AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
He was a soldier in World War I. Afterwards he got professorships in Zürich, Jena, Breslau and Stuttgart. In 1920 he married.
In 1927 he went to Berlin to fellow Max Planck.
After the take-over of power by the Nazis, Schrödinger left Germany and got a new professorship in Oxford.
In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Three years later he returned to Austria and became professor in Graz.
In 1938 he had to leave Austria, because the Nazis had taken over government.
He went to Dublin and became director of the School for Theoretical Physics.
In 1956 he returned to Vienna and got a professorship for Theoretical Physics.
He died of tuberculosis in 1961.
Schrödinger's most important work is the wave mechanics – a formulation of quantum mechanics, and especially the Schrödinger equation. He also worked on the field of biophysics. He invented the concept of negentropy and helped to develop molecular biology.
Dioxin
Dioxins is the name for a group of chemical compounds. These are organic compounds. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), or simply dioxins, are a group of halogenated organic compounds which are significant because they act as environmental pollutants. They are very poisonous. Many dioxins cause cancer.
Today, Dioxins are no longer made. They can occur as a by-product of other processes, though. Examples where dioxins can result are the production of PVC or the bleaching of paper. In nature, they are produced in volcanoes and forest fires.
A chemical accident where a lot of dioxin was released was the Seveso disaster.
Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich) was a German mathematician and theoretical physicist.
Sommerfeld was the son of a practical physician. After finishing school in 1886, he started studying mathematics at the University of Königsberg.
In 1891 he wrote his doctorate thesis about arbitrary functions in mathematical physics.
Afterwards he had to do his army serve.
Then he went to Göttingen. He became assistant at the institute for mineralogy, but was still interested in mathematical physics.
In 1894 he became assistant of Felix Klein. The year after he wrote his habilitation about the mathematical theory of optical diffraction and became docent for mathematics in Göttingen.
In 1897 Sommerfeld married. In the same year he became ordinary professor for mathematics at the mining college of Clausthal. Three years later he got a professorship at the Technical University of Aachen.
In 1906 he became professor for theoretical physics in Munich, were he stood for his lifetime.
While he was professor in Munich, he travelled two times around the world - in 1922/23 he was guest professor in Wisconsin and travelled afterwards through India, China and Japan, in 1928/29 he made a journey through the USA as teacher on universities.
In 1935 he went in pension, but he still worked until 1940.
There was big trouble about choosing the person who should follow him. Sommerfeld wanted to have Werner Heisenberg on his seat, but in the time of the Nazi regime the job could only go to a person who taught the so-called German Physics, which included a kind of mysticism. Sommerfeld tried to prevent that.
Sommerfeld died in 1951 in a traffic accident.
James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell (born 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh – died 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician, physicist and discoverer of Maxwell's equations.
Maxwell grew up in a rich religious family. In 1845, when he was only 14, he wrote a paper describing a way of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of string. In 1847 he started studying mathematics at the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 Maxwell changed to Peterhouse and then Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He won prizes from the university for his work and was given his degree in 1854. From 1855 to 1872 he did research on colour blindness.
In 1856 Maxwell was made a professor of 'Natural Philosophy' (which is what science was called then) at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He worked there until the two colleges in Aberdeen joined together in 1860 and he lost his job. He then became a professor at King's College London. In 1861 he was elected to the Royal Society.
In 1871, became the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He studied many things, but is known best for his mathematical work on electromagnetism and on the behaviour of gases.
He lived at Glenlair House, his family estate near the village of Parton, Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire. Maxwell died in 1879 from cancer, and is buried in the graveyard at Parton Church.
Roman Vishniac (; ; August 19, 1897 – January 22, 1990) was a Russian-American photographer and a biologist. He is well known for taking pictures of Jewish culture in Central and Eastern Europe before the Holocaust. Many of these pictures are in his book, "A Vanished World", published in 1983.
Penicillin is a common antibiotic, used to treat bacterial infections. It was one of the first to be discovered, and worked well against staphylococci and streptococci. Many strains of bacteria are now resistant. Chemists keep changing part of its structure in the effort to keep it working against the bacteria.
Penicillin was discovered by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but it was not mass-produced until 1940. The antibiotic is naturally produced by fungi of the genus "Penicillium". There is now a whole group of antibiotics derived from "Penicillium" including penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V.
Penicillin is sometimes used to treat syphilis, tonsillitis, meningitis, and pneumonia as well as other diseases. It was first used widely during World War II.
Penicillin was discovered when Fleming noticed a mold that was stopping bacteria from growing in a petri dish. Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey made the penicillin mold into a medicine. Together with another scientist Ernst Boris Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945.
Some people are allergic to penicillin. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, or rash. Rarely, patients who are allergic to penicillin get a fever, vomit, or have serious skin irritation. Because it is such a popular antibiotic, penicillin is the most common cause of serious allergic reactions to a drug. They are now used regularly in hospitals.
Chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) did the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957.
Depleted uranium
Depleted uranium is what is left over after uranium is enriched. Enriched uranium can be used in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is made up mostly of the isotope uranium-238. Uranium-238 is mildly radioactive. Uranium is very dense, or heavy for its size. Because of this, depleted uranium is used in armor piercing bullets and heavy machine guns. Its high density allows weapons to put more energy into a fired bullet which causes more damage to its targets. Bullets made from it will burn when they hit something hard, and their smoke is dangerous to breathe.
Depleted uranium has long been thought to be useless for producing nuclear energy, but a new kind of "traveling wave reactor" has been proposed to use it.
Commuting
Anne Redpath (1895-1965) was a Scottish artist. She was born in Galashiels, Scotland.
She was the daughter of a tweed designer. Her father's work had an effect on her use of colour and texture in her paintings. "I do with a spot of red or yellow in a harmony of grey, what my father did in his tweed", she said. She went to France during 19201933.
CD-RW
A CD-RW (which stands for Compact Disc ReWritable) is a Compact disc that can be recorded and erased multiple times. It can hold data or music. Most of the time it will hold data, since many CD players can not play CD-RWs. During its development, the format was known as CD-E, which stands for Compact Disc Erasable. The standard was introduced in 1997. It replaced the less successful CD-MO.
The disk used for this is an optical disc. Phase change technology is used to write to the disk. A laser beam is used to heat a certain point of the disk. Once this point is hot, the information stored there can be changed.
According to what the manufacturers of these disks say, it is possible to record and erase such a disk up to 1000 times. They behave very much like CD-Rs, otherwise. Entire sessions can be written. As long as there is space on the disc, new sessions can be appended. To be readable in an ordinary CD drive, all sessions must be closed though.
CD-RWs never gained the popularity of CD-Rs. This is because they are more expensive to make and to buy. Also, not all CD drives can read them. Reading and writing speeds are also lower than those of pre-made CDs and CD-Rs.
Also, like with the CD-R, it is impractical (and slow) to use these disks to quickly add or remove small files. Other formats, like Zip disk, Jaz disk, Magneto-optical disks, and USB flash drives are More used for quickly reading, writing, or erasing small (sets of) files. When a deletion needs to be made, the whole CD needs to be erased.
CD-RWs (like CD-Rs) are more used for backups. They are usually cheaper than tape-based solutions.
Depending on the method used to write, and the type of disk used, usable capacities range from about 500 to 700 megabytes.
Pretty much the same concepts are used for DVD-RWs, which have a much higher capacity.
Magneto-optical drive
A Magneto-optical drive is a disk drive for computers. It can read and write data to magneto-optical disks. The technology was made at the end of the 1980s. Both 5.25" and 3.5" media exist. The disks look like CD-ROMs, but they are protected with a plastic cover. The MiniDisc is a Magneto-optical disk. The other disks look similar but have a bigger physical size.
The operating system sees (and uses) the disk like a normal hard-drive. 3.5" disks can hold between 128 megabytes (MB) and 2.3 gigabytes (GB) of data. 5.25" disks hold between 650 MB and 16.7 GB.
All disks have a physical write protection switch (like 3.5" floppy disks). They are pretty resistant to data change, can support temperatures up to about 100 °C, and do not care much about light.
DVD-RAM disks are very similar in appearance, they are optical though.
U.S. Presidential line of succession
The United States Presidential line of succession is the order in which government officials replace the president of the United States if the president leaves office before an elected successor is inaugurated. If the President dies, resigns or is removed from office, the Vice President becomes President for the rest of the term. If the Vice President is unable to serve, Speaker of the House acts as President.
The United States Constitution says that the Vice President of the United States is the person who will replace the President if the President is not able to continue. It is very important to know who the new president will be if they are not able to serve any longer.
The laws about succession (after the Vice President) were first created in 1792. The second in line, after the Vice President was the leader of the Senate. The next in line was the Speaker of the House of Representatives. In 1868, during the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, Benjamin Wade was the leader of the Senate. He almost became president, but Johnson was found not guilty by one vote. Johnson had been the Vice President for Abraham Lincoln. He became President after the assassination of Lincoln. Because of Lincoln's assassination, there was no Vice President at the time.
In 1886, after the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, Congress passed a law that took out the leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives from the line of succession. The new person behind the Vice President in line was Secretary of State, followed by other Cabinet members. The leaders of the Senate and House were restored to the line of succession by the Presidential Succession Act of 1947.
Below is the current line of succession for the President of the United States:
Oulu
Oulu () is a city in Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the biggest city in the Northern Finland. The population of Oulu was about 193,000 in January 2014. It is the sixth largest city in Finland.
Municipalities next to Oulu are Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi.
There is a university in Oulu. The university is one of the largest in Finland, with over 15,000 students.
Many people work in technology firms making mobile phones, computers and software.
Oulu was established in 1605, so it is more than 400 years old. In the old days, Oulu was famous for selling tar all over the world.
James Boswell
James Boswell (October 29, 1740 - May 19, 1795) was a Scottish lawyer and author. He is best known for having written the Life of Johnson, a biography of his close friend Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of his personal papers and journals were discovered. They have since then been published by Yale University.
A MiniDisc (MD) is a small magneto-optical disk. It is used as a replacement for the Audio cassette. It was developed by Sony to store music. Later it was modified, so it can also store data. The music it stores is compressed in some way, like an MP3. Recent Hi-MD models have the option to not compress audio, and offer audio identical to CD-quality.
MiniDisc recorders allow the user to modify the contents of (recordable) disks. That way, tracks can be split, combined or rearranged. Audio tracks can be input while a live recording is in progress, too, for example, while recording a live concert or interview via the microphone input on a MiniDisc recorder.
Angela Haynes
Angela Haynes (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is World No. 95 which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009.
Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on 23 September 2005.
Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing.
Angela appears in "Top Spin 2" which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS.
Vania King (born February 3 1989) is an American tennis player. She was born in Monterrey Park, California. King was ranked the 50th best player in the world in 2006.
She won her first singles title against Tamarine Tanasugarn at Bangkok, Thailand. Vania won 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. King also won the doubles title at Bangkok with partner Jelena Kostanic. King got second place with her partner Alexa Glatch at the 2005 US Open Juniors.
Bottle cap
Bottle caps are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead.
The original bottle cap was called Crown cork. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener.
In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required.
Quality is how good something is. If the quality of a product is high then that means that it is fit for its purpose. If the quality of an item is low that means that the product may break easily or not work properly. When people say something is a quality product that means that the product is of good quality. Usually higher-quality products cost more money, because the materials used to make them are better, or the way they were made was more effective. In other words, things that are low quality are cheap.
Quality is understood differently by different people, depending on what they consider quality to be. Generally, though, it is how well a product is suited to the purpose it was made for.
A Gargoyle is a grotesque statue that is attached to a building. It is carved out of stone, usually granite. It is used to get water away from the building when it rains. Gargoyles are often made to look like animals or people. The collected water comes out of their mouths. Most gargoyles were made a long time ago. People used to believe that they scared away evil spirits. Many cathedrals have gargoyles.
New buildings use rain gutters instead of gargoyles to move water. There are not many gargoyles in America.
Gargoyles are often confused with grotesques. They are similar, but only gargoyles get rid of rainwater through their mouths what's in the mouths I don't know .
Oostende
Oostende (German / French: Ostende, English Ostend) is a city in the Belgian province of West Flanders.
In 2007, 69115 people lived there.
It is at 51° 13 North, 02° 54 East.
List of UEFA European Championship finals
The list of UEFA European Championship champions:
The number of times each country has won the UEFA European Championship including finals and semi-finals results:
Abuja () is a city in Nigeria. It is the national capital of Nigeria. Around 2.5 million people live there. Abuja is in the middle of the country, in the center of the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria. It replaced Lagos, the country's most populous city but very small in size, as the capital on 12 December 1991.
Abuja is a planned city, which means that architects designed it specifically to be Nigeria's capital city. Construction of the first parts of the city was finished in the late 1980s.
Assault rifle
An assault rifle is a rifle that has a removable magazine, automatic-fire and semi-automatic modes, and uses intermediate cartridges. These cartridges do not have as much power as other rifles’, like hunting rifles or battle rifles, but have more power and penetration than pistol cartridges fired by sub-machine guns.
Two rifles made in Italy and Russia before World War I are sometimes called assault rifles. The Germans were the first to use assault rifles in large numbers.
Examples of an 'assault rifle' are the English L85, Russian AK-47, the American M16.
The term “assault rifle” comes from the firearm Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), translated to “Assault Rifle 1944”. The armed forces of other sovereign states adopted assault rifles later.
Salvador Dalí
Salvador Dalí (11 May 1904 – 23 January 1989) was a Spanish painter who became famous for the unusual images he used in his paintings. He was born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. He was a key figure in surrealist art.
His most famous work was "The Persistence of Memory" (1931), which is now in MoMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is a dream-like landscape with a soft, melted pocket-watch.
Dalí died of heart failure in Figueras. Salvador Dalí had a wife called Gala Dalí.
Anne Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk
Anne de Mowbray, "Baroness Mowbray" (10 December 1472 - 19 November 1481) was the daughter of John Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk and Elizabeth Talbot. She was born in 1472 in Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, England. She also became Baroness Segrave.
When Anne's father died in 1476 Anne became very rich. She also became Countess of Norfolk. Anne was married to Richard of York on 15 January, 1478 in Westminster Abbey. Richard was the son of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Richard's father had married him to Anne so that he could have control of her fortune. When he married Anne became known as the Duchess of York
Anne died when she was 8 years old at Greenwich, London, England in 1481. Her body was placed in a lead coffin in the Chapel of St Erasmus of Formiae in Westminster Abbey. However, when this chapel was knocked down around 1502 to make room for the Henry VII Lady Chapel, Anne's coffin became lost.
In December 1964, construction workers in Stepney, London, accidentally found Anne's coffin. It was opened and Anne's remains were looked at by scientists. Anne's body still had a shroud wrapped around her and there was still red hair on her skull. Her body was later reburied in Westminster Abbey.
From The Peerage.com
Framlingham Castle
Warwick Castle (pron. 'Worrick') is a large castle in Warwickshire, England. It is near the town of Warwick. The castle was once the family home of the Earls of Warwick.
There are many rooms in the castle. Some of the rooms have mannequins in them that look like real people. These are dressed in . They are used to show how people might have lived in the castle hundreds of years ago. Warwick Castle has a dungeon. One part of the castle is said to be haunted. Actors play the part of the ghost and the servant who killed him in a dramatic "Spook Experience". Lights and sounds are used to add to the effect.
The castle has a very high wall walk. It can be explored, so that visitors can see from where the guards looked for enemies. A long, steep flight of steps leads up to the highest part of the castle where the flagpole is.
There are many paintings in the castle. There are portraits of English Kings and Queens as well as of members of the family who owned the castle. It is possible to see the private chambers, or bedrooms, where the family and their most important guests slept.
Edinburgh Castle is a castle in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is built on the volcanic Castle Rock in the centre of Edinburgh, and is easy to see from the main shopping streets. The castle has a military display every year, called a "tattoo", where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.
Alfred Kinsey
Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23, 1894 August 25, 1956) was an American biologist. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey.
In the first part of his career he was an entomologist specializing in gall wasps of the family Cynipidae. Later, he became famous for the research he did on human sexuality. His research had a great influence on social and cultural values in many parts of the world. It also had an influence on the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s.
Kinsey and his co-workers wrote two books which became known as the Kinsey Reports. They were based on thousands of interviews with men (first report), and then women. The aim was to find out how widespread or differentiated human sexual practices were. He developed the Kinsey Scale to measure sexual orientation. On one end of the scale, at the value 0, the individual is entirely heterosexual. On the other end, at value 6, he or she has a purely homosexual orientation. Kinsey was bisexual.
Kinsey died of heart disease and pneumonia in Bloomington, Indiana.
A biopic of him, "Kinsey", was released in 2004.
Kinsey Reports
The Kinsey Reports are two books, published in 1948 and 1953 by Alfred Kinsey and his co-workers. The books "Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female", were based on thousands of interviews by Kinsey and his team.
The books were shocking when they came out, as they talked about subjects that were taboo. It also questioned widely-held beliefs about sexuality. They were controversial.
Kinsey found the following, amongst other things:
People said that the selection of the sample (those asked) was not well done. One in four were prisoners, and 5% were male prostitutes. The institute, or location Kinsey did these tests, then did another such tests, without asking prisoners or prostitutes, and the findings were more or less the same. People also say that child abuse may have been involved when collecting the data.
The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0 to 6. "0" means the person tested is exclusively heterosexual. A person scoring "6" is exclusively homosexual. In the "Kinsey Reports", an extra grade was used for asexuality. The scale was first published in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" (1948). It was also important in the complementary work "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" (1953).
Kinsey introduced the scale:
The scale is as follows:
Ruthenium
Ruthenium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Ru. It has the atomic number 44. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Ruthenium is found in platinum ores.
Ruthenium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.
Niobium is a chemical element. It is sometimes named columbium. It has the chemical symbol Nb. It has the atomic number 41. It is a rare metal. Niobium is soft and grey. It is ductile. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Niobium was discovered in a variety of a mineral called columbite (now called niobite). Niobite is an ore of niobium.
Niobium is considered a "technology-critical element". It is used in alloys, such as to make special steels and strong welded joints. Less than 0.1% of Niobium significantly improves the strength of steel. It is in the superconducting alloys used in MRI scanners, which are one of the most important medical inventions of the modern age.
An explosion is a fast increase in volume and increase in energy made available. It normally makes high temperatures and makes gases. Many natural events can make explosions, such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, meteors, and supernovae. People make explosions mostly by using chemical explosive materials.
A chemical explosion starts pressure waves in the medium where it happens. Explosions are categorized as deflagrations if the pressure waves are subsonic and detonations if they are supersonic. When a detonation happens, the resulting pressure waves are named shock waves.
Unintentional explosions can be caused when chemicals are mixed together, or when pressurized containers or flammable materials are heated or exposed to flames. To cause an explosion, pressure does not have to be present but is always a result of an explosion.
Several safety measures are used to prevent unintentional explosions. Many countries require that chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers that may explode be labelled with warning labels. As well, many countries have regulations restricting the possession and use of potentially explosive materials so they will only go to appropriate industrial and research uses. Transportation regulations require potentially explosive chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers to be transported safely.
Intentional explosions are caused when armies fire artillery or when air forces drop bombs on enemies. Military engineers handle explosives and arrange intentional explosions during wartime. Intentional explosions are also used by civilians in "demolition". They break up old and obsolete buildings and bridges, and break rock and stone for construction. Explosions are made for activities such as mining, construction, and large-scale civil engineering projects such as building tunnels, roads, railways, and dams.
Rhodium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Rh. It has the atomic number 45. It is a rare metal. It is silver white and hard. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Rhodium is found in platinum ores.
Rhodium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. It is the most expensive precious metal.
Tellurium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Te and the atomic number 52. It has 52 protons and 52 electrons. Its mass number is 127.6. It has 8 natural isotopes. 4 are stable and 4 are radioactive. One of the radioactive ones lasts longer than any other isotope. It has a half life of 2.2 x 10 years (2.2 septillion years).
It is a brittle silver-white semimetal. When it is pure it has a metallic shine. It is ground easily. It can be made in an amorphous form. It is a semiconductor. It changes conductivity a little when light shines on it, similar to selenium. It is corrosive to many metals when molten.
Tellurium is an unreactive element. It can react with reactive metals to make tellurides. It can burn in air to make tellurium dioxide. It can be oxidized even more to tellurium trioxide. It does not corrode. The chemistry of tellurium is similar to some chemistry of selenium and sulfur, although its compounds are more reactive and the element is less reactive. It does not dissolve in most acids, although it dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make a special red tellurium cation.
Tellurium makes chemical compounds in several oxidation states: -2, +2, +4, and +6. -2 compounds are normally found in tellurides. They are strong reducing agents. Tellurides are normally the main ore of tellurium. Most natural tellurides are not pure, so they are much less reactive. +2 compounds are found in some tellurium halides, like tellurium(II) chloride and tellurium(II) bromide. They are the rarest oxidation state. +4 compounds are found in tellurites and tellurous acid. They are weak oxidizing agents, that can be reduced to tellurium. Tellurites are made by reacting tellurium dioxide with a metal oxide. +6 compounds are found in tellurates and telluric acid. They are powerful oxidizing agents. Tellurates are made by reacting telluric acid with metal oxides.
Tellurium is a very rare mineral. There is 14 times more silver in the earth than there is tellurium. Tellurium is sometimes found as an element, but most of the times is found as tellurides. Gold tellurides (Calaverite) are found in the earth. They are valuable ores of both tellurium and gold. This gold ore was not recognized as gold during one gold rush and was used as a filler. It was then discovered that it was gold telluride, making another gold rush. Telluride cannot replace sulfide in elements like selenide does.
Tellurium can be taken from gold telluride by dissolving the gold telluride in concentrated sulfuric acid. The tellurium dissolves to make a red solution, while the gold sinks to the bottom.
A more common way of extracting tellurium from tellurides is to heat the tellurides. The tellurides are heated with sodium carbonate and air. This makes sodium tellurite. Selenites are normally found as an impurity. They are separated by reacting them with sulfuric acid. The selenites stay in solution. The tellurites turn into tellurium dioxide. Then the tellurium dioxide is reacted with sulfur dioxide dissolved in sulfuric acid to make tellurium metal. The tellurium can be melted and reformed to make bars of tellurium metal.
The main use of tellurium is in alloys. It is used in iron, copper, and lead alloys. It makes the metals more easily machinable (able to be shaped by a machine). It improves strength and durability of lead and makes it more resistant to corrosion by sulfuric acid.
Tellurium is also used in cadmium telluride solar cells. These are very efficient. It can be alloyed with both cadmium and mercury to make mercury cadmium telluride, an infrared sensitive semiconductor. It is used in some rewritable (able to be erased and written again) optical discs. Lead telluride is used in another type of infrared sensor.
It is also used to color ceramics. It is used to make fiberglass that is used in telecommunications (telephones, internet, etc.). It helps increase the refraction. It is also used in delay blasting caps. Rubber can be ha.
Tellurium is not really used in any living things. Some fungi, though, can use tellurium instead of selenium or sulfur. Most organisms can metabolize tellurium to make dimethyl telluride, which is a garlic-smelling chemical. If someone eats a tellurium compound, it gives them garlic breath.
Tellurium is very toxic.
Indium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol In. It has the atomic number 49. It is a rare metal. It is a soft, malleable and poor metal. Indium looks like zinc. Pieces of indium can easily be joined together by pushing one piece into another. The chemistry of indium is quite like aluminium or gallium. Zinc ores are the main source of indium.
The main use of indium is in the chemical compound Indium tin oxide in liquid crystal displays. It is also used in very thin layers as a lubricant. In World War II it was used a lot to coat bearings in aircraft.
Francium
Francium is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Fr and an atomic number of 87. It is a metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkali metals. Francium is very radioactive. It is in very small amounts in uranium and thorium ores. It has the lowest electronegativity and electron affinity of all the chemical elements.
Francium reacts violently with water, as do all of the elements in group 1 on the periodic table.
Francium is one of the hardest to find elements on the planet Earth. It is estimated that there are only about 15 grams or half an ounce in the Earth's crust at a single time.
Although chemists knew the element number 87 in the periodic table should exist, it was a long time before it was discovered. In the early 1900s, nearly all boxes on the periodic table had been filled. Chemists knew that one element had been found to fit into each box. Francium was discovered in 1939 by a French chemist called Marguerite Perey. She named it after her home country, France.
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature.
Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).
Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).
Rhenium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Re. It has the atomic number 75. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements called the transition metals. The chemistry of rhenium is similar to manganese. Discovered in 1908, rhenium was the second-last stable element to be discovered ('stable' meaning not radioactive). It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.
Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a catalyst: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization.
Rhenium found as a by-product of molybdenum refinement.
Rhenium is used in some manganese alloys. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductors.
Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925, they reported that they detected the element in a platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928, they were able to remove 1 g of the element from 660 kg of molybdenite.
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal. It has the third highest melting points of all elements. It is also the third densest element.
Rhenium has one stable isotope which is rhenium-185. Rhenium that is found in nature is made up of of 37.4% rhenium-185 and 62.6% rhenium-187. Rhenium has 33 known radioisotopes. They range from rhenium-160 to rhenium-194. The longest-lived radioisotope of rhenium is rhenium-183 which have a half-life of 70 days.
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust. It the 77th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Rhenium may not be found free in nature. It is found in small amounts in the mineral molybdenite.
Commercial rhenium is gotten from molybdenum roaster-flue gas. Some molybdenum ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium. Rhenium metal is made by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures.
Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. Rhenium is used in superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd generation) and CMSX-10 (3rd generation). These superalloys are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium filaments are used in mass spectrometers, ion gauges and photoflash lamps in photography. Rhenium-platinum alloys are used as a catalyst for catalytic reforming. Rhenium-188 and Rhenium-186 are used to treat of liver cancer.
Thallium
Thallium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Tl. It has the atomic number 81. Its standard atomic weight is 204.4. It is found in Group 15 of the periodic table. Thallium is a gray metal that is very toxic.
Thallium is a soft, malleable, grayish post-transition metal. It can be cut with a knife at room temperature. It melts at a low temperature, 304 °C. This is typical of a post-transition metal. Thallium has 25 isotopes and two stable (nonradioactive) ones. It is extremely toxic.
Thallium is a moderately reactive metal. It corrodes easily in air with a blue-gray color that is similar to lead. If it is kept in air for a long time, a large amount of thallium(I) oxide will build up. It corrodes in the presence of water to make the hydroxide. It burns with a greenish flame. It reacts with most acids.
Thallium makes chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +1 and +3. The +1 state is more common and less reactive. Its chemical compounds are very similar to potassium or silver compounds. It makes a hydroxide that in a strong base when dissolved in water. Most other transition metal and post-tranansition metal hydroxides do not dissolve in water. This reacts with carbon dioxide to make thallium(I) carbonate, which is also water-soluble and very heavy. It is the only heavy metal carbonate that can dissolve in water. Other compounds are similar to silver compounds. Thallium(I) bromide turns yellow when exposed to light, similar to silver(I) bromide. Thallium(I) sulfide is black, similar to silver(I) sulfide. The +3 state compounds are oxidizing agents. The black oxide, thallium(III) oxide and the hydroxide, thallium(III) hydroxide, are the only stable +3 compounds. They break down to oxygen and thallium(I) oxide when heated. Thallium and its compounds are rare because they are toxic and polluting.
+1 compounds are quite unreactive. It is the more common oxidation state. They are made when thallium dissolves in acids or corrodes in air.
+3 compounds are oxidizing agents. They are quite rare.
Thallium was found by spectroscopy in 1861 by a bright green line in its spectrum. The main use for thallium, rat poison, was banned in many countries in the 1970s. Thallium was used to poison people, similar to the more popular arsenic.
Thallium is found most in certain clays and granites. It cannot be gotten easily from these, though. Thallium is normally gotten from the waste after other ores like galena are processed. Hutchinsonite is another mineral that has thallium in it.
When lead and zinc are taken from their ores, many impurities are left behind. Sulfuric acid is used to dissolve the thallium from it as thallium(I) sulfate. Then the thallium(I) sulfate is electrolyzed to make thallium metal.
It is used in rat poisons and insecticides. The use of thallium as a poison has been reduced or banned in many countries because these countries think that thallium might cause cancers. It is also used in infrared detectors. It has been used in some murders. Like arsenic, the use of thallium in murders has given it the name "inheritance powder". Thallium compounds are used in glass for infrared light. Thallium was also used to kill skin infections, but it is too toxic to be used for that now. A superconductor that can work at higher temperatures than normal ones do uses thallium. A radioactive thallium isotope was used for nuclear scans. An alloy of thallium and mercury has a low freezing temperature and is a liquid. A very dense solution of a thallium compound was used to test minerals for specific gravity, but it is too toxic for use.
Thallium is very toxic. It can be absorbed through skin. Many of its salts easily dissolve. Some are colorless, tasteless, and odorless, but are very toxic. Some think that it is a carcinogen. Thallium can be a pollutant if the thallium waste from metal processing is washed away.
Néstor Kirchner
Néstor Kirchner (February 25, 1950 - October 27, 2010) was President of Argentina between 2003 and 2007. He was born in Santa Cruz Province, Patagonia, where he was governor. On May 4, 2010 he became the first Secretary General of UNASUR. He died in Calafate on October 27, 2010 from heart failure which was caused by an earlier case of a heart attack. He was elected President in 2003, preceded by Eduardo Duhalde. Kirchner's widow, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, is the current president of Argentina.
The Cunning Little Vixen (original title: "Příhody lišky bystroušky", literally translates to "The Adventures of Vixen Sharp-Ears") is an opera by the Czech composer Leoš Janáček. Janáček loved animals, and in this opera some of the characters are humans but some are animals. Some of the little animals, (like the grasshopper, frog and cricket) are usually sung by children.
Janáček got the idea of this opera from a cartoon strip called “Sharp-ears” (in Czech: "Bystrouška"). The cartoon was published in a popular daily newspaper Lidové noviny. It was about a vixen (a female fox) and her adventures in the forest. He thought that the story would make a good opera. He made a few changes to the story: he left out a some characters, changed the order of the story a little, and made the humans and the animals behave in a similar way. It was first performed in Brno on 6 November 1924.
When Janáček died in 1928 the last part of the opera was played at his funeral.
A forester is sleeping under a tree. Nearby a young vixen (here, vixen means baby fox) is playing. She nearly catches a frog, but the frog jumps away and lands on the forester’s nose. He wakes up and sees the little vixen playing. He catches the vixen and take her home with him. He gave her a name: “Sharp-ears”.
Sharp-ears is unhappy at the forester’s cottage. She is tied up with a rope in the yard. The hens keep teasing her and the dog is boring. One day she tells the hens that they are silly to stay in the farmyard being bossed about by the rooster. She tells them they ought to fly away to freedom. She pretends to die, then jumps up and starts to catch them. When the forester’s wife comes out Sharp-ears bites through the rope and disappears into the forest.
She finds a nice sett (badger's hole) where a badger lives. She wants to live there herself so she chases the badger out of his home. One winter’s night the forester is drinking in the inn. He teases the priest and the schoolmaster for not having found someone to love. They in turn tease the forester for having let the vixen go. The schoolmaster starts to go home. He is drunk. He sees the vixen who reminds him of his former lover, but he is too drunk to catch hold of her.
Sharp-ears meets a handsome young male fox called Goldskin. The two fall in love. When she realizes she is pregnant the fox and vixen get married. The woodpecker is the priest who marries them. The cubs (baby foxes) are born in the spring.
The forester is still searching the forest for Sharp-ears. One day he finds a dead hare. The poacher persuades the forester to make a trap, because he thinks that Sharp-ears will come back to eat the hare. The cubs arrive and play near the trap. Sharp-ears realizes the poacher is trying to catch her. She teases him cruelly and dares him to kill her. He shoots her with his rifle, then he is very sad.
Some time later the forester is sleeping under a tree. He wakes up when a frog lands on his hand. He sees a young vixen playing in front of him. He tells the young cub that she looks just like her mother. He reaches out for her but catches a frog instead. He lets it go. He realizes that life must go on.
Janáček made some changes to the story in the cartoon. This made it more suitable for an opera. He did not have all the characters that are in the cartoon, and he changed the order of the story to make it more dramatic. He compares the human beings with the animals. For example: we see vixen Sharp-ears falling in love and having a family. But the forester’s friends: the school master and the priest, have not been so lucky with their love-life. The priest looks like the badger, the woodpecker is like the priest. When the opera is performed the same singer sometimes sings both parts. The end of the opera is like the beginning. This shows that life carries on and one generation follows another.
The music matches the story beautifully. There are a lot of tunes with very exciting harmonies. Sometimes he uses modes and whole-tone scales. Janáček often makes his music sound like folk music of his country.
Guaraní alphabet
The Guaraní alphabet is a system used to write the Guaraní language. The Guaraní language is used in Paraguay and some countries near it. The alphabet has 35 letters. These are:
"A", "E", "I", "O", "U", "Y" are vowels, just like English. Those letters with tildes on top make the same sound, except more nasal sounding. The apostrophe sounds like a glottal stop. The other letters are consonants.
Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza (also known as Ukerewe and Nnalubaale) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley.
Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria. The White Nile flows out of the lake.
Tonsillitis
Encephalitis is sudden inflammation (swelling) in the brain. It is usually caused by viruses, bacteria, or other pathogens. As the brain swells, it can get damaged when it gets crushed against the skull. Encephalitis can cause serious symptoms, like seizures and strokes, and can be fatal. In 2013, encephalitis killed about 77,000 people in the world.
Usually, adults with encephalitis have a fever that starts suddenly, a headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures. Younger children or infants may be irritable (easily upset), not want to eat, and have a fever. Usually, patients are either very tired or confused.
A stiff neck is a sign that the person has either meningitis (inflammation of the meninges, which cover the brain) or meningoencephalitis (swelling of both the meninges and the brain).
Viral encephalitis can happen when a virus infects the brain. The most common causes are the rabies virus, Herpes Simplex Virus(HSV), the polio virus, and the measles virus. Viral encephalitis can also be caused by a "latent" virus - a virus that hides from the body's immune system the brain's nerve cells. Two examples of viruses that cause latent infection are the varicella-zoster viruses, which can hide in the brain after causing chicken pox, and the herpes simplex virus.
About 100 different viruses can infect the brain. Other examples include West Nile virus, Chikungunya virus, and Japanese encephalitis virus.
Encephalitis can happen when a person gets a bacterial infection, like bacterial meningitis. It can also be a complication of an infectious disease that a person already has, like syphilis. This is called "secondary encephalitis."
Examples of other bacteria which can cause encephalitis are "Staphylococcus aureus", which causes toxic shock syndrome; "Bordetella pertussis", which causes pertussis (whooping cough); and types of "Borellia" bacteria, which cause Lyme disease.
Some parasites can infect the brain, especially in people who have weak immune systems. Examples include "Toxoplasma gondii", which causes toxoplasmosis; two parasites from the species "Trypanosoma" "brucei", which cause African trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness); and "Plasmodium" parasites, which cause malaria.
Autoimmune diseases can cause encephalitis if the body's immune system attacks the brain, the spinal cord, and their nerves. Two examples are autoimmune encephalitis and acute disseminated encephalitis.
Encephalitis can be diagnosed in a few different ways:
Some treatments for encephalitis depend on the cause:
Other treatments are "supportive" - they treat the symptoms of encephalitis. For example: