AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied. After confirming him in his satrapy, Alexander marched against the Sakas (Cheemas are considered to be decadents of the Sakas) and Kamboja highlanders of the Kunar also Swat valleys known in Greek texts as Aspasios and Assakenois (q.v.) and in Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana (names referring to their equestrian nature), who had refused to submit to Alexander. The "Ashvayan", "Ashvakayan", Kamboja and allied Saka clans offered tough resistance to the invader and fought him to a man. When worse came to worst, even the Ashvakayan women took up arms and joined their menfolk on the field, thus preferring "" a glorious death to a life of dishonor"".
Thereafter, Alexander marched east to the Hydaspes, where Porus, ruler of the kingdom between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Akesines (Chenab) refused to submit to him. The two armies fought the historic Battle of the Hydaspes River on the riverbank outside the town of Nikaia (near the modern city of Jhelum). Porus's army fought bravely but was no match for Alexander's. When the defiant Raja (though wounded and having lost his sons) was brought before Alexander, a legendary conversation took place in which Alexander inquired of Porus, "How should I treat you?", the brave Porus shot back, "The way a king treats another king." Alexander was struck by his spirit. He not only returned the conquered kingdom to Porus but added the land lying between the Akesines (Chenab) and the Hydraotis (Ravi), whose ruler had fled. Alexander's army crossed the Hydraotis and marched east to the Hesidros (Beas), but there his troops refused to march further east, and Alexander turned back, following the Jhelum and the Indus to the Arabian Sea, and sailing to Babylon.
In the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Yuezhi tribe of modern China moved westward into Central Asia, which, in turn, caused the Sakas (Scythians) to move west and south. The Northern Sakas, also known as the Indo-Scythians, moved first into Bactria, and later crossed the Hindu Kush into India, successfully wresting power from the Indo-Greeks. They were followed by the Yuezhi, who was known in India as the Kushans or Kushanas. The Kushanas founded a kingdom in the 1st century that lasted for several centuries. Both the Indo-Scythians and the Kushans embraced Buddhism, and absorbed elements of Indo-Greek art and culture into their own. Another Central Asiatic people to make Punjab their home were the Hephthalites (White Huns), who engaged in continuous campaigns from across the Hindu Kush, finally establishing their rule in India in the fifth century.
The "Chach Nama" is a romantic work influenced by the 13th-century history, not a historical text of the 8th-century, states Asif, a historian and professor at Columbia University in New York City of Pakistani origin.
Many Jatt/Cheema were oppressed by Hindu king Raja Dahir who ruled over Punjab where the majority of the population followed Buddhism (Ram Swarup Joon: "History of the Jats", Rohtak, India (1938, 1967)). The Jat made strong alliances with the Muslim Arabs and hailed the conquest of Muhammad bin Qasim an Arab general. Muhammad bin Qasim defeated the Hindu Raja Dahir in alliance with Jats and other Buddhist Rajas. On his arrival at the town of Brahmanabad, between six and sixteen thousand men died in the ensuing battle. Buddhists and the Jat, Meds and Bhutto tribes hailed him as a rescuer from tyranny at the hands of "Chach" and his kin (regarded as Cusurpers of the Rai Dynasty).
Historian Baladhuri records the local sentiments upon Qasim's recall,
“people of Hind wept for Qasim and preserved his likeness at Karaj”.
While the “Chach-Nama” notes the following as highlights of Qasim’s rule:
As the Chach-Nama is a non-reliable and non-contemporary source of history, it has no authenticity and it holds no historical value (According to Pakistani Origin historian Dr. Asif)
The rulers before Islam were: Siharus, Sahasi II, Chach, Dahir. The first two were Buddhist Jatt, and the last two were Hindu jatt. The new Brahmin rulers were not friendly to the many Buddhists in Sind at that time, and they were cruel to the Jats and Meds, who were most of the peasants. Bad conditions were put on the Jats and they lost many civil rights. "When Chach, the Brahmin chamberlain who usurped the throne of Chach King went to Brahmanabad, he enjoined upon the Jats and Lohanas not to carry swords, avoid velvet or silken cloth, ride horses without saddles and walk about bare-headed and bare-footed". It was because of this background that Muhammad bin Qasim received cooperation from the Buddhists as well as the Jats and Meds during his campaign in Sind ("An advanced history of India" by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar; Hemchandra Raychaudhuri; Kalikinkar Datta Delhi: Macmillan India, 1973).
In fact, he was hailed as a deliverer by several sections of the local population. The position of the Buddhists in Sind seeking support from outside can be read in the Chach Nama.
Mohammad Bin Qasim came as a deliverer for the ancient tribes of Jats and Meds and he defeated the oppressing King of Sindh. From then the war between Buddhists and Hindus saw another contender whose future followers of the monotheistic Islamic faith would change the history of India forever.
The Cheema clan hold the largest number of Political seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan and Senate of Pakistan in Punjab, Dr. Nisar Ahmad Cheema from NA-79 leads the Cheemas in the national assembly today, His ancestors have done so over the past 6 decades.
This Cheema family has been and still is the largest and the most powerful family, belonging to Wazirabad, this family has had a large number of Civil servants, Judges, Police officials, Federal Ministers, and Provincial Ministers, and even a President of Pakistan. In the current generation, IG Police Zulfiqar Ahmad Cheema has gained nationwide popularity and is regarded as the best cop the country has ever produced. Many Cheemas have immigrated, establishing successful careers in aid agencies, and armies amongst other professionals. Cheema has a very strong political control in many districts such as Gujranwala. Cheema is the owner of many rice and floor mills such as Ghulam Haider Cheema from Aroop used to have the biggest rice and floor business in Pakistan.
Late Sardar (Captain) Autar Singh Cheema was first Pakistan-born but an Indian national to climb the highest peak of the world Mount Everest on 20th May 1965. He belonged to and after retiring from active service in the Indian army lived in his ancestral village at Chak Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan India.
Many Cheemas have now settled in England after participating in both WW1 and WW2 Indian army for British forces. Mostly misled for thinking they would get the freedom of India at the end of the world, which was not. Approximately 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War One - and more than 74,000 of them lost their lives.
The Cheema Clan located in Nurmahal (Cheema Kalan and Cheema Kurd) is situated on the lands of former Noor Jahan (The Persian Queen) the twentieth and last wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The Queen's secret underground passageways are located on the Cheema land now. Most of the Cheema lands located in Nurmahal were gifted to the Cheema clan for their bravery, hard work, and centuries of dedication in the Indian Armed forces and Navy.
Cheema Clans are found World Wide now including; America, Canada, England, and Australia
The Udyogaparava of the Mahabharata "(5/19/21-23)" tells us that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas, and Shakas participated in the Mahabharata war under the command of Sudakshina Kamboja. The epic repeatedly says this composite army was very fierce and wrathful.
Mahabharata, too similarly groups the Shakas with the Kambojas and Yavanas and states that they were original noble Kshatriyas but got degraded to "vrishala" status on account of their non-observance of the sacred Brahmanical codes.
Manusmriti places the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Paradas and labels them all as degraded Kshatriyas (Holy Warriors) defying the Brahmanical codes and rituals.
In the "Puranas Darada" the Jatt sub-tribes have been called degrading terms such as Rakshasas (demons) not having darshan of the Brahmin.
Cheema is most numerous in the Amritsar district. There are also 42 villages in the Patiala district. According to Cunningham, this area used to be called "Chima des" ("Des" or "Desh," in the Hindustani language and Punjabi language, which means "country"). Many people settled in Montgomery (Sahiwal) and Sandal Bar when the British ruled Punjab because of the construction of a large canal network in these areas. The Cheema also have few villages scattered across Rawalpindi, Bhawalpur, Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, NurMahal or Noor Mahal, Moga, Ludhiana, and Sangrur.
In the western Punjab plains, Cheema communities are not generally found past "Chaj Doab". In the eastern Punjab plains, they are not were found past the Sangrur district, until 1947, when many Sikh Cheemas moved from Sialkot and Gujranwala to settle in Village Chak 4e Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan Patiala, Karnal, and Sirsa after the partition of the Punjab. Some families also moved afterward Udhamsingh nagar(Uttrakhand), Pilibhit, Puranpur, and Rampur (Utter Pradesh). This region is called Mini Punjab and the Terai Region.
In Pakistan, Sialkot and Gujranwal districts both have large Cheema populations with many Cheema villages, such as Chak 4e in Sri Ganganagar (Raj) Begowal, Verowala Cheema Jamke Cheema, Tajokay Cheema, Adamkay Cheema, Bhopalwala, Nishterabad,(Nishterabad village have only one family of Cheema Named Nazar Mohamad Cheema) Sahowala, Kamalpur, Manpur, and Lodikay Cheema, and in Gujranwal, Baddokey Cheema,chak beg, Kot Inayat Khan,Delawar Cheema, Saroki Cheema, Bharoki Cheema,Varoki Cheema,Mansorwali Cheema, Ratti Thatt, Bankay Cheema, Kathor, Kalay Wala, Kheway Wali, Wadala Cheema, Phaloki Cheema, Marday Ki, and Chabba Cheema. In Rawalpindi district, there is a village near Gujar Khan which is named Sui Cheemian and it has a substantial population of Cheema's.
In southern Punjab, Bahawalpur and Yazman have considerable numbers of Cheema families, in great enough numbers that the area elects more than a dozen cabinet members.
In India, the Rupnagar and Mohali districts of the Punjab state have large Cheema populations with many Cheema villages, such as Salora.
K2 is the second highest mountain in the world, at . It is also known as Mount Godwin-Austen or Chhogori. K2 is part of the Karakoram range. It is located partly in China and partly in Pakistan but India also claims it due to the Kashmir conflict. The name K2 came from the first survey of Karakoram. At that time, the surveyors gave each mountain a simple label of "K" followed by a number.
K2 is known as the "Savage Mountain" as it is very hard to climb. It is considered to be harder to climb than Mount Everest. K2 has the second-highest fatality rate among the eight-thousand-metre mountains. One person dies for every four who reach the top. As of 2011, only 300 people have climbed to the top of the mountain. At least 80 people have died trying to climb it. K2 has never been climbed during the winter.
The summit was first reached in 1954, by Italian climbers Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni.
The name K2 was first used by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of British India. Thomas Montgomerie made the first survey of the Karakoram range. He did so from Mount Haramukh which is to the south. At the time he sketched the two most prominent peaks, and called them K1 and K2.
The policy of the Great Trigonometrical Survey was to use local names for mountains when possible. K1 had the local name of Masherbrum which was soon used. K2, however, appeared not to have a local name. This may have been due to its remoteness. It is not visible from Askole, the last village to the south, or from the nearest village to the north. It is believed few local people would have gone to where it could be seen. The name "Chogori", from two Balti words, "chhogo" ("big") and "ri" ("mountain") (چھوغوری) has been suggested as a local name. There is not much evidence for its widespread use, however. It may have been invented by Western explorers. It does form the basis for the name "Qogir" () which the Chinese government uses as the official name of the mountain.
As the mountain did not have a local name, the name "Mount Godwin-Austen" was suggested. This was in honor of Henry Godwin-Austen who had been an early explorer of the area. While the name was rejected by the Royal Geographical Society, it was used on several maps and is still used once in a while.
The label K2 is still the name by which the mountain is commonly known. It is now also used in the Balti language, rendered as "Kechu" or "Ketu". The Italian climber Fosco Maraini stated that while the name K2 came by chance, is was good for the mountain. He said:
The mountain was first surveyed by a European team in 1856. Team member Thomas Montgomerie called the mountain K2. The other mountains were originally named K1, K3, K4, and K5, but were later changed to use local names. In 1892, Martin Conway led a British expedition that made it to the Baltoro Glacier.
The first real attempt to climb K2 was in 1902 by an Anglo-Swiss expedition. It took fourteen days for them to reach the foot of the mountain. After five attempts the team only made it to .
The next expedition was in 1909. It was led by the Italian Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi. This team made it only to an elevation of on the South East Spur of the mountain. After looking for and not finding other routes, the Duke said that K2 would never be climbed.
The next attempt was not made until 1938. At that time, American Charles Houston took an expedition to the mountain. They decided that the Abruzzi Spur was the best route and made it to a height of around .
In 1939, an American expedition led by Fritz Wiessner came within of the summit. It ended in disaster when four members died on the mountain.
Charles Houston tried again in 1953. The try was a failure due to a storm which trapped the team for 10 days at . One climber died in the expedition. Many others nearly died in a mass fall but were saved by Pete Schoening.
Finally, in 1954, an Italian expedition made it to the summit. It was lead by geologist Ardito Desio. The two climbers to reach the top were Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni, at 6pm on 31 July 1954. One member of the expedition (Colonel Muhammad Ata-ullah of Pakistan) had been part of the 1953 American attempt as well. Other members were scientists, a doctor, a photographer, and others. Mario Puchoz died in the attempt. Two other members had to be hospitalized and one had to have his toes amputated due to frostbite.
The second success was not until 23 years after the first. It was a Japanese expedition lead by Ichiro Yoshizawa in 1977.
The third success was in 1978, and used a different route from the first two. This one was done by an American team, lead by James Whittaker.
Another notable success was in 1982, when a Japanese team climbed from the harder Chinese side of the mountain. The previous successes had been from the Pakistan side. The expedition was lead by Isao Shinkai and Masatsugo Konishi. Three members of the team made it to the summit on 14 August. One of them, however, died on when coming down. Four other members made it to the summit the next day, on 15 August.
The first person to reach the summit twice was Czech climber Josef Rakoncaj. He was part of a 1983 Italian expedition that made the summit. Then three years later he made the summit again as part of an international expedition.
The first woman to reach the summit was Polish climber Wanda Rutkiewicz in 1986. Two other women reached the summit later that same day, but died when coming down.
In 2004, the Spanish climber Carlos Soria Fontán became the oldest person ever to summit K2, at the age of 65.
In 2018, Polish climber Andrzej Bargiel became the first person to ski down K2 after he made it to the top.
In addition to these notable successes, about 300 people have climbed to the top of the mountain.
Even though the summit of Everest is higher, K2 is a much more difficult and dangerous climb. This is in part due to its worse weather. It is believed by many to be the world's most difficult and dangerous climb. This is what lead to the nickname "the Savage Mountain". Only about 300 people have made it to the top. This is much less than the 5,600 who have made it to the top of Everest. At least 80 (as of September 2010) people have died attempting the climb.
While some have tried to climb K2 during the winter, none have yet had success.
Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted into useful energy in a cell. During respiration, energy is released in a form that can be used by cells. All living things respire. Both plant and animal cells use the process of respiration to release energy from glucose.
There are two types of respiration. One is aerobic respiration and the other is anaerobic respiration. This type of respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen Here oxygen is utilised to break down the food (glucose) to release high amount of energy this is called aerobic respiration. This type of respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen. During respiration in yeast and bacteria, oxygen is not involved in the oxidation of food. Food (glucose) is broken down into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide this is called anaerobic respiration.
Some use oxygen to break down glucose completely into CO (Carbon dioxide) and HO (Water).
See these (in this order) for an outline of the biochemistry of aerobic respiration:
Kingsley Amis
Sir Kingsley William Amis (16 April 1922 – 22 October 1995) was an English novelist, poet, critic, and teacher. He wrote more than twenty novels, three collections of poetry, short stories, radio and television scripts, and books of social and literary criticism. He was the father of the British novelist Martin Amis.
Kingsley Amis was born in Clapham, South London, England. He went to school at the City of London School and St. John's College, Oxford. At Oxford, he met Philip Larkin and became friends. Amis served in the Royal Corps of Signals in the Second World War.
Amis was a fan of jazz music. He liked the American musicians Sidney Bechet, Henry "Red" Allen and Pee Wee Russell.
His first novel "Lucky Jim" was very successfull. The novel won the Somerset Maugham Award for fiction. "Lucky Jim" was the first English novel that focused on an ordinary man as anti-hero. As a poet, Amis was a part of The Movement (anti-romantic poetry).
As a young man, Kingsley Amis was a member of the Communist Party. He left them when the Soviet Union invaded Hungary in 1956. After that, Amis became anti-communist, and conservative. He talks about his political change in the essay "Why Lucky Jim Turned Right" (1967).
Amis was an atheist. Novels such as "The Green Man" and "The Anti-Death League" were about the personality of a divine being. They were also about its relationship to death and dying.
Amis's novel "The Old Devils" won the Booker Prize in 1986. He received a knighthood in 1990.
Amis was married. The first time in 1948 to Hilary Bardwell and then to novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard in 1965. He divorced Howard in 1983. Amis spent his last years living with his first wife and her third husband. He had two sons and a daughter. His younger son was novelist Martin Amis. Martin wrote about his father's life and decline in his memoir "Experience".
Amis' interest in science fiction led to "New Maps of Hell" (1960). It was about how he felt about science fiction in literature. He liked the stories of Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth. With the Sovietologist Robert Conquest, Amis produced the science fiction series "Spectrum" I–IV. This series got a lot of its ideas from the 1950s magazine "Astounding Science Fiction". He wrote three science fiction novels. "The Alteration" was an alternate history novel set in a twentieth-century Britain. "Russian Hide-and-Seek" was an alternate history where Russia had conquered Britain after the Second World War. He also wrote the supernatural-horror novel "The Green Man" which the BBC adapted for television.
Amis wrote books about Ian Fleming's James Bond. He wrote the popular "James Bond Dossier". Later, he wrote, "The Book of Bond, or, Every Man His Own 007". It was a tongue-in-cheek how-to manual about being a spy like Bond. He wrote it under the name "Lt Col. William 'Bill' Tanner". Tanner was M's Chief of Staff in many of the Bond novels.
69 is a year in the 1st century.
340s
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand II the Catholic (, 10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516) was king of Aragon (1479–1516), Castile, Sicily (1468–1516), Naples (1504–1516), Valencia, Sardinia and Navarre and Count of Barcelona. His marriage to Isabella of Castile unified most of the Iberian Peninsula as Spain and started its move to become a great power.
Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon by his second wife, the Aragonese noblewoman Juana Enriquez. He married Infanta Isabella, the sister by a different mother of Henry IV of Castile, on 19 October 1469 in Ocaña. He became Ferdinand V of Castile when Isabella succeeded her brother as Queen of Castile in 1474. The two young monarchs had to begin with a civil war against Juana, princess of Castile (also known as Juana la Beltraneja), who claimed to be the daughter of Henry IV. They won. Ferdinand succeeded his father as King of Aragon in 1479. This meant the Crown of Castile and the various territories of the Crown of Aragon were united in a personal union. For the first time since the 8th century this created a single political unit which might be called Spain, although the various territories were not properly administered as a single unit until the 18th century.
The first decades of Ferdinand and Isabella's joint rule were taken up with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim enclave in the Iberian peninsula. This was completed by 1492 and then the Jews were expelled from both Castile and Aragon. The royal couple sent Christopher Columbus on his expedition which discover the New World. By the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the extra-European world was split between the crowns of Portugal and Castile by a north-south line through the Atlantic Ocean.
Ferdinand was busy in the last decades of his life with the so-called Italian Wars. He was fighting with the Kings of France for control of Italy. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled Ferdinand's cousin, Alfonso II, from the throne of Naples. Ferdinand's alliance with various Italian princes and with Emperor Maximilian I, expelled the French by 1496 and installed Alfonso's son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne. In 1501, following the death of Ferdinand II of Naples and his succession by his uncle Frederick, Ferdinand of Aragon signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII. Louis had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, and they agreed to partition Naples between them, with Campania and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and Calabria. The agreement soon fell apart, and over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba conquered Naples from the French, by 1504. Another less famous "conquest" took place in 1502, when Andreas Paleologus, de jure Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, left Ferdinand and Isabella as heirs to the empire, thus Ferdinand became de jure Roman Emperor.
After Isabella's death, her kingdom went to her daughter Joanna. Ferdinand served as the latter's regent during her absence in the Netherlands, ruled by her husband Archduke Philip. Ferdinand attempted to retain the regency permanently, but was rebuffed by the Castilian nobility and replaced with Joanna's husband, who became Philip I of Castile. After Philip's death in 1506, with Joanna mentally unstable, and her and Philip's son Charles of Ghent only six years old, Ferdinand resumed the regency, ruling through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros, the Chancellor of the Kingdom.
In 1508, war resumed in Italy, this time against Venice. All the other powers on the peninsula, including Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II joined together against as the League of Cambrai. Although the French were victorious against Venice at the Battle of Agnadello, the League soon fell apart, as both the Pope and Ferdinand became suspicious of French intentions. Instead, the Holy League was formed, in which all the powers now joined together against France.
In November 1511 Ferdinand and his son-in-law Henry VIII of England signed the Treaty of Westminster, pledging mutual aid between the two against France. Earlier that year, Ferdinand had conquered the southern half of the Kingdom of Navarre, which was ruled by a French nobleman, and annexed it to Spain. At this point to reinforce his claim to the kingdom, Ferdinand remarried with the much younger Germaine of Foix (1490–1538), a granddaughter of Queen Leonor of Navarre. The Holy League was generally successful in Italy, as well, driving the French from Milan, which was restored to its Sforza dukes by the peace treaty in 1513. The French were successful in reconquering Milan two years later, however.
Ferdinand died in 1516 in Madrigalejo, Cáceres, Extremadura. He had made Spain the most powerful country in Europe. The succession of his grandson Charles, who inherited not only the Spanish lands of his maternal grandparents, but the Habsburg and Burgundian lands of his paternal family, would make his heirs the most powerful rulers on the continent. Charles succeeded him in the Aragonese lands, and was also granted the Castilian crown jointly with his insane mother, bringing about at long last the unification of the Spanish thrones under one head.
Ferdinand and Isabella had 5 children, Isabella of Asturias, Juan of Aragon, Joanna of Castile, Maria of Aragon, and Catherine of Aragon. Joanna and Catherine married with several European dynasties, setting the bases for the huge heritage of their grandson Charles V. His granddaughter was Queen Mary I of England.
Web 2.0 () is what people call new ways of showing or using things on the Internet.
Web 2.0 is considered beneficial because it is easy for people to publish their work, connect with other people, and share and exchange information.
To people who use the Internet, wikis and blogs are Web 2.0. Web 2.0 is mostly about user-generated and interactive content.
Before Web 2.0, Internet users could just read information on web pages. With Web 2.0, users can interact with the site and add information. In Web 1.0, the previous version, information was only written by the website author.
The Internet technology which is used for web 2.0 is not different from the old Internet technology, but the ways people use the web (the Internet) has changed.
Some people think that Wikipedia is a great example of "Web 2.0". Many other famous websites, such as Facebook and Youtube, are considered Web 2.0 Websites.
The Broons
The Broons is a comic strip in the Scottish newspaper The Sunday Post. It is about a Scottish family with 11 members.
The strip is written in Scots.
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman civilization. According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in . It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown. This began the Roman Republic.
The Roman Republic was a civilization ahead of its time and very advanced. The Roman people elected "Consuls", who ruled for about a year. Many of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.
The Republic got most of its wealth from trading and taxation. The Republic had few enemies but it was constantly on war with the Gauls, who were conquered by Caesar later. The Punic Wars against Carthage were fought all over the Mediterranean coasts, mainly because of Sicily and trade disputes. The third enemy being the Germanic tribes or simply barbarians (uncivilized people).
The Republic suffered many disasters including Spartacus (the leader of a slave revolt) Spartacus defeated one consul's army before being captured, the Republic suffered at the hands of Hannibal, who after crossing the Alps defeated the Roman Army at Cannae and many other battles which saw Rome with a great fear of being destroyed by Hannibal.
The end of the Republic is still a matter of dispute; different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. (The Triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power)
The end of the Republic is often said to be when Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate. This happened after a series of civil wars that lasted from about 49 BC to the year 44 BC.
Some people say the Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. They both had been in the Second Triumvirate. It was fought on 2 September 31 BC. Octavian won. Later on, he was proclaimed Roman Emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first "Augustus" by the Senate. This was on 16 January 27 BC.
These are modern views though. In the view of the early emperors, the "Res Publica" (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed. It was simply "under their protection". They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form. This never happened, and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different, distinct periods of the history of Rome.
First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate is the name most historians give to the political alliance between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). They made it in 60 BC to give each other power. Each person helped the others to be more powerful.
Caesar was able to gain money from Crassus to finance his public works campaign. He also gained military power from Pompey's loyal legions. Crassus, who was much envied and hated for his wealth and the means he used to attain it, was also able to gain popularity from Pompey as well as Caesar who had a loyal following in the plebeian class. Pompey was grateful to Caesar for his support against slander in the senate. Caesar's speeches in the senate were in favor of giving the newly conquered land to Pompey's returned legions. Pompey and Crassus ended their old grudge that dated back to the Third Servile War because they realised the advantages they allowed each other. To cement the Triumvirate, Crassus told Caesar's numerous debt holders that he would pay Caesar's loans if Caesar defaulted. Pompey married Caesar's only child, Julia. The Triumvirate lasted until Crassus' death in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
Caesar and Pompey started fighting. Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.
Second Triumvirate
The Second Triumvirate was an alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. It was formed to punish the conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar.
The Triumvirate lasted from 43 BC to 33 BC. It ended the effort by Marcus Tullius Cicero to make the Senate once again the top body of the Republic. From then on Rome was ruled by an Emperor.
The Triumvirate army, led by Octavian and Mark Antony, defeated the Conspirators' army led by Cassius and Brutus. The war ended with the Battle of Philippi in Roman Macedonia in 42 BC. Cassius and Brutus committed suicide and the remainder of their army joined the Triumvirate forces.
Occam's razor (or Ockham's razor) is a principle from philosophy. Suppose an event has two possible explanations. The explanation that requires the fewest assumptions is usually correct. Another way of saying it is that the more assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely an explanation. Occam's razor applies especially in the philosophy of science, but also appears in everyday life.
William of Ockham, a Franciscan friar who studied logic in the 14th century, first made this principle well known. In Latin it is sometimes called lex parsimoniae, or "the law of briefness". William of Ockham supposedly (see below) wrote it in Latin:
This translates roughly:
This means if there are several possible ways something might have happened, the way which uses the fewest guesses is probably the correct one. However, Occam's razor only applies when the simple explanation and complex explanation both work equally well. If a more complex explanation does a better job than a simpler one, then you should use the complex explanation.
A problem with Occam's razor is that the sentence is not really about things ("entia" = entities), but about explanations or hypotheses. Other thinkers have come up with other versions:
In science, Occam's razor is used as an heuristic (general guiding rule or an observation) to guide scientists.
Example: Two trees have fallen down during a windy night. Think about these two possible explanations:
Even though both are possible, several other unlikely things would also need to happen for the meteorites to have knocked the trees down, for example: they would have to hit each other and not leave any marks. In addition, meteorites are fairly rare. Since this second explanation needs several assumptions to all be true, it is probably the wrong answer. Occam's razor tells us the wind blew the trees down, because this is the simplest answer therefore probably the right one.
Example: A person is standing on the top of a roof and dropping a feather. In calculating how long it takes for the feather to reach the ground, to make the maths simpler, one might make an assumption: that the effect of air resistance can be ignored. This assumption makes the problem simpler, but is unlikely to lead to a good prediction as to the time it will take for the feather to fall. Thus, making the assumption that air resistance can be ignored is in this case not the "simplest" in concept, but the simplest in other respects (in this case, the maths). "Not" making the assumption here "is" the "simplest" in concept because it involves making fewer assumptions.
Occam's razor also comes up in medicine. When there are many explanations for symptoms, the simplest diagnosis is the one to test first. If a child has a runny nose, it probably has the common cold rather than a rare birth defect. Medical students are often told, "When you hear hoof beats, think horses, not zebras".
Turbofolk
Turbofolk or Pop-folk is a style of music from the Balkans that was invented in the early 1990s. It mostly comes from Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, but it is also popular in other nearby countries. It sounds like a mix of Arabic-style singing (in the Serbian language) with electronic music and rock music.
Turbofolk is sometimes associated with the recent Balkan wars and the Breakup of Yugoslavia but it is still popular.
Bérurier Noir
Bérurier Noir are a French punk band which formed in Paris in 1983. It is made up of Loran (guitar), François (vocals) and Dede (drum machine). In 1985 Masto joined, playing the saxophone. They sing about French politics and anarchism. They are one of the most famous French punk bands.
Roman Britain ("Britannia") was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410.
The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic. He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire.
Their capital was taken over by the Romans. Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain. The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century.
In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were:
The "II Augusta" was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. The other three legions were also led by high-ranking men.
The invasion was one of the most significant events in British history. After the revolt of Boudica there was usually peace and a process of full "romanization" started successfully in southeast Britain.
The Romans considered Britannia as a single territory and administratively they divided the huge island in five provinces: "Britannia prima" (capital London), "Britannia secunda", "Flavia Caesariensis", "Maxima Caesariensis" and "Valentia". It seems that they have created also a sixth province -during Agricola conquest- in Caledonia, called "Vespasiana".
Roman legions left in 410 AD after almost four centuries, and the administration of the country was taken over by prominent local chieftains. This was known as Sub-Roman Britain, with a Romano-British culture and the people may have used a Latin-based language. It lasted for more than two centuries but gave way to an increasingly Anglo-Saxon England by the start of the seventh century.
Roman technology made its impact in road building and the construction of villas, forts and cities. During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads. They were used in later centuries, and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and sewage systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London ("Londinium"), Manchester ("Mamucium") and York ("Eboracum"), were founded by the Romans.
There was no writing in Britain before the Romans. They introduced it and, when they left, writing only survived with the help of religion.
The British were skilled in the arts, and produced ornamental jewellery and pottery which was exported to Europe. They built defensive structures such as hill forts. They were proficient in warfare with spears, bows and arrows. Small round stones found in such sites indicate the use of slings or catapults.
To keep Roman control, forts and garrisons were built throughout Britain, and the existing roads improved. The local people had to maintain the Roman roads in Britain, and got tax relief for their efforts.
Roman roads allowed for troop movements and the distribution of supplies. The forts and garrisons needed food and other services. Vast areas produced these goods. For example, the often flooded Somerset levels was like a huge market garden that provided supplies for the garrisons at Exeter, Gloucester, Bath and the forts in between. Local fishermen supplied fresh fish, and farmers reared sheep, pigs, cattle and poultry for the garrisons.
Missionaries from Gaul began to introduce Christianity to the West country. Before the end of the first century AD they had a Church of Celtic Christianity. This spread such that by the mid second century much of Cornwall, Devon, Western Dorset, and South Somerset had adopted Christianity. The spread of Christianity continued eastward and strongly northward into Wales through the next two centuries, especially after the adoption of Christianity by Rome. The Romans had built shrines and temples to their pagan gods and continued to patronize these, even after the adoption of Christianity by Rome.
990 is a year in the 10th century.
Bixente Lizarazu
Bixente Lizarazu (born 9 December 1969) is a former French football player. He is one of the most successful football players in the world. He won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and the European Football Championship in 2000. He has also won the UEFA Champions League (2001) and was champion of the Bundesliga (both with Bayern Munich) five times in a six-year period (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005).
Lizarazu was born in Saint-Jean-de Luz, a small village in Basque region of France, in 1969. His first club was Eglantins Hendaje (1977-1989). He then went to Girondins Bordeaux (1989-1996). After playing for Bordeaux, he played for the Spanish club Athletic Bilbao (1996-1997) before he went to Bayern Munich (1997-2005). For a six months, he played for Olympique Marseille (2004). He ended his career in 2005.
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Shetland (or the Shetland Islands) is an archipelago, the furthest out part of Scotland in the United Kingdom.
The islands are between the Faroe Islands and the Orkney Islands. They are about 50 miles to the northeast of the Orkney Islands. They are about 100 islands in the group. People live on 16 of them.
The islands form part of the boundary between the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the North Sea to the east.
The largest islands of the group are Mainland, Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, and Bressay. In general, the climate of the group is subarctic, and rather bleak.
They used to be called Hjaltland or Zetland. Today, the islands are part of Scotland. The administrative centre is Lerwick.
The economy of the islands is largely based on agriculture. The sheep are known for their fine wool. Other well-known exports are the Shetland ponies and Shetland Sheepdog.
In 1969 crude oil was discovered near the islands, leading to an alternative source of income for them.
By the end of the 9th century the Norsemen shifted from plundering to invasion, mainly due to the overpopulation of Scandinavia in comparison to resources and arable land available there.
Shetland was colonised by Norsemen in the 9th century. The fate of the native population is unknown. The colonisers established their laws and language. That language evolved into the West Nordic language Norn, which survived into the 19th century.
After Harald Finehair took control of all Norway, many of his opponents fled, some to Orkney and Shetland. From the Northern Isles they continued to raid Scotland and Norway, prompting Harald Hårfagre to raise a large fleet which he sailed to the islands. In about 875 he and his forces took control of Shetland and Orkney. Ragnvald, Earl of Møre received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son's being killed in battle in Scotland. Ragnvald gave the earldom to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.
Shetland was Christianised in the 10th century. In the Treaty of Perth in 1266 the Norwegian king surrendered his furthest British islands to Scotland. They included the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. In return, the Scots recognised Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland. The islands did not become Scottish until the 15th century, and were ratified by an Act of Parliament in 1669.
For three centuries the Shetlanders sold their fish (salted cod) through the German Hanseatic League, a trading organisation. This arrangement lasted from 1400 to 1700 AD.
In WWII Shetland was active in covert operations against the Germans in Norway. The 'Shetland Bus' (fishing vessels) sailed in covert operations between Norway and Shetland. They carried intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. Many people on the run from the Germans, and much important information on German activity in Norway, were brought back to the Allies this way.
In the early 1970s, oil and gas were found off Shetland. The East Shetland Basin is one of the largest petroleum sedimentary basins in Europe. Sullom Voe terminal opened in 1978 and is the largest oil export harbour in the United Kingdom with a volume of 25 million tons per year.
Firm geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit Shetland, as well as the rest of the east coast of Scotland, and may have washed over some of the Shetland Islands completely.
Shetland has been populated since at least 3400 BC. The early people subsisted on cattle-farming and agriculture. During the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the climate cooled and the population moved to the coast. During the Iron Age, many stone fortresses were erected, some ruins of which remain today.
Due to the practice of building in stone on the virtually tree-less islands, Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of all these periods, though Shetland is less rich in material remains than Orkney.
The artifacts of all the eras of Shetland's past can be studied at the newly built (2007) Shetland Museum in Lerwick.
Salt evaporation pond
A Salt evaporation pond (or saltern pond) is a man-made shallow pond. Usually it is located near the sea. The ponds can be filled with salt water. The water is then left to evaporate. The salt is left behind, and can be harvested. Such ponds also provide a habitat for several kinds of animals. Most of these animals are birds.
The color tells how much salt there is left in the water. Green colors come from special algae. These algae are there in low to mid salinity ponds (ponds with little salt in the water). In middle to high salinity ponds, an alga called Dunaliella salina shifts the color to red. Millions of tiny brine shrimp create an orange cast in mid-salinity ponds. Other bacteria such as Stichococcus also contribute tints. These colors are especially interesting to airplane passengers or astronauts passing above due to their somewhat artistic formations of shape and color.
Salinity is a scientific term. Scientists use it to tell how much salt there is in water. Salinity is measured by the amount of sodium chloride found in 1,000 grams of water, if there is 1 gram of sodium chloride in 1,000 grams of water solution it is 1 part per thousand. This is written as 1‰.
Food preservation is about the ways and means which help to preserve food. Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated. For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later. The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples. The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together.
Food is spoiled because microorganisms change it. There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
Usually several of the techniques are combined.
Common ways of preserving food are:
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time. For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine. Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar. Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar. Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.
Clapham Junction railway station
Clapham Junction railway station is a train station in Battersea in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is on St. John's Hill in the south west of Battersea.
All services to Waterloo and many services to Victoria and Croydon stations pass through the junction; these include South West Trains, Gatwick Express and Southern services. Services from Clapham Junction also head north along the West London line, through West Brompton and Kensington (Olympia), on to Willesden Junction and Watford Junction - services (to Willesden Junction) are operated by London Overground.
Typical off-peak service of about 110 trains (one train every 30 seconds) is:
The station has 16 platforms, numbered 2 to 17, and arranged in two groups. Platform 1, the northernmost platform, is no longer used. It does not have any rails. If the planned East London Line extension gets to Clapham Junction, the platform may be used again.
The station's main entrance is from St. John's Hill, into a foot tunnel which is 15 ft (4.6 m) wide. It runs under the eastern end of the 17 platforms, and to a northern exit, which has restricted opening hours. The foot tunnel becomes very crowded during the morning and evening rush hours, and ticket barriers at the end of the tunnel are a particular pinch point.
A covered footbridge connects the platforms at their western end. The footbridge does not have an exit to or from the station.
The station is named Clapham Junction because it is close to the joining point of a number of major rail lines—although the name is not shared by any junction near the station. The names of the nearby rail junctions are:
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency": ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism.