AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Similar words are used to identify the body being orbited. The most common are perigee and apogee, referring to orbits around the Earth, and perihelion and aphelion, referring to orbits around the Sun (Greek ‘ήλιος "hēlios" sun). During the Apollo program, the terms pericynthion and apocynthion were used when referring to the moon.
The perihelion is the point in the orbit of an object that is nearest to the Sun. The aphelion is the point in the orbit of an object where it is farthest from the Sun.
Earth comes closest to the sun every year around January 3. It is farthest from the sun every year around July 4. The difference in distance between Earth's nearest point to the sun in January and farthest point from the sun in July is . Earth is about from the Sun in early January, in contrast to about in early July.
When Earth is closest to the Sun, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. Thus it is possible to see that Earth's distance from the Sun does not noticeably cause the seasons to change; the relatively minor effects of differences in distance is somewhat masked by the mainly oceanic southern hemisphere vs the half-continental northern hemisphere. Therefore, the Earth's seasons come and go mainly because Earth does not rotate with its axis exactly upright with respect to the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the sun. Earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees. This puts the Sun farther south in December and January, so the north has winter and the south has summer. Thus winter falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes least directly. Summer falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes most directly.
Orbital eccentricity
In astrodynamics, orbital eccentricity shows how much the shape of an object's orbit is different from a circle.
Eccentricity (formula_1) is defined for all circular, elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic orbits. It can take the following values:
Here is a formula to find eccentricity:
Where e is the eccentricity, r is the apoapsis (far point) of the object's orbit, and r is the periapsis (near point) of the object's orbit. The near and far points are the apsides.
Astronomical unit
The astronomical unit (AU) is a unit of length derived from the Earth's orbit. It is the average distance the Earth gets from the Sun "on the long axis of the ellipse". Its definition is: the length of the semi-major axis of the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun. "Semi-major" means half the long axis.
The AU is about 150 million kilometers or 93 million miles. Astronomers usually measure distances within the Solar System in astronomical units. Mars is about 1.4 AU from the Sun, Jupiter lies at roughly 5.2 AU, and Neptune is roughly 30 AU from the Sun. Light travels an AU in about 8.317 minutes.
From 1976 to 2012 the AU was defined as “the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the Sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with a mean motion of 0.01720209895 radians per day (known as the Gaussian constant)”. In 2012, the IAU redefined it to be simply .
In the IERS numerical standards, the speed of light in a vacuum is defined as "c" = , in accordance with the SI units. The time to cover an AU is τ = , resulting in the astronomical unit in metres as "c"τ = . It is very roughly the distance from the Earth to the Sun.
Degree (angle)
In mathematics, a degree is a common way to measure plane angle. It is written with the symbol formula_1, where formula_2 corresponds to the entire circle.
It is not an SI unit. The SI uses radian to measure plane angle. However, according to the SI brochure, it is an accepted unit by SI.
The actual reason of choosing the degree as a way to measure plane angle is unknown. One theory says that it is related with the fact that a year is approximately 360 days. Some ancient calendars, for example the Persian calendar and the Babylonian calendar, used 360 days for a year.
Another theory says that the Babylonians divided the circle using the angle of an equilateral triangle. The angle was then divided into 60 parts. This is because they used sexagesimal or base-60 numeral system.
Epoch (astronomy)
In astronomy, an epoch (or sometimes epochal moment) is a moment in time for which the position or the orbital elements of a celestial body are specified.
The position at other times can be measured by taking into account proper motion or orbital motion. In the case of orbital elements for a solar system body, these change due to perturbation by other bodies in our solar system.
The Julian day or Julian day number (JDN) is the number of days that have passed since the initial epoch defined as noon Universal Time (UT) Monday, 1 January 4713 BC in the Julian calendar. That noon-to-noon day is defined as Julian day 0. Thus all JDNs that are evenly divisible by 7 are Mondays. Negative values may also be used; although, those predate recorded history.
For example, right now at the JDN is (-0.5) round 0 (). When this JDN is divided by 7, the remainder is ((-0.5) round 0)% 7, which is an integer expression for the day of the week with 0 representing Monday.
The Julian date (JD) is a continuous count of days and fractions elapsed since the same initial epoch. Currently the JD is . The integral part (its floor) gives the Julian day number. The fractional part gives the time of day since noon UT as a decimal fraction of one day or fractional day, with 0.5 representing midnight UT. Typically, a 64-bit floating point (double precision) variable can represent an epoch expressed as a Julian date to about 1 millisecond precision.
A Julian date of 2454115.05486 means that the date and Universal Time is Sunday 14 January 2007 at 13:18:59.9.
The decimal parts of a Julian date:
0.1 = 2.4 hours or 144 minutes or 8640 seconds
0.01 = 0.24 hours or 14.4 minutes or 864 seconds
0.001 = 0.024 hours or 1.44 minutes or 86.4 seconds
0.0001 = 0.0024 hours or 0.144 minutes or 8.64 seconds
0.00001 = 0.00024 hours or 0.0144 minutes or 0.864 seconds.
Almost 2.5 million Julian days have elapsed since the initial epoch. JDN 2,400,000 was November 16, 1858. JD 2,500,000.0 will occur on August 31, 2132 at noon UT.
The Julian day number can be considered a very simple calendar, where its calendar date is just an integer. This is useful for reference, computations, and conversions. It allows the time between any two dates in history to be computed by simple subtraction.
The Julian day system was introduced by astronomers to provide a single system of dates that could be used when working with different calendars and to unify different historical chronologies. Apart from the choice of the zero point and name, this Julian day and Julian date are not directly related to the Julian calendar, although it is possible to convert any date from one calendar to the other.
Meatball
A meatball is meat that is ground up (finely cut), mixed with other ingredients, then shaped like a ball. Most meatballs are made out of beef. Meatballs can also be made out of chicken, fish, or other kinds of meat. The other ingredients (parts) are usually bread, onion, and eggs. Meatballs can be cooked by frying, baking, or steaming them. Meatballs are sometimes served with pasta or in a sauce. Meatballs originated from Turkey.There are many types of meatball like foggots,polpette,albondigas etc.
Mandé people
Mandé or Manding is a region between southern Mali and eastern Guinea. The Hunters from Wagadou (or Ouagadou) founded Mandé, the Mandingo country [2], notably the mythical ancestors Kontron and Sanin, at the origin of the Malinké and Bambaras hunter brotherhood. This country was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation. A very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are considered to be the oldest family to have lived in Mandé, after having left, due to the drought, Ouallata, a region of Wagadou, in the south-east of present-day Mauritania. They founded the first village of Mandé, Kirikoroni, then Kirina, Siby, Kita. Many of the families that make up the Mandingo community were born in Mande. Mandé is the province from which the Mali Empire started, under the leadership of Soundiata Keïta.
Amadou Toumani Touré
General (ret) Amadou Toumani Touré (November 4, 1948 – November 10, 2020) was the president of Mali. He took power from a military ruler, Moussa Traoré in 1991, then he gave power to civilian (non-military) authorities in 1992. He won the presidential election in 2002. He won the next election easily in 2007. He was born in Mopti, Mali.
Touré died on November 10, 2020 in Istanbul, Turkey just one week after his 72nd birthday.
Ghana Empire
The Ghana Empire was in what is now southeastern Mauritania, Western Mali, and Eastern Senegal. It is also sometimes called the Wagadu Empire. It started in about 750 and ended in about 1076.
They had two sides; Muslim and Non-muslim what divided them was a 6 mile boulevard (street).
Ghana sat on top of a gold mine and was a very wealthy empire. Its capital was Koumbi Saleh. Surrounded Modern Northern Senegal and Southern Mauritania. Traded with Saharans in gold and salt.
The Mali Empire was a West African country from 1235 to 1645. The Mandinka people lived there. It is also called the Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa. Sundiata Keita started the empire and the empire became famous because its rulers were very rich, especially Mansa Musa I. The Mali Empire had many important cultural effects on West Africa, spreading language, laws and customs along the Niger River. This was because of the spread of Islam by verbal wording.
For such a prolific empire, there are few written accounts of its greatness. Most of the written accounts that do exist came from Arab scholars who traveled through the region. In lieu of written accounts, most of the stories from the locals were passed down through oral histories, songs and poems. Until this day, ‘griots’ still tell stories of the ancient history in the area. Architects in the Mali Empire combined styles of the Sahel region and Middle East together, particularly after Emperor Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca. There were several royal palaces built during the time, many of which are still standing. Mud bricks, log beams and plaster helped these palaces to remain standing. The most famous work of architecture from the time period is the Great Mosque of Djenné, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The mosque was rebuilt in 1907 and can still be visited in Djenné. However, if you aren’t a Muslim, you can’t go inside.
The Mali Empire had one of the richest leaders in history. The richest and most famous of all the leaders of the Mali Empire was Mansa Musa. It is thought by some that Mansa Musa could have been the wealthiest person in history. According to stories, he took 60,000 people on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 along with camels loaded down with gold.
Islam was very important to the Mali Empire. Most of the kings of the Mali Empire eventually converted to Islam, with their people subsequently practicing as well. However, unlike many empires, they didn’t make their subjects convert, and the version of Islam that they practiced was combined with the local traditions of the villages. You can still see many relics in cities like Bamako, Djenné and Timbuktu.
The Mali Empire's most important industry was gold. People in the ancient world were drawn to it. The Mali Empire (Timbuktu in particular) was a huge trading center for the gold industry. Camel caravans would come to the area before leaving across the trans-Saharan trade routes. The empire had so much gold that it caused the market to crash for a period of time when Mansa Musa brought almost a ton of gold to Cairo. The army of the Mali Empire was massive.
During the height of the Mali Empire, the army numbered around 100,000 men and 10,000 cavalry, making it one of the largest in the world at the time. The empire used this army to gain new lands.
Timbuktu is a city in Tombouctou Region, Mali. Sankore University and other madrasas are in the city. The city was important for thinking and for religion in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was important in spreading Islam through Africa at that time. There are three great mosques: Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya. They are reminders of Timbuktu's golden age. They are always being fixed, but are threatened because the desert is spreading.
Songhay, Tuareg, Fulani, and Mandé people live in Timbuktu. It is about 15 km north of the Niger River. There is a route across the Sahara Desert from east to west and this is used for trade. There is another from north to south. These two routes meet in Timbuktu. It is an "entrepôt" for rock salt from Taoudenni. This means that the salt is brought here and sold to other people to take it somewhere else, but no tax is charged.
Its location helped different people meet, so local people, Berbers and Arabs met here. It has a long history of mixed African trade, so it became famous in Europe for this reason. Therefore, western people often thought of Timbuktu as being exotic. It has a hot desert climate ("BWh" in the Koeppen climate classification).
Timbuktu has given a lot of research and study to Islam and to the world. Important books were written and copied in Timbuktu in the 14th century. This made the city become the center of writing in Africa.
Jeanne Demessieux
Jeanne Demessieux (born Montpellier, France, 13 February 1921; died Paris, 11 November 1968), was a French organist and composer.
She started to learn the piano when she was very young, before taking up the organ. Her family moved to Paris so that she could continue to have music lessons there. She became an organ student at the Conservatoire in 1933. In the same year she got a job as organist of the St. Esprit church in Paris. She had this job for 29 years.
Between 1936 and 1939, she studied organ privately with the great Marcel Dupré, and in 1939 she joined his organ class at the Conservatoire. After receiving a first prize in organ performance and improvisation in 1941, she studied five more years with Dupré in Meudon, before she played her first recital at Salle Pleyel in Paris in 1946. This was the beginning of her career as an international recitalist. She played more than 700 concerts in Europe and the United States.
Gifted with an amazing musical memory, she could play more than 2,500 pieces from memory, including all the organ works of Johann Sebastian Bach, César Franck, Franz Liszt, Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and Dupré.
She was also a remarkable improviser. When she gave her first solo concert in Paris at Salle Pleyel in 1946, she was given four musical themes and improvised a symphony in four movements.
A teacher of the organ at Nancy and Brussels, she made several LP recordings, of which those of music by Franck are probably the best known. She had plans to record all the organ works of Olivier Messiaen. However, she died relatively young, at age 47, of cancer, before she was able to finish this task.
She wrote many compositions, especially for the organ. These include: "Nativité", "Six Études", "Sept Méditations sur le Saint-Esprit", "Triptyque", "Twelve Choral-Preludes on Gregorian Chant Themes", "Te Deum", "Répons pour les Temps Liturgiques", and "Prélude et fugue en UT".
House mouse
House mouse ("Mus musculus") the common mouse is one of the species of the genus "Mus". Often, it is just called a mouse. It is a small rodent. In most parts of the world, they live close to humans. Laboratory mice are types of house mice and are some of the most important organisms used for research in biology and medicine. They are the most commonly used laboratory mammal for experiments.
They are quite small, but are not the smallest mammals. House mice have an adult body length (nose to base of tail) of 7.5–10 cm (3.0–3.9 in) and a tail length of 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in). The weight is typically 10–25 g (0.4–0.9 oz). In the wild they vary in color from light to dark agouti (light to dark brown). Selected strains of mice can be got in various other colours.
It is a small, scaly-tailed mouse with a distinct notch in the cutting surface of upper incisors (seen best in side view). Its hair short; ears moderately large and naked.
The main problem of small mammals is their high surface to weight ratio: they have a big surface area for such a small mass. Since heat is radiated from the surface, they have adaptations to help them keep their temperature up to normal. They need to eat frequently, and live in areas where they are protected from the coldest weather. Easy access to high-quality vegetable food (such as grains) and a protected habitat helps them survive and multiply. That is why they are found in numbers living in human settlements.
Their life-span in the wild averages about a year. They are eaten by a variety of small carnivores, but they reproduce rapidly, so that keeps the numbers up. Females have 314 babies in a litter, and can have 5 to 10 litters a year. In good conditions, the mouse population rises quickly.
Although not native to North America, the house mouse was introduced accidentally to seaport towns. It is now widespread throughout the United States. It occurs either as a commensal or feral animal in practically all parts of the U.S.
As commensal animals, house mice live in close association with man – in houses, outbuildings, stores, and other structures. Where conditions permit, feral mice may be found in fields, along watercourses, and in other places where vegetation is dense enough to hide them.
Scientology is a movement based on a system of beliefs. These beliefs are based on written words by L. Ron Hubbard. A few other people have added, but almost all of it is his. He started it in 1954. Hubbard contributed until his death in 1986.
Different people understand the words Hubbard wrote differently. In some countries, there are Churches of Scientology. Some people are suspicious of the Church. They feel that it is a cult, and a business to make money. Scientology has been controversial since it began.
Scientology teaches that people are immortal spirits who have forgotten their true nature. Scientologists say that, through a system called "auditing", they help people remember their true nature by re-experiencing painful events in their past and understanding them better.
There are many organizations that are linked to Scientology. For example, some help people stop using harmful drugs or to get back into society after they served a prison term.
Scientology says that psychiatry is bad, and should not be allowed to exist.
The Church of Scientology says that 13-15 million people are a part of the Church. Critics disagree with that figure, however. They say the organization probably does not have more than 100,000 followers, mostly in the United States. They say that in 1960, there were probably 50,000 to 100,000 followers in the U.S. In the 1990s, a representative survey claimed there were only about 45,000 followers left. These figures seemed to have increased a bit, by 2004, where there were an estimated 55,000 followers.
The Church of Scientology was started by the American writer and philosopher L. Ron Hubbard in the year 1954. It is not as well known as Christianity or Islam, but it is newer. Scientologists believe their movement is growing. They claim it has thousands of churches, some of which are very small. The largest is in Clearwater, Florida.
L. Ron Hubbard wrote about the goals of Scientology, saying:
This means the goals of Scientology are to create a civilization where:
In 1972, Hubbard told a group of Scientologists: "You are the people the planet obeys. You are the people who own the planet."
Scientologists say that the book Dianetics was the first self-help book ever written. It was written by L Ron Hubbard in the year 1950. Some key concepts in the book are:
Another basic teaching of Scientology is that understanding comes from three things together:
Hubbard called this the "ARC Triangle." Scientologists use this in their everyday lives. It is based upon the idea that making one of these three things better makes the other two better.
The tone scale is a way to rate an emotion as bad, better, or good. The scale goes from -40 ("Total Failure") to +40 ("Serenity of Being"). Positions on the tone scale started from the idea that one way of feeling is better than a worse way of feeling. But Hubbard described many other things that go along with emotion, such as health, mating behavior, survival potential, and ability to deal with truth. The tone scale is frequently used by Scientologists to understand people. According to Scientology, the lower the individual is on the tone scale, the more complex his problems are.
Many well-known people are followers of Scientology. They include:
Maurice Robert Gravel, better known as Mike Gravel (born May 13, 1930) is an American Democratic politician. He was member of the Libertarian Party from 2008 to 2010 when he re-joined the Democratic Party. He served as a United States Senator from Alaska (1969-1981) and, previously, as member of the Alaska House of Representatives (1953-1966, speaker from 1965-1966). Gravel was a two-time presidential candidate in 2008 and in 2020.
Gravel was born in Springfield, Massachusetts. He studied at Assumption College, American International College and at Columbia University. He moved to Alaska in 1956.
From 1953 to 1966, Gravel was a member of the Alaska House of Representatives. From 1965 to 1966, Gravel was Speaker of the Alaska House of Representatives. In 1969, he was elected United States Senator from Alaska.
Gravel is best known for his successful effort to end military draft during the Vietnam War and put the Pentagon Papers into the public record in 1971. He was seen as a possible running mate for George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign.
Gravel lost to Clark Gruening in the Democratic Party for re-election in the 1980 Senate election.
As a candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination in 2008 he wanted withdrawal of US Armed Forces from Iraq, more health care and social security, and preventing global warming. He is also one of the earliest and the most famous supporters of direct democracy in the United States.
On March 19, 2019, Gravel created an exploratory committee to run for President once again in the 2020 election. He said he would run not to win the nomination, but to raise awareness of bigger issues. On April 2, 2019, Gravel filed to officially run for office. He dropped out of the race on July 31, 2019 after failing to qualify for the debates. He endorsed Bernie Sanders and Tulsi Gabbard for President on August 5. His campaign manager was a 17 year old high school student.
Iva Zanicchi
Iva Zanicchi (born 18 January 1940) is a Italian singer and politician. She was a Member of the European Parliament from 2004 - 2014.
North German Confederation
The North German Confederation (), was first a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany, and later a federal state. It was preceded by a Zollverein, a customs union that allowed free trade among most German states. The Confederation started in August 1866, and the Kingdom of Prussia was the leading state. On July 1st 1867, the North German Constitution made the alliance a federal state.
An Austrian-Prussian rivalry, starting in the 1700s, had led to the Austro-Prussian War of July/August 1866. Immediate causes for the war had been the unsettled question of Slesvig-Holstein (which Prussia intended to annex) and a reform of the German Confederation. After a victory in summer 1866, agreements with Austria and France allowed Prussia to reshape the political landscape in Northern Germany (north of the river Main). The leading politician of Prussia was minister president Otto von Bismarck, serving under king William I.
On 18 August 1866, Prussia and most of the north German states signed the August Treaty. They agreed on a military alliance and declared their intention to create a federal state. (Some other states joined soon.) A federal state is different from an alliance as it has a federal government and legislation, and it is different from a unitary state as there are still rather powerful states below the federal level. Plans for a federal state in Germany had existed since the year 1848.
The allied governments led by Bismarck made a proposal for a North German constitution. An organ was elected to represent the people of Northern Germany, the "konstituierender Reichstag". The election took place in February 1867. After some modifications of the proposal, the states' governments and parliaments accepted the final draft. On July 1st, the constitution came into force.
According to the constitution, legislation was the matter of two organs. The "Reichstag" was the parliament, elected by all men above the age of 25. The Federal Council was an organ representing the governments of the states. The holder of the "Bundespräsidium" was the king of Prussia (the 'republican' term 'president' had been avoided intentionally). The holder of the "Bundespräsidium" installed the Federal Chancellor. Not by name, but factually this was the (only) federal minister, the head of the executive.
In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, the South German states joined the North German Confederation. The new constitution of January 1st, 1871, renamed the country from 'North German Confederation' to 'German Empire'. The holder of the "Bundespräsidium" received the additional title of an Emperor. The political system as described in the constitution, and the flag, remained the same. (The final constitution of the Empire stems from April/May 1871; as a result, nearly all terms that included 'federal' were changed to 'imperial'.)
The modern national state of Germany is, as an international subject and as a legal entity, identical to the North German Confederation. Law and international treaties of the era 1867-1870 are in principle still valid. In a conservative-liberal cooperation lasting from 1867 to 1878, Germany saw a remarkable modernisation and unification. The North German Confederation introduced the metric system, a modern penal code (Strafgesetzbuch), same rights for all denominations, a postal union etc.
The federation handled the mail and issued postage stamps, after 1 January 1868. But the federation did not issue its own money, so different stamps had to be issued. Stamps valued in groschen were used in the north, stamps in kreuzer in the Southern District. All of these stamps were marked "NORDDEUTSCHER POSTBEZIRK" (North German Postal Area).
A third set of stamps were printed for Hamburg. These were also marked "STADTPOSTBRIEF HAMBURG".
MiG Alley
NetBackup
Veritas' NetBackup is a data backup software for Windows and Linux.
Argument of periapsis
In astronomy, the argument of periapsis (ω) is a way of talking about the orbit of a planet, asteroid or comet. It is also known as the argument of perihelion or the argument of perifocus. It is the angle (starting from the center of the orbit) between an orbiting body's periapsis and its ascending node. Periapsis is the point when the orbiting object comes the closest to the thing it is orbiting around; for example, the moon is at periapsis when it is closest to the Earth. The ascending node is one of two places where an orbiting object passes through the reference plane, an imaginary flat surface which runs through the object being orbited around. The size of the angle depends on which way the object is orbiting.
The angle is measured in the orbital plane and in the direction of motion. For specific types of orbits, words such as "perihelion" (for Sun-centered orbits), "perigee" (for Earth-centered orbits), "pericenter" (general), etc. may replace the word "periapsis".
An argument of periapsis of 0° means that the orbiting body will be at its closest approach to the central body at the same moment that it crosses the plane of reference from south to north. An argument of periapsis of 90° means that the orbiting body will reach periapsis at its northmost distance from the plane of reference.
Argument of perihelion and Longitude of ascending node of planets.
Longitude of the ascending node
The longitude of the ascending node (☊ or Ω) is one of the orbital elements used to specify the orbit of an object in space. It is the angle from a reference direction, called the "origin of longitude", to the direction of the ascending node, measured in a reference plane.
Mean anomaly
In the study of orbital dynamics the mean anomaly of an orbiting body is the angle the body would have traveled about the center of the orbit's auxiliary circle. Unlike other measures of anomaly, the mean anomaly grows linearly with time. Because of the linear growth with time, the mean anomaly makes calculating the time of flight between two points on the orbit very easy. The mean anomalies for the two points are calculated and their difference is found. Knowing this, the ratio of this difference relative to the entire formula_1 encompassing one orbit is simply equal to ratio of the time of flight to the orbital period of one whole orbit (i.e. formula_2).
Orbital period
The orbital period is the time taken for a given object to make one complete orbit around another object. The year and month are orbital periods.
When mentioned without further qualification in astronomy this refers to the sidereal period of an astronomical object, which is calculated with respect to the stars. Other periods include the synodic period, which is the interval between conjunctions.
Orbital speed
The orbital speed of a body, usually a planet, a natural satellite, an artificial satellite, or a multiple star, is the speed at which it orbits around the barycenter of a system, usually around a more massive body. It can be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed, the average speed as it completes an orbit, or instantaneous orbital speed, the speed at a particular point in its orbit.
The orbital speed at any position in the orbit can be computed from the distance to the central body at that position, and the specific orbital energy, which is independent of position: it equals the kinetic energy plus the potential energy, divided by the mass. It is also given by Kepler's Second Law.
Year 101 was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar.
Continental drift is a historical, scientific theory. The theory was first proposed by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. It was fully developed by the German geologist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1915.
The theory said that parts of the Earth's crust move slowly on top of a liquid mantle of higher density. The theory has now been included in the wider theory of plate tectonics.
The theory was supported by finding the same minerals and fossils in western Europe and eastern North America. There are also similar fossils on the western coast of Africa and the eastern South America. The shapes of these continents nearly fit together. The theory was plausible (believable), but there was no known mechanism to drive these great movements. This problem was later solved by plate tectonics.
The pattern of volcanic activity, mountain building (orogeny) and earthquakes is explained by continental drift. The existence of identical rocks widely apart supports the theory.
Examples (there are hundreds):
The basic machine driving continental movement is heat moving from the Earth's mantle through the crust and out of the planet. The effect of this it to cause convection, and plate movement.
Two events in particular are of huge importance:
Saxe-Altenburg
Saxe-Altenburg () was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.
Altenburg was independent for most of the 1600s until 1672. This is when the last male ruler died. Because only men could rule the Ernestine duchies Altenburg began to be ruled by the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, who had married the last ruler’s daughter.
In 1825 the ruler died, and he also had no male heirs. Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split up. Gotha was given to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Altenburg to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, who in exchange gave up Saalfeld and Hildburghausen to the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. This family ruled in the duchy until the end of the monarchies in 1918. Saxe-Altenburg became part of the new state of Thuringia in the Weimar Republic in 1920.
Saxe-Altenburg had an area of and a population of 207,000 (1905). Its capital was Altenburg.
The Saxe-Altenburg line became extinct following the death of Prince George Moritz in 1991.
In 1991 the Saxe-Altenburg line became extinct.
Two branches descend from duke Ernest the Pious, the father of the progenitor of this Saxe-Altenburg branch: Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; according to old Wettin family law, they would have divided the actual territories between them (as happened to Gotha and Altenburg in 1826). The senior male agnate descending from duke Ernest the Pious, in 1991 , was prince Frederick-Alfred of Saxe-Meiningen (a monk, 1921-1997), and thus technically succeeded then as titular duke of Saxe-Altenburg and head of the whole branch; but, because he renounced all his succession rights in favor of his uncle Bernhard, was him instead Frederick-Alfred the general heir of the line of Saxe-Meiningen. His successor was Konrad, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, the present head of that branch.
A porcupine is a rodent with a coat of sharp spines, or quills, that defend them from predators. The porcupine is the third biggest rodent, after the capybara, and beaver, and are not to be confused with hedgehogs. Most porcupines are about 60–90 cm long, with a 20–25 cm long tail. Weighing between 12-35 pounds (5–16 kg), they are rounded, large and slow. Porcupines come in various shades of brown, grey, and the unusual white. The name "porcupine" comes from Middle French "porc d'épine" "thorny pork", hence the nickname "quill pig" for the animal. The correct term for a baby porcupine is a porcupette. A porcupette has soft quills made of hardened hair. This protects the mother from injury as she gives birth.
The animal's quills or spines take on many forms, depending on the type, but all are hairs coated with thick plates of keratin, and they are in the skin musculature. Old World porcupines (Hystricidae) have quills in clusters, whereas in New World porcupines (Erethizontidae) single quills are mixed with bristles, underfur, and hair.
Porcupine quills are as sharp as needles, can be removed very easily, and will stay stuck in an attacker. Unlike needles, however, the quills of New World porcupines have small, backwards-facing barbs on the tip that catch on the skin making them hard and painful to pull out. Quills are about 75 mm long and 2 mm wide. If a quill becomes put in the tissues of an attacker, the barbs act to pull the quill farther into the tissues with the normal muscle movements of the attacker, moving up to many millimeters in a day. Animals who try to eat porcupines have been known to die because of quill penetration and infection. Quills can still penetrate animals and humans even after death. The ancient belief that porcupines can throw their quills at an enemy has long been proved to be incorrect.
Porcupines can live in a wide range of places in tropical and mild parts of Asia, Italy, Africa, and North and South America. Porcupines live in forests, deserts and grasslands. Some live in trees, others stay on the ground.
Porcupines in search of salt sometimes live in human places, eating plywood cured with sodium nitrate, certain paints, and tool handles, footwear, clothes and other items that have been coated in salty sweat. Porcupines like going near roads in areas where rock salt is used to melt ice and snow, and are known to gnaw on vehicle tires or wiring coated in road salt. Salt licks placed nearby can stop porcupine damage.
Natural sources of salt used by porcupines include different salt-rich plants (such as yellow water lily and aquatic liverwort), fresh animal bones, outer tree bark and mud in salt-rich soils.
The Silvia Night Show
The Silvia Night Show is a 2007 Icelandic television series following the controversial fictional character Silvia Night. It is the English version that was made to promote her participation in the Eurovision Song Contest.
The show followed Silvia Night during her appearance in Eurovision Song Contest 2006, and her tantrums after she realised she did not qualify for the final.
Silvia also received a lot of attention from media when she, on the premiere day of her own television program, protested against it on the streets of Reykjavík saying that "the show is total junk". The show will be available on DVD sometime soon.
"The Silvia Night Show" started airing in Sweden on the channel TV400 on October 10, 2007.
Jakten på Billie Jo
The winner was Alexandra Sapot. The winner was chosen by Swedish viewers' televotes and the production company Jarowskij.
Ernestine duchies
The Ernestine duchies, are sometimes called the Saxon duchies, were a changing number of small states in the present German state of Thuringia, governed by dukes of the Ernestine line of the house of Wettin. The Albertine duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz were are also sometimes called "Saxon duchies" and border several Ernestine ones.
The old Duchy of Saxon began to split up in the 15th Century, because law said that all sons should inherit. All of the sons of a Saxon duke had the title of "Duke", sometimes brothers ruled the territory together, and sometimes they divided it up between them. Some of the Ernestine duchies stayed independent until 1918. The nearby royal houses of Reuss and Schwarzburg also divided up their territory, so Thuringia was a tangle of little states, exclaves and enclaves from the late 15th Century until the early 20th Century.
Albert, grandson of Albert "the Bear" inherited the Duchy of Saxony from his father. Albert's sons divided Saxony into the duchies of Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. When duke of Saxe-Wittenberg died without an heir in 1422, the Emperor Sigismund gave the duchy to Frederick IV of the House of Wettin. Frederick was already Margrave of Meißen and Landgrave of Thuringia, and then became Frederick I, Elector of Saxony. Frederick was followed as Elector by his son Frederick II, and when Frederick II died in 1464 his sons Ernest and Albert took over. Because he was the older, Ernest became Elector of Saxony, but the brothers shared ruling the lands until 1485. Then Ernest took northern Meißen, southern Thuringia, and Wittenberg, with Albert receiving northern Thuringia and southern Meißen
Elector Ernest died in 1486, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III, the Wise.
It was Frederick the Wise who set up the University of Wittenberg in 1502. This was because the only university in Saxony was in Leipzig, was in the part of Saxony controlled by the descendants of his uncle, Albert. The University of Wittenberg was were Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses. Frederick protected Luther, and did not send him to Rome for trial. Frederick allowed Lutheran reforms in his country.
Frederick the Wise had three grandsons to share the territory. John Frederick II set up his capitals in Eisenach and Coburg, the middle brother John William staying in Weimar (Saxe-Weimar), and the youngest, John Frederick III took Gotha (Saxe-Gotha).
John Frederick III of Gotha died unmarried and heirless in 1565 and John William of Weimar tried to claim Saxe-Gotha, but the sons of the imprisoned John Frederick II entered their own claim.
In 1572 the claimants agreed to the Division of Erfurt. This treaty said John William of Saxe-Weimar would also take the districts of Altenburg, Gotha and Meiningen.
When John William died a year later.
The older son of John Frederick II, and John Ernest (d 1638 heirless), the younger son of John Frederick II, received together the territory of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach. In 1596 the brothers agreed to split the duchy into Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Eisenach.
Johann II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (or John II), died young but left eight surviving sons who ruled together, Three died, (including Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, the youngest, the famed general) and a will ordering them to rule jointly. Only three survived by 1639, when the lands of the Coburg-Eisenach dukes were divided between the Altenburgs and the Weimarsthe remaining brothers finally divided their lands which were twice the size of what they inherited.
William kept Weimar, Albert became Duke of Eisenach and Ernest "the Pious" became known as Duke of Gotha.
Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (1601-75) had married Elisabeth Sophie, the only child of John Philip, Duke of Altenburg(1597-1638). Elisabeth Sophie's cousin Frederick William III, Duke of Altenburg, died unmarried 1672. He was the last male descendant of the first Saxe-Altenburg line.
There was a big argument about who should get the Altenburg land. In the end most went to Ernest and Elisabeth Sophie's sons. One quarter the original Altenburglands went to the Saxe-Weimar branch.
These two lines: Weimar and Gotha(-Altenburg) form the basis of future Ernestine lines, and both have surviving male lineage up to today.
After the division of the first Altenburg lands line, the senior Ernestine branch (the Saxe-Weimar family ), line held just under half of the Ernestine lands, and the junior, Gotha-Altenburg, line held more than half. Gotha-Altenburg line divided more each generation. The Weimar line did not subdivide their land and by 1741 all of the land was controlled by the one branch of the Weimar family. In 1815 they became Grand Dukes.
Duke Ernest of Gotha and Duchess Elisabeth Sophie's numerous sons divided the inheritance into seven parts: Gotha-Altenburg, Coburg, Meiningen, Römhild, Eisenberg, Hildburghausen and Saalfeld. The new dukes of Coburg, Römhild and Eisenberg had no children, so their lands were quickly absorbed by the four remaining lines.
Eventually, primogeniture (that is, only the eldest son inherits) became the rule for inheritance in the Ernestine Duchies.
In 1825 the Ernestine duchies were
In 1825 Ernest the Pious' senior line, the Gotha-Altenburg, went extinct and the land was redistributed for the last time.
Altenburg went to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, but he gave Hildburghausen to the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen. The duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld gave up Saalfeld in return for Gotha.. All of the Ernestine Duchies ended with the abolition of the monarchy and princely states in Germany shortly after the end of World War I.
Five rulers of the Ernestine duchies
had a vote in the Holy Roman Empire’s Reichstag. In 1792 the Duke of Saxe-Weimar was also the Duke of Saxe-Eisenach, and the Duke of Saxe-Altenburg was also the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, so both had two votes; and the Duke of Saxe-Coburg had one vote.
The other Ernestine duchies were never members of the Imperial Circle, and were subordinate to the five duchies that did belong to the Imperial Circle (for example, the principalities of Meiningen and Hildburghausen were such; that was one reason why Duke of Hildburghausen exchanged his patrimony to that of Altenburg). Ultimately, in the German Confederation, all these became equally sovereign.
Kalpa could mean:
Sri Maha Bodhi
The Sri Maha Bodhi is a Sacred Fig tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. The site where it's on, Sacred City of Anuradhapura, is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
It is said to be a tree grown from a sapling from the famous Bodhi tree where the first Buddha became enlightened. It brought down by Mihindu (Mahinda) and Sanghamitta. It was planted in 288 BC. It is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date.
It was planted on a high terrace about above the ground. It is surrounded by railings to protect it. It is one of the most sacred objects of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, and respected by Buddhists all over the world.
Its wall was built during the reign of King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, to protect it from wild elephants which might have attacked the tree.
In the 3rd century BC, the Buddha's fig tree was brought to Sri Lanka by Sangamitta, daughter of Emperor Asoka and founder of an order of Buddhist nuns, in Sri Lanka.
In 280 BC, Jaya Siri Maha Bodhi was planted in the Mahamevnāwa Park in Anuradhapura by King Devanampiya Tissa.
List of children of the Presidents of the United States
This is a list of children of U.S. Presidents with stepchildren, adopted children, and alleged illegitimate children included. Full names are given including middle, maiden and married names. This list also includes the children's spouses and any known children they had and a “?” for an unknown number of children.
Presidential children have been studied individually, and as a group. As individuals, they are more often notable than most individuals: they know many political and social leaders and are part of the richer, upper classes. They are more likely to be viewed as a part of celebrity culture. Also, as individuals they frequently have significant influence on other notable family members. A child who may appear otherwise non-notable may have affected the parent's beliefs or performance.
"No children together. Martha's first husband, Daniel Parke Custis (October 15, 1711 – July 8, 1757), had four children, two of whom were still living at the time of her marriage to Washington (those who did not survive were Daniel Parke Custis, Jr. [November 19, 1751 – February 19, 1754] and Frances Parke Custis [April 12, 1753 – April 1, 1757]):"
"Martha's grandchildren who were raised by the Washingtons:"
"No children together, but raised Dolley's son from her first marriage"
"No biological children together, adopted two:"
"Also guardians of eight additional children including:"
"No natural children, but raised Polk's nephew as their ward:"
"After the death of James, Sarah was guardian of:"
"No children; served as guardian to two nieces:"
Dolores Hope
Dolores Hope (May 27, 1909 – September 19, 2011) was an American singer. She was the widow of Bob Hope.
Hope was born Dolores DeFina on May 27, 1909. She was of Italian and Irish ancestry. She was born and raised in New York City. She began her career in the 1930s.
In 1933, she met Bob Hope the first time in a Manhattan nightclub. They married in 1934. The couple adopted four children: Eleanora, Anthony, Linda and Kelly.
She and her husband entertained U.S. troops from the 1940s until the 1990s. Dolores Hope did this job over the time of a half century until the 1990s. In 1990, she was the only female entertainer who was allowed to go to Saudi Arabia.
She was often awarded for her work, for example with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and seven honorary Doctorates. A street was named after Dolores Hope in the Bronx.
She was with her husband as he turned 100. Shortly after, and 69 years after their marriage, Bob Hope died in summer of 2003 at age 100. On May 27, 2009, Dolores Hope celebrated her 100th birthday. She died on September 19, 2011.
Miranda (state)
Estado Miranda is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. The state capital is Los Teques.
Miranda State covers a total surface area of 7,950 km². It is the second largest state in population after Zulia Venezuela, approximately 3,028,965 (2011).
Miranda state is sub-divided into 21 municipalities. given below with their areas, populations and administrative seats:
El principal río del estado es el río Tuy. Nace a 2.100 m de altitud y recorre de 250 km. Otros ris del estado son: Guaire, Grande, Curiepe, Capaya, Guapo, Chupaquire, Panapo, Uchire, Chuspa and Aricagua.
In the state there are various gaps: Laguna de Tacarigua, Merecuere, Agua salud, El Conflicto y el Rosario.
Miranda (novel)
Miranda is a novel written by Antoni Lange in 1924. It is the last great work of Lange and his most famous book today. It is said that "Miranda" is an "occultic fiction" and a "romance ranked to a philosophical treaty". The novel is also known as a mix of dystopia and utopia.
The novel was translated into English (in 1968), French, Spanish and Italian.
The novel's title refers to the character Miranda, from Shakespeare's play "The Tempest". "Miranda" also has been influenced by work such as: "Men Like Gods" by Herbert George Wells; "The City of the Sun" by Tommaso Campanella; "Lenore" by Edgar Allan Poe,;"Genezis z Ducha" by Juliusz Słowacki; poems by Cyprian Kamil Norwid; writings of Friedrich Nietzsche (criticism of concept of the Übermensch); Arthur Schopenhauer; Plato; and Sanskrit epics of ancient India.