AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Manco Capac founded the first Inca state around 1200. It covered the area around Cusco. In the 1400s, Pachacuti began to absorb other people in the Andes. The expansion of the Inca Empire had started. The Inca Empire would become the biggest empire in the Americas before Columbus.
In 1532, the civil war ended. The brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, fought for who would succeed their father. During this time, the Spanish conquerors took possession of the Inca territory. They were led by Francisco Pizarro. In the following years the conquistadors managed to extend their power over the whole Andean region. They suppressed successive Inca rebellions until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542 and the fall of the resistance of the last Incas of Vilcabamba in 1572. The Inca civilization ends at that time, but many cultural traditions remain in some ethnic groups as Quechuas and Aymara people.
Ancient Egypt and Carthage are well known civilizations of ancient Africa. But because there are not many written sources in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, the history of Africa is not easy to write about. But with new techniques such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics and archeology knowledge has improved, not only for the empires and kingdoms of Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Nubia, Kush and Kerma.
Colonization happened after Christopher Columbus came to the Americas. European countries such as England, France, and Spain built colonies in the Americas. These settlers fought the Native Americans to take over their land. The colonisation of the Americas was the beginning of modern times.
An important part about contact with the Americas was the Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange brought new foods, ideas, and diseases to the Old World and New World, changing the way people lived. Historians believe that almost everyone as far as Asia was affected in some way by the Columbian Exchange.
Protestant Reformation started with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 theses on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. At first he protested against corruption such as simony or the sale of indulgences. But then it became clear that he had different ideas about the church doctrine. He thought that Christians should only read the Bible to find out what God wants from them. That meant that they did not need priests (see: Five solas). The three most important traditions that came directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions.
The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the Catholic Church fighting the Protestant Reformation. New religious orders, such as the Jesuits were founded and missionaries sent around the world. Decisions were taken at the Council of Trent (1545–1563).
The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain. It brought many advances in the way goods were produced. These advances allowed people to produce much more than they needed for living. The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish a representative government.
The French Revolution lead to massive political change in continental Europe, as people following the ideas of Enlightenment asked for human rights with the slogan "liberté, egalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity). That led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, but also to terror and the execution of King Louis XVI. The French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and changed Europe through war up to 1815. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861. The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany became unified in 1870 and 1871. Conflict spread across the globe, in a chase for empires. The search for a "place in the sun" ended with the outbreak of World War I. In the desperation of war, the Russian Revolution promised the people "peace, bread and land". The defeat of Germany came at the price of economic destruction, which was written down in the Treaty of Versailles.
From 1644 to 1912 the Qing or "Manchu Dynasty" ruled China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan in northeast China (Manchuria). It expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories, establishing the "Empire of the Great Qing".
Its military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. It was overthrown in 1912.
During the Edo period, Japan had many small rulers. There were about 200 of them, called the daimyo. Out of them, the Tokugawa clan was most powerful. They ruled from a place called Edo. This place was around the present day’s Tokyo. For fifteen generations they were the most powerful clan in Japan.
Beginning from the early 17th century, the rulers (known as shogunate) started a policy of seclusion (stopping some people coming in), known as sakoku in Japanese language. They suspected that traders, merchants and missionaries wanted to bring Japan under the control of European powers. Except the Dutch and the Chinese, all foreigners, traders and merchants from other countries, missionaries were no longer allowed into Japan.
Still even during the period of seclusion, Japanese continued to gain information and knowledge about other parts of the world.
This policy of seclusion lasted for about 200 years. It ended 1868 with Meiji Restoration, when the emperor took over again and started a lot of reforms.
The Mughal Empire existed from 1526 to 1857. When it was biggest it ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of what is now Afghanistan. It was founded by Babur in 1526 and ruled until 1530. Its most important ruler was Akbar (1556–1605). After the death of Aurangjeb (1658–1707), the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1857. By that time, India came under the British Raj.
Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas, it meant genocide of the native Indians. The Spanish gained control of most of the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs. So they founded the Spanish Empire in the New World.
The first successful English settlements were in North America at Jamestown (Virginia), 1607 (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (Massachusetts), 1620. The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608). The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the Native Americans lifestyle. Plantation slavery of the West Indies lead to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.
Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass. The American Revolution led to the creation of the United States of America. Spain's hold on its colonies weakened till it had to give them independence.
The United States expanded quickly to the west. At the same time, British built more in Canada.
During the 15th century the Portuguese began exploring Africa. At the Guinea coast they built their first fort in 1482. They started slave trade after the first European contact with America in 1492 to supply settlers from there with workers. Soon English, Spanish, Dutch, French and Danish merchants also built forts. But their influence on the inland was minor (except from decimation of population by slave trade) till during the 19th century larger colonies were founded.
The 20th century was a very important time in history. New technology and different ideas led to many worldwide changes in the time of just 100 years.
World War I was a war fought from 1914 to 1918. During the time of the war, it was called "The Great War", or "The War to End All Wars". Chemical poisons, tanks, aeroplanes, and bombs were used for the first time.
There were four main causes of the war:
These were causes that made it likely that a war would start in Europe. The "spark" that started the war was the assassination of the heir to the throne in Austria-Hungary: Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a group of young Serbians. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and each country's allies then joined the war. This created a bigger conflict which turned into World War I.
Europe divided into two groups of allies: the Central Powers and the Allied Powers (the "Allies"). The Central Powers were made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. The Allies were made up of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States.
World War I was fought on two fronts; the Eastern Front and the Western Front. Trench warfare was commonly used on the Eastern Front.
Because of a British blockade, Germany began using U-boats, or submarines, to sink British ships. After the sinking of two ships with Americans on board, and the public release of the Zimmermann Note, The U.S. declared war on Germany, joining the Allies.
On November 11, 1918, Germany signed the armistice, meaning "the laying down of arms", to end the war. After the war ended, the Treaty of Versailles was written and Germany was made to sign it. They had to pay $33 million in reparations (payment for damage). The influenza pandemic of 1918 spread around the world, killing millions.
After the war the German Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire ended and France and Britain got weaker.
The 1920s and 1930s had military-related fascist dictators take control of Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain. They were helped by the Great Depression starting in 1929. When Hitler in 1933 had gained power in Germany he prepared World War II.
Of all the wars ever fought, World War II involved the most countries and killed the most people. More than 60 million people died, making it the worst disaster of all time. It lasted six years in Europe, from 1939 to 1945.
It was fought between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allied Powers. At first the Axis Powers were successful, but that ended in Europe with the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943 and the invasion in Normandy in 1944. But Hitler was able to pursue his plan to annihilate Jews nearly all over Europe. Today, this plan is called the Holocaust.
In the Pacific it ended with the battles of Midway and Guadalcanal. Germany surrendered on May 8. The Soviet invasion of Japan led Japan to surrender on August 15, 1945.
After World War II the United Nations was founded in the hope that it could solve arguments among nations and keep wars from happening. Communism spread to Central and Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, North Vietnam and North Korea. In 1949, China became communist. During the 1950s and 1960s, many third world countries became communist.
This led to the Cold War, a forty-year argument between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies (mainly countries that were members of NATO or the Warsaw Pact). Each country wanted to promote their type of government. The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism, and the United States wanted to spread democracy. People across the world feared a nuclear war because of the tension.
Communism became less popular when it became clear that it could not promote economic growth as well as Western states and that it was not suited for a reform that allowed freedom of speech for everybody. Therefore, the Soviet Union forced Hungary to give up its reform in 1956, it favored the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and it stopped reform in Czechoslovakia in 1968. When in 1988/89 Gorbachev made clear that he would not force the countries of the East block to stick to Communism the Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and the Soviet Union collapsed (1991). Then the United States was the only superpower left.
After Mao Zedong's death China's communist party proved that economic reform was possible without political freedom and paved the way for enormous economic growth.
As the 20th century ended, the European Union began to rise and included former satellite states and even parts of the Soviet Union. States in Asia, Africa and South America tried to copy the European Union.
The twentieth century was a time of great progress in terms of technology. People began to live longer because of better medicine and medical technology. New communications and transportation technologies connected the world. But these advances also helped cause problems with the environment.
The last half of the century had smaller wars. Improved information technology and globalization increased trade and cultural exchange. Space exploration expanded through the solar system. The structure of DNA was discovered.
The same period also raised questions about the end of human history because of global dangers: nuclear weapons, greenhouse effect and other problems in the environment.
As the 20th century ended, globalization has continued. During this period, communications with mobile phones and the Internet have expanded, which has led to fundamental social changes in corporation, political, and individuals' personal lives. Due to the population of growth and industrialization, worldwide resource competition is becoming increasingly highly, especially in India, China and Brazil. The increasing demand on the environmental degradation and global warming.
A new Great Recession affected the world in the late 2000s and the early 2010s, and the COVID-19 pandemic spread in 2020, causing further economic and political disruption. Some scientists referred to this as a "Planetary Phase of Civilization".
Ur was the one of the world's first cities, in Mesopotamia. It was a Sumerian city-state, founded around 3,800 BC. There are written records dating from the 26th century. Ur was once a coastal city near the mouth of the River Euphrates on the Persian Gulf. It is now well inland, south of the Euphrates on its right bank, from Nasiriyah, Iraq.
In the Sumerian city, the Ziggurat of Ur was a skyscraper over the city. It was about 20 metres (66 feet) tall. The only level that remains today is the bottom. There were big staircases to get up and down. They tell a lot about the people who built them. Sumerians had no tools and machinery like us. They were careful brick builders. Brickmakers formed mud bricks that were perfect. After drying they took them to the site and set them in place with bitumen. Bitumen is a thick sticky black stuff. It's like asphalt, the stuff they use to pave roads. They braided reeds so they would be stronger, and hooked them up like steel cables. Later the Ziggurat became more than a place for gods. There were workshops for craftworkers. For the priests, there were temples to do worship.
Ur had three social classes. The richer, like government officials, priests, and soldiers, were at the top. The second level was for merchants, teachers, laborers, farmers and craftmakers. The bottom were for slaves captured in battle. Burials at Ur give insight into people's social standing. Kings and queens were buried with treasure. Since irrigation gave Ur abundant crops, not everybody needed to work on farms. People learned other skills. Sir Leonard Woolley found a tablet that listed Ur's special workers. The chisel workers made sculptures, the gem cutters made gems, and the fullers stomped on woven wools to make them soft. The metal workers made weapons.
Odenwald
The Odenwald is a mountain chain in the south of Hesse, in the north of Bavaria and the north of Baden-Württemberg.
In the south of the Odenwald there is the Neckar River. In the east there is the Main River . In the west there is the valley of the Rhine River. The highest mountain is the Katzenbuckel (literally "cat's hump", 626 m).
The big cities Mannheim and Frankfurt am Main are near to the Odenwald. People of these cities like to go there at holidays. It is known for its clean thin air. There are many marked hiking paths. You can find wild blueberries, strawberries and mushrooms in the forests.
Several small towns are very beautiful like Weinheim on the Bergstraße and Michelstadt. The mild climate of the area is well known.
Sviatoslav I, Prince of Kiev
List of citrus fruits
Citrus is a common term and genus of flowering plants in the family Rutaceae. It originated in tropical and subtropical southeast Asia. The name comes from the citron.
Citrus fruits usually have a sour taste but farmers grow more of the sweet ones. There are many types of citrus fruits in the world.
Daylight Saving Time (DST) or Summer Time (ST) is a time to timekeep during summer. During the summer months, the sun stays visible for a longer time, and sunset happens late in the day. For this reason, certain countries advance the time by one hour near the start of summer, and put it back one hour during autumn.
DST helps stores that sell to people after they get off work, and it doesn't hurt farmers and others whose hours are set by the sun. It cuts traffic accident rates. Sometimes it can reduce energy costs, but it can also increase them.
Most of the world's countries do not use DST, but it is common in Europe and North America.
The United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada and many other countries have DST. These countries also have regions that do not have DST:
Iceland, Russia, some parts of Ukraine and Belarus are countries in Europe without DST.
Since 1971 all clocks in the European Union, of which the UK is a member state, have changed on same dates and at the same time, 06:00 GMT.
== Automatic adjustment Some computers connected to the Internet will automatically adjust their clocks for DST. Most newer computers will not adjust or will adjust the time incorrectly or on the wrong date. Also, computers with more than one operating system may be incorrectly adjusted twice or more when each operating system boots.
Lanthanum
Inkjet printer
An Inkjet printer is a printer for computers. It uses special ink to print on the paper. Another type of printing technology is the Laser printer. Inkjet printers are preferred for printing photos and graphics due to their high-quality color output, whereas laser printers are preferred for printing text due to their high contrast and speed.
Usually, inkjet printers are used by people who print very little. The ink comes in special ink cartridges, which can be very expensive and uneconomical. Also, the ink in the cartridge may dry up. This means that a new cartridge is needed. Three colors of cartridges, which combine magenta, yellow and cyan inks are used to create color tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp monochrome output. Some professional printers have one or more additional colors for better photo quality, such as light cyan, light magenta, blue, red, green, orange, and grey.
Inkjet printers may use either dye or pigment inks. Pigment inks are less likely to fade, whereas dye inks create more-realistic photos and are less likely to clog the printhead.
Many professionals use inkjet printers to print on very large surfaces (up to 5m width). These printers usually do not use cartridges, but have a continuous supply of ink that could last for a long time. Standard-size (A4 or US Letter) printers with a continuous ink supply are also available.
Inkjet printers need special paper. This paper has been treated so that the ink does not smear.
Less expensive inkjet printers, which cost a little more than 100 US dollars, are a bargain for users who want to be able to print pages in color. Inkjet printers can be very cheap but the ink can also be rather expensive. Some professional inkjet printers can print on surfaces other than paper, such as CDs/DVDs or plastic cards.
An inkjet printer can print between 300 and 720 DPI (Dots Per Inch). Some newer printers can print at higher resolutions, although the benefit of resolutions beyond 720 DPI may not be noticed by the human eye.
A common problem with inkjet printers is that if the printhead is clogged, banding (stripes) will appear in the printed image. To fix this, the printhead needs to be cleaned using the software included with the printer. This problem occurs most often when the printer has not been used for a long time. To prevent this from happening on rarely-used printers, a cron job can be scheduled to print a purge sheet (an image containing all colors used by the printer) once per day. A small, barely noticeable (usually only noticeable by magnification) amount of banding will occur even with a perfectly clean printhead due to the way the printer works.
Laser printer
A laser printer is a printer for computers. It uses laser or LED-technology to get small particles of toner from a cartridge onto paper. Very often, this costs less to use than the ink of inkjet printers. Laser printers often print text more neatly than inkjet printers, but print photos less clearly. Printing on photo paper or coated paper designed for inkjet printers can damage the laser printer's drum and fuser unit.
The laser printer was first invented by a team at Xerox in 1969. The first laser printer was called the Xerox 2000.
Laser printing is a process which typically involves seven steps:
Lawrencium is a chemical element. It is also named eka-lutetium by some people. It has the symbol Lr. It has the atomic number 103. It is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. It has to be made. Lawrencium is made from californium. The isotope that has the longest half-life (Lr) has a half life of about 3.6 hours.
No uses for lawrencium are known. What lawrencium looks like is not known because not enough has been made to see it with human eyesight.
Is a Block-D Group3 Period 7 element. Discovered by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers in 1961, in California. Named after Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron, a research instrument with which several new elements have been found/made.
Darmstadtium is a chemical element. It has been named ununnilium (Uun) or eka-platinum but is now named darmstadtium. It has the symbol Ds. It has the atomic number 110. It is a transuranium element.
The element is named in honor of German city Darmstadt.
Darmstadtium is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. It has to be made. The isotopes with an atomic mass from 267 to 273 have very short half-lifes. The half life of these isotopes is measured in milliseconds. Isotopes of darmstadtium with an atomic mass of 279 and 281 were synthesised after the other isotopes. Ds-279 and Ds-281 decay more slowly. The isotope with an atomic mass of 279 has a half life of 180 milliseconds and Ds-281 has a half life of 11.1 seconds.
No uses for darmstadtium are known. What darmstadtium looks like is not known because not enough has been made to see it with human eyesight.
Darmstadtium was first made on November 9, 1994. It was made at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. Only a few atoms of it were made. It was made by bombarding a lead target with nickel. A nuclear fusion reaction happened and made the element.
This is shown by the equation below that is the reaction that happened. Pb is the symbol for lead, Ni is the symbol for nickel and n is the symbol for a neutron.
The element was named for Darmstadt which was the place of its discovery. The GSI is in Wixhausen, a part of the north of the city of Darmstadt. The new name (darmstadtium) was given to the chemical element by the IUPAC in August 2003.
Wampanoag
The Wampanoag were a Native American tribe. They lived in what is now the American region of New England. The Wampanoag tribe helped the English settlers to survive, after they arrived in the "Mayflower".
They caught a bacterial infection called leptospirosis or Weil's syndrome in the early 17th century. It caused a many deaths and damaged their society greatly, though their descendents still survive today.
Mandir
Hindu temple or Mandir is referred to a place where Hindus go to worship gods in the form of various deities. Many Hindu temples are filled with wooden and stone arts like pashupatinath temple. A mandir is a spiritual place for Hindus. It is the landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy were developed. as well as this the mandir has been recognised for
It is believed that the Murtis are stone or wooden images of idols ceremonially infused with the divine presence of God. They worship with arts and other ceremonies.
Hindus believe that gods and goddesses will answer the prayers of the faithful and inspire spiritually. For them, the temple also acts as a contact between the gods and goddesses and the worshipers. They also believe that the gods and goddesses will grant their wishes and protect them from danger.
In Hinduism gods are represented in various forms. Sometimes gods or goddesses are represented in a human form like Shiva, Vishnu, Saraswati or Kali. Sometimes there are gods goddesses in human and animal fused form like Ganesh. Sometimes they are also represented in plants and non-living form like Tulsi and Shaligrams. Murtis are made according to the prescriptios of the ilpasastra, and then installed by priests through the prana pratishtha ceremony. Afterward the divine personality is believed to be present in the Murtis.
To show respect, Hindus give gifts and food to the murtis. They are treated with respect and worshipped everyday. If a temple is a family temple it is treated as part of the family. Some Hindus also offer a part of their daily food to the god or goddess. They are given clothes and are changed at certain times. When people..
Kitchener, Ontario
Kitchener is a city in Ontario, Canada. Kitchener is in Southwestern Ontario and is near Toronto, Hamilton, Mississauga and London. It is in Waterloo Region. Other cities in Waterloo Region include Waterloo and Cambridge. Sometimes Kitchener, Waterloo, and Cambridge are known as the "technology triangle". It is on the Grand River, which leads to Lake Erie.
At first, Kitchener was called Berlin. When World War I started it seemed like a bad idea to have a city named after the capital of Germany. The city was renamed Kitchener, after a British general, Herbert Kitchener. Kitchener then slowly became a prosperous city as it is today.
A rapid transit system is planned to be added in the Waterloo Region.
CKCO CTV Television Network
Rogerstv
Spring (water)
A spring is a place where groundwater flows out of the ground. A spring may flow the whole year or only sometimes. This depends on the water getting into the ground all of the time (rain) or only once in a while (snow melting).
Water from a spring often flows downhill, along the land. This is how rivers start.
Some springs produce water that is good for health reasons. Sometimes towns grow by these springs because many people who are ill come there to get better. Such towns are called spa towns.
Thorium is a chemical element in actinide group. It is a weakly radioactive metal. It has a shiny, silvery white color. It has the chemical symbol Th and the atomic number 90. Natural thorium has an atomic weight of 232. Thorium is named after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. Its ores are found in nature, especially in India, the United States, and Australia. Many scientists believe thorium would make a good source of nuclear fuel because it makes much less waste and is four times as common as uranium. It makes 3,200,000 times as much energy as coal and 200 times as much energy as uranium, because natural uranium is mostly non-fissile isotopes. Scientists believe that there is enough of it to power the world for thousands of years.
River source
The source of a river or stream is the original point from which the river flows. It may be a lake, a marsh, a spring or a glacier. This is where the stream starts.
The source is the farthest point of the river stream from its estuary or its confluence with another river or stream. Rivers are usually fed by many tributaries. The farthest stream is called the head-stream or head water. There is sometimes disagreement on which source is the head water, hence on which is the true source.
A lake fed by many rivers is sometimes called the source of the bigger river flowing out of it. For example, Lake Victoria is often called the source of the Nile, as the rivers that flow into it have names of their own.
Headwaters are usually in mountains. Glacial headwaters are made by melting of glaciers.
The source is where a river begins, and the river mouth is where it joins the sea. The mouth may be in the form of a river delta. The joining of a streams is called a confluence.
Laserdisc
A Laserdisc, like a DVD, can play video of a higher quality than VHS. A Laserdisc is much larger than a DVD. To play Laserdisc movies, a LaserDisc player is needed. LaserDisc was also known by the names DiscoVision and LaserVision.
Laserdisc was first produced by MCA in 1978, and became well known in the 1980s. Movie companies stopped making Laserdisc movies when DVDs became well known in the late 1990s. Today some of the better Laserdisc players still sell for $1,000 USD or more.
Laser Discs work like a regular CD-ROM or DVD. The surface of the disc is covered with small holes that are read by a laser. This sequence of holes and no holes is turned into pictures and sound by the Laserdisc player. Most Laserdiscs can hold about 30 minutes to an hour of video per side for a total of 1 to 2 hours per disc.
The early Laserdisc players used a Helium-Neon laser to read the disc, but the later models used infrared lasers. The first units that were made with the infrared laser had some problems such as skipping, strange colors spots, and fuzziness. These problems were fixed in later models.
Some of the later Laserdisc players made were ones that could play Audio CDs as well as Laserdiscs. In Japan, one of the last models to be produced even had the ability to play DVDs as well as CDs and Laserdiscs.
Californium is a chemical element. It is a radioactive metal. It has the chemical symbol Cf. It has the atomic number 98. Californium is a transuranium element. Californium does not have many uses. It was discovered by bombarding a curium target with alpha particles (helium ions). Californium is named after the US State of California, where it was discovered, in the University of Berkeley.
Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators.
There are 20 known isotopes. The most stable is californium-251, which has a half-life of 898 years. This short half-life means the element is not found in the Earth's crust. Californium-252, whose half-life is 2.645 years, is the most common isotope used.
Compounds of californium are mostly of californium(III), which can take part in three chemical bonds. Californium can be used to help start up nuclear reactors, and is used as a source of neutrons. It can be used in making higher mass elements. Ununoctium was synthesized by bombarding californium-249 atoms with calcium-48 ions.
When californium is used, workers must be protected from the element's ability to disrupt the formation of red blood cells.
Torgau
Torgau is a town on the banks of the Elbe in northwestern Saxony, Germany. The town is well known as the place where during the Second World War, United States Army forces met with forces of the Soviet Union during the invasion of Germany on April 25, 1945.
This marked the beginning of the line of contact between Soviet and American forces, but not the occcupation zones. In fact the area surrounding Torgau at first occupied by U.S. forces was later, in July 1945, given over to Soviet forces.
Chemical bond
Chemical bonds are what joins atoms together. Atoms bonded stay together unless the needed amount of energy is transferred to the bond.
In general, strong chemical bonding comes with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases are held together by chemical bonds.
There are two types of bonds; covalent and ionic. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Ionic bonding is the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Chemical bonds are negatively charged electrons that are pulling protons into each other.
Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals and bonds. In molecular formulas the chemical bonds between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion.
A common way chemists describe chemical bonds is through the number of electrons each atom has on itself. Each atom is drawn with the number of electrons as dots or lines to form a maximum of eight. If the electrons form a chemical bond then a line is drawn between the two electrons. The number of bonds developed increases the number of lines.
Bonds can be double bonds or triple bonds
Physical property
A concept is an idea that is applied to all objects in a group. It is the way people see and understand something. The name used to identify a concept (the concept's label) is a "term". For example, the word "Dog" is the term to identify the concept of what a dog is. Everything that a person knows about a dog is the concept of the term dog.
Different terms can be used to identify the same concept. Car and Automobile are synonyms for the same concept. Different languages have different terms for the same concept. This is what makes translation possible. The terms may be different in each language, but the concept is the same. The concept of jumping is the same to a person from England and a person from Italy, but one person uses the term "Jump" to mean the concept and the other person uses "Salto".
Kenpo
Kenpo or kempo is the descriptive name of various Japanese martial arts with Chinese origins, and also of hybrid martial arts: the Japanese ones and the Chinese ones. Kenpo is similar to karate and includes more punches and kicks than holds or joint locks of wrestling.
Kempo is a Japanese Martial Arts form. However, unlike Karate, its origins are linked back to China and still have very strong influences from Chinese systems.
It is not uncommon for a Kempo artist to both use traditional Japanese and Chinese style techniques. The difference lies in that because of the Chinese influence, the Japanese moves tend to emphasize more fluidity than most of the other Japanese styles. And because of the Japanese influence, there is a stronger focus for shorter stances and movements than other Chinese styles.
For the same reason that many other styles are sometimes simply listed as "karate", Kempo has long been strongly linked under the general banner of "karate". Kempo is known for its near explosive, short-ranged attacks that often move faster than the opponent can see.
Kempo has a very strong presence in Hawaii, the home base for many of the systems under Kempo that exist today in the United States. Throughout each of the histories of the different groups there are strong signs of the continued merging of both Chinese and Japanese influences.
Edge can mean:
Tyr
Tyr is a god in Norse mythology. In the Eddas, he is either the son of Odin or Hymir. He is the god of single (man-to-man) combat. Tyr only has one hand.
At one point in time, the gods decided that the wolf Fenrir (also called "Fenriswolf") could no longer go free. They wanted to lock him up onto a chain. But he broke every chain they tried to put on him. Finally, they had the dwarves make a magical chain. But Fenrir sensed what the gods would do. So Fenrir asked that one of them put his hand into his mouth. Knowing that if Fenrir was left unfettered, he would have grown strong enough to kill all the God's and destroy the world. Tyr was the only one who had the courage. When Fenrir sensed he had been tricked, he bit off Tyr's hand. Tyr remained handless forever.
Fenrir will remain bound until Ragnarök. Then, Tyr's opponent will be , the guard dog of Hel.
In Norse mythology, Loki (Anglicized /ˈloʊki/) is a god or jötunn. The son of Laufey and the [male] jötunn Fárbauti (Old Norse: “cruel striker”), Loki is often referred to as the god of trickery and mischief, and is Odin's blood brother. Known as the “Father of Monsters,” Loki has sired a variety of creatures; these include the monstrous wolf Fenrir, and the Midgard Serpent, Jörmungandr, both of whom were born to him by the giantess (jötunn) Angrboða. He is married to the goddess Sigyn, by whom he is the father of Narfi and/or Nari. By the stallion Svaðilfari, Loki is the father, giving birth in the form of a mare (female horse), of the eight-legged horse Sleipnir.
Loki has a complicated relationship with the Æsir, oftentimes assisting them or hindering them in bringing their goals to fruition. And is also a friend of Thor
Freyja (Old Norse: “[the] Lady”) is the goddess of love, beauty, sex, fertility, seiðr, war, and death in Norse mythology. A member of the Vanir, Freyja is the daughter of Njörðr, and twin sister of Freyr. The most beautiful and refined of the goddesses, she owns the necklace Brísingamen, and rides in a chariot pulled by two cats, accompanied by a giant boar named Hildisvíni; in addition to this, Freyja possesses a cloak of falcon feathers. She is married to the god Óðr, by whom she is the mother of the twin goddesses Hnöss and Gersemi. Freyja rules over the heavenly field(s) of Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those that die in battle, as the other half go to Valhalla. The minor goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa (Old Norse: literally “Þorgerðr, Hǫlgi’s bride”), and Menglöð all serve as her handmaidens.
Her name is often translated into English as Freya when used nowadays, but the original Norwegian name is spelt "Freyja."
The Valkyries, having chosen who is to live and die in battle, collect the souls of those slain and bring them to Valhalla, where they will feast and make revelry with Odin; Freyja herself shares half of these heroes with Odin. Her sacred realm is the field of Fólkvangr, wherein lies her great hall Sessrúmnir. There, Freyja decides where her warriors shall sit.
This is what is written in the original myth:
"The ninth hall is Folkvang, where bright Freyja decides"
"Where her warriors shall sit,"
"Some of the slain belong to her,"
"Some belong to Odin."
Freyja married a god called Óðr. She loves her husband deeply, but he often went away on long journeys, and Freyja cried red golden tears for him. Her tears become gold and amber when they fall to Earth, therefore gold was called "Freyja's tears". They have two beautiful daughters called Hnoss and Gersemi.
Freyja often rides in a chariot pulled by big blue cats (her sacred animal) or on a golden boar named Hildisvíni, who accompanies her in battle. Freyja was renowned for her loveliness and beauty, as the myths tell of three giants who wanted to marry her, but they were all killed by Thor, the god of thunder.
Freyja also has a precious necklace called Brísingamen. The god Loki once stole this necklace, and Freyja had to ask the guardian Heimdall for help. Heimdallr engaged Loki in combat and won against the Trickster, giving the necklace back to Freyja. For this, Loki is also called "Thief of Brisingamen", and Heimdall is also called "Seeker of Brisingamen".
Thrymr, the king of the jǫtnar, once stole Thor's hammer, Mjölnir. When Loki went to Jötunheimr to retrieve the hammer, he found Thrymr, who revealed that he planned to give Mjölnir to Freyja as a wedding gift, as he requested her hand in marriage. When Loki returned to Asgard to deliver the news, Freyja was so angered that the heavens shook, and the necklace Brisingamen broke. When it was decided that Thor would go to Thrymr posing as Freyja (Loki disguised himself as one of the goddess' maidservants), he borrowed the necklace. Upon their arrival, Thrymr threw a huge feast in celebration of the marriage, as he presented Mjölnir to "Freyja" as a wedding gift; Thor then took his hammer, killing Thrymr and all who attended the wedding.
Freyja is a warrior goddess. Whenever she rides into battles, she gets half of the souls of dead heroes. She is also a practitioner of magic, otherwise known as seiðr, and is highly proficient in using it. She has a magical cloak made of falcon feathers which allows her to fly between different worlds.
Freyja is the patron goddess of crops and childbirths. She is also a goddess of love, whom lovers may send prayers to.
Frigg and Freyja were two of the most revered goddesses in Norse mythology. They were especially worshipped by Vikings. Freyja is said to be the kindest among goddesses. In a poem in the Poetic Edda, a young man called Ottar always trusted in the goddesses; he built a rock shrine for the goddesses, and Freyja answered his prayers. She disguised Ottar as her golden boar, and went on a trip to help him find his ancestors.
In final battle of Ragnarök, Odin, and Freyr will die. Freyja is not stated as having died during Ragnarök or surviving.
Freyr's name means "the Lord", and Freyja's name means "the Lady".
The day of the week, Friday, is named either after her, or after Odin's wife Frigg. Before Christianity became the dominant religion of the region, the Orion constellation was called Frigg's distaff or Freyja's girdle. Frigg and Freyja may be one and the same goddess.
Freyja is also widely known as Vanadis (Old Norse: Vanadís - "Lady of the Vanir"). The metallic element Vanadium was named after her. The Vanir are close relatives of elves. Freyr is the Lord of the elves, and his sacred realm is Alfheim, home of the elves.
Another well-known name of Freyja is Gefn, which means "Giver", a suitable name for the fertility goddess.
Freyja represents the Norse women of the Viking Age, whose husbands often went away to war. From Freyja's name, noble Norse women were called Fru, and wives were called house-fru. Frau means "woman" in German.
Freya and Freja are now common Scandinavian female names.
Frigg (or Frigga) is the goddess of marriage, family, and motherhood in Norse mythology. She is the wife of Odin (chief of the Æsir), by whom she is the mother of Baldr and Höðr, and stepmother of Thor (Odin's eldest son) and Víðarr. Ruling Asgard as queen alongside the All-Father, Frigg often dwells in the dense, foggy lands of Fensalir (Old Norse: “Halls of Fen”) when her husband is away on one of his quests for knowledge; additionally, she is the only one besides Odin permitted to sit on his throne Hliðskjálf, and look out across the Nine Realms. Serving as Frigg's attendants are Eir, the gods' doctor and goddess of healing, Hlín (a goddess of protection), Gná (a messenger goddess), and Fulla (a fertility goddess). It is unclear whether Frigg's companions and attendants are simply different aspects of Frigg herself (cf. avatar).
William Wallace was a Scottish knight who fought the King of England (Edward I) in the Middle Ages. He was born in c. 1270, and executed by the English on 23 August 1305. Scotland had been claimed by Edward, and Wallace refused allegiance to Edward.
Wallace was probably born around 1270-1272. Little is known about his birth or childhood. Exactly where and when Wallace was born is not very clear. Some people say he was born about 1272, but a book printed in the 16th century called "History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs" says he was born in 1276. Tradition says he was born in Elderslie, near Paisley in Renfrewshire. There are links with Ayrshire as well, and it is not clear whether Wallace first fought the English in Ayrshire or Lanark. Tradition sees Wallace as a being a 'commoner', or normal person. Robert the Bruce, who also fought the English, was seen as being more noble. But this is not strictly true because Wallace's family were minor nobles.
King Edward offered Scotland a deal which allowed them to have a Scottish king so long as King Edward was still in charge. This required the Scottish nobles to kneel, and swear allegiance to his sovereignty. Wallace refused, and led the resistance which followed. A series of battles were fought:
Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305 when John de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroyston near Glasgow. Wallace was taken to London at Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treason. He replied to the charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject". Wallace was however found guilty.
After the trial, on 23 August 1305, Wallace was taken from the hall, stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse to the Elms at Smithfield. He was hanged, drawn and quartered–the most terrible execution in English law. It meant he was strangled by hanging but released while he was still alive, his body cut open, and his bowels burnt before him. Then he was beheaded, and his body cut into four parts. His preserved head (dipped in tar) was placed on a pike atop London Bridge. It was later joined by the heads of the brothers John and Simon Fraser, who had been colleagues of Wallace. Wallace's limbs were displayed, separately, in Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling, and Aberdeen.
A book called "The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie" was written by a minstrel named Blind Harry in the 15th century. The book is written more like a story than a true version of his life, and has led to much of the legends around William Wallace. The film Braveheart is based on the novel.
A plaque stands in a wall of St Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution at Smithfield. In 2002 William Wallace was ranked as number 48 of the "100 Greatest Britons" in an extensive UK poll conducted by the BBC.
Æsir
The Æsir (Old Norse: singular "ǫ́ss" or "áss"; feminine "ásynja", plural "ásynjur") are the principal group or tribe of deities in Norse mythology. Including Odin, Frigg, Thor, and Baldr, the Æsir reside in the realm of Asgard, situated at the top of Yggdrasil's highest branch. Alongside the Æsir exists a second family of gods known as the Vanir, who joined with the Æsir to form a single, unified pantheon after the devastating war between the two tribes of deities. The Vanir were native to Vanaheimr, the god Njörðr and his children, Freyr and Freyja chief among them. The Æsir gods were usually connected with power and war, while the Vanir were associated with fertility and nature.
The things that happened between the Æsir and the Vanir are an interesting part of Norse mythology. While other cultures have had "elder" and "younger" generations of gods, as with the Titans and the Olympians of ancient Greece, the Æsir and Vanir were portrayed as contemporaries. The two tribes fought battles, concluded treaties, and exchanged hostages; Freyr and Freyja were said to be hostages. Some believe that events that occurred between the Æsir and Vanir were a reflection of events common between different Norse clans at the time.
The Æsir did not grow old, instead remaining young by eating the apples of Iðunn. While they did not age, they could be killed. It was said that most of them will die at Ragnarök.
Braveheart is an American historical war drama movie starring Mel Gibson and Sophie Marceau. It is loosely based around the life of 13th century Scottish warrior William Wallace, who fought against the English when they occupied Scotland.
Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material that in some cases will conduct electricity but not in others. Good electrical conductors, like copper or silver, easily allow electricity to flow through them. Materials that block the flow of electricity, like rubber or plastic, are called insulators. Insulators are often used to protect people from electric shock. As the name implies, a semiconductor does not conduct as well as a conductor. Silicon is the most used semiconductor, but gallium arsenide is also used.
By the addition of different atoms into the crystal lattice (grid) of the semiconductor it changes its conductivity by making n-type and p-type semiconductors. Silicon is the most important commercial semiconductor, though many others are used. They can be made into transistors, which are small amplifiers. Transistors are used in computers, mobile phones, digital audio players and many other electronic devices.
Like other solids, the electrons in semiconductors can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of energy levels) between the energy of the ground state, corresponding to electrons tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, which is the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material.