AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Coercive techniques, some of which are highly controversial and/or not scientifically proven to be effective:
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei (1186-1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, after his father. He continued to make his father's empire bigger. Like all of Genghis' sons, he helped to conquer Western China and Central Asia. Ögedei was thought to be his father's favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, Ögedei was known to be persuasive in debates he was involved because he had a strong personality. Although less schooled than his father, and despite his drinking habits, he was intelligent and steady in character.
He was selected as the supreme khan in 1229 because of the kuriltai, the meeting for important leaders, was held after Genghis' death, but it was never doubted that Genghis wanted Ögedei to rule after him. During his reign, the Mongols ended the Jin Dynasty (in 1234) and fought against the Southern Song Empire. In 1235, under the khan's direct command, the Mongols began a war of conquest that would not end for forty-five years, and would result in the addition of all of China. Mongol armies established permanent control of Persia (commanded by Chormagan) and expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan to take over Russia.
Heligoland (; ) is a small German group of islands in the North Sea..
It has been controlled by Denmark and between 1807 and 1890 by the British. The islands have a population of 1,650. They are the only German islands not nearby to the mainland and are about two hours' sailing time from Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Elbe.
Heligoland is located 70 km (44 miles) from the German coast line and actually consists of two islands: the populated triangular-shaped 1 km² (0.4 sq mi) main island () to the west and the island of "Düne" (Heligolandic: "de Halem") in the east.
Düne is the smaller of the two islands(0.7 km²). It is also lower, surrounded by sand beaches and no-one lives on the island throughout the year.
Often when people talk about "Heligoland" they only mean Hauptinsel.
Robert Francis "Bobby" Kennedy (November 20, 1925 – June 6, 1968), also called RFK, was a brother of former U.S. President John F. Kennedy. He ran for president in 1968, but was shot dead in California during the presidential primaries.
Umbilical cord
The umbilical cord is the tube that connects the unborn child and the mother together. It allows the baby to get what it needs, for example, blood, oxygen and glucose.
Josef Mengele
Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz.
During the first years of World War II Mengele served as a medical officer in the Waffen-SS. After being wounded and recovered in 1942, he went working at the Race and Resettlement Office in Berlin. In 1943 he volunteered for concentration camp Auschwitz.
He conducted medical experiments on the people in the camps. Many people died as a consequence of these experiments. The experiments included freezing and placing subjects under heat lamps.
Mengele was also known for his studies and fascination with twins. Mengele was known as the "Angel of Death."
After the war, he first hid in Germany, then escaped and lived in South America, until he drowned in Brazil.
Mengele wrote a thesis, which he finished in 1936. His advisor was Theodor Mollison. His assumption was that is was possible to determine the race of a human being by looking at the jawbone. He wrote another thesis, in a related area in 1938. In 1960 and 1961, his title was revoked, because of the crimes he had committed in Auschwitz.
Francis I of Austria
Francis I, Emperor of Austria (February 12, 1768 – March 2, 1835) also was Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (in German language: Franz II, Heiliger Römischer Kaiser).
He was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until August 6, 1806, when the Empire was no longer a unit. He then became Francis I, first Emperor of Austria (from 1804 to 1835).
Wilhelm I of Germany
Wilhelm I of the family of the Hohenzollern, was a king of Prussia (January 2, 1861 – 9 March 1888) and the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888). His name was Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Hohenzollern. He was born March 22, 1797 and died March 9, 1888. In English his name means "William".
When Wilhelm was king he and his prime minister, Otto von Bismarck, Prussia united a large group of smaller German countries. They won the Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire started.
His grandson Wilhelm II ordered the Kaiser Wilhelm Gedächtniskirche to be built to honour his life and achievements.
His official title was German Emperor and King of Prussia; Margrave of Brandenburg; Burgrave of Nürnberg, Count of Hohenzollern; Sovereign and highest Duke of Silesia as of the county of Glatz; Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen; Duke of Saxony, Wesphalia, and Angaria, of Pomerania, Lüneburg, Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, Bremen, Gelders, Cleves, Jülich and Berg, as well as of the Wendes and Kaschubs, of Krossen, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg; Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, Prince of Rügen, of East Frisia, of Paderborn and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Münster, Minden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, of Verden, Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers; Princely Count of Henneberg; Count of the Mark and of Ravensberg, of Hohnstein, Tecklenburg and Lingen, of Mansfeld, Sigmaringen and Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt" .
Amami Islands
The is a group of islands in Kagoshima prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan. It is also known as the .
The name of the islands comes the mythological figure of "Amamiko".
It was attacked by the Ryūkyū Kingdom in 1570, but was invaded by Satsuma Domain in 1609.
Amami was occupied by the United States from 1945 to 1953.
The native people of the Amami Islands are the Amami people, who are a subgroup of a larger Ryukyuan ethnicity.
The Amami language belongs to the Ryukyuan languages, all of which are endangered because in the past, Japan suppressed them. This is also why most younger Amamians speak Japanese instead, as it was enforced in schools.
The largest island in the group is Amami Island. Other islands include Kikai Island, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Yorontou and some small islands make up the Amami Islands.
Kagoshima
Kagoshima can mean a few things:
Formal is a word used to describe anything that has form or structure. So it is something which is used or done in accordance with rules or ceremonies.
Formal events have rules. 'Formal clothes' or 'formal attire' is a way of dressing to meet the rules for an event, such as a party or wedding. 'Formal attire' can be a suit, a tuxedo or a dress. People from all over the world have their own ideas about 'formal attire'. Most of the time "formal attire" clothes are the most beautiful or the best clothes a person owns. The opposite of "formal" is informal. Informal clothes are comfortable clothes for general use, e.g. T shirt and jeans. An informal ceremony might be a ceremony which is very relaxed instead of following an exact plan. An informal way to greet a friend might be: "Hi, John!"
Kyūshū
Kyūshū is the third largest island of Japan.
Kyūshū region is made up of the entire island.
The name Kyūshū literally means "nine countries" in Japanese. Kyūshū was made of nine old "countries" or provinces that are now prefectures. In other words, each prefecture has a modern name and sometimes more than one old provincial name. The old names are still used sometimes, especially for foods, music, or art.
The original nine provinces in Kyushu were Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma.
Today, Kyushu is made up of seven prefectures.
Parts of Kyūshū have a warm climate, like the Miyazaki and Kagoshima regions. Major crops grown there are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; silk is also made. The island is known for many types of porcelain like Arita, Imari, Satsuma and Karatsu.
Under the Gokishichidō system, the island of Kyūshū was a part of the region known as Saikaidō. It was a part of this region from the 7th century until the middle of the 1800s. Around 1905, it was made into its own region. In the modern system, Kyūshū and the small islands around it are a part of the Kyūshū region.
Presentation is the process of presenting the content of a topic to an audience. Presentation software, such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Beamer, Apple Keynote or Microsoft PowerPoint, is often used to generate the presentation content. As a form of communication, a presentation is usually 10-30 minutes long, but can take longer in special cases.
Keynote (software)
Keynote is a presentation software application made by Apple for its Mac OS X operating system.
Keynote was a software program that Steve Jobs, the chief executive officer of Apple used for his own presentations only. It was later sold to everyone as Keynote 1.0, competing against other presentation software, especially Microsoft PowerPoint. Unlike PowerPoint, Keynote can use all image types, and the design uses more pictures, making it easier to use. Because Keynote uses Mac OS X's built-in graphics technologies, it can produce slides with many graphics very easily.
The claymore is a Scottish sword. It is double-edged. The word itself is of Gaelic origins and means “great sword”. The Claymore is indeed a big sword and was held only with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.
The claymore sword was in average about - overall length, the blade was about long. It weighed around . It possessed a very broad blade and a slim channel, called a fuller, to slightly reduce its weight.
There also existed a version of Claymore that had a single-edged blade and a basket-shaped handle. The basket of the handle was used as protection for the hand. The blade was very long, so the basket was designed for balance too. The making of these swords was widespread especially during the mid-1600s . The places where the claymore swords were made were: Edinburgh, Canongate, Stirling and Glasgow.
Beginning around 1350, very long claymore swords were used. The handles and the blades became longer. This was because of the heavy armour, that was almost impossible to penetrate. The Scottish Claymore was one of the two swords which could cut through the armour. The second was the Germanic Landsknecht sword.
Tamahagane
Tamahagane {tah-mah-ha-ga-nay} is a high quality metal (steel) made in the Japanese tradition. The word "tama" means "round and precious", like a gem or jewel. The word "hagane" means "steel". On the market, it costs 50 times more than ordinary steel. Tamahagane steel is used to make Japanese swords, knives, and other kinds of tools.
Good tamahagane contains around 1% of carbon and should not go over 1.5%.
Tamahagane is made of iron sand (called "satetsu" in Japanese). There are 2 main types of iron sands: "akome satetsu" and "masa satetsu". Akome is of lower quality and masa is of better quality. The man who decides the amount of the mixing parts is called the "murage". Depending on the desired result, the murage mixes one or more types of sands.
The iron sand is put in a clay tub (furnace) called a "tatara". The clay tub measures about 4 feet tall, 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide. The tub is then dried and heated. The clay tub is heated to a high temperature, about 1000 ºC (1.832 ºF). Then, it is mixed with charcoal to give tamahagane hardness.
The process of making tamahagane continues for 36 to 72 hours, depending on how many people work and how much metal is to be obtained. The iron sand is added every 10 minutes and the mixture is frequently turned over.
When the tamahagane is finished, the clay tub is broken and the steel is removed. The best steel is on the edges of metal block, because this is the where the oxidation process is stronger. The quality of tamahagane is determined by its color: bright silver pieces are very good for making blades.
A graviton is a hypothetical particle that 'transfers' gravitation's force (particles like this are known as gauge bosons) from its field. Gravitons have never been observed, directly or indirectly, however, there have been several theories that use gravitons to explain certain phenomena. For example, a theory that describes black holes by combining quantum mechanics and gravity, has been advanced by Georgi Dvali and Cesar Gomez, which suggests a black hole is "an overpacked bucket of gravitons". There are some theories that suggest that gravitons would make up a new group of particles, "attraction particles". CERN is currently smashing more particles using the Large Hadron Collider to try to find this particle.
The graviton applies a tiny force as it impacts the nuclei of atoms.
All atoms themselves have these graviton particles in orbit around them. If you gather a lot of atoms together the population of orbiting gravitons increases proportionately. As a result, a large asteroid for example will have more gravity than a small one.
Because the graviton is a particle that has force (gravity), it is classed as a gauge boson. Other gauge bosons include the photon, the gluon, and the W and Z particles.
If someone found one, it could lead to a theory which would join together the four main physical forces: electromagnetism, gravity, strong force and weak force.
A presentation software is a computer software package used to show information, normally in the form of a slide show. It mostly includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.
The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, but there are alternatives such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Apple's Keynote, LaTeX Beamer and WPS Office (Free and complete office suite, includes writer, spreadsheet, presentations, enjoys the features of small-size, easy-to-use and compatible, covering multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Android, iOS and Mac).
Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s, several companies set up services that would accept the shows on floppy disk and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s, dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.
Liqueur
A liqueur is a sweet-tasting alcoholic drink. It is often flavored with fruits, herbs, spices, flowers, seeds, roots, plants, barks, and sometimes cream. The word "liqueur" comes from the Latin word "liquifacere" which means "to dissolve." This is because the flavors are dissolved to help make the liqueur. In some parts of the world, liqueurs are sometimes called cordials.
Liqueurs have been around for many centuries. They are related to the herbal medicines that monks used to make. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century, and were used during signings of treaties during the Middle Ages.
Most liqueurs have 15 to 30% alcohol content but may have an alcohol content as high as 55%.
Types of liqueurs include: fruit liqueur, cream liqueur, coffee liqueur, chocolate liqueur, schnapps liqueur, brandy liqueur, anise liqueur, nut-flavoured liqueur, and herbal liqueur.
Liqueurs can be enjoyed many ways. They are commonly drank by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, or mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails. They are often served with dessert or as a dessert. Liqueurs may also be used in cooking.
Militarism or militarist ideology is a view on society.
It says society should be like the military.
This means that society should follow concepts that can be found in the culture, system and people of the military. People that say militarism is good are called "militarists".
Most important to militarists is discipline. Discipline means to follow a set of rules.
It also means training that follows such rules. A strong military is good for discipline.
There are many areas where moral goals and the culture of the military can be applied. Most notable are private business, government, education and entertainment.
Militarism is related to militarization.
Militarist countries often have a strong military.
Sparta in Ancient Greece, Prussia in the 19th century was militarist, for example. North Korea is a good example in modern times. In militarised societies the military either run the government, or have heavy military influence. Often the head of state is a military person, though that does not always mean the society is militarised.
The Queen of Spades (opera)
The Queen of Spades (, pronounced "Pi-KO-va-ya DA-ma") is an opera by Tchaikovsky. It is based on a short story by Alexander Pushkin. Sometimes it is known by its German title "Pique Dame".
When Tchaikovsky went to Paris in 1876, he saw Bizet’s opera "Carmen". He liked the story's themes of love and bad fate. The idea of fate is important to the opera "Carmen" and also to Tchaikovsky’s "The Queen of Spades". Tchaikovsky wrote some of his greatest music in this opera. Some of it is very graceful, and is similar to Mozart. In other places it is very romantic, with harmonies that he had learned by studying the operas of Wagner.
Hermann, a young officer, sees a beautiful girl in the park and falls in love with her even though he does not know her. His friend tells him that the girl’s name is Lisa, and that her grandmother is an old countess who used to gamble (play cards for money) when she was young. He says that people used to call the grandmother the "Queen of Spades", and that she knows a secret: she knows about the three cards which will always win the card game.
Hermann can only think of one thing: he wants to find out the secret of the three cards so that he can gamble and win lots of money. Then he will be able to marry Lisa. He hides himself in the grandmother’s bedroom. When the grandmother goes to bed, he jumps out in front of her and tells her he wants to know the three cards. She is so scared that she dies before she can speak.
Later, the ghost of the grandmother comes to Hermann and tells him the three secret cards: Three, Seven, Ace. Hermann’s mind is now on one thing: he must go to casino and play cards and win. Lisa drowns herself in river. Hermann gambles all his money at casion, saying "The life is only game and the sure is only death". The first two cards are the Three and the Seven, but the third card is not the Ace, it is the Queen of Spades. The old grandmother’s ghost comes again to Hermann. Hermann kills himself.
Tchaikovsky’s brother Modest helped him to prepare the libretto (words) for the opera. They changed some of Pushkin’s story, making the love scenes important because he thought they would be good with emotional music. They also made it very dramatic by making Lisa drown herself in a canal and Hermann die at the gaming table. This is different to what happens in Pushkin’s story.
Tchaikovsky wrote the opera very quickly. It took him just six weeks to sketch it (write the basic ideas). Then he spent a short time in Rome and when he returned, he wrote it out for orchestra in another six weeks.
Some of the music is quite Classical (Rococo) in character. At other times it can sound very Russian. In the supernatural scenes, Tchaikovsky uses the whole-tone scale like Glinka did in his operas.
The opera was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg on 19 December 1890.
Growth-share matrix
Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft Office PowerPoint is a presentation program developed for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS computer operating systems. Businesspeople, educators, and trainers use it often. It is a component of the Microsoft Office system.
In PowerPoint, as in most other presentation software, text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector. Slides can be printed, or (more often) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.
Versions for Microsoft Windows include:
"Note: There is no PowerPoint 5.0 or 6.0, because the Windows 95 version was launched with Word 7. All of the Office 95 products have OLE 2 - moving data between many programs - and PowerPoint 7 shows that it was as new as Word 7."
Qi Xi
Qi Xi, sometimes called Chinese Valentine's Day, Magpie Festival, or the Double Seventh Festival is a traditional romantic festival in China. It take places on the 7th day of the 7th lunar month and often goes into August on the Gregorian calendar.
In late summer, two bright stars can be seen on opposite sides of the Milky Way. These stars are Altair ("the cowherd", Niulang) and Vega ("the weaver girl", Zhinü). The following story is told about the two:
Long, long ago, there was an honest and kind-hearted fellow named Niulang (Cowherd). His parents died when he was a child. Later, he was driven out of his home by his sister-in-law. So he lived by himself herding cattle and farming. One day, a fairy from heaven named Zhinü (Weaver Girl) fell in love with him. She secretly came down to earth and married him. Niulang farmed in the field and Zhinü wove at home. They lived a happy life and gave birth to a boy and a girl. Unfortunately, the God of Heaven soon found this out and ordered the Queen Mother of the Western Heavens to bring Zhinü back.
With the help of celestial cattle, Niulang flew to heaven with his son and daughter. When he was about to catch up with his wife, the Queen Mother took off one of her gold hairpins and scratched a river in the sky to separate the lovers. Niulang and Zhinü have been separated on the two banks ever since. Once a year all of the magpies in the world come to build a bridge for Niulang and Zhinü to meet each other. This meeting happens on the 7th day of the 7th lunar month. Because of this, their meeting is called "Qi Xi" (Double Seventh).
Scholars have shown the Double Seventh Festival originated from the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). Historical documents from the Eastern Jin Dynasty (AD 371-420) mention the festival, while records from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) depict the grand evening banquet of Emperor Taizong and his concubines. By the Song (960-1279) and Yuan (1279-1368) dynasties, special articles for the Qi Xi were seen being sold on markets in the capital. The bustling markets demonstrated the significance of the festival.
Today some traditional customs are still observed in rural areas of China, but have been weakened or diluted in urban cities.
In the past, Qi Xi was not only a special day for lovers, but also for girls. It has been known as the "Begging for Skills Festival" or "Daughters' Festival."
In the past, girls would conduct a ceremony to beg Zhinü for wisdom, dexterity and a satisfying marriage in the future.
In some parts of the Shandong Province, young women offered fruit and pastries to pray for a bright mind. If spiders were seen to weave webs on sacrificial objects, it was believed the Weaving Girl was offering positive feedback.
In other regions, seven close friends would gather to make dumplings. They put into three separate dumplings a needle, a copper coin and a red date, which represented perfect needlework skills, good fortune and an early marriage.
Girls also held weaving and needlework competitions to see who had the best hands and the brightest mind, both important to being a good wife and mother in ancient China. Young women in southern China used to weave small handicrafts with colored paper, grass and thread. Afterwards, they competed to pass a thread through the eyes of seven needles in a single breath.
The Japanese version of Qi Xi is called "Tanabata". It is held on July 7th. On the evening of the 7th, slips of paper are hung on bamboo trees. The notes contain desires that the person hopes will be fulfilled.
Anna Nicole Smith
Anna Nicole Smith (November 28, 1967 – February 8, 2007) was an American model, actress and celebrity. She first became popular as "Playboy" magazine's 1993 Playmate of the Year.
She was born Vicki Lynn Hogan in Houston, Texas.
On February 8, 2007, Smith was found in a hotel room in Hollywood, Florida. At 1:38 p.m. (18:38 UTC) a nurse called 911. At 1:45 p.m. a bodyguard gave her CPR before she was taken to a local hospital and pronounced dead at 2:49 p.m. Her death was caused by an accidental overdose.
Smith was addicted to prescription medications. A psychiatrist said in court in 2010 that she was a member of hospital staff in 2006, when Smith was a patient. The psychiatrist said Smith had borderline personality disorder.
Ciao (magazine)
A sorting algorithm is an algorithm that puts the elements of a collection into a certain order. Most commonly, numbers are sorted by their value, and words are sorted by their lexicographic order (as they would appear in a dictionary or phone book). Efficient sorting is important for other things: finding an element in a sorted collection is easier, and merging a new element may also be easier if the collection is sorted.
Note that not all sorting algorithms can be applied in all cases. An example might be that the records can only be read one after another (sequentially); they might be stored on a tape.
The word "ciao" is a greeting in Italian. It is used for both "hello" and "goodbye". It is less formal than other greetings in Italian, such as "buongiorno" or "salve".
The word originally comes from the Venetian language. It is also sometimes used by English speakers and speakers of other languages around the world. Other words that mean both "hello" and "goodbye" are "shalom" in Hebrew, "salaam" in Arabic, "annyeong" in Korean, and "aloha" in Hawaiian. In Vietnamese, the word "chào" also means "hello" or "goodbye". It sounds similar, but is not related to the Italian word.
LaTeX is a computer program used for making articles, books and mathematical formulas more aesthetically pleasing. LaTeX is well-suited for expressing mathematical formulas on electronic devices in a more human readable format, by allowing them to be shown in a format similar to how they would be written in many textbooks or by hand.
LaTeX is used for making mathematical formulas for some articles on Wikipedia, in addition to being used within academic circles.
The writer types their article into a plain text document. A plain text document cannot have styled text, like bold or italic. When the writer wants to write styled text, they use computer commands. For example, the command for bold text is <nowiki>\textbf{This text is bold}</nowiki>.
After the writer is finished writing the article, they tell LaTeX to read the document. After LaTeX is done, LaTeX makes a file that can be printed. The command <nowiki>\textbf{This text is bold}</nowiki> would print as This text is bold.
LaTeX was first made in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, who published its first manual in 1986. The current version is LaTeX2e (styled ), which has been active since 1994.
The example below shows the LaTeX input and its corresponding output:
In order to support mathematical typesetting, the American Mathematical Society (AMS) has made the AMS-LaTeX package. AMS also founded MathJax, a Javascript extension to display mathematical formulas on web browsers, with the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
First War of Scottish Independence
The First War of Scottish Independence lasted from the outbreak of the war in 1296 until the 1328.
The Scots were defeated at Dunbar on 27 April 1296. John Balliol abdicated in Montrose castle on 10 July 1296. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London at first, but then released into the custody of Pope Boniface VIII on condition that he remain in a papal residence. He was later released around the summer of 1301 and lived the rest of his life on his family's estates in Picardy.
But his supporters argued that he was still the rightful King of Scotland. Therefore, the Scots rose in rebellion in 1297 under William Wallace and Andrew de Moray and said they were acting on behalf of King John. But in fact Scotland had no monarch until the accession of Robert the Bruce in 1306.
John of Scotland
John King of Scots (c. 1247-1249 - 1314/1315) is usually known as John Balliol or, correctly, John de Balliol. He was born in 1248, probably at Barnard Castle, but is not entirely clear.
After the death of Margaret of Scotland in 1290, John Balliol was one of three major competiters for the throne. King Edward concluded that he was going to pick Balliol as king of Scotland at Scone, 30th November, 1292, St. Andrew's Day.
Edward I steadily undermined the authority of King John. He treated Balliol like a 'Puppet King' and the Scots were not happy. At the Battle of Dunbar King Edwards men slaughtered and wiped out the town of Berwick killing around 8000 people in the brutal killing.
He was stripped of his authority as king and was sent away to France by King Edward. He later died there.
Soul patch
Wars of Scottish Independence
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick.
The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland still was a free and independent nation, which was her main aim throughout the conflict. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in mediaeval warfare.
The Battle of Bannockburn (23–24 June 1314) was an important Scottish victory. It was the decisive battle in the First War of Scottish Independence. In this battle, the Scottish king Robert the Bruce defeated the English king Edward II.
An autotroph (from Greek "autos" = self and "trophe" = nutrition) is an organism that makes organic compounds from simple molecules.
Autotrophs are needed in every food chain in all ecosystems. They take energy from the environment (sun light or inorganic sources) and use it to make other organic molecules that are used to carry out various biological functions such as cell growth or repairing broken tissue.
Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis are phototrophs (or photoautotrophs). Bacteria that use inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide, phosphorus or iron are called chemoautotrophs. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, eat autotrophs.
There are some species that need organic compounds as a source of food, but are able to use light as a source of energy. These are not autotrophic, but heterotrophic. A mixotroph is a (micro)organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon.
Air France is one of the largest airlines in the world. It is based in France. It is owned by Air France-KLM. Before it merged with KLM, it employed 71,654 people. Its headquarters are at Charles de Gaulle International Airport near Paris.
The airline can be traced back to 1933, when four other French airlines were combined to create "Air France". Air France hired its first flight attendants in 1946. The airline started flying between Paris and New York City on July 1, 1946. In 1957, the airline bought its first jet aircraft. Air France was one of 4 airlines that flew the Concorde. It used it from 1976 until 2003. In 1988, the airline became the first to fly the Airbus A320. In 2003, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines and Air France announced they were going to be combining. The combination ended in 2004. As of 2016, Air France is going through many financial problems.
Hampshire
Hampshire is a county in the south of the UK. The county has an area of 1,455 square miles (3,769 km²). At its widest points, the county is about 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The county town is Winchester. About 1.6 million people live in Hampshire.
Manuel Pereira da Silva
Manuel Pereira da Silva (7 December 1920 – 2003) was a Portuguese sculptor. He was born in Oporto, Portugal.
The workmanship of Manuel Pereira da Silva has an abstract formal orientation inspired in the human figure, in particularly the man and the woman. In 2000, the Medal of Cultural Merit was attributed to Manuel Pereira da Silva for the City Council of Vila Nova de Gaia.
In 1939, he entered the Oporto University's College of Arts. In 1953, he finished his coursework with the final classification of 18 values. During his coursework he was distinguished with two awards, "Teixeira Lopes" and "Soares dos Reis".
In 1946 and 1947, he studied in Paris, France, at the Paris College of Arts.
The Yeti (also called the abominable snowman) is an animal said to live in the Himalaya mountain range made of ice. People say they have seen it, but none have ever been caught. It is supposed to look like an ape that walks upright. Some body parts, said to be of a yeti, are kept in a few monasteries in the area. There no real evidence that it exists, but there have been reports of footprints in the snow which could have been made by a yeti.
The yeti has been described as having white shaggy fur and a lean muscular body like an ape. This "creature" could also live in the Asian mountains near the Himalayan snow line. Stories about the Yeti and another similar creature, Bigfoot, suggest that if they are real, they could be the same, or similar species. The yeti can stand at least 6 – 10 foot tall, not as tall as the Bigfoot. It has also been said the Yeti can weigh at least 200 - 400 pounds. The yeti is shy, which is why it has never been found. In 2010 an unsuccessful exhibition, some hunters found a hairless four legged creature, they said was a Yeti. It was a small hairless cat that lost it's hair from a disease.
The yeti has been shown in couple of movies including Monsters, Inc. The Yeti has also been a WWE wrestler name. Toys and games using creatures like yetis have been made including Lego Cards (Lego).
Padding (cryptography)
Padding is a term used in cryptography. Very often, messages (to be encrypted) start or end in a well-known way ("Dear Bob, ..., Yours, Alice"). This is a problem, because that knowledge could be used to break (or start to break) encryption. To prevent this, a number of random characters are added at the beginning or the end of the message.
This procedure may also be necessary because many cryptographic methods operate on blocks of code. If a block is not full, additional characters need to be filled in. Filling in random text has proven very useful.
Dictionary attack
A dictionary attack is a method used in cryptography to find a key (or username, or password). A large number of words are tried. These words usually come from a special collection, called a "dictionary".
The attack is based on trying all the strings in a pre-arranged listing. The listing is usually derived from a list of words, such as in a dictionary (hence the phrase "dictionary attack").
Rocco Francis Marchegiano, better known as Rocky Marciano (September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969), was an American boxer. Marciano was the World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 9/23/1952 until 11/30/1956. He had the shortest reach of any heavyweight champion at only 68 inches (173 cm). He was also short for a champion, standing 5'11" (180.3 cm). Marciano is the only heavyweight champion in professional boxing history who never lost or drew (tied) in a professional match. He won 43 fights by a way of knockout or technical knockout, an 87.76% knockout rate.
His parents were Italian immigrants.
Before becoming a professional fighter, Marciano had an amateur record of 11-3. Marciano's first professional fight was in March 1947. He won the championship from Jersey Joe Walcott on September 23, 1952.
Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring Magazine three times. His three championship fights between 1952-54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano's last title fight was against Archie Moore on September 21, 1955. Marciano was knocked down in the fight, but he got up and knocked out Moore in the 9th round. Marciano announced his retirement in a press conference on April 27, 1956.
Marciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. However, Floyd Patterson's contract demanded a rematch with Ingemar within one year. After a period in training and thinking about a comeback, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again.
In 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172, headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather set in. The pilot tried to land the plane on a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but the plane hit a tree two miles short of the runway. The passengers died almost instantly. He is entombed in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His widow, who died exactly five years after him at the age of 46, is entombed next to him.
Exponentiating by squaring is an algorithm. It is used for quickly working out large integer powers of a number. It is also known as the square-and-multiply algorithm or binary exponentiation. It uses the binary expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic.
The algorithm is believed to have first been documented in the Sanskrit book "Chandah-sûtra", about 200 BC.
The following recursive algorithm computes "x" for a positive integer "n" where n > 0:
This algorithm is much faster than the ordinary method to compute such a value. Multiplying x by itself, n operations are needed to calculate "x ". With the method shown above, only log2(n) operations are needed.
A smart card is a card with a microchip in it. Such cards are used as a method of identification and authentication.
Plastic cards that allow to take out money from a automated teller machine (ATM) often are smart cards nowadays (Some of them still have a magnetic stripe which holds the same information). Very often the user is identified with a PIN. If the PIN is entered correctly, money can be withdrawn. If the PIN is not entered correctly, the card is blocked (after a number of false attempts).
At first, smart cards were used in public telephones in France, in 1983. There, the card simply stored a pre-paid credit. This credit was reduced when calls were made. Another way to solve the problem is that the balance is stored in a remote database. To make calls, a (usually toll-free number) is first called. From there, additional calls can be made. This eliminates the need for cards with chips on them.
Smart cards also have many other uses, such as for making payments. These kinds of cards are used a lot in Japan, Singapore, and the Octopus card in Hong Kong.
There are two basic kinds of smart cards:
Both kind of cards contain a controller for managing the I/O.
Many smart cards have RFID technology that allows them to be used without inserting them into a machine. They just need to be placed on a reader. These are called "contactless smart cards" and many credit and debit cards in the 21st century are this kind.
In mathematics, two integers ("a" and "b") are co-prime (or relatively prime) if they share no common factors. This is sometimes written as formula_1. In other words, there is no number, other than 1, that divides both a and b evenly. In which case, the greatest common divisor (GCD, or highest common factor) of these numbers is 1.
As an example, 6 and 35 are coprime, because the factors of 6, 2 and 3, do not divide 35 evenly. On the other hand, 6 and 27 are not coprime, because 3 divides both 6 and 27. Another example is 4 and 5:
4 = 2*2*1;
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The only common factor is 1, so they are coprime.
On the other hand, 10 and 5:
10 = 5*2
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The common factors are 5 and 1, so they are not coprime.
Prime numbers are always coprime to each other.
In number theory, the totient of a positive integer "n" is the number of positive integers smaller than "n" which are coprime to "n" (they share no factors except 1). It is often written as formula_1.
For example, formula_2, because there are four numbers (1, 3, 5 and 7) which do not share any factors with 8.
The function formula_3 used here is the totient function, usually called the Euler totient or Euler's totient, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied it.
The totient function is also called Euler's phi function or simply the phi function, since the Greek letter Phi (formula_3) is so commonly used for it. The cototient of "n" is defined as formula_5.
The totient function is important mainly because it gives the size of the multiplicative group of integers modulo "n". More precisely, formula_6 is the order of the group of units of the ring formula_7. This fact, together with Lagrange's theorem, provides a proof for Euler's theorem.
A common use of the totient function is in the RSA algorithm. The RSA algorithm is a popular method of encryption used worldwide.
For any prime number, "p", formula_8.
Key (cryptography)
In cryptography, a key (or cryptographic key) is a piece of information that allows control over the encryption or decryption process.
There are two basic types of cryptographic algorithms.
For symmetric algorithms, a minimum key size of 128 bits is recommended. For applications that need extreme security, such as top secret documents, 256 bits is recommended. Many older ciphers used 40, 56, or 64-bit keys—these have all been cracked by brute force attack because the key was too short.
Asymmetric (public key) algorithms need much longer keys to be secure. For RSA, at least 2048 bits is recommended. The largest publicly-known key that has been cracked was a 768-bit key.
Hollywood, Florida
Hollywood is a city in Broward County in Florida in the United States. In 2005 there were 145,629 people living in Hollywood, based on United States Census Bureau figures.
Echo could mean:
Magnetic stripe card
A Magnetic stripe card is a plastic card which has a magnetic stripe on it. Different kinds of information can be stored on the magnetic stripe. Such stripes are usually made of small particles of iron (or another metal). Information is stored by changing the magnetism of the particles, as with magnetic tape
Today such cards are widely used for:
There are different ways in which the data is stored on the card. But all of them are read in much the same way, by "swiping" (sliding the card through a slot) on a machine called a reader. These readers can be separate from or built into other machines such as a payment terminal in a cash register or point of sale system.
Similar cards, which can also do calculations themselves, are called smart cards.
The standard ISO 7811 specifies the format in which information is stored on these cards. A magnetic stripe holds about 1024 bits of information, which is arranged in three tracks. The first track holds 76 alphanumeric characters, encoded in 7 bit per character. The two other tracks hold 37 and 104 numeric characters, encoded with 5 bits per character. The first two tracks can only be read, the third track can also be written to.
Cards that are used for banking used to store the PIN as a hash value on the magnetic stripe. Today, the ATM calculates the hash value, and transmits it to the server of the bank, which does the comparison. Storing the PIN in the ATM is no longer allowed.
In many payment cards around the world, magnetic stripes are being replaced with a more secure technology called EMV. Most of these cards, though, still have magnetic stripes to be used in places which do not yet work with EMV.
Sami people
The Sami people, also spelled as Saami are an ethnic group of people living in Sápmi, an area in the far north of Europe. It is a part of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. There are 80,000 to 135,000 Sami people in the world. The Sami are sometimes called Lapps, but this is insulting and has a negative meaning. In English the area is sometimes still called Lapland.
There are 10 different Sami languages. Six of the languages can be written. The other four have very few speakers.
"Archaelogical research indicates that a culture identified as Sami arose in the Scandinavian peninsula between 1500 and 1000 B.C."
The first written mention of the Sámi, was made about 98 A.D. by Tacitus
One account (or description) from 896 was told to Alfred the Great, by Ohthere of Hålogaland (a Norwegian chieftain). Oh there had some connection to the English king's court.
Old Norse stories, such as the Icelandic sagas, tell about the Sami. "Olav Tryggvason's Saga says "that the king killed a big man who was "troll-wise" and "there followed him a great number of Finns whenever he had need of them". ("Finns" is a name that sometimes meant "Sami people".)
In the 19th century, Russia stopped allowing reindeer farmers and their reindeer herds, to come travel over the Norway-Russia border. Some of the Sami reindeer farmers, moved to another Nordic country, and took their reindeer herds into Russia (but not through the Norway-Russia border); later another country's border with Russia, was closed to herds from reindeer farming (coming into Russia).
During the 16th century there was more farms in Finland. Farmers from the province of Savonia went to Middle Finland, and the original Sami people often had to leave.
At Dovrefjell when Harald Hardrada was king, there was profit from the keeping of herds of reindeer, and the business was very popular.
In regard to Sami (in Norway) that had reindeer herds; when these Sami moved their herds (every year), then they would interact with people who lived permanently on the coast; the interaction also included "verdde": a friendship of convenience; for example, Sami needed milk and fish after having been on a plateau (or highland) for some weeks; Sami might need repair of equipment; trade was done: People from the coast traded fish for meat from reindeer.
Regarding getting the Sami to change their religion to Christianity: In the 18th century Thomas von Westen , a pietist, led missionary work (among the Sami), that has been called a concerted (or special) effort. "About a century later, Niels Vibe Stockfleth worked among the Sami and translated [the Bible's] New Testament into" [one of the Sami languages].
People living permanently on the coast in North Norway, were [largely] Sami; these Sami had permanent housing, and it became easier for these Sami to stop behaving like Sami; in some areas one was not allowed to own land, if one was Sami; some Sami changed names, to names that might sound more Norwegian (and family names such as Sæter, Strømeng, and Kalvemo became new family names).
Sami language [largely] disappeared among the Coastal Sami. Sami that did reindeer farming, and Coastal Sami slowly lost the close contact [between the two groups].
"There were organized attempts to eradicate [or make to disappear ] the Sami language and culture[,] as a step in assimilating the Sami into Norwegian society". Policies to "Norwegianize", Samis - were in place from the late 1840s,
into the 1980s.
"From the late 1840s to the 1950s, missionaries, agricultural experts and schoolteachers" tried "to "Norwegianize" the Sami"; the "first formal act of Parliament regarding the Norwegianization of the Sami people was made in 1848: 'The government is requested to investigate ... [find out if, and how far] there should be opportunity to bring the Norwegian Lapps, especially those living in coastal areas , instruction in the Norwegian language for the enlightenment of these people, and that the result of their findings be reported to the next Parliament'".