AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Tropical Storm Cristobal was the third tropical storm of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. It began on July 19 as a weather system away from the Southeast U.S. Coast. It became a tropical storm later that day. Cristobal stayed away from land, and reached its highest strength as a strong tropical storm on July 21. It moved to the northeast next to the U.S. East Coast and died out on July 23 near Nova Scotia. Because it was a weak storm and never moved onto land, Cristobal's damages were mostly moderate rainfall. The storm dropped 3.43 in (87 mm) of rain in Wilmington, North Carolina, where minor flooding happened. Also, the remnants helped produce rainfall on Nova Scotia, which caused some flooding on roads and in basements.
On July 14, 2008 a weakening weather system stretched across northern Florida, causing thunderstorms. A weak low pressure area formed on July 15 near Tallahassee, which moved towards the southeast into the Gulf of Mexico. Late on July 16, it moved onto land near Tampa, and strengthening was not expected. However, late on July 17, thunderstorms became stronger around the low pressure area, and the system started to get better organized. Late on July 18, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) said that a tropical depression was forming. At 11 p.m. EST on July 18 (0300 UTC July 19), it was classified as Tropical Depression Three, about 65 miles (105 km) to the southeast of Charleston, South Carolina.
It was located between an area of high pressure to its southeast and another one to the northwest, the depression moved slowly towards the northeast. It became a weak tropical storm during the early afternoon of July 19. In the beginning, the storm was not strong, with few strong thunderstorms. Dry air in the middle- to-upper-levels of the atmosphere caused the storm to not strengthen. However, late on July 20 thunderstorms became more active. Cristobal stayed as a weak tropical storm during the time that it moved close to the South Carolina and North Carolina coast, and the storm never moved onto land. It reached its highest intensity as a strong tropical storm on July 21 while it passed east of Cape Hatteras, and stayed the same over the warm Gulf Stream. The storm started to enter cooler waters, and the cyclone quickly moved towards the east-northeastward on July 21 and July 22. In the afternoon of July 22, Cristobal began to weaken while to the south of Nova Scotia. The storm's cloud pattern became weak, and on July 23, it became an extratropical cyclone, and was no longer a tropical storm. The National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the system at 5:00 am EDT (0900 UTC) on July 23.
Before the storm, the National Hurricane Center started a tropical storm warning from Cape Lookout, North Carolina to the Virginia–North Carolina border. Before Cristobal formed, it produced light rain in Florida. At Lake Wales, about 6 inches (150 mm) of rainfell, mostly in a two hour period. The rain clogged storm drains, which caused light flooding. The rain caused no serious problems, and helped get rid of dry conditions. The storm dropped in Wilmington, North Carolina. Minor flooding happened there. Because most of the storm stayed out to sea, winds along the coast were light. On the coast, storm surge reached above normal. Winds that were of tropical storm-strength were reported offshore. No severe damage was reported.
Cristobal helped produce heavy rain and flooding in Atlantic Canada. At Baccaro Point on the southern tip of Nova Scotia, 224 mm (8.8 in) of rain fell. There was flooding to basements and streets in Cape Sable. A sailor from Connecticut was rescued to the southeast of Halifax by a Canadian helicopter, because his ship capsized in the strong waves.
Rijndael key schedule
AES (Rijndael) uses a key schedule to expand a short key into a number of separate round keys. This is known as the Rijndael key schedule.
The three AES variants have a different number of rounds. Each variant requires a separate 128-bit round key for each round plus one more. The key schedule produces the needed round keys from the initial key.
Gorillaz are an animated British rock band. The band was invented by Damon Albarn, a member of the band Blur, and Jamie Hewlett, who has worked on the comic book series "Tank Girl". Even though the band members are fictional, they have released a large amount of albums and music videos. The band's animated members are 2D, Noodle, Russell Hobbs, and Murdoc Niccals.
The band's genre is mostly a combination of alternative rock, alternative hip hop, and electronica. It also has elements of experimental, trip hop, dub, and psychedelic rock.
Since they are an animated group, they cannot perform live, like other bands can. At Gorillaz concerts, the real members of the band stand behind screens which show computer-generated images of the animated group performing.
Despite the animated performances, the actual band members did go on tour as the Gorillaz (which the animated band referred to as "that Gorillaz tribute band"), playing at various venues across the states, headlining at Coachella. The live Gorillaz band played at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival, performing in place of u2 due to Bono's emergency back surgery. Nevertheless, they were a hit with the crowd.
The Pantanal is the world's largest wetland or swamp.
It covers a region of 140,000 km, larger than the area covered by the country Greece.
The Pantanal is in South America and shared by Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay.
There are many threats to the Pantanal such as pollution, mercury from gold mining and ranching. Although the Pantanal can wash some of the chemicals away, the increased amount is becoming a concern.
In winter nearly 80% of the area is flooded.
Balliol College, Oxford
Balliol College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It was founded in 1263 by John Balliol, father of King John Balliol of Scotland.
Usually, the undergraduate students are among the most politically active students in the university. The college's alumni include Boris Johnson, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and several former prime ministers. Adam Smith, a graduate student of the college, is one of its best known students. In 2006, 45.1% of finalists got First Class Honours degrees. This is a higher percentage than any other Oxford college has ever had. The college was placed second in the Norrington Table.
Erich Mende
Erich Mende (28 October 1916 - 6 May 1998 in Bonn) was a German jurist and politician for the Christian-Democratic Union of Germany and the Free Democratic Party of Germany.
Mende was born in Groß Strehlitz, near Oppolne.
1936 he made his abitur. Afterwards he had to do his working service for the state and then his military service.
Up from 1938 he was an officer. At the end of World War II he was major.
After he was set free as prisoner of war, his hometown was made Polish. He found a new home in the Ruhr area. Then he studied laws in Cologne and Bonn.
In 1949 he finished his doctorade thesis.
In 1946 he joined the FDP.
He was Secretary for Intra-German Relations (Bundesminister für gesamtdeutsche Fragen) from 1963 to 1966.
In the same time he was Vice Chancellor of West Germany.
Petra Kelly
Petra Karin Kelly (November 23, 1947 – October 1, 1992) was a German politician, peace activist and one of the founders of the Green Party of Germany.
Kelly was born in Günzburg. Her stepfather was a US officer. Her original father and her mother were German.
Her family moved to the US in 1959.
She went to school in both countries.
From 1966 to 1970 he studied political sciences in Washington, D.C..
Kelly campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 U.S. elections.
She admired Martin Luther King and was an anti-Vietnam War protester.
She graduated in 1970 in Washington and got another exam in 1971 in Amsterdam.
Then she returned to West Germany.
She worked for the European Commission in Brussels from 1971 to 1983.
She was one of the founders of the Green Party in Germany in 1979 – the first Green Party worldwide.
From 1983 to 1990 she was a member of the Bundestag for the Greens.
Kelly received the Right Livelihood Award in 1982.
Petra Kelly, who was seriously ill, died in Bonn in 1992, aged 44. She had been shot by her partner, politician and former general Bert Bastian, who committed suicide afterwards.
Along the River During Qingming Festival
Kaiserswerth
Kaiserswerth is a settlement with a more than 1,000-year history.
It is one of the oldest parts of Düsseldorf.
It is in the north of Düsseldorf, next to the river Rhine.
Kaiserswerth has 7,712 inhabitants and an area of 4.71 km².
About the year 700 the monk St. Suitbert founded a Benedictine-abbey there.
It was destroyed 88 years later.
The Kaiserpfalz (temporary seat of the Holy Roman Emperor) was built in 1045.
In 1062 the young German King Heinrich IV (still a child) was kidnapped by the archbishop of Cologne.
In 1174 Friederick I Barbarossa moved the Rhine customs collection to Kaiserswerth. So the bishop took over control over the whole empire.
Following emperors used Kaiserswerth as temporary seat like as prison for high-range prisoners.
Between 1212 and 1215 the Count of Berg tried to get out prisoners and made the ground around the Castle dry.
In 1273 the Emperor pledged Kaiserswerth to the archbishop of Cologne.
In 1689 Kaiserswerth was particularly destroyed by France during the War of the Palatine Succession. During the Spanish war of succession the Bishop of Cologne stayed with France.
Kaiserswerth got a French garrison. In 1702 the city was therefore besieged by the Grand Alliance. After that war the castle was mostly destroyed.
In the 19th century Kaiserswerth was famous by its deaconess clinic. Florence Nightingale visited in 1850 and learned from Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working there for the sick and the deprived. Nightingale published "The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc." in 1851 - her first publication.
Kaiserswerth became a part of Düsseldorf in 1929.
Vichy () is a "commune" in central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, along the Allier river. It is the "commune" in the department with second largest population after Montluçon. It is in the historic province of "Bourbonnais".
Vichy has lots of Spas and resorts. This site was inhabited before the Roman conquest of Gaul.
In 1861, Napoleon III visited Vichy several times.
During World War II, it was the capital city of Vichy France.
The "commune" of Vichy is on the southern part of the Allier department. The city is on the right side of the Allier river.
The distances from Vichy to other cities are:
Vichy is surrounded by the "communes" Creuzier-le-Vieux, Cusset, Le Vernet, Abrest, Bellerive-sur-Allier and Charmeil.
The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Vichy is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".
The inhabitants of Vichy are known, in French, as "Vichyssois" (women: "Vichyssoises").
With a population of 25,279, Vichy is the second largest city of the Allier department. It has a population density of inhabitants/km.
Evolution of the population in Vichy
Vichy is a subprefecture of the Allier department since 1941; before that year, the subprefecture was in Lapalisse. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Vichy and the administrative centre () of two cantons:
It is part of the intercommunality "Vichy Communauté".
Vichy is twinned with:
Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia.
It lies roughly east of India, south of China.
Indochina comprises the territory of the following countries:
These countries have been known as Indochina since the time of French Colonialism.
Often also included in the scope of the term are:
Ao Nishimura
Wadi Halfa
Wadi Halfa is a small city in the northern part of Sudan by Lake Nubia (the Sudanese section of Lake Nasser).
It has 6 neighborhoods with inhabitants of 18,000 people. There is a highway under construction which will connect it with Aswan in Egypt and via Dongola with Khartoum.
Wadi Halfa is now one of fastest growing cities in Sudan.
in 1964 when the Aswan Dam was built, the old city of Wadi Halfa was flooded and Nubians were forced to relocate in New Halfa. Now there is a huge number of Nubians are immigrating back to their mother land.
Wadi Halfa is a home of Geology and earth science college with student body of more than 500 students.
Mechanical energy
In physics, mechanical energy describes the potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system.
When a given amount of mechanical energy is transferred (such as when throwing a ball, lifting a box, crushing a soda can, or stirring a beverage) it is said that this amount of mechanical work has been done. Both mechanical energy and mechanical work are measured in the same units as energy in general. It is usually said that a component of a system has a certain amount of "mechanical energy" (i.e. it is a state function), whereas "mechanical work" describes the amount of mechanical energy a component has gained or lost.
The conservation of mechanical energy is a principle which states that under certain conditions, the total mechanical energy of a system is constant. This rule does not hold when mechanical energy is converted to other forms, such as chemical, nuclear, or electromagnetic. However, the principle of general conservation of energy is so far an unbroken rule of physics - as far as we know, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form ..
Vitiligo is a skin disease that causes the skin to lose its color. It occurs when the melanocytes, cells that give skin their color, die or do not work. This is a problem because these cells protect against the light from the sun.
The exact cause of vitiligo is complex and not fully understood. It may be caused by the immune system, genetic, and environmental factors.
Vitiligo may also be caused by stress that affects the immune system, leading the body to react and start eliminating skin pigment.
People over 20 years old rarely develop this disease. These patches often occur to both sides symmetrically and may change shape.
This disease can also affect the mental state of the patient.
As of 2020, doctors do not understand what causes the disease, so right now, it can not be cured. Some things can be done to fight its effects, though. Makeup or cosmetics can cover up the parts of the skin with vitiligo. Also, staying out of the sun to prevent tanning is good. But the treatment given by most skin doctors is cortico steroid cream.
Breakthrough discovery in 2004 allowed for the transplant of melanocytes to vitiligo affected areas, repigmenting the region.
Virtue (Latin "virtus"; Greek ἀρετή) is a kind of behaviour which is thought to be good. The adjective is "virtuous". Someone who lives a virtuous life is someone who leads a good moral life, doing things that society thinks are good. The opposite of virtue is vice.
Philosophers throughout the ages have written their ideas about what they think virtue is. The Ancient Greek philosophers from Plato onwards said that virtue consisted of four things: Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. In the Christian religion the three virtues were Faith, Hope and Charity. These are mentioned in the Bible in the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 13 verse 13. These virtues are also very important in the Judaic and Muslim traditions.
Greyhound Lines
In cryptography, Twofish is a symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 128 bits and key lengths up to 256 bits.
In 1997, the NIST announced for competition to choose a successor to DES to be known as AES, Twofish was one of the "five finalists" of the Advanced Encryption Standard competition, but was not selected as a standard.
Twofish is related to the earlier block cipher Blowfish. Twofish's main features are the use of pre-computed key-dependent S-boxes, and a relatively complex key schedule. One half of an n-bit key is used as the actual encryption key and the other half of the n-bit key is used to modify the encryption algorithm (key-dependent S-boxes). Twofish uses some elements from other designs; for example, the pseudo-Hadamard transform (PHT) from the SAFER family of ciphers. Twofish uses the same Feistel structure as the DES.
On most software platforms Twofish is slightly slower than Rijndael (the chosen algorithm for Advanced Encryption Standard) for 128-bit keys, but somewhat faster for 256-bit keys.
Twofish was designed by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, Doug Whiting, David Wagner, Chris Hall, and Niels Ferguson; the "extended Twofish team" who met to made further cryptanalysis of Twofish and other AES competitors included Stefan Lucks, Tadayoshi Kohno, and Mike Stay.
Twofish algorithm is free for anyone to use without any restrictions whatsoever. The Twofish cipher has not been patented and the software example of its specification has been placed in the public domain. However, Twofish is not widely used like the Blowfish, which has been available for a longer period of time.
As of 2008, the best published cryptanalysis on the Twofish block cipher is a truncated differential cryptanalysis of the full 16-round version. The paper claims that the probability of truncated differentials attacks is 2 per block and that it will take about 2 chosen plaintexts (32 PiB worth of data) to find a good pair of truncated differentials.
Bruce Schneier responds in a 2005 blog entry that this paper does not present a full cryptanalytic attack, but only some hypothesized differential characteristics: "But even from a theoretical perspective, Twofish is not even remotely broken. There have been no extensions to these results since they were published" in 2000.
Truncated differential cryptanalysis
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate was ruled by the al-Fātimiyyūn () dynasty from 5 January 909 to 1171. It was an Arab Shi'a dynasty It ruled the fourth and final Arab caliphate. In different times different areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, and the Levant belonged to the caliphate.
Egyptian city of Cairo was made the capital. The term "Fatimite" is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate as well. The ruling elite belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders were also Shia Ismaili Imams. They had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims, the only period in which the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree. There was only one other exception: the Caliphate of Ali himself.
The Fatimids were famous for religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians, but there were some exceptions nevertheless.
The Fatimids came from Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria. The dynasty was founded in 909 by , who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband , the first Imām, hence the name "al-Fātimiyyūn" "Fatimid".
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his newly-built capital in Tunisia.
In the 1040s, the Zirids (governors of North Africa under the Fatimids) declared their independence from the Fatimids and their conversion to Sunni Islam, which led to the devastating Banū Hilal invasions. After about 1070, the Fatimid hold on the Levant coast and parts of Syria was challenged first by Turkic (Seljuk) invasions, then the Crusades, so that Fatimid territory shrank until it consisted only of Egypt.
After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the Zengid ruler Nūr ad-Dīn had his general, Shirkuh, seize Egypt from the vizier Shawar in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, Saladin. This began the Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty.
Maghreb
Plaintext
In cryptography, plaintext is the information which the sender want to transmit to the receiver(s).
Before computers, plaintext meant text in the language of the communicating parties. Since computers, the definition has been expanded. It now includes not only the electronic representation of text, such as emails and word processor documents, but also the computer representation of speech, music, pictures, videos, ATM and credit card transactions, sensor data, and so forth. That is basically any information which the communicating parties might wish to hide from others. The plaintext is the normal representation of the data before any action has been taken to hide it.
The plaintext is used as input to an encryption algorithm; the output is termed ciphertext. Some systems, however, use a cascade of layers of encryption (called 'rounds') in which case the ciphertext output of one encryption algorithm becomes the plaintext input to the next. Triple DES is an example.
Ciphertext
In cryptography, ciphertext (or cyphertext) refers to the output of the encryption process. Plaintext is turned into ciphertext using an algorithm (cipher). This makes it unreadable to anyone except those who own unique information about it, usually referred to as a key.
Decryption is the reverse process of encryption. It takes the unreadable ciphertext as an input and makes it readable again in the form of plaintext.
Azad Kashmir Day
Azad Kashmir Day celebrates the 67th day of the Azad Jammu Kashmir government, created on 24 October 1947. However, most people celebrate it on 26 October as they class it as a lucky day once all the papers were signed and settled.
Stream cipher
In cryptography, a stream cipher is a symmetric key cipher where plaintext bits are combined with a pseudorandom cipher bit stream (keystream) using an exclusive-or (xor) operation. In a stream cipher the Plaintext digits are encrypted one at a time, and the transformation of successive digits varies during the encryption state. An alternative name is a state cipher, as the encryption of each digit is dependent on the current state. In practice, the digits are typically single bits or bytes.
Stream ciphers represent a different approach to symmetric encryption from block ciphers. Block ciphers operate on large blocks of fixed length. Stream ciphers typically execute at a higher speed than block ciphers and have lower hardware requirements. However, stream ciphers can be susceptible to serious security problems if used incorrectly; for example, in particular, the same starting state must never be used twice.
A stream cipher makes use of a much smaller and more convenient cryptographic key, for example 128 bits keys. Based on this key, it generates a pseudorandom keystream which can be combined with the plaintext digits in a similar way to the one-time pad encryption algorithm. However, because the keystream is pseudorandom, and not truly random, the security associated with the one-time pad cannot be applied and it is quite possible for a stream cipher to be completely insecure.
A stream cipher generates successive elements of the keystream based on an internal state. This state is updated in two ways:
In a synchronous stream cipher a stream of pseudo-random digits is generated independently of the plaintext and ciphertext messages, and then combined with the plaintext (to encrypt) or with the ciphertext (to decrypt). In the most common form, binary digits(bits) are used, and the keystream is combined with the plaintext using the exclusive or operation (XOR). This is termed a binary additive stream cipher.
In a synchronous stream cipher, the sender and receiver must be in synchronous for decryption to be successful. If digits are added or removed from the message during transmission, synchronisation is lost. To restore synchronisation, various offsets can be tried systematically to obtain the correct decryption. Another approach is to mark the ciphertext with markers at regular points in the output.
If, however, a digit is corrupted in transmission, rather than added or lost, only a single digit in the plaintext is affected and the error does not propagate to other parts of the message. This property is useful when the transmission error rate is high; however, it makes it less likely that the error would be detected without further mechanisms. Moreover, because of this property, synchronous stream ciphers are very susceptible to active attacks — if an attacker can change a digit in the ciphertext, he might be able to make predictable changes to the corresponding plaintext bit; for example, flipping a bit in the ciphertext causes the same bit to be flipped(Toggled) in the plaintext.
Self-synchronizing stream ciphers is another technique that uses part of the previous "N" ciphertext digits to compute the keystream. Such schemes are known also as asynchronous stream ciphers or ciphertext autokey (CTAK). The idea of self-synchronization was patented in 1946, and has the advantage that the receiver will automatically synchronise with the keystream generator after receiving "N" ciphertext digits, making it easier to recover if digits are dropped or added to the message stream. Single-digit errors are limited in their effect, affecting only up to "N" plaintext digits. It is somewhat more difficult to perform active attacks on self-synchronising stream ciphers rather than synchronous counterparts.
An example of a self-synchronising stream cipher is a block cipher in cipher-feedback mode (CFB).
Binary stream ciphers are often constructed using linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs) because they can be easily implemented in hardware and can be quickly analysed mathematically. However, the use of LFSRs only is insufficient to provide good security. Various schemes have been designed to increase the security of LFSRs.
Because LFSRs are inherently linear, one technique for removing the linearity is to feed the outputs of a group of parallel LFSRs into a non-linear Boolean function to form a "combination generator". Various properties of such a "combining function" are important for ensuring the security of the resultant scheme, for example, in order to avoid correlation attacks.
Normally LFSRs are stepped regularly. One technique to introducting non-linearity is to have the LFSR clocked irregularly, controlled by the output of a second LFSR. Such generators include the stop-and-go generator, the alternating step generator and the shrinking generator.
The stop-and-go generator (Beth and Piper, 1984) consists of two LFSRs. One LFSR is clocked if the output of a second is a "1", otherwise it repeats its previous output. This output is then (in some versions) combined with the output of a third LFSR clocked at a regular rate.
The shrinking generator uses a different technique. Two LFSRs are used, both clocked regularly in the following way:
This technique suffers from timing attacks on the second generator, since the speed of the output is variable in a manner that depends on the second generator's state. This can be improved by buffering the output.
Another approach to improving the security of an LFSR is to pass the entire state of a single LFSR into a non-linear "filtering function".
Instead of a linear driving device, one may use a nonlinear update function. For example, Klimov and Shamir proposed triangular functions (T-Functions) with a single cycle on n bit words.
To be secure, the period of the keystream (the number of digits output before the stream repeats itself) needs to be large enough. If the sequence repeats, then the overlapping ciphertexts can be aligned against each other ""in depth"", and there are techniques which allow extraction of the plaintext form ciphertexts generated using these methods.
Stream ciphers are often used in applications where plaintext comes in quantities of unknowable length as in secure wireless connections. If a block cipher were to be used in this type of application, the designer would need to choose either transmission efficiency or implementation complexity, since block ciphers cannot directly work on blocks shorter than their block size. For example, if a 128-bit block cipher received separate 32-bit bursts of plaintext, three quarters of the transmitted data need padding. Block ciphers must be used in ciphertext stealing or residual block termination mode to avoid padding, while stream ciphers eliminate this issue by operating on the smallest transmitted unit (usually bytes).
Another advantage of stream ciphers in military cryptography is that the cipher stream can be generated by an encryption device that is subject to strict security measures then fed to other devices, e.g. a radio set, which will perform the xor operation as part of their function. The other device can be designed for used in less securely environments.
RC4 is the most widely used stream cipher in software; others include:
A5/1,
A5/2,
Chameleon,
FISH,
Helix,
ISAAC,
MUGI,
Panama,
Phelix,
Pike,
SEAL,
SOBER,
SOBER-128 and
WAKE.
Nyon is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is found 25 kilometers north of Geneva, and is part of the Geneva metropolitan area. The town has (as of 2006) 17,267 people.
Nyon was built by the Romans between 50 BCE and 44 BCE, and was called "Colonia Iulia Equestris" or "Colonia Equestris Noiodunum". It grew to be one of the most important Roman colonies in modern-day Switzerland, with a forum, a basilica and an amphitheater that was discovered in 1996.
Today, Nyon has a high school (Gymnase de Nyon), a hospital, a movie theatre, hotels, restaurants, cafes and a popular tourist attraction - the castle.
In the last week of July each year, Nyon hosts the Paléo Festival - a huge music festival.
Letterkenny
Letterkenny () is a town in County Donegal of the Ireland. It is on the River Swilly and has a population of 17,586.
In 1824, when the first description of Letterkenny as a modern town was written, it was stated that: ""Within half a mile is the Port of Ballyraine, whither vessels of 100 tons bring iron, salt and colonial produce and whence they export hides and butter"". Nothing is left of the port now except the warehouses.
Letterkenny achieved town status in the early 1920s following the partition of Ireland.
Thalwil
Thalwil is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland.
Early Middle Ages Thalwil was Alemannic farmland.
Thalwil was originally four "Wachten", or hamlets:
In the Middle Ages, most income was made in farming, vineyards and a small amount of fishing on the lake.
Thalwil also has the oldest wood corporation in the Canton of Zurich, the "Bannegg-Waldung". It was first mentioned in 1483.
Today, the economy of Thalwil is mostly some small and medium-sized businesses, and a wide range of shops. Most of the shops are located around Gotthardstrasse- the town centre.
The main source of Thalwil's wealth lies with its 7,000 commuters. These people live in Thalwil, but work in Zurich city. Today, Thalwil has left most of its farming past behind in exchange for a town of commuters, with its public transportation links, low tax and good quality of life.
A hearth (har-th) is a brick or stone lined fireplace or oven that is used for cooking and heating. Historically, the hearth was the center of the home, as it provided heat for the house. Its Latin name is "focus". That is why "focus" is used for many kinds of central point.
In more modern times, the hearth may be section of the fireplace that can be seen. This often includes tiles around the base of the fireplace and the floor.
A Jack-o'-lantern is a carved pumpkin, turnip, beet, or potato. In the 19th and 20th centuries people in Scotland and Ireland carved Halloween lanterns from large yellow turnips. This custom has become less prevalent in recent years as supermarkets have begun selling the larger and easier-to-carve American pumpkins.
In Irish lore, the Jack-o'-lantern is from the story of Stingy Jack. Jack was a clever man who cheated the devil several times. Once when Jack was leaving hell, the devil threw him a glowing coal to light his way. Jack put the coal in a hollowed-out turnip to make the first "Jack-o'-lantern". Lore says Jack can still be seen wandering the world with his turnip lantern, especially around All Saints Day, November 1.
In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween. In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit Jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.
To make a Jack-o'-lantern, the top of the pumpkin surrounding the stump of the vine is cut off. This top will be used as a "lid" when the Jack-o'-lantern is completed. The seeds and pulp inside the pumpkin are scooped out using a spoon or one's hands. The seeds may be roasted in a hot oven, and then salted to make a snack.
Once the inside of the pumpkin is clean, a face is carved into one side of the pumpkin. The eyes and nose are usually triangles. The mouth is usually filled with jagged teeth. A candle, devotional candle in a candle-holder, or a flashlight is put inside the Jack-o'-lantern and lit. The "lid" is replaced. The lid may be placed slightly askew to keep the candle alit.
In the United States, a completely carved and lit Jack-o'-lantern is put on the porch, the porch steps, or in a window to welcome trick-or-treaters on Halloween. Once the pumpkin is carved, it is good for nothing else and lasts only a day or two before it starts to rot. Pumpkins used to make Jack-o'-lanterns are inedible. In the United States, mischief-makers steal the Jack-o'-lanterns of their neighbors. The pumpkins are smashed in the street, dropped from a bridge, or otherwise destroyed.
Lakes of Titan
The lakes of Titan, a moon of Saturn, are made of liquid methane. The lakes were found by the "Cassini-Huygens" space probe. The larger lakes are known as maria (seas) and the smaller ones as lacūs (lakes).
It was possible that there were seas of liquid methane on Titan and first suggested after reading Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 information that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere, capable of supporting lakes, but exact evidence was not found until 1995 when pictures from the Hubble telescope and other telescopes had already shown some proof of liquid methane possibly in lakes or planet-wide oceans, similar to oceans on Earth.
The "Cassini" mission proved there are liquid lakes on Titan, but not at first. When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004, scientists hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans might be seen in reflected sunlight from the surface, but no reflections were found.
Scientists still believed that liquid ethane and methane would be found near Titan's poles, where they expected to find lots of liquid. At Titan's south pole, a large dark area named Ontario Lacus was the first lake identified, possibly created by rain as clouds are often seen in the area. A possible shoreline was also identified at the pole in radar images. As the Huygens-Cassini probe flew by on July 22, 2006, its radar took pictures of the northern part of the planet (which was in its winter), a number of large, smooth areas were found on the surface near the northern pole. Based on this data, scientists announced "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn's moon Titan" in January 2007. The "Cassini–Huygens" team decided that the smooth areas are the hydrocarbon lakes they had been searching for, the first lakes found off Earth. Some valleys appear to have rivers.
The satellite was not able to show pictures of lakes moving in the wind. The heavy moisture and clouds of methane near Titan’s surface could be a sign of evaporation from lakes. The lakes cover 0.002–0.02% of Titan's surface.
The "Cassini-Huygens" probe flew by in February, 2007, taking radar and camera pictures of some large areas near the north pole that may be large areas of liquid methane and/or ethane, including one sea larger than 100,000 km² (larger than Lake Superior), and another area similar in size to the Caspian Sea. Pictures taken near Titan's southern pole in October 2007 showed similar, but far smaller, areas that look like lakes.
The Cassini-Huygens probe, flew very close to Titan in December 2007, and took infrared pictures of the chemicals on the surface and found a lake called Ontario Lacus near the south pole. Scientists studying the infrared pictures decided that one or more of the large lakes in the pictures of Saturn's moon Titan does hold liquid and that the liquid is made of hydrocarbons. They have also found ethane on Titan. This mission proves Titan to be the only other planet known to have liquid on its surface. The lakes make Titan a very important planet for studying weather science. Liquids, gases and temperatures are at play on Titan. This should help the science of weather forecasting.
Lakes were not found near near Titan's center of Titan which was studied on January 14, 2005. A part of the Huygens-Cassini probe landed there. The pictures taken by the probe as it fell showed no open areas of liquid, but showed rivers that had dried. It was at first thought that dark areas near the center of Titan could be a lake of a liquid or tar-like substance, but the probe landed on the dark area, and it is solid without any liquid. A device known as a penetrometer studied the surface as the probe landed and seemed to find wet clay. Scientists believe that the penetrometer may have landed on a large pebble, and they say that the surface is similar to sand made of ice. Pictures taken after the probe landed show a large flat area covered in pebbles. The pebbles may be made of water ice and are partly rounded, which indicates fluids.
On February 13, 2008, scientists said that Titans polar lakes contain "hundreds of times more natural gas and other hydrocarbons than all the known natural gas on Earth." The desert near the center of the planet are not liquid but do have more organics than Earth. In June 2008, "Cassini"'s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in a lake in Titan's southern hemisphere.
Predictions of Titan's clouds are that during in a Saturnian year, liquid moves from the equator to the poles, in clouds, and falls as rain.
Titanian "maria" (large hydrocarbon seas) are named after sea monsters of Earth.
Areas named "Lacus" are believed to be methane lakes. They are named after lakes on Earth.
West Coast blues
The West Coast blues is a type of blues music related to jazz and jump blues, with lots of piano sounds and jazz guitar solos, which originated from Texas blues musicians that moved to California in the 1940s. West Coast blues also uses smooth, honey-toned vocals, often sounding similar to urban blues.
Texas and the West Coast
The best known West Coast blues musicians may be guitarist T-Bone Walker, famous for the song "Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just As Bad)", originally from Texas, he had made his first recordings in the late 1920s. During the early 1940's Walker moved to Los Angeles, where he recorded a lot of music for Capital, Black & White, and Imperial. Walker an electric guitar sound to the blues, prossibly doing more to make the use of electric guitar popular in blues than anyone else. Much of his material had a jazzy jump blues feel, which is typical of popular blues from California in the 1940s and 1950s. Other Texas bluesmen followed: Pianist/songwriter Amos Milburn, singer Percy Mayfield, famous for the song "Hit the Road Jack", and Charles Brown moved to Los Angeles. Guitarist Pee Wee Crayton divided his time between Los Angeles and San Francisco, while Lowell Fulson, from Texas by way of Oklahoma, moved to Oakland.
After the efforts of Tom Mazzolini, producer of the San Francisco Blues Festival, started in 1974, and the efforts of recording companies like Arhoolie and HighTone, the West Coast is one of the most important blues areas in the country.
Third person
Third person (or third-person) may refer to:
Frederick Pottinger
Sir Frederick William Pottinger, 2nd Baronet (1831–1865), police inspector, was born on April 27, 1831, in India. He became famous for leading the New South Wales police in their hunt for the bushrangers Ben Hall, John Gilbert, Frank Gardiner and John Dunn.
He was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pottinger of the British East India Company, and his wife Susanna Maria, née Cooke, of Dublin. Henry Pottinger was the first Governor of Hong Kong. Frederick went to Eton from 1844 to 1847. Between 1850 and 1854, Pottinger was an officer in the Grenadier Guards in England. He lost a lot of his mother's money gambling on horse races. In 1856 he took the place of his father as second baronet. He soon gambled away all his money. He owed people a lot of money.
He went to Australia to search for gold. He joined the New South Wales police force as a mounted trooper. He was an excellent horse rider and spent the next few years working on the gold escort between Gundagai and Goulburn.
Pottinger kept his title secret but in 1860 the inspector-general of police, John McLerie, found out. He was quickly given better jobs. In November he became clerk of petty sessions at Dubbo and on October 1, 1861, assistant superintendent of the Southern Mounted Police Patrol. He wanted to do a good job in the police, but he got into a drunken brawl at Young on 20–21 December 1861. He was a publicly warned about his bad behaviour. He was sent to the Lachlan River area. He showed he was a busy but unlucky hunter of bushrangers.
In 1862 Pottinger was made an inspector of police for the Western District of New South Wales. In April 1862 he arrested Ben Hall at Forbes on a charge of robbery. Hall he was released because there was not enough evidence to prove he was a robber. Soon afterward Hall joined Frank Gardiner's gang. On June 15, 1862, they robbed the Lachlan gold escort of some £14,000 at Eugowra. This was Australia's biggest gold robbery. Pottinger was able to capture two of the bushrangers quickly. They escaped several days later in a gun battle. Pottinger got back some of the stolen gold.
People thought Pottinger made a lot of mistakes. He was in trouble for not having enough police guards on the gold escort and letting his prisoners escape. On the night of August 9, Pottinger and a group of police surrounded the house of Gardiner's mistress, Kate Brown. The bushranger escaped when Pottinger's pistol fired accidentally. They arrested a young boy who they thought was a friend of the bushrangers. When he died from a fever in gaol in March 1863, this was seen to be caused by Pottinger's cruelty. In February 1862 Pottinger was in court at Yass for assault. During a game of billiards he had been called a cheat, a liar and a scoundrel. He hit the person with the billiard cue and smashed his head through a window. On September 27, 1862, Pottinger had appeared before a Bathurst court on a charge of assault. In February 1863 Pottinger went to Sydney for the trial of the escort robbers. He was pushed in the street by people in the crowd. He also threatened a Member of Parliament, J. J. Harpur, with his whip. He didn't like things that Harpur had said about him.
The bushrangers in his area became more active. He captured Patrick Daley. On August 17, 1864, he nearly caught James Alpin McPherson.
In May 1863 the inspector-general told police to think of new ways to catch the bushrangers. Early in January 1865 Pottinger rode a horse in the Wowingragong races. This was against the rules of the police force. He was sacked (lost his job) on February 16, 1865. Pottinger said that he was just trying to get Ben Hall and John Dunn to come out of hiding. His plan worked and the bushrangers went to the races, only Pottinger didn't see them. Protest meetings against his sacking were held on the gold diggings and in the towns. People signed petitions for him to get his job back. He was regarded as a brave and tireless policeman. Pottinger went to Sydney to try and get back his job. On March 5, 1865, at Wascoe's Inn in the Blue Mountains Pottinger accidentally shot himself in the stomach while trying to get onto a moving coach. He was moved to the Victoria Club in Sydney where he died on April 9, 1865. His brother Henry became the 3rd Baronet. He was buried at St Jude's Anglican Church, Randwick.
Bushfire
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as selective breeding and is an ancient method of genetic engineering.
Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals may have traits that a breeder will want to carry over to the next generation. The breeder will therefore select those animals to breed which have that quality, rather than those that do not.
Inbreeding is a particular kind of selective breeding, designed to produce a population which is genetically virtually identical. Such populations are rarely viable outside the laboratory. They lose fertility. To control this, most breeds are outcrossed or backcrossed to wild-type individuals, or at least less inbred stock. The details differ from breed to breed. The improvement when outcrossing is done is called hybrid vigour.
Charles Darwin used the example of artificial selection to introduce his idea of natural selection. Artificial selection may be contrasted with the process of natural selection. In natural selection, the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits happens. This is because some variations help the organism to have better survival and reproduction. The process maintains or enhances the fitness of a population in its natural habitat.
Artificial selection may sometimes be unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.
Selectable marker
A selectable marker is a reporter gene introduced into a cell along with a gene insert. What this means is, the experimenter can tell the right gene is in the cell because the marker can be seen or detected.
Most often, this is used for bacteria or for cells in culture. Selectable markers show the success of a transfection or other procedure meant to introduce foreign DNA into a cell. It is a technique in gene targeting and gene knockout.
Selectable markers are often antibiotic resistance genes; bacteria that have been subjected to a procedure to introduce foreign DNA are grown on a medium containing an antibiotic. The antibiotic knocks out cells which do not have the resistant marker. Those bacterial colonies that can grow have successfully taken up and expressed the introduced genetic material.
An alternative to a selectable marker is a screenable marker, which allows the researcher to distinguish between wanted and unwanted cells.
Examples of selectable markers include:
Artificial life
Artificial life (commonly Alife or alife) is a field of study which examines systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution. This is done with simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. There are three main kinds of alife, named for their approaches: "soft", from software; "hard", from hardware; and "wet", from biochemistry. Artificial life imitates traditional biology by trying to "recreate" biological phenomena. The term "artificial life" is often used to specifically refer to soft alife.
Nils Aall Barricelli
Nils Aall Barricelli (born 1912, died 1993) was a Norwegian-Italian mathematician.
Barricelli's early computer-assisted experiments in symbiogenesis and evolution are considered pioneering in artificial life research. Barricelli, who was independently rich, held an unpaid residency at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1953, 1954. and 1956. He later worked at the University of California, Los Angeles, at Vanderbilt University (until 1964), in the Department of Genetics of the University of Washington, Seattle (until 1968) and then at the Mathematics Institute of the University of Oslo. Barricelli published in a variety of fields including virus genetics, DNA, theoretical biology, space flight, theoretical physics and mathematical language.
A genetic algorithm is an algorithm that imitates the process of natural selection. They help solve optimization and search problems. Genetic algorithms are part of the bigger class of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic algorithms imitate natural biological processes, such as inheritance, mutation, selection and crossover.