AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The deliberate release of the European red fox in the 19th century wiped out the entire numbat population in Victoria, NSW, South Australia and the Northern Territory, and almost all numbats in Western Australia, as well. By the late 1970s, the population was well under 1,000 individuals, concentrated in two small areas not far from Perth, Dryandra, and Perup.
The numbat is the emblem of Western Australia.
Haber process
The Haber process or the Haber-Bosch process is a chemical reaction that uses nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to create the chemical compound ammonia. The Haber process uses temperatures ranging from 400°C to 450°C under a pressure of 200 atm. The Haber process uses a catalyst mostly made up of iron.
The Haber process is named after the German scientist . Haber was the first person to successfully complete the process. In 1909, Haber's process could produce about one cup of ammonia every two hours. Carl Bosch helped to develop the Haber process for industry. In 1913, the German company BASF started using the Haber process to make ammonia. During World War I, the Haber process was used to make explosives. The Germans kept this a secret until after the war. In 1918, Haber won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and in 1931, Bosch also shared a Nobel Prize.
The Haber process is still important today because it produces ammonia, which is needed for fertilizer and for many other purposes. The Haber process produces about 500 million tons (453 billion kilograms) of fertilizer every year. This fertilizer helps to feed about 40% of the world's population.
The gases for the Haber process must be prepared before changing them into ammonia. After that is done, ammonia is created by using magnetite (iron oxide) as the catalyst:
In this process, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen is changed into ammonia. However, the unused nitrogen and hydrogen is recycled. Overall, 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen can be changed into ammonia.
Carl Edwards
Carl Michael Edwards, II (born August 15, 1979) is an American racecar driver who most recently drove the No. 19 Toyota Camry in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for Joe Gibbs Racing. In the past, Edwards drove the #99 Aflac Ford Fusion for Roush Fenway Racing. Edwards was the 2007 Nationwide series Champion. In January 2017, Edwards announced that he would not race during the 2017 season. Edwards says he wants to enjoy time away from racing, doing other activities that he enjoys and spending time with his family. He has said he is not retired, and that he may race again.
2010 Pichilemu earthquake
A 6.9 earthquake occurred on March 11, 2010, 40 kilometers southwest of Pichilemu, O'Higgins Region, Chile . A tsunami warning was made by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center Pacific-wide, although they warned of the possibility of local tsunamis within 100 kilometers of the epicenter (between San Antonio and Concepción).
Although news media first reported the earthquake as an aftershock of the February earthquake, the initial geological summary given by the United States Geological Survey said it was a different earthquake. Though unchained by the regional stress caused by the February 27 earthquake, the March event was not a fast adjustment to February's thrust fault rupture between the Nazca and South American plates, but it was caused by normal faulting inside one of those plates. However, it has not been positively decided in which plate the earthquake occurred.
Within 6 hours, 10 aftershocks took place, of these 2 were of magnitude 6 or greater and 7 between magnitude 5 and 6.
The earthquake took place shortly before the new president, Sebastián Piñera, was sworn in, at about 12:15 PM local time (15:15 UTC), at the Chilean congress in Valparaíso, where the shaking was clearly felt. The presidents of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Ecuador were present when the earthquake occurred, however, the television footage showed that the inauguration was not interrupted.
Damages reported by the Chilean news media include a collapsed pedestrian crossing over Chile Highway 5, north of Rancagua. The most affected place by the earthquake was Pichilemu, the epicentre of the earthquake. It destroyed the Ross Park, the most of the Agustín Ross Cultural Centre and many houses in Espinillo and Rodeillo.
The May, 2 2010 Pichilemu earthquake was a magnitude 6.0 M earthquake that struck off Pichilemu, Chile, at 10:52 AM on May 2, 2010 at the epicenter, at a depth of . USGS described that the epicenter was south-southwest of San Antonio, west Regional capital of Rancagua, northwest of Curicó and southwest of the Chilean capital of Santiago.
After almost exactly three hours later a second quake happens in the same area with an intensity of 4.8 M
More than 10 aftershocks happened on May 2 and 3.
Levon Aronian
Levon Aronian, born 6 October 1982 in Yerevan, is an Armenian chess Grandmaster. He is Armenia's #1 player.
Aronian won the Chess World Cup 2005. He led the Armenian national team to the gold medals in the 37th Chess Olympiad, Turin 2006, the 38th Olympiad, Dresden 2008, and the World Team Chess Championship in Ningbo, 2011. In the Chess Olympiad 2010 at Khanty-Mansiysk he won the silver medal for his individual performance on board one.
He won the FIDE Grand Prix 2008–2010, qualifying him for the Candidates tournament for the World Chess Championship 2012, where he was knocked out in the first round.
Aronian has had a string of outstanding tournament results since reaching the top with a joint win at Wijk aan Zee 2008. His latest, and perhaps greatest victory was in January 2012, at the same Tata Steel Chess Tournament in Wijk aan Zee. The field included world #1 Magnus Carlsen, defending champion Hikaru Nakamura, and former world champion Veselin Topalov, among others. The average rating of the field was 2755, making this thirteen-round event a category 21 tournament. After twelve rounds, Aronian was in clear first place with 8.5 points going into the final round, one point ahead of Carlsen and Teimour Radjabov. In the final round, Aronian drew against Radjabov with the white pieces in the King's Indian Defence. With the draw, Aronian finished with 9/13 (+5), a tournament performance rating of 2891. He took clear first place a point ahead of Carlsen, Radjabov and Fabiano Caruana.
Aronian was declared the best sportsman of Armenia in 2005, and was awarded the title of "Honoured Master of Sport of the Republic of Armenia" in 2009.
Alexander Grischuk
Alexander Grischuk (born Moscow, 31 October 1983) is a chess grandmaster, one of the top Russian players.
In the FIDE World Chess Championship 2000 he made it to the semi finals.
In the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004 he made it to the quarter finals, where he lost 3–1 to Rustam Kasimdzhanov.
Grischuk is also one of the best blitz chess players in the world, having once held the record for highest rating achieved on the Internet Chess Club. In 2006 he won the World Blitz Championship in Israel.
Grischuk is married to the Ukrainian WGM Natalia Zhukova.
Peter Svidler
Peter Svidler, born 17 June 1976 in Leningrad, is a Russian chess Grandmaster, and six times Russian chess champion.
Peter Svidler learned to play chess when he was six years old. In 1992, he tied for 1st with Ragim Gasimov in the USSR Junior Open Chess Championship. He became a grandmaster in 1994.
He has been Russian champion six times (1994, 1995, 1997, 2003, 2008, 2011). This is a record for this high-class event, which has a long history. In 2001, he reached the semi-finals of the FIDE World Championship.
He came second (with Viswanathan Anand) in the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005 in San Luis with 8.5 points out of 14 games, lagging 1.5 points behind the winner, Veselin Topalov. In an interview given for World Chess Network he said: "I only prepared seriously for San Luis, and I think it has paid off. But in general I spend most of my spare time with my wife and kids, so my relative success in 2005 was a pleasant surprise". His San Luis result earned him direct entry to the World Chess Championship series of 2007. In that tournament he scored 6.5 out of 14, placing 5th out of eight players.
In 2006 he came second behind Alexander Grischuk at the World Blitz Championship in Rishon Lezion, Israel, with 10.5 points out of 15 games. He also finished tied for first with Vladimir Kramnik at Dortmund 2006.
Svidler has won the FIDE 2011 World Cup in Khanty-Mansisyk Siberia. The final was in September.
Svidler took the $120,000 first prize after beating his fellow countryman, Alexander Grischuk 2.5-1.5, in the best-of-four game final. It was a crushing psychological win for Svidler, who took adantage of his opponent's bad time-management. Svidler steered the games into lines that had Grischuk thinking from the very early stages.
Svidler has now become the first Russian to win the World Cup title. His back-to-back major title wins of the Russian Championship followed by the World Cup has Svidler once again into the world’s top ten.
Both Svidler and Grischuk also earned qualification for the 2012 World Championship Candidates tournament. And in the all-Ukrainian battle for the third Candidates spot, Vassily Ivanchuk won 2.5-1.5 against Ruslan Ponomariov.
Renaissance man
The term Renaissance man or polymath is used for a very clever man who is good at many different things. It is named after the Renaissance period of history (from the 14th century to the 16th or 17th century in Europe). Two of the best-known people from this time were Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Leonardo was a famous painter but he was also a scientist, philosopher, engineer, and mathematician. Michelangelo was an extraordinary sculptor, painter, architect and poet. They are known as two of the highest examples of what a Renaissance man is.
But the term "Renaissance man" is also often used for extraordinary people not from the Renaissance period. It can be used for anyone who is very clever at many different things, no matter when that person lived. Albert Schweitzer was a 20th century "Renaissance man" who was a theologian, musician, philosopher and doctor. Benjamin Franklin was a "Renaissance man" who lived in the 18th century and was an author and printer, politician, scientist, inventor and soldier.
() was the original concept of the Renaissance man. It was an ideal of the Italian Renaissance. One example is the saying by Leone Battista Alberti that "a man can do all things if he will". Many Renaissance men from this time are still famous today:
Hurricane Vince
Hurricane Vince was an unusual hurricane that began in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. It was part of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. The waters where it formed were thought to be too cold for tropical cyclones to exist. Vince was the 20th named storm and 12th hurricane of the season.
The storm that became Vince started out as an extratropical cyclone. It became a subtropical storm on October 8 to the southeast of the Azores. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) did not officially give the storm a name until the next day. Vince grew into a hurricane before beginning to weaken at sea. On October 11, it made landfall on the Iberian Peninsula in Spain. At that time, it was a tropical depression. It may have been the first storm to hit the area since a hurricane in 1842. Vince died out over Spain. However, it did drop rain on the country. What was left of the storm passed into the Mediterranean Sea.
On October 5, a storm now known as the 2005 Azores subtropical storm was absorbed by another low pressure area. It then began to develop and become more organized. It became a subtropical cyclone early on October 8. The storm was 580 miles (930 km) southeast of Lajes in the Azores. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) did not name the system Vince at the time, because the waters here were thought to be too cold for tropical or subtropical cyclones to exist. The storm slowly became more tropical, with a warm center. It became a tropical storm the next day in water cooler than 24 °C (75 °F), colder than the 26.5 °C (80 °F) usually needed for tropical storms.
After becoming a tropical storm, it had an eye, a clear opening at the center of the storm. The NHC named it Tropical Storm Vince, but at the time, it was not known whether Vince was tropical or subtropical. A later analysis of the storm found that Vince became tropical before it was given a name. The storm's eye became more settled and had a diameter of 15 mi (25 km). The storm also became stronger; it reached its highest force on October 9. At the time, it had wind speeds of 75 mph (120 km/h), a very weak Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. One NHC weather forecaster said that "if it looks like a hurricane, it probably is, despite its environment and unusual location".
Hurricane Vince quickly began to weaken because wind shear began to erode it. Vince weakened to a tropical storm. A type of weather system called a trough moved towards Vince from the northwest It pulled thunderstorms related to Vince away from the storm, and its center quickly moved to the east. On October 10, two short bursts of thunderstorms surprised forecasters. However, because the water was so cold, the storm kept weakening. Vince became weaker as it came closer to the Iberian Peninsula. It became a tropical depression on October 11. This was just before it made its landfall in Huelva, Spain. The fast-moving tropical depression quickly died out over land. What was left of the cyclone moved across southern Spain. It moved into the Mediterranean Sea south of Alicante early on October 12.
The Spanish Center for Emergency Coordination declared a rain pre-emergency for the province of Castellón. They were afraid that Hurricane Vince would bring rains which would flood the area. The Instituto Nacional de Meteorología (INM) issued a bulletin. It warned of a 40% chance of flooding. Four autonomous regions (Asturias, Cataluña, Castile and León and Galicia) issued flood warnings. Canarias issued a wind warning. Fishing fleets from Spain off the Andalusian coast went back to port. They were hit by the storm while anchored. The storm did not hit them in the open ocean.
Spain had been fighting a record drought that year. They welcomed the rains brought by Vince's remnants. In two days the storm brought a lot of rain to the province of A Coruña. This eased the sinking water levels in the reservoirs. But this also caused bad traffic and small floods. In Cordoba province, the A-303, A-306 and OC-293 roads were slightly flooded. The entrance of the University of A Coruña was blocked for some time. It was blocked by flood waters on October 11. A nearby roundabout was submerged. There were limited damages. No one died in the storm. The highest winds reported on land were 48 mph (77 km/h). These winds were reported at Jerez, Spain.
Some ships reported stronger winds. The rainfall as a result of the hurricane was like normal rains from temperate systems. Only one to two inches (25 to 50 mm) of rain fell. Using the words of a song in the movie "My Fair Lady", National Hurricane Center forecaster James Franklin in the Tropical Cyclone Report for Vince wrote, "the rain in Spain was mainly less than 2 inches, although 3.30 inches (84 mm) fell in the plain at Cordoba."
Hurricane Vince began in an odd place, an area where tropical cyclones do not usually originate from. However, it does not hold any important records. Tropical Storm Alberto of the 1988 season formed farther north than any other storm, at 41.5° N. Also, Hurricane Ginger of the 1967 season formed at 18.1° W, the farthest east of any tropical cyclones. Hurricane Vince became a "hurricane" further east than any known storm, at 18.9° W, prior to 2019’s Hurricane Pablo, at 18.8°W. A tropical storm becomes a hurricane when wind speeds grow higher than .
The National Hurricane Center said that Vince was the first tropical cyclone known to hit the Iberian Peninsula. However, some documents claim that the 1842 Spain hurricane struck the Iberian Peninsula on October 29, 1842. That hurricane may have been stronger. More recently, Tropical Storm Grace formed farther north than Vince.
When Subtropical Storm Vince began on October 8, it was earliest in a season that the twenty-first tropical or subtropical storm formed. It was 38 days ahead of the record before that, which was set by Tropical Storm 21 of the 1933 season. Because Vince did not cause bad damage, the World Meteorological Organization did not retire (stop using) the name "Vince". It will be on the list of names for the 2011 season.
Life insurance is money for your family to use to pay your bills and death expenses when you die. A person must be healthy to purchase a life insurance policy. The amount of life insurance needed depends on the person’s family’s needs when they die. Some things to consider when purchasing a life insurance policy are, marital status, the number of dependents, (wife, kids, etc.) family size, income, and wealth. Life insurance has different types of policies.
In chemistry, Polytetrafluoroethylene (often shortened to PTFE) is a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene. It is a fluoropolymer, because the polymerization is based on strong bonds of fluorine and carbon. Polytetrafluoroethylene is not very reactive. It also repels oil and water. E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company developed it in 1938. It is better known by its trade-names, "Teflon", and Gore-Tex. Teflon is a coating done to frying pans, among others. Gore-Tex is a membrane used in clothing.
Perfluorooctanoic acid is needed to produce Polytetrafluoroethylene. Perfluorooctanoic acid is because it is very toxic for people and may cause cancer. The precursors for many chemical weapons are highly corrosive, their containers are therefore often treated with Polytetrafluoroethylene. For this reason, the export of Polytetrafluoroethylene from the European Union may need a special permit.
Teflon (disambiguation)
Teflon is a trade name, which is used for the following polymers:
Mannerism
Mannerism is a style of art that was created in the Late Renaissance period, from about 1520 until about 1600. The Mannerist style of painting or sculpture often shows figures that are "elongated" (made longer) and "distorted" (made into strange shapes"). The aim of the Mannerist artist was usually to make art that looked "elegant".
The Mannerist style began in Italy, where the artists were influenced by the figures that Michelangelo painted on the ceiling and in the "Last Judgement" in the Sistine Chapel. During the Renaissance, artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael had tried very hard to learn from nature, and to paint things in a way that was very realistic. These two famous painters both died around 1520. Many artists then decided that they were going to use the art of painting to "express themselves". They were not going to follow the rules of anatomy and perspective in the way that Leonardo and Raphael did. Mannerist paintings are often full of figures that seem to be twisting, writhing or fighting. The faces of the figures often show strong emotions such as sadness, fear, hatred or sexual feelings.
Not all the painters who were working during the Mannerist period painted in the Mannerist style. Many artists continued to work in the style of the High Renaissance. Painters in the Mannerist style were Tintoretto, Jacopo Pontormo, Agnolo Bronzino, Parmigianino and Rosso Fiorentino. Giambologna and Benvenuti Cellini were Mannerist sculptors. Giulio Romano was a Mannerist architect.
Mannerism spread from Italy to France, Germany and Spain. One of the most famous Mannerist painters was El Greco who worked in Spain. Some other artists who worked in the Mannerist style are the French sculptor Jean Goujon, the Dutch painter Abraham Bloemaert and the German painter Bartolomeus Spranger. Possibly the strangest paintings from this time were by Giuseppe Arcimboldo who did pictures in which people's faces seem to be made from fruit, flowers, fire and even fish.
Tricolor or tricolour (meaning "three colours") is, in most cases, a flag or banner that has three colours. Tricolour is a specific type of a flag with three stripes.
Palombia
Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters
Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters is an animated movie based on the Adult Swim program "Aqua Teen Hunger Force". The movie is rated R for crude and sexual humor, violent images, and language. The movie was written and directed by the show's creators Dave Willis and Matt Maiellaro.
The Aqua Teens, Carl, the Plutonians, the Cybernetic Ghost, Dr. Weird, and the Mooninites are all after the exercise machine called the Insanenoflex. Carl goes on it and gets stuck, so the Aqua Teens try to stop it with music. The plan works, but the Aqua Teens realize that the world is still in danger, and then they set out to find more about themselves. Later on the Aqua Teens find out how they were created by Dr. Weird. Also they learn that there was a fourth Aqua Teen called Chicken Bittle. Finally they learn that their father turns out to be a watermelon whose accomplice is Neil Peart of the band Rush and that their mother is a 9-layer burrito.
A script for a sequel entitled "Death Fighter" has been written. The project was scrapped and never produced. Co-creator Dave Willis has stated he would be open to using Kickstarter to fund the project in the future.
Ray Romano
Dave Willis
David "Dave" Willis (born May 1, 1970) is an American voice actor, writer, and producer. He is best known for his work on the Adult Swim programs "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" and "Squidbillies".
His first job was on the show "". There he met Matt Maiellaro. He and Maiellaro later made "Aqua Teen Hunger Force".
Jonathan "Johnny" Clegg (7 June 1953 – 16 July 2019) was a British-born musician from South Africa. He was in the bands Juluka and Savuka.
Juluka were able to tour in Europe. They had two platinum and five gold albums. They were an international success. The Savuka album "Shadow Man" sold 250,000 copies within a week after its release. It went on to sell more than 1,000,000 copies in France alone),
His song "Scatterlings of Africa" was on the soundtrack to the 1988 Oscar winning movie "Rain Man". This song is his only entry in the UK Singles Chart to date. It reached #75 in May 1987. He also did music for the movie "The Lion King 1½", "George of the Jungle" and "Opportunity Knocks".
Clegg was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in 2015. He retired in 2017. Clegg died on 16 July 2019 at his home in Johannesburg from the disease at the age of 66.
Kick-Ass is a comicbook and movie about superheroes. The movie opened in theatres in the United Kingdom 26 March 2010 and 16 April 2010 in the United States.
The movie and comic tell the story of a teenager called Dave Lizewski. Lizewski is an average teenager who wonders why nobody in real life has ever decided to become a superhero like the ones in the comic books. He decides to become a real-life superhero despite having no special power or ability of any kind. He purchases a suit on the Internet and calls himself Kick-Ass.
The Boeing 707 is a jet airliner. It flew -5 total flights. It was made by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 until 1979. It only has two rows of seats, which means it is a narrow-body plane. It also has four engines. The name is often said as "Seven Oh Seven". There are many different types of 707, and they can hold from 140 to 189 passengers. They can also fly from .
The Boeing 707 was Boeing's first jet airliner. It was the most common plane in the 1960s and it was still used a lot during the 1970s. The 707 was the first jet to have a lot of passengers fly on it. The 707 was not the first jet airliner, but it was the first one to make a lot of money. It made Boeing one of the biggest makers of airliners. It also started the group of planes with "7x7" names. The Boeing 727, Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 have some parts of the 707's design.
The 707's design came from the Boeing 367-80, which was a prototype jet. The very first 707, the 707-120, had Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines. Pan American World Airways started using the 707 on October 26, 1958. Other types of 707 are the 707-138 and the 707-320. Both of these started being used in 1959. A smaller version, the Boeing 720, was made in 1960. The 707-420 had Rolls-Royce Conway 508 turbofan engines. It was made in 1960.
The 707 has been used for many different types of flights. Versions of the 707 used by militaries are the E-3 Sentry and the C-137 Stratoliner. Boeing made 1,011 707s (including the 720). More than 800 military planes were made. In August 2011, 10 707s were being used by airlines.
By August 2012, there were only two.
During World War II, and after it, Boeing was known for its military planes. Boeing had made very important bombers, like the propeller B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress and the jet B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress. However, Douglas and other companies were far ahead of Boeing in the airliner market. The only successful airliners Boeing made before the 707 were the Boeing 314 Clipper and Boeing 307 Stratoliner. During 1949–1950, Boeing started looking at jets. Back then, aerial refueling (when a plane can get more fuel while flying) was being used a lot. The United States Air Force had ordered 800 KC-97 Stratotankers. Since planes were beginning to use jet engines, the USAF needed a jet tanker.
Boeing looked at many wing designs and engines for the new tanker. Eventually, it chose the 367–80. The "Dash 80" took less than two years to make. It first took off on July 15, 1954. It had Pratt & Whitney JT3C engines.
Nobody knew if the 707 would make money. Back then, Boeing was making almost all of its money from military planes. The last airliner it made, the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, lost the company $15 million before the United States Air Force bought some and called them the KC-97 Stratotanker. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside of Seattle, on August 7, 1955, test pilot Tex Johnston performed a barrel roll in the 367-80 prototype.
The Dash 80 was wide. This meant that it was wide enough to have two seats on each side of the plane. Boeing decided to make it wide. However, Douglas had made the DC-8, which was wide. Because of this, Boeing made the 707 wider again, so it was wide.
The first flight of the 707 happened on December 20, 1957. The FAA allowed it to fly on September 18, 1958.
The very first type of 707 was the 707-120. Qantas ordered a shorter version, which was called the 707-138. The -138 could fly for as long as Qantas needed. Braniff International Airways ordered a version with Pratt & Whitney JT4A engines. This version was called the 707-220.
Even though the 707 should have had turbojet engines, the Pratt & Whitney JT3D was used the most. The JT3D was a turbofan engine.
The last type of 707 was the 707-320C (C means "Convertible"). It had a big door for cargo. It also had a better wing.
Boeing stopped making passenger 707s in 1978. 1,010 707s were made for airlines, but a lot of these went to militaries. Boeing made military 707s until 1991.
Some parts of the 707's design can be seen in the 737, 727 and 757.
The 707's wings are swept back at 35 degrees. This means that the wings are not straight lines. Boeing made a yaw damper for swept-wing planes, which was needed because swept-wing planes move strangely if there is not a yaw damper.
On one flight, the yaw damper was switched off to give the new pilots some more experience with the plane. One pilot made a bad move, and the plane went out of control. Three of the engines were ripped off of the wing. The plane crashed near Seattle at Arlington, Washington. Four people on board died.
In his autobiography, Tex Johnston said he was flying on a 707 and he thought that there was something wrong with the yaw damper, because the plane was moving strangely. He went to the cockpit and helped fix the plane.
The 707 used air from the engines to pressurize the cabin.
The P&W JT3D-3B engines have special doors which open when the plane is taking off. The doors help to give more air to the engines. The doors close when the plane is in the air.
Pratt & Whitney decided to make the JT8D-219 the new engines for planes made from the Boeing 707. A lot of these are for military planes which were designed from the Boeing 707.
The first orders for the 707 happened on October 13, 1955. Pan Am ordered 20 707s. There was a lot of competition between the 707 and the Douglas DC-8. A lot of big airlines only used the DC-8. Boeing decided to make some more changes to the 707's wing so that it could fly further. The new version was called the 707-320.
Pan Am was the first airline that used the 707. The plane's first flight was from New York to Paris on October 26, 1958. It stopped for fuel in Gander, Newfoundland. Qantas was the first airline from outside the United States to use the 707.
The 707 became a very popular jet airliner. It helped air travel grow a lot. Air traffic control was also upgraded.
At the end of the 1960s, the 707 was too small to fly all the passengers that wanted to fly. Boeing made the Boeing 747 because of this. The 707's engines were also too old.
During the Falklands War the Argentine Air Force used 707s to patrol. Some of them were caught by Royal Navy Sea Harriers.
Trans World Airlines was the last U.S. airline to fly passengers on a 707. The flight happened on October 30, 1983.
Most 707s are now private jets or cargo planes.
What the Boeing 720 was first called. American Airlines always called its 720s 707s.
The "707-120" was the first type of 707. The plane could hold 179 passengers. This type often had to stop for fuel in the North Atlantic. It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojets. The first flight with passengers was on October 26, 1958. 56 were built, plus 7 short body −138s; the last −120 was delivered to Western in May 1960.
The "707-138" was a −120 which was ten feet shorter than the others. It could also fly further.
The "707-120B" had Pratt & Whitney JT3D-1 turbofan engines. They were a lot better than the others. The −120B had some changes made to the wings. 72 were made.
The "707-220" had more powerful Pratt & Whitney JT4A-3 turbojet engines. Five of these were made, but only four were delivered. The first one began being used in December 1959.
The "707-320 Intercontinental" is a longer version of the 707-120. This type could hold more passengers, and had some changes made to the wings. It first took off on January 11, 1958.
The 707-420 was the same as the −320, but it had Rolls-Royce Conway 508 engines. Lufthansa was the first to carry passengers on this type of plane in March 1960.
The "707-320B" had a few changes made to the outside of the plane, as well as new engines. The wing was changed. This plane was first used in June 1962 by Pan Am.
The "707-320C" could be changed from a passenger plane into a cargo plane. More 707-320Cs were made than any other type. The 707-320C had a cargo door added, as well as some other changes to the wing and the floor.
Many militaries have used the 707 for many different things.
The Boeing E-3 Sentry is a U.S. military airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft. It has some of the Boeing 707's design.
The Canadian Forces also used Boeing 707s. These were called the CC-137 Husky (707-347C) from 1972 to 1997.
"Boeing 717" was what Boeing called the C-135 Stratolifter and KC-135 Stratotanker. The McDonnell Douglas MD-95's name was changed to Boeing 717 after Boeing bought McDonnell Douglas.
In the 1980s, the USAF bought 250 used 707s for parts for the KC-135E Stratotanker.
707s are not used anymore by big airlines. However, as of December 2012, 10 707s were being used. John Travolta owns a 707-138B.
As of May 2011, the 707 has had 170 hull-loss accidents. 2,739 people have died in Boeing 707 accidents. A hull-loss accident is when the plane is damaged so much that it cannot be fixed.
Fischer-Tropsch process
The Fischer–Tropsch process (or Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis or F-T) is a set of chemical reactions that changes a mixture of carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen gas into liquid hydrocarbons (like gasoline or kerosene).
The Fischer–Tropsch process involves many kinds of reactions, which lead to both wanted and unwanted results. The desirable reactions create chemicals called alkanes. Sometimes the gas methane (natural gas) is produced, which is generally undesirable. Sometimes, different kinds of alcohol are produced in small amounts.
Many steps are required to make the gases needed for the F-T process. For example, all chemicals entering the reactor must have all sulfur removed. For factories that start out with methane and want to make a liquid hydrocarbon (like kerosene), another important reaction is "steam reforming", which turns the methane into CO (carbon monoxide) and H (hydrogen gas).
This is the chemical equation for how steam reforming works.
The reaction above describes one molecule of HO (steam) plus one molecule of CH (methane) converts into one molecule of CO (carbon monoxide) and three molecules of H (hydrogen gas).
A catalyst is a substance added to change the rate of a chemical reaction, generally to make it faster. Many different catalysts can be used for the Fischer–Tropsch process. The most common catalysts are the metals cobalt, iron, and ruthenium. These metals are all transition metals. The metal nickel can also be used, but generally with unwanted results. A nickel catalyst in the reaction usually produces a lot of methane, which is undesirable.
Cobalt seems to be the most active catalyst (it has the greatest and fastest effect on the process). When the input is a natural gas, cobalt catalysts are very good for the Fischer-Tropsch process. Iron catalysts are better when the input gas is of lower quality (less pure) such as coal or biomass.
Most metals used for this process (like cobalt, nickel, and ruthenium) remain in their metal form when added to the process. However, iron catalysts behave very differently. Often, iron catalysts change form and chemical phase, like converting into various oxides and carbides during the reaction. It is important to control all of the iron reactions during the process, or else the process may not work correctly.
Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are famous for being extremely sensitive to the addition of sulfur. Even a tiny amount of sulfur can have an undesirable impact on the reaction. Cobalt catalysis is more sensitive to sulfur than iron.
High-Temperature Fischer-Tropsch (or HTFT) is performed at temperatures of 330°C-350°C. HTFT uses an iron-based catalyst. Sasol used HTFT in Coal-to-Liquid plants (CTL). Low-Temperature Fischer-Tropsch (LTFT) is performed at lower temperatures and uses a cobalt-based catalyst. Shell used LTFT in an integrated Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.
Some F-T factories use coal, biomass or other solid compounds as a starting point. Before these factories can begin the F-T process, they must turn the solids into gases such as CO, H, and alkanes. Changing solid chemical compounds into gas is called gasification. The gas collected from coal gasification often has a CO/H ratio of ~0.7 instead of the optimal ratio of ~2. This ratio can be adjusted from 0.7 to 2.0 using the water-gas shift reaction. Gasification is a dirty and expensive process. Coal-based Fischer–Tropsch factories start out with coal, gasify the coal, and then use the resulting gas as feed stock for the Fischer-Tropsch process. These factories can produce large volumes of CO in this way. One of the main reasons for this approach is the large amounts of energy required for a coal-based gasification process.
The original process was invented by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch while working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in the 1920s. Since then, many improvements have been made. The term "Fischer-Tropsch" now is used for many similar processes. Fischer and Tropsch submitted several patents, like US patent no. 1,746,464, applied for in 1926, and published in 1930. It was given to the factories in Germany in 1936. Germany had an abundance of coal but very little petroleum. The F-T process enables the conversion of coal into gasoline, which is important for gasoline-based transport like cars, airplanes, and trucks. As a result, during World War II, the F-T process enabled Nazi Germany and Japan to produce substitute fuels for tanks and cars. F-T fuel production made up about 9% of German wartime fuel production and 25% of the automobile fuel.
The United States Bureau of Mines ran a program started by the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act. The Bureau hired seven fuel scientists from Operation Paperclip to work in a Fischer-Tropsch plant in Louisiana, Missouri in 1946. Operation Paperclip was a project to recruit German scientists to work for the US after World War II.
The F-T process has been used by many large companies, however the process is unpopular for many reasons. F-T factory equipment is expensive, and has high operating and maintenance costs. Also, petroleum, which competes with F-T products, has very unpredictable prices. Usually, factories are only profitable when they have access to "stranded gas". "Stranded gas" is the name for sources of natural gas very far from major cities that are too expensive to pump to consumers. If the natural gas could be pumped to these cities and sold directly to consumers, it would be much more profitable. Therefore, several companies are developing processes to enable practical exploitation of so-called stranded gas reserves.
The largest F-T factories with the largest application of F-T technology are owned and operated by the company Sasol in South Africa. South Africa is a country with large coal reserves but not enough oil to meet demand. Germany is in a similar situation. Sasol employs coal and natural gas in the F-T Process. They produce many different substitutes for oil products, and produce most of the country's diesel fuel.
One of the largest uses of F-T technology is in Bintulu, Malaysia. This Shell factory turns natural gas into low-sulfur diesel fuels and food-grade wax. They produce approximately 12,000 barrels/day.
In October 2006, Finnish paper and pulp manufacturer UPM announced its plans to produce biodiesel using the Fischer–Tropsch process. It said that it will do this along with the manufacturing processes at its European paper and pulp plants. It will use waste biomass from paper and pulp manufacturing as raw material for biodiesel.
In 2009, chemists working for the U.S. Navy studied Fischer-Tropsch for making fuels with hydrogen from electrolyzed seawater. With the usually optimal cobalt catalyst, this study produced mostly methane gas. Use of an iron catalyst, however, resulted in only 30% methane in the product; the rest consisted of short-chain hydrocarbons. Further refining of the hydrocarbons produced could lead to the creation of kerosene-based jet fuel.
The abundance of CO2 makes seawater look like a good alternative fuel source. Scientists at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory said that, "although the gas forms only a small proportion of air – around 0.04 per cent – ocean water contains about 140 times that concentration". However this often-repeated statement is misleading because while the density of CO2 and related compounds in seawater is about 200x the density of CO2 in air on a per cubic meter basis, carbon dioxide compounds are only about 1/4 the density on a per kg basis.
John Brown (abolitionist)
John Brown (May 9, 1800 – December 2, 1859) was an American abolitionist. Brown supported using violence to end slavery in the United States. He first got national attention when he led small groups of people during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856.
In October 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (today West Virginia). He wanted to start a slave liberation movement that would spread south through the areas of Virginia and North Carolina. He took control of the armory, but seven people were killed, and ten or more were injured. Brown wanted to arm slaves with weapons from the armory. However, few local slaves joined his attack. Within 36 hours, Brown's men were killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen, and U.S. Marines. Brown was executed by hanging for treason against the state of Virginia on December 2, 1859. He was the first person executed for treason in the history of the United States.
Brown is still a controversial person today. He is both remembered as a heroic martyr, and he is hated as a madman and a terrorist.
John Brown was born May 9, 1800, in Torrington, Connecticut. He was the fourth of the eight children of Owen Brown (1771–1856) and Ruth Mills (1772–1808) and grandson of Capt. John Brown (1728–1776). Brown's ancestors were 17th-century English Puritans.
In 1805, the family moved to Hudson, Ohio. Owen Brown opened a tannery here. Hudson had a lot of anti-slavery activity. Owen was a part of it. Owen provided a safe house to Underground Railroad fugitives. There was not a high school in Hudson at that time, so John studied at the school of the abolitionist Elizur Wright. Elizur Wright was the father of Elizur Wright, in nearby Tallmadge.
The father of Ulysses S. Grant, Jesse R. Grant, was Owen Brown's apprentice.
When he was 16 years old, Brown left his family and went to Plainfield, Massachusetts. He joined a preparatory program. Shortly afterward, he went to the Morris Academy in Litchfield, Connecticut.
In 1820, Brown married Dianthe Lusk. Their first child, John Jr, was born 13 months later. In 1825, looking for a safer place (for fugitive slaves), Brown and his family moved to New Richmond, Pennsylvania. He bought of land. He cleared an eighth of it, and he built a cabin, a barn, and a tannery. The tannery had a secret room to hide escaping slaves. The John Brown Tannery Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. It "was a major stop on the [Underground] Railroad, marking its place in history from 1825 to 1835." During that period, "Brown helped an estimated 2,500 slaves escape."
In 1829, some white families asked Brown to help them remove Native Americans who hunted annually in the area. Brown told them, "I will have nothing to do with [such a] mean act. I would [rather] take my gun and help [remove] you from the country." Throughout his life, Brown kept peaceful relations with his Native American neighbors. Sometimes he would go with them on hunting trips, and he invited them to eat in his home.
In 1831, one of his sons died. Brown became sick, and his businesses started to do poorly. This made Brown have a lot of debt. In the summer of 1832, shortly after the death of a newborn son, his wife Dianthe died. The only family he had left were his children John Jr., Jason, Owen, and Ruth. (Another three of their children died before they became adults.) On June 14, 1833, Brown married 16-year-old Mary Ann Day (April 15, 1817 – May 1, 1884). She was from Washington County, New York. They had 13 children; those alive at John Brown's death were Salmon, Annie, Sarah, and Ellen.
In 1836, Brown moved his family to Franklin Mills, Ohio (now known as Kent). There, he borrowed money to buy land in the area. He built and operated a tannery along the Cuyahoga River. His partner was Zenas Kent.
In 1837, when he learned that Elijah P. Lovejoy was murdered, Brown promised: "Here, before God, [with witnesses around me], from [now on], I (dedicate) my life to the destruction of slavery!"
He strongly believed in Christianity. He believed that Christians should treat people the same no matter what color their skin was. Many white Christians in America at this time did not agree with this.
Brown lived mostly in Springfield, Massachusetts before moving to the Kansas Territory. This would later become the state of Kansas in 1861. Several of his sons were already living there. Brown's sons wanted his help to fight people from Missouri. The people in Missouri wanted slavery to be legal in Kansas. On May 24, 1856, Brown and his sons killed five people in Kansas who wanted slavery to be legal. They dragged the people out of their homes and killed them with swords. This came to be known as the Pottawatomie massacre. Many people in Kansas were shocked and upset about this. More violent things happened after this. This was the beginning of the period in the Kansas Territory known as Bleeding Kansas. Before leaving Kansas, Brown and his followers were attacked at the Battle of Osawatomie on August 30, 1856. His son Frederick was killed there.
In 1859, Brown decided to attack the Harpers Ferry Armory in Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). He was planning on giving the weapons to slaves. The slaves would use the weapons to fight against their masters and become free. Brown attacked the arsenal in October 1859. His sons and several other men, including several black men, helped him with the attack. His attack failed. Brown was captured, and was executed by hanging for treason against the state of Virginia on December 2, 1859.
On the morning of December 2, 1859, Brown wrote:
I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I now think, [naively thought] that [it could be done without much bloodshed].
He read his Bible and wrote a final letter to his wife. The letter included his will. At 11:00 a.m. he was taken from the county jail through a crowd of 2,000 soldiers a few blocks away. He was taken to a small field where the gallows were. Among the soldiers in the crowd were future Confederate general Stonewall Jackson, and John Wilkes Booth (Booth borrowed a militia uniform to watch the execution). The poet Walt Whitman, in "Year of Meteors", described watching the execution.
Brown chose to receive no religious services in the jail or at the scaffold. He was hanged at 11:15 a.m. He was declared dead at 11:50 a.m.
The raid on Harpers Ferry is generally thought to have pushed the United States towards civil war. Southern slaveowners, hearing early reports that hundreds of abolitionists were involved, were glad the action was so small. However, they feared other abolitionists would also try to lead slave rebellions. Therefore, the South reorganized the old militia system. These militias became a ready-made Confederate army, making the South better prepared for war.
Many abolitionists in the North believed Brown was a martyr, and that he sacrificed for the evils of the nation. Immediately after the raid, William Lloyd Garrison published a column in "The Liberator". He said Brown's raid "[meant well] but sadly unwise" and "wild and [pointless]". However, he defended Brown's character from haters in the Northern and Southern press. He argued that those who supported the ideas of the American Revolution could not consistently oppose Brown's raid. On the day Brown was hanged, Garrison said in Boston: "whenever [it happens], I all slave revolts succeed".
After the Civil War, Frederick Douglass wrote, "His zeal in the cause of my race was far greater than mine ... I could live for the slave, but he could die for him."
People had strong feelings about John Brown. Some people thought that he was crazy or evil. Other people thought that he was a hero. His attack on Harpers Ferry helped lead to the American Civil War. The war would start in 1861.
Many Black leaders of the timeMartin Delany, Henry Highland Garnet, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubmanknew and respected Brown. "Tubman thought Brown was the greatest white man who ever lived." Douglass called him "a brave and glorious old man."
Black businesses in the North closed on the day of his execution. Church bells rang across the North.
John Brown is the name of:
Sinocentrism
Sinocentrism is the belief that China is the cultural center of the world.
This idea may have possibly been reinforced by the Chinese Isolationist policy enforced by Emperor Hongwu during the Ming Dynasty.
Thoroughfare Gap is an album by American singer-songwriter Stephen Stills. The album was released in 1978.
Most tracks were composed by Stephen Stills.
Annabeth Chase
Annabeth Chase is a fictional character in Rick Riordan's "Percy Jackson and Heroes of Olympus" series. She is a demigod, meaning she is half-mortal and half goddess. Her father is the mortal Frederick Chase and her mother is Athena, the goddess of wisdom, crafts, arts, and battle strategy. She is first cousins with Magnus Chase, whose mother is her paternal aunt. She appears first in the first novel of the series, "The Lightning Thief". Throughout the series she becomes close friends with Percy Jackson, later becoming his main love interest and girlfriend.
Annabeth is architect of Olympus and one of the leaders in Camp Half Blood for half bloods/demigods.