AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The next big thing in cognitive neuroscience has to do with ablation studies. This is when parts of the brain were removed so function could be measured without this brain area. For example, a neuropsychologist can remove the cerebellum. After it is removed, the animal's balance was not good. This links the cerebellum to balance. As for brain damage, the most famous case is with Phineas Gage. This patient was working on the railroad when a piece of metal went through the front of his head. He did not die from this brain injury. However, his normal personality changed. This brought the idea that the frontal cortex, the part of the brain that was stabbed, controlled how a person acted. Another study found the localization of language in the brain. Two separate scientists studied patients with language problems. They found that their patients all had lesions or damage in two certain areas of their brain. One area known as Broca's area controlled talking. The other area Wernicke's area was found to control understanding of language.
This way of looking at problems in the brain lead to studies of epileptic patients. An epileptic patient is a person that frequently suffers from seizures. These seizures were studied to learn more about how the brain sends electrical signals. These electrical signals were then measured. It was found that each neuron can send a signal at certain speeds. These neurons were then dyed with a stain in order to be seen. At first it was thought that all nerves were connected like a web called a nerve net. However, with more complex stain it was found that each nerve is separate and can fire on their own.
In the early part of the 20th century, there was a long time that cognitive neuropsychology was not studied. This was partly because of the influence of John B. Watson, who was a behaviorist in psychology. He argued that cognition could not be studied scientifically because it could not be observed. So for the first half of the 20th century, psychology as a field was dominated by behaviorism, which was mainly stimuli and a person’s response to it. John B. Watson was only one psychologist to criticize cognitive psychology. Pierre Marie in 1906 criticized Broca, who was one of the first to create the field of Cognitive Neuropsychology. Henry Head in 1926 also attacked the whole field of cognitive neuropsychology. Due to these criticisms, and the influence of behaviorism, cognitive neuropsychology was dormant for many years.
Another reason why cognitive neuropsychology disappeared in the early twentieth century was because the science was not yet advanced enough. Many cognitive psychologists were also neurologists. These two fields of study were not separate yet, as they are today. These neurologists wanted to study modules in the brain, and localize them with parts of the brain, but technology did not allow this yet. The methods used today were not yet created. They could only study where a person’s brain lesion was by doing an autopsy after the person was already dead. This was a lot of the reason this field was criticized against, and why many people believed cognition could not be studied scientifically.
In the middle of the twentieth century there was a transition called the 'Cognitive Revolution' in psychology. This is when psychologists began to agree that there were scientific ways to study cognition. These new beliefs about cognitive psychology were brought on by John C. Marshall's and Nora Newcombe’s study of reading, and Shallice and Warrington’s study of memory in the early 1970s. In the mid 1980s the first undergraduate book was published by Ellis & Young named "Human Cognitive Neuropsychology". There was also an emergence of new technology that made it easier to study the brain and the mind. The 1970s and 1980s was the time period that cognitive neuropsychology became visible, and many psychologists started studying it after.
An important feature of the later half of the twentieth century was the clear separation of cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive neuropsychologists study the human mind after brain damage has occurred, and focus more on cognition. Cognitive neuroscientists study the human brain and neural systems after brain damage has occurred, and focus more attention on the neurons. While the cognitive neuroscientists are concerned with how the brain works, and what parts of the brain is responsible for what functions, cognitive neuropsychologists want to study people with brain damage to try and see how the human mind works. With this information, they can formulate theories about the human mind, and also make better therapies for people with brain damage.
An important feature that was developed in the twentieth century is the way that research is conducted. Since every single person’s brain damage is different, cognitive neuropsychologists study only single cases instead of groups of people, or syndromes. Psychologists study the mind by looking at people who lost some sort of function after brain damage occurred. For example, if a person could recognize both faces and objects before brain damage occurred, but then after brain damage in a certain part of the brain they could only recognize faces and not objects, then psychologists can make inferences about the functions in certain modules of the brain.
The late 20th century was also when they began using computational models of cognition. The psychologists would make theories and install them into a computer, then virtually damage the fake brain where the patient had damage. By doing this, they can get a better look at how the mind works. This is one way that technology has helped in studying the human mind. This, along with the invention of the devices to scan the brain, has made a big difference in cognitive neuropsychology.
Cognitive neuropsychologists use the method of double dissociation when studying the modules of the mind. This is when they use many patients who have had brain damage and try to figure out which parts of the brain are responsible for different cognition. This concept of modularity was developed by Jerry Fodor in his 1983 book The Modularity of the Mind. Psychologists disagree as to how much and which parts of the mind is constructed modules.
In this century, cognitive neuropsychologists use many methods to study the mind. They use machines that scan the brain to see where the damage is, and then study cognitive abilities of these patients. They still use double dissociation for studying the patients, case studies, computational models, and many other features that were invented in the late twentieth century. With new technology, there is likely to be a lot of improvement in this field.
Cognitive neuropsychology uses of investigations of people with problems of cognition to learn more about normal cognitive processes. This is possible through the many technological advances such as:
Sulukta
Surface mining
Surface mining is a method which operates on the surface of the land. Machines remove the overburden to get at material, such as coal, below it.
Surface mining includes strip mining, open-pit mining (UK: open cast mining) and mountaintop removal mining. It is mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. It is the opposite of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is left in place, and the mineral removed through shafts or tunnels.
Surface mining gained popularity throughout the 20th century, and became the main way of coal mining in places such as Appalachia and America's Midwest.
In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators or Bucket-wheel excavators, extract the mineral.
Cyclonic separation
A boiler is a device used to heat water or other fluids until it boils or before boiling point. The heated or vaporized fluid is then used for various process applications, such as central heating, power generation, cooking, and sanitation.
The source of the heat for boiler can be from coal, oil, wood, rejected heat or natural gas.
Where steam is required for space heating, the boiler is often called a "steam generator". A niche application was for heating railroad passenger cars while steam locomotives were being phased out. The steam generator would be oil-fired on diesel locomotives or electrically heated on electric locomotives. Steam heating is now uncommon on trains. Modern trains are usually heated by electric heaters.
Bulk material handling
SAP Center at San Jose
The SAP Center at San Jose is a sports arena in San Jose, California. The arena opened on September 7, 1993, and is the current home to the San Jose Sharks of the National Hockey League (NHL) and the San Jose Sabercats of the Arena Football League (AFL).
The arena was originally known as San Jose Arena from 1993 to 2001, the Compaq Center at San Jose from 2001 to 2002, and as HP Pavilion at San Jose from 2002 to 2013. SAP acquired the naming rights for the arena in June 2013 and renamed the arena SAP Center at San Jose.
The arena has held many WWE events as well including: the Royal Rumble in 1998, SummerSlam in 2001, and The Great American Bash in 2007.
The Honda Center is a sports arena in Anaheim, California. The arena opened on June 19, 1993, and is the current home to the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL) and will be the home of the future Los Angeles Kiss of the Arena Football League (AFL) in 2014.
The arena was originally known as Pond of Anaheim in 1993 and as Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim from 1993 to 2006. Honda acquired the naming rights for the arena in October 2006.
The arena has held many WWE events as well including: WrestleMania XII in 1996, the Royal Rumble in 1999, and WrestleMania 2000 in 2000.
Pat Tanaka
Patrick "Pat" Tanaka (born August 5, 1961) is an American professional wrestler.
He is best known for working with American Wrestling Association where he was one half of Badd Company and the World Wrestling Federation where he was one half of The Orient Express.
While in AWA, he won the AWA World Tag Team Championship as a member of Badd Company on March 19, 1988 when they defeated the Midnight Rockers. The team held the championships for a year and the lost them to the Olympians (Brad Rheingans and Ken Patera) on March 25, 1989.
In mid-March 2006, he opened Fighting Spirit Dojo in Minster, Ohio along with shoot-fighter Jody Poff. He teaches judo to more than 50 students while Poff teaches a group of mixed-martial-artists.
Cranes (band)
Cranes are a British dream pop band. Their most well known song is perhaps "Shining Road". They started in 1989 in Southsea, Portsmouth, England. The band's starting members were Alison Shaw, the singer, her brother Jim Shaw, and guitarist Kevin Dunford. In fact the guitarist preferred to be known as Mark and had diverse musical influences such as Lou Reed and MC 900 foot Jesus (but not Frank Zappa). He also liked building experimental computer-based devices to alter his guitar-sound as well as wearing experimental hair. In 1989 their EP "Self Non Self" was released by Bite Back. In 1990 they released an EP called "Inescapable". It was their first release on the record label Dedicated. Later in 1990 they released another EP, "Espero".
Their first album, "Wings of Joy", was released in 1991. It reached number fifty-two in the UK Album Chart. In 1992 they performed at The Cure's Wish Tour. Their second album "Forever" was released in 1993. It got to number forty in the UK. The single "Jewel" reached number twenty-nine in the UK Singles Chart. It was their best-selling single.
Their third album "Loved" was released in 1994. Three singles were released from the album: "Lilies", "Shining Road", and "Beautiful Friend". That year Dunford left the band. In 1996 Cranes released 10,000 copies of "La Tragédie d'Oreste et Électre". In the album Shaw sings in French. The next year "Population 4" was released. It was their last album on Dedicated.
In 1997 the band broke up. In 2000 they reformed. They released "Future Songs" in 2001. In 2002 they performed before The Cure at Hyde Park. They released an EP called "Submarine". Only 2000 copies of it were made. There were eight songs on it. All of them were remixes. In 2004 "Particles and Waves" was released. Cranes performed as the opening act for The Cure at the Move Festival. In 2007 Cherry Red Records released "Wings of Joy" again. Seven extra songs were on it. In 2008 they released an album called "Cranes" on their record label Dadaphonic. Pitchfork gave it a score of 7.2 out of 10. In 2009 "Loved" was released again by Cherry Red Records. There were seven extra songs on it.
Zola Jesus
Nika Roza Danilova (born April 11, 1989), better known as Zola Jesus, is an American singer-songwriter. She has released three albums.
Danilova was born in Phoenix, Arizona to Russian parents. She was raised in Merrill, Wisconsin.
In 2008 Danilova released Poor Sons.
In 2009, she made her first album, "The Spoils", in her apartment. Sacred Bones Records released it in 2010. "Pitchfork" gave it a score of 7.6/10.
In March 2010 "Stridulum" was released. It was an EP of six songs.
Her second album "Stridulum II" was released in August 2010. It was her first album in the UK. In October 2010, she released an extended play called "Valusia".
Her third album "Conatus" was released in October 2011. Danilova sang on "New France" on Orbital's 2012 album "Wonky".
In August 2013 "Versions" was released.
Bowser Jr.
Bowser Jr. is a character from the "Mario" video game series. He is the son of Bowser and prince of the Koopas. He is known for inventing machines, painting graffiti, and doing what he can to make his father proud. He first appeared in "Super Mario Sunshine". Since then, he has become a main character and appears in most of the "Mario" video game series.
Bowser Jr. first appears in "Super Mario Sunshine", where he disturbs Mario's vacation with Princess Peach on Delfino Isle by making the island dirty and kidnapping Peach. He makes himself look like Mario, so the people of the island put Mario in jail. He kidnapped Peach because Bowser made him think that Peach was his mother, and he had to keep her safe. He later finds out that Peach is not actually his mother, but he still wants to fight Mario again in the future to make his father proud.
He later appears in "New Super Mario Bros.", where he is the boss of the tower levels at the middle of each world.
Bowser Jr. appears in "Super Mario Galaxy", where he helps his father in battling Mario. He also has three worlds of his own.
Bowser Jr. makes an appearance in "New Super Mario Bros. Wii" along with the Koopalings, where he appears on an airship (a type of flying ship).
Jr. appears in "Super Mario Galaxy 2", where he helps his father in battling Mario like in "Super Mario Galaxy".
He also appears in "New Super Mario Bros. U", along with the Koopalings and his father. He does the same in 'New Super Luigi U".
Bowser Jr. appears "Super Mario 3D World + Bowser’s Fury" as an ally to Mario to help him defeat "Bowser (character)" in an enraged form where he cannot control himself.
Bowser Jr. also appears a lot in the "Mario" spin-off games. He appears in "" and "Mario Kart Wii". He also appears in some of the "Mario" sports games. He appears as a mini-boss in "Mario Party 9". He has his own space on the boards where players have to play a minigame with him. He appears in "Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games" along with its sequel "Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games", and "Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games". He appears in "" as a boss, and in "" as a boss in the Battle Ring. He has appeared in nearly every spin-off title since his introduction.
Matt Bloom
Matthew Jason "Matt" Bloom (born November 14, 1972) is an American professional wrestler. He currently works for the WWE under the ring name, Tensai.
He also wrestled under the ring names Prince Albert (or simply Albert) and A-Train in his early days of the WWF/E. He also competed under the ring name Giant Bernard during his tenure in Japan.
Battle of the Netherlands
The Battle of the Netherlands () was part of the German invasion of France and the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) during World War II. The battle lasted from 10 May 1940 until the main Dutch forces surrendered on the 14th. Dutch troops in the province of Zealand continued to fight the until 17 May, when Germany occupied the whole nation.
The Battle of the Netherlands was one of the first major uses of paratroopers to land near important targets before ground troops reached the area. The German "Luftwaffe" used paratroopers to capture several major airfields in the Netherlands.
The battle ended soon after the terrible bombing of Rotterdam by the German "Luftwaffe". The Germans threatened to bomb other large Dutch cities if Dutch forces refused to surrender. The Dutch surrendered to prevent other cities from being destroyed. The Netherlands was occupied by Germany until 1945, when Dutch territory was freed.
Britain and France declared war on Germany in 1939, after Germany invaded Poland. No major land attacks happened in Western Europe during the winter of 1939–1940. During this time, the British and French built up their forces to get ready for a long war, and the Germans occupied Poland.
On 9 October, Adolf Hitler ordered plans for an invasion of the Low Countries. He wanted to use them as a base to attack Great Britain. He also wanted to prevent an attack by the Allied forces, which could threaten the Ruhr Area.
The Dutch were not ready to stop an invasion. When Hitler came to power, the Dutch had begun to re-arm, but more slowly than France or Belgium. Only in 1936 did the Dutch government start to increase their defense budget.
Dutch governments did not see Germany as a military threat. Partly this was because they did not want to cause problems with an important trade partner. The Dutch did not criticize Nazi policies. The Dutch made strict budget limits to fight the Great Depression, which was hard on Dutch society.
Hendrikus Colijn, the Dutch Prime Minister between 1933 and 1939, did not think Germany would go against Dutch neutrality and invade the Netherlands. Senior officers did not try to encourage improving military defence.
International stress grew in the late 1930s. Countries got concerned by the German occupation of the Rhineland in 1936; the "Anschluss" and Sudeten crisis of 1938; the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in 1939; and the Italian invasion of Albania in the spring of 1939.
These events made the Dutch government be more careful, but they limited their reaction as much as they could. Their most important reaction was to get 100,000 men ready to fight in April 1939.
After the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the start of the Second World War, the Netherlands hoped to remain neutral. The Netherlands had been neutral during the First World War 25 years earlier.
The Dutch army was ready by 24 August and set up in trenches. Large amounts of money (almost 900 million guilders) were spent on defence. It was very difficult to obtain new weapons in wartime. The Dutch had ordered some equipment from Germany, which delayed deliveries.
A lot of the defence funds were used for the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). A lot of the money was spent on a plan to build three battle cruisers.
The Low Countries' position between France and Germany made the area a good route for either side to attack the other. In a 20 January 1940 radio speech, Winston Churchill tried to get the Dutch to join with the British. Both the Belgians and the Dutch refused, even though Belgium had learned about Germany's plans to attack.
The Allies planned to attack Germany in the summer of 1941. The French thought about going against the neutrality of the Low Countries and attacking them if they had not joined the Allies before then. If Germany attacked the Netherlands, the Allies would have to go through Belgium. The Allies also worried that the Netherlands might allow a German army into Belgium through the southern part of their lands.
The Dutch government never decided what to do. Most of the ministers wanted to resist an attack. A minority refused to become a German ally. The Dutch tried to organize a peace settlement between the Allies and Germany.
After the German invasion of Norway and Denmark, followed by a warning by Japan that a German attack on the Netherlands was going to happen, the Dutch military knew they would have to fight. They started to prepare for war. Dutch border troops were put on alert.
Reports of a Fifth Column (enemy agents acting in a country) in Scandinavia caused fears that the Netherlands also had German agents and traitors. The Dutch prepared for attacks on airfields and ports.
On 19 April, the Netherlands declared a state of emergency. However, most civilians thought their country might not have a war. The Dutch hoped to avoid a war with terrible numbers of deaths. On 10 April, Britain and France again asked the Dutch to enter the war on the Allies' side. Again, the Dutch refused.
In the Netherlands, a good defence was possible. The land helped the defender, and there was a strong industrial base, including an arms industry. The Wehrmacht lacked equipment and training, but the Dutch army was very weak.
The Germans had better equipment than the Netherlands. The modern German army had tanks and dive bombers (such as the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka"). The Dutch army's armoured forces were only 39 armoured cars and five tankettes, and an air force of biplanes.
The Dutch military had not got much new equipment since before the First World War. During the 1920s, the Dutch government limited their defense budget because of an economic recession that lasted from 1920 until 1927. In that decade, only 1.5 million guilders per year was spent on equipment. Only in February 1936 was a bill passed creating a special 53.4 million guilder defence fund.
The lack of trained troops, a large professional organization, or good weapons made it hard to make the Dutch forces larger. There was just enough artillery for the larger units. Light infantry battalions were spread all over the country to delay enemy movement.
They had many pillboxes, about two thousand in number, but the lines were thin. Modern large fortresses like the Belgian fortress of Eben Emael did not exist. The only modern fortification was the one at Kornwerderzand.
Total Dutch forces were 48 regiments of infantry, as well as 22 infantry battalions for border defence. In comparison, Belgium had 22 full divisions and 30 divisions when smaller units were included.
After September 1939, the Dutch tried to improve the situation, but with little result. Germany delayed its deliveries of weapons. France did not want to sell weapons to an army that would not take its side. The Dutch could not get weapons from the other possible source, the Soviet Union, because the Dutch did not recognize their communist government.
Other countries had good armoured forces. The Dutch Army had two groups of armoured cars, each with a dozen vehicles; A single platoon of five Carden-Loyd Mark VI tankettes was all the armour they had.
The Dutch Artillery had 676 howitzers and field guns: 310 Krupp 75 mm field guns; 52 105 mm Bofors howitzers, the only really modern pieces; 144 obsolete Krupp 125 mm guns; 40 150 mm sFH13's; 72 Krupp 150 mm L/24 howitzers and 28 Vickers 152 mm L/15 howitzers.
As antitank-guns 386 Böhler 47 mm L/39s were available, but there were not enough. There were another three hundred old "6 Veld" (57 mm) and "8 Staal" (84 mm) field guns. Only eight of the 120 modern 105 mm pieces ordered from Germany had been delivered at the time of the invasion. Most artillery was horse-drawn.
The Dutch Infantry used about 2,200 7.92 mm Schwarzlose M.08 machine guns, and eight hundred Vickers machine guns. Many of these were in the pillboxes; each battalion had a heavy machine gun company of twelve.
The Dutch infantry squads had a light machine gun, the M.20 Lewis machine gun of which about eight thousand were available. This weapon often jammed and it was not good for attacks. Most Dutch infantry had the Dutch Mannlicher rifle. This weapon had been used for over 40 years, and it was out of date, but the Dutch military did not have the money to replace it.
There were but six 80 mm mortars for each regiment. This made it hard for the Dutch infantry to fight.
Despite the Netherlands having the company of Philips, one of Europe's largest producers of radio equipment, the Dutch army mostly used telephones. Only the Artillery had been given 225 radio sets.
After the German attack on Denmark and Norway in April 1940, when the Germans used large numbers of airborne troops, the Dutch were worried about a similar attack.
To stop this type of attack, five infantry battalions were put at the main ports and airbases, such as The Hague airfield of Ypenburg and the Rotterdam airfield of Waalhaven. These were given AA-guns, two tankettes and twelve of the 24 operational armoured cars. The Dutch put 32 hospital ships throughout the country and fifteen trains to help make troop movements easier.
The Dutch air force had 155 aircraft: 28 Fokker G.1 twin-engine destroyers; 31 Fokker D.XXI and seven Fokker D.XVII fighters; ten twin-engined Fokker T.V, fifteen Fokker C.X and 35 Fokker C.V light bombers, twelve Douglas DB-8 dive bombers (used as fighters) and seventeen Koolhoven FK-51 reconnaissance aircraft. 74 of the 155 aircraft were biplanes. Of these aircraft 125 worked.
The air force school used three Fokker D.XXI, six Fokker D.XVII, a single Fokker G.I, a single Fokker T-V and seven Fokker C.V, along with several training airplanes. Another forty aircraft were the marine air service along with about an equal number of reserve and training craft.
There was a Dutch military aircraft industry, consisting of Fokker and Koolhoven. However, the Dutch military could not afford new planes.
The Dutch Army was poorly equipped. It was also poorly trained. There was little experience leading forces bigger than the battalion level. From 1932 until 1936, the Dutch Army did not hold summer field exercises to save money. Also, soldiers lacked many skills. Until 1938, those who were joined only served for 24 weeks, just enough to receive basic infantry training. That same year, service time was increased to eleven months. There was not many professional military staff. In 1940 there were only 1206 professional officers.
Most available time was spent constructing defences. During this period, munition shortages limited live fire training, and units were not organized. In May 1940, the Dutch Army was not ready for battle. It could not do a major attack or move around on the battlefield.
German generals and Hitler thought that the Dutch military was weak. They expected that Holland could be captured in about three to five days.
In the 17th century, the Dutch Republic had developed a defensive system called The Dutch Water Line. It could protect all major cities in the west by flooding part of the countryside. In the early 19th century this line was shifted to the east, beyond Utrecht. Later, fortresses were built.
This new position was called the New Holland Water Line. The line was given new pillboxes in 1940. The line was below sea level. This allowed it to be flooded with a few feet of water. This was too shallow for boats, but deep enough to turn the soil into mud. The area west of the New Holland Water Line was called Fortress Holland (Dutch: "Vesting Holland"; German: "Festung Holland"). The eastern side was covered by Lake IJssel and the southern side protected by three rivers. It was expected to hold out for a long period of time.
Some people thought the defences would protect the country for three months without any Allied help. Before the war the intention was to move to this position, and hope that Germany would only travel through the southern provinces on its way to Belgium and leave Holland undamaged.
In 1939, this attitude made it impossible to negotiate with the Allies about defence. Proposals by German diplomats that the Dutch government would accept a German advance into the country were rejected.
From September 1939 a more easterly Main Defence Line (MDL) was built. This second defensive position was dug on orders from the commander of the Field Army, Lieutenant-General Jan Joseph Godfried baron van Voorst tot Voorst. This line was extended by a southern part between the river Maas and the Belgian border. In the south the goal was to delay the Germans so that the French could advance.
Fourth and Second Army Corps were put at the Grebbe Line; Third Army Corps were put at the Peel-Raam Position with the Light Division behind it to cover its southern side. Brigade A and B were positioned between the Lower Rhine and the Maas. First Army Corps was a reserve in the Fortress Holland, the southern edge of which was protected by another ten battalions and the eastern side by six battalions. All these lines were protected by pillboxes.
In front of this Main Defence Line was the "IJssel-Maaslinie". It had pillboxes and fourteen "border battalions". Late in 1939 General Van Voorst tot Voorst wanted to use the rivers as a defence. He proposed a battle at the crossing sites near Arnhem and Gennep to force the German divisions to use a lot of their energy before they had reached the MDL.
This was deemed too risky by the Dutch government and General Reijnders. The Government wanted the army to resist at the Grebbe Line and Peel Raam Position, and then fall back to the Fortress Holland. Reijnders was not given full military authority in the defence zones. On 5 February 1940 he resigned because of these disagreements with his superiors. He was replaced by General Henry G. Winkelman who decided that in the north the Grebbe Line would be where the battle was to be fought, partly because it would be easier to counterattack.
During the Phoney War the Dutch said they were neutral. In secret, the Dutch military talked with both Belgium and France to organize a common defence to a German invasion. This failed because of differences of opinion about which strategy to follow.
Belgium, though it said it was neutral, had made arrangements for working with Allied troops. This made it more difficult for the Dutch to make arrangements with the Belgians. He did not approve of a plan by Van Voorst tot Voorst to occupy the "Orange Position to form a continuous line with the Belgian lines.
When Winkelman took over command, he proposed on 21 February that Belgium would set up a connecting line with the Peel Raam Position along the Belgian part of the Zuid-Willemsvaart. The Belgians refused to do this unless the Dutch sent in new troops in Limburg. The Dutch had no forces available. Repeated Belgian requests to defend the Orange Position were refused by Winkelman.
Therefore, the Belgians decided to withdraw, in an invasion, all their troops to their main defence line, the Albert Canal. This created a gap forty kilometres wide. The French were asked to fill it. Now the French Commander in Chief General Maurice Gamelin was more than interested in including the Dutch in his continuous line. But he would not stretch his supply lines that far unless the Belgians and Dutch would take the allied side. When both nations refused, Gamelin said he would occupy a position near Breda.
Winkelman decided on 30 March to abandon the Peel-Raam Position after a German attack. He withdrew his Third Army Corps to the Linge. This Waal-Linge Position was planned to have pillboxes; the budget for pillboxes was increased with a hundred million guilders.
In addition to the Dutch Army and the German 18th Army, a third force would operate on Dutch soil: the French 7th Army. Both the French and the Germans saw the possibility of a surprise attack. For the Germans this would mean bypassing the Antwerp-Namur line.
Rapid forces were needed to protect important locations from the enemy. Long before the Germans did, the French had thought of using airborne troops to do speedy attacks. A naval division and an infantry division were set to go to Zealand to block the Western Scheldt against a German crossing.
French Commander in Chief General Maurice Gamelin feared the Dutch would surrender or accept German protection. He reassigned the former French strategic reserve, the 7th Army, to go in front of Antwerp. The force consisted of the 16th Army Corps, the 9th Motorised and the 4th Infantry Division; and the 1st Army Corps, consisting of the 25th Motorised Infantry Division and the 21st Infantry Division.
This army was later reinforced by the 1st Mechanised Light Division, an armoured division of the French Cavalry. Together with the two divisions in Zealand, seven French divisions were to be used.
Although the French troops would have more motorised units than the Germans, they could not hope to reach their places in the battle before the enemy did. Their only prospect of beating the Germans was using rail transport.
They would have to build up their forces near Breda. They needed the Dutch troops in the Peel-Raam Position to delay the Germans for a few extra days to allow French forces to move in and dig trenches. These consisted of the reconnaissance units of the armoured and motorised divisions, with armoured cars. These would be put into two task forces.
During the plans for "Fall Gelb" the idea of leaving the Fortress Holland alone was considered. The first plan of 19 October 1939 suggested a full occupation. In the version of 29 October it was proposed to limit the invasion to a line south of Venlo. In the "Holland-Weisung" (Holland Directive) of 15 November it was decided to conquer the entire south, but in the north to advance no further than the Grebbe Line, and to occupy the Frisian Isles.
Hermann Göring wanted a full capture of Holland as he needed the Dutch airfields to use against Britain. He was afraid the Allies might reinforce Fortress Holland and use the airfields to bomb German cities and troops. A swift defeat would also free troops for other sectors.
On 17 January 1940 they decided to conquer all of the Netherlands. However, few units were available for this task. The main effort of "Fall Gelb" would be made in the centre, between Namur and Sedan. The attack at central Belgium was only a trick; and the attack at Fortress Holland only a trick as well.
Although both the 6th and 18th Army were in place at the Dutch border, the first, larger force would move south of Venlo to Belgium. This would leave just the 18th Army under General Georg von Küchler to attack the Dutch main force.
Of all German armies in the battle, this was the weakest. It contained only four regular infantry divisions (the 207th, 227th, 254th and 256th Infantry Divisions), assisted by three reserve divisions (208th, 225th, and 526th Infantry Divisions). Six of these divisions were units created in August 1939 from territorial "Landwehr" units. They had few professional officers and little fighting experience.
Like the Dutch Army, most soldiers (88%) lacked training. The seventh division was the 526th Infantry Division, which lacked combat training. The German divisions had 17,807 men, fifty percent larger than their Dutch counterparts. They had twice their firepower, but even so they did mot have enough men for a successful attack.
To add more men, the only German cavalry division, the 1st "Kavalleriedivision" was told to capture the weakly defended provinces east of the river IJssel. A landing in Holland near Enkhuizen was to be attempted, using barges. As both efforts were unlikely to do well, the regular divisions were reinforced by the "SS-Verfügungsdivision" (including "SS-Standarten" "Der Führer", "Deutschland" and "Germania") and "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler". These would attack the Dutch fortified positions. Still this added only 1 division to the equation.
To ensure a victory the Germans used new methods. The Germans had trained two airborne divisions. The first of these, the "7. Flieger-Division", was paratroopers; the second, the 22nd "Luftlande-Infanteriedivision", of airborne infantry. The airborne troops would capture the airfields around The Hague, and then capture that government, together with the Dutch High Command and Queen Wilhelmina.
The plan, "Fall Festung", had been developed by Hitler. If the first attack did not succeed, the bridges at Rotterdam, Dordrecht and Moerdijk would be captured to allow a mechanised force to move in. This force was to be the German 9th Panzer Division. They were the only German armoured division having just two tank battalions. the total number of tanks in the group was 141. The plan was for them to go through a gap in the Dutch lines created by the 254th and 256th Infantry Divisions. Then they would join up with them, forming the "XXVI. Armeekorps". At the same time, an attack would be made against the Grebbe Line in the east by the 207th and 227th Infantry Divisions, united to form "X. Armeekorps", to fight the Dutch Army. The plan was to force the Dutch back to the east front of the Fortress Holland or beyond. If the Dutch did not surrender on the first day, the Eighteenth Army would attack Fortress Holland on the third day from the south.
The German people and troops disliked the idea of going against Dutch neutrality. The Germans said the invasion was to stop the Allies from occupying the Low Countries. Some German officers did not like the Nazi government and were also unhappy with the invasion.
One of them was Colonel Hans Oster, a German intelligence officer. In March 1939 he began to pass information to his friend, a Dutch military officer in Berlin Major Gijsbertus J. Sas. This information included the German attack date. Sas informed the Allies. Sas knowing the date of the attack on Denmark and Norway was not noticed. Though he said a German armoured division would try to attack the Netherlands and that there was a plan to capture the Queen, the Dutch defence plan was not changed.
On 4 May Sas warned that an attack was coming soon. When in the evening of 9 May Oster phoned his friend saying the attack would be soon, the Dutch troops were put on alert.
Oster was a leader of the German resistance from 1938 to 1943, and was one of those hanged after the 20 July 1944 bomb plot to kill Hitler.
On the morning of 10 May 1940, Germany attacked the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Luxembourg.
In the night the Luftwaffe flew into Dutch lands. One group, "Kampfgeschwader 4" (KG 4), attacked the Dutch airfields. Led by "Oberst" (Colonel) Martin Fiebig, KG 4 attacked the naval airfield at De Kooy, destroying 35 aircraft. Fiebig was shot down and spent five days as a Dutch prisoner of war.
KG 4 also attacked Amsterdam-Schiphol, where the Dutch lost a third of their medium bombers, and The Hague airfields where KG 4 destroyed half of the 21 defending fighters. KG 4 lost 11 Heinkel He 111 bombers on 10 May and three Junkers Ju 88s; KG 30 and 54 another nine bombers. "Jagdgeschwader 26" (JG 26) and "Zerstörergeschwader 26" (ZG 26) shot down 25 Dutch aircraft for a loss of nine fighters, with Albert Kesselring's "Luftflotte 2" destroying 41.
The Dutch were left with just 70 aircraft by the end of the day. They continued to fight the "Luftwaffe", shooting down 13 German fighter aircraft by 14 May.
Paratroopers were landed near the airfields. Dutch anti-aircraft batteries shot down numerous Ju 52 transport planes. German Ju 52 losses in the battle were about 250 planes.
The attack on The Hague was a failure. The paratroopers did not capture the main airfield at Ypenburg in time for the airborne infantry to land in their Junkers. Five Landsverks, assisted by machine guns, destroyed the eighteen Junkers, killing many troops.
When the airstrip was blocked by wrecks the remaining planes landed in meadows or on the beach, spreading out the troops. The small airfield of Ockenburg was captured by the Germans.
The airfield of Valkenburg was occupied. However, the landing strip was still being built and the water level had not yet been lowered: planes landing there sank in the soft soil.
None of the airfields could be used to land new troops. The paratroopers occupied Ypenburg but did not get into The Hague. They were blocked by Dutch troops. Early in the afternoon they fired on by three Dutch artillery batteries. Dutch artillery drove away the German troops from the other two airfields.
The attack on Rotterdam was much more successful. Twelve Heinkel He 59 seaplanes landed in the city. They captured the Willemsbrug, a bridge over the Nieuwe Maas. At the same time the military airfield of Waalhaven was attacked by airborne forces.
Here an infantry battalion was close to the airfield. The paratroopers landed near them. A fight followed. The first group of Junkers suffered no losses and the transports continued to land. In the end the Dutch defenders were defeated. The Germans occupied IJsselmonde.
The Royal Netherlands Navy's torpedo boats "Z5" and "TM 51" attacked the "Willemsbrug". The destroyer HNLMS "Van Galen" sailed up the Nieuwe Waterweg to bomb the airfield, but the ship got bombed. A plan to send the gunboats HNLMS "Flores" and HNLMS "Johan Maurits van Nassau" was stopped.
At the Island of Dordrecht the Dordrecht bridge was captured but the Dutch fought on. The long Moerdijk bridges were captured and fortified on the southern side.
An armoured train crossed it followed by a troop train, which unloaded an infantry battalion behind the defence line.
Generally German soldiers behaved in a civilised manner towards the Dutch population, buying food at the shops.
After the failed assaults on the bridges, the German divisions began crossing over the rivers IJssel and Maas. The first attacks were destroyed by fire from the pillboxes.
At most places, bombing destroyed the pillboxes and the infantry divisions crossed the river by building pontoon bridges. At Arnhem, "Leibstandarte Der Fuehrer" led the attack and advanced to the Grebbe Line, followed by "207. Infanteriedivision".
A withdrawal was planned for the first night after the invasion, in the darkness. Due to the rapid German advance a quick retreat was ordered at 06:45. The corps joined "Brigade G", six battalions already occupying the Waal-Linge line.
The Light Division, based at Vught, was the only force the Dutch Army had that could move about. Its withdrawal had been done a day early. Its regiments had reached the Noord river in the evening.
Meanwhile, on the evening of the 10th, around 22:00, French troops using Panhard 178 armoured cars started to arrive at the Dutch border. After them, the French 1st Mechanised Light Division moved forward. Attempts to get the French to move forward with the Dutch troops towards Noord-Brabant did not work well.
When a first attack had been stopped, an attack at the Main Defense Line was postponed because most artillery had not arrived. In the early evening, they attacked even though there was only one 105 mm battery.
Colonel Schmidt at 20:30 ordered the Peel-Raam Position to be abandoned. He told his troops to go to the west at a new line at the Zuid-Willemsvaart canal.
In the North, by the end of the day, "1. Kavalleriedivision" had reached the line Meppel–Groningen. They were delayed by Dutch teams blowing up 236 bridges. Dutch troop strength in that area was weak.
In the south, the six border battalions in the province of Limburg delayed the advance of the German Sixth Army. Before noon Maastricht had surrendered. The Germans did not capture the main bridge intact. This delayed the crossing by the 4th Panzer Division until the next day.
On 11 May the Dutch commander General Winkelman had two goals. First of all he wanted to kill the German airborne troops. He thought that the German possession of the Moerdijk bridges would stop the movement of new Allied troops.
The second goal was to help the French army to make a strong defensive line in North Brabant.
Little was achieved this day. The attack by the Light Division against the airborne troops on IJsselmonde failed. The bridge over the river Noord was defended by the German paratroopers, and it was impossible to cross it. Several attempts to cross the river by boats were not that successful.
At 10:15, the Light Division was told to join the Dutch troops on the Island of Dordrecht. After killing German troops on the Island of Dordrecht the division was to advance into IJsselmonde over the Dordrecht bridge to reach Rotterdam.
Earlier during the day, two attempts were made by Dutch battalions to attack the western side of the German line. The First Battalion tried to attack the bridge at Barendrecht into IJsselmonde. The second battalion tried to capture more land.
Although its crossings were successful, the first battalion was attacked by the Germans. The second battalion had many men being taken prisoner.
Then a French force and another Dutch border battalion attacked the southern Moerdijk bridge, but the armoured cars were bombed by German Stukas and had to retreat.
In Rotterdam, the Dutch failed to kill the German airborne troops from their bridge on the northern bank of the Maas. The two remaining Dutch bombers failed to destroy the "Willemsbrug". None of the attempts to kill the groups of 1600 paratroopers and airlanded forces was successful.
In North Brabant, the situation got worse. The French commanders of the 7th Army had expected that Dutch fighting would give them four days to build up a defensive line near Breda. However, the best three divisions had been moved to the north and the remaining forces were retreating.
The withdrawal of the Peel Division from the Peel-Raam Position to the Zuid-Willemsvaart, a canal to the west, meant leaving behind their trenches and artillery for a totally unprepared line. The eastern bank of the canal was higher than the western bank, providing excellent cover for the attackers.
One part of the canal, near Heeswijk, was left undefended; as this area contained a bridge which was not destroyed, the Germans were able to cross the canal around 13:00.
A second crossing at Erp, led to a collapse of the line. By the end of the 11th, the Germans had crossed the Zuid-Willemsvaart at most places and the Peel Division had fallen apart. The French refused to advance further to the northeast than Tilburg, apart from some armoured cars that went as far as Berlicum.
Winkelman asked the British government to sent an Army Corps to add to allied positions in the area and bomb Waalhaven airfield.
Motorised elements of "SS Standarte "Der Fuehrer"" had reached the southernmost part of the Grebbe Line, in front of the "Grebbeberg", on the evening of the 10th. This Main Defense Line sector was protected by a line of outposts and two groups of infantry.
At about half past three in the morning of the 11th, German artillery started bombing the outposts. At dawn, two battalions of "Der Fuehrer" attacked. As the German bombing had cut the telephone lines, no artillery could be requested by the Dutch defenders.
The vegetation offered good cover for the attackers. At noon, the Germans broke a hole at the extreme north. By evening, all outposts were held by the Germans.
The commander of 2nd Army Corps, Major-General Jacob Harberts, did not realise that motorised SS troops had been involved in the attack. He thought that the outposts had surrendered to a small German force. He ordered a night attack by the single reserve battalion of 4th Division.
This attack was abandoned. However, heavy Dutch artillery fire caused the Germans to abandon their plans for a night attack.
Meanwhile, in the North, "1. Kavalleriedivision" advanced through the province of Friesland, reaching Sneek in the evening. Most Dutch troops had been evacuated from the north.
On the morning of 12 May General Winkelman still had hope. He thought a defence line could be set up in North Brabant with the help of the French. He also expected that the Dutch could kill the German airborne forces. He was not aware of any danger to the Grebbe Line.
"9. Panzerdivision" crossed the Meuse in the early morning of 11 May. It could not advance quickly over roads filled with infantry. The armoured division was told to join with the airborne troops as soon as the Peel-Raam Position had been captured by the infantry forces.
Because the German 6th Army was threatening its right side and there was no time to prepare a defence line, Gamelin ordered the 7th Army to withdraw its left side. "2e Brigade Légère Mécanique" retreated to the south.