000C. Kelvin's result was based on the idea that the near-surface geothermal gradient reflects the conductive cooling of the solid Earth.
He did this calculation a number of times, making various assumptions. In 1862 his estimate was between 20 and 400 million years; but in 1866 he reduced the top estimate to 100 million years, and attacked Darwin and Lyle for not taking notice of his calculation. We know Darwin was anxious and worried that this would not be long enough to allow for evolution. Thomas Henry Huxley remarked that Kelvin's calculations were good, but his assumptions were wrong. In 1897 Kelvin did the calculation one last time, and came up with 20 to 40 million years. This, of course, would definitely not be long enough to allow for evolution. Oliver Heaviside also disagreed, and proposed an alternative geothermal model. Both Kelvin and Heaviside were eventually shown to be wrong.
Right at the end of the 19th century, someone realised that if the mantle was a highly viscous (sticky) fluid, that would make a great difference to the calculations. In 1895, John Perry, a former assistant to Kelvin, produced an age of Earth estimate of 2 to 3 billion years old using a model of a convective mantle and thin crust.
In Kelvin’s model, heat on the Earth’s surface
is derived from the cooling of a shallow outer crust, assuming a solid Earth. But if the conductivity inside the Earth were much higher than at the surface, then the Earth's core and lower mantle would also cool. This would provide a huge store of energy to the surface. In that case, Kelvin’s estimate of the age of the Earth would be too low by many times.
Perry's main reason was that convection in the fluid, or partly fluid, interior of the Earth
would transfer heat much more effectively than would conduction:
Kelvin stuck by his estimate of 100 million years, and later reduced the estimate to about 20 million years.
We now know that the existence of a viscous fluid under a thin crust is a much greater factor than the discovery of radioactivity, which was the textbook explanation for many years. The rediscovery and reexamination of Perry's work is quite recent.
In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. In 1903, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity".
Eventually, it was realized that radioactivity was a major source of heat inside the Earth. In 1921 came the first modern estimate, using radiometric dating. It was based on uranium-lead dating: the rate of decay of uranium to lead in the crust of the Earth, by Henry Norris Russell. He came up with 2 to 8 billion years. In 1949, H.E. Suess estimated 4 to 5 billion years, based on a whole array of radioactive isotopes. This is close to the time we estimate today, which has been refined further to about 4,560 million years.
The calculation makes use of convection in a viscous fluid as well as radioactivity, so it combines Perry's idea with the effect of radioactivity, even though Perry's contribution had been forgotten. The later knowledge of plate tectonics made it quite certain that the lower mantle was a viscous fluid.
The formation and evolution of the Solar System is estimated to have begun 4.568 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Basically, the whole system developed in the same period of time.
Use of the scientific method assumes uniformitarian methods for calculating Earth's age. The Hindu religion comes closest to the present-day scientific estimate. Some Christians and Jews believe the Genesis creation narrative is literally true, which would mean that the Earth was created between 5000 and 10,000 years ago, and the methods used to calculate age have not been consistent throughout Earth's history. However, these days most people think such questions are best answered by scientific methods.
Angara (rocket family)
Angara is a family of rockets which are being developed in Russia. The family contains many different rockets. For example, there is a rocket for lifting small payloads and a rocket for lifting heavy payloads. The rockets are designed by a company called Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center. The first rocket is expected to be ready in 2012.
Angara is being developed using money given by the Russian government. The government decided to finance Angara because they wanted to make sure that Russia has independent access to space. Many of Russia's current rockets can only be launched from Baikonour Cosmodrome in Kazakshtan. Many of them also use foreign technology. However, Angara is better since it does not use any foreign technology (it is 100% Russian) and can be launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, located in Russian territory. Another reason why it was decided to build Angara is because Russia needed a rocket which does not use toxic fuels, like some current rockets do.
The first part of all Angara rockets consists of an engine called Universal Rocket Module (in short: URM). The small version, Angara 1.1 has only one URM, while the heavier Angara 5 has 5 URMs. For this reason, Angara 5 can lift heavier payloads. The second part (called the second stage) of Angara 1.1 is called Briz-KM and the second stage of Angara 5 is called Block I.
The rockets are meant for launching unmanned payloads such as satellites. However, Khrunichev has also suggested building a version that could launch humans into space: Angara 5P.
All Angara versions can be launched from a single launch pad.
The first flight of Angara is expected to take place in 2012 from Plesetsk Cosmodrome. In the future, the flights on Angara rockets will be sold to other companies, who want to get their satellites into space. The price for an Angara 1.1 flight is expected to be about 20 million dollars.
Samsara is a Buddhist term, meaning the conditioned state of mind. It is the cycle of ignorance, leading to disturbing emotions and clumsy actions. They in turn are cause for suffering and new disturbing feelings and so on. According to Buddha’s teachings there are three main disturbing feelings: ignorance, anger and desire. They are called three poisons of mind and are told to have 84 000 combinations. The only way to completely get rid of suffering is to reach Nirvana or the perfect state of Buddha. All the teachings Buddha gives lead to this goal.
There are six realms of samsara, connected to six specific emotions:
Michael Heseltine
Michael Ray Dibdin Heseltine, Baron Heseltine (born 21 March 1933) is a British politician and businessman. He was a Member of Parliament from 1966 to 2001 as a member of the Conservative Party.
He was born in Swansea, Wales and studied at the University of Oxford. He was briefly conscripted into the army, before becoming a self-made millionaire in the 1960s. At the 1966 General Election, Heseltine became the Member of Parliament for the constituency of Tavistock in Devon. From 1970 to 1974, he was a junior minister in the government of Edward Heath. From 1979 to 1983, he was in the cabinet of Margaret Thatcher as Secretary of State for the Environment. He was Defence Secretary from 1983 to 1986, but resigned in 1986 and became a backbencher.
As a backbencher, Heseltine became very critical of Thatcher's government and refused to support the Poll Tax in 1989. In November 1990, Heseltine challenged Thatcher for Conservative Party leadership and this led to Thatcher resigning, but Heseltine did not get to become party leader. New Conservative Prime Minister John Major made Heseltine Secretary of State for the Environment (1990-1992), President of the Board of Trade (1992-1995) and Deputy Prime Minister (1995-1997).
In 2001, Heseltine stood down as an MP and entered the House of Lords. He was considered to be one of Britain's top 200 richest people in 2004, owning a wealth of about £240 million.
Geff Harrison
Geff Harrison (also known as Richie West, August 24, 1947, Manchester, United Kingdom), is an English singer-songwriter, mostly known for his bands King Ping Meh and Twenty Sixty Six And Then. He created the band Modern Talking along with Dieter Bohlen.
In January 20, 1986, Harrison filled a lawsuit against Dieter Bohlen claiming that he wrote English lyrics for Modern Talking and C.C.Catch, but the lawsuit was settled out of court. According to the ruling of the court, Bohlen and Harrison created the group Modern Talking together.
James McAuley
James Phillip McAuley (12 October 1917 – 15 October 1976) was an Australian poet who also composed hymns. He was a Catholic whose hymns were used in Catholic liturgy and now by other denominations. McAuley was born in Lakemba, Sydney. His first book of verse, "Under Aldebaran", was published in 1946. He died of liver cancer in Hobart.
Freedom of information is the right to freedom of expression on the Internet and other information technology. Freedom of information is the ability to access the Web without censorship or restrictions.
Freedom of information is a human right recognised in international law. Freedom of speech includes not only the text and pictures but also the means of expression. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. The "right to privacy" is a human right and freedom of information is an extension of this right.
Elijah of Tishbe is a person in the Abrahamic religions. His name means "Yahweh is God". He was a prophet in Israel in the 9th century BC. He appears in the Hebrew Bible, Baha'i scripture, Mishnah, New Testament, and the Qur'an. He is best known for being Israel's most famous prophet, his brave challenge to Baal's prophets on Mt. Carmel, and going up to heaven in a whirlwind.
Elijah went to the king, Ahab, who rejected God because of his even more sinful wife, Jezebel of Tyre, who stood as a symbol of Israel's unfaithfulness. He went to Ahab and God said through his lips (1 Kings chapter 17, NIV), "As the Lord, the God of Israel lives, whom I serve, there will be neither dew nor rain in the next few years except at my word."
Then Elijah followed the Lord's command and "went eastward and hid in the Kerith Ravine, east of the Jordan."
He "drank from the brook, and God had ordered ravens to feed him there".
The ravens brought him bread and meat in the morning and bread and meat in the evening, and he drank from the brook (because it did not rain, as he prophesied).
But then the brook dried up because of so little rain, and Elijah received the message from the Lord: "Go at once to Zarephath of Sidon and stay there. I have commanded a widow in the place to supply you with food" (1 Kings 17:9).
So Elijah went, and met the widow gathering sticks to make the last meal for her son and herself.
But when he called her and requested her to get himself some jar in a water and bread, she objected, (1 Kings 17:12) "As surely as the Lord your God lives, I don't have any bread - only a handful of flour in a jar and a little oil in a jug. I am gathering a few sticks to take home and make a meal for myself and my son, that we may eat it - and die."
Then Elijah said to the widow, "Don't be afraid. Go home and do as you have said. But first make a small cake of bread for me from what you have and bring it to me, and then make something for yourself and your son. For this is what the Lord, the God of Israel says: 'The jar of flour will not be used up nd the jug of oil will not run dry until the day the Lord gives rain on the land.'" So the widow did as Elijah told her to do, and there was enough food in the widow's house for everybody.
But then the son of the widow grew ill. He finally, after growing more and more worse, stopped breathing.
The widow became so very worried, and called Elijah--"What do you have against me, man of God? Did you come to remind me of my sin and kill my son?"
And Elijah replied, "Give me your son." He took him and carried him to the upper room where he was staying, and laid him on his bed. Then he cried out to the Lord, "O Lord my God, have you brought tragedy also upon this widow I am staying with, by causing her son to die?" Then he stretched himself upon the boy three times (probably to give to the boy his body warmth, though his prayer shows that he expected the life of the child to come back as an answer to prayer, not by physical touch), and cried out to the Lord, "O Lord my God, let this boy's life return to him!"
And the boy returned to life, making the woman admit that Elijah is "a man of God and that the word of the Lord from your mouth is the truth": a confession the Lord's own people Israel had not made. This is the first example of raising the dead in the Bible.
Then Elijah went to "present himself to Ahab" as the Lord commanded him to, and he met Obadiah, the honorable man who had kept loyal to the Lord and had hidden 100 priests of God that King Ahab had tried to kill. Obadiah recognized Elijah and respectfully bowed down to the ground, exclaiming, "Is it really you, my lord Elijah?"
Elijah replied yes, and ordered him to go and tell Ahab that he is here. Obadiah refused, crying, "What have I done you wrong that you are handing your servant over to Ahab to be put to death?" and declaring how he had "hid a hundred of the Lord's prophets in two caves, fifty in each, and supplied them with food and water." and that if Ahab came and saw that Elijah was gone and not here, he would surely kill him.