AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
He scored his first goals for the club on 16 September against US Sassuolo. Juventus won 2-1 at home. Three days later, on 19 September, he was controversially sent off against Valencia C.F. for "violent behavior". He was crying as he received the red card and said he "did nothing". Ronaldo won his first trophy with the club, the 2018 Supercoppa Italiana, in January 2019. In the match, he scored the only goal from a header against AC Milan.
Ronaldo began his international career with the Portugal under-15's in 2001. In 2002, he played the U-17 Euro with Portugal's U-17. In June 2003, Ronaldo won the Toulon Tournament with the Portugal U-20. He played with the U21's in 2003 as well during the 2004 U-21 Euro qualification stages. He also played with the Portugal under-23 team at the 2004 Summer Olympics, where he scored one goal against Morocco.
He kept progressing through the youth national teams until he played his first senior game for Portugal when he was 18 on 20 August 2003 against Kazakhstan. He scored his first goal for Portugal in a game against Greece at the UEFA Euro 2004.
Ronaldo was selected to play at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, which was also his first World Cup. During the tournament, he scored a goal against Iran. That goal was also his first World Cup goal. In the match against England, Ronaldo's teammate at Manchester United, Wayne Rooney, was sent off. Ronaldo went up to the referee and appeared to ask the ref to give a red card to Rooney. Rooney pushed Ronaldo as he was talking to the ref. After Rooney left the pitch, Ronaldo was caught on camera winking at the Portugal bench. Even though the referee said Rooney would've gotten the red card if Ronaldo complained or not, these actions caused a lot of fans to hate Ronaldo because they believed he influenced the referee's decision.
Ronaldo became captain of Portugal for the first time in a friendly game against Brazil on 6 February 2007. At Euro 2008, he scored one goal against Czech Republic. Portugal were eliminated in the quarter-finals by barely losing to Germany 3-2. In the 2010 World Cup, Ronaldo only scored one goal in a 7-0 win against North Korea, but was the man of the match in all of Portugal's 3 group stage games. Portugal were eliminated in the round of 16 by Spain 1-0, and Spain went on to win the World Cup.
His first international hat-trick came in a 4-2 win against Northern Ireland on 6 September 2013. In that match, he scored 3 goals in 15 minutes. He became Portugal's all time top scorer when he scored twice against Cameroon in March 2014, with Portugal winning 5-1. At the 2014 World Cup, Ronaldo scored a goal against Ghana, and assisted a last minute equalizer in a 2-2 draw against the United States. In a 3-3 draw against Hungary in Euro 2016, Ronaldo scored a back heel goal. This goal made him the first player to score in four Euros. Although he had to leave the game early because he got injured in the UEFA Euro 2016 Final, Portugal still won 1-0 in extra time because of a goal from Eder.
In the 2018 World Cup held in Russia, Ronaldo scored 4 goals. In Portugal's first group game, he scored a hat trick against Spain in a 3-3 draw. After that he scored the winning goal against Morocco. In the last group game, he missed a penalty in a 1-1 draw against Iran. Portugal qualified to the knockout stages by finishing second in the group. They were eliminated by Uruguay 2-1. Ronaldo became one of only four players to score at 4 World Cups. He has played at 4 of them: 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018.
In June 2019, Ronaldo won the UEFA Nations League with Portugal to give him his second international title. In the final, Portugal beat The Netherlands 1-0.
Ronaldo is able to play on both wings and also as a striker since he is very strong with both feet, even though he is naturally right footed. He is also one of the world's fastest players. He has good heading ability because he is over 6 feet tall and jumps high. He is also known for his powerful "knuckleball" free kicks. The "knuckleball" technique is when the ball spins very little and creates an unpredictable motion. He combines this with his powerful shot, making it hard for goalkeepers to stop his shots. Ronaldo has also been known for his dribbling, as he likes to do many tricks and with the ball to pass defenders, such as the . When he was at Manchester United, he would play as a winger and try to send into the middle. At Real Madrid, he changed his playing style by moving more towards the middle and becoming more of a striker. He also focused more on scoring goals. When he arrived to Juventus, he stayed with this playing style of being a goal scorer and target man, although he dribbled with the ball more because he sometimes liked to play his traditional winger position and go one-on-one with defenders. He also sent crosses more frequently than he did in his last few seasons at Real Madrid.
Ronaldo has been criticized for "diving" by many people, including his Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson.He has also been criticized for being arrogant, such as complaining for not receiving set-pieces (free-kicks and penalties) when he gets fouled, having too much self-confidence, not celebrating with teammates after scoring goals, and getting excessively angry with others after losing. Examples of this are when he threw a reporter's microphone into a lake before a UEFA Euro 2016 match, and negative comments made at the Iceland national team after playing against them.
Ronaldo's father, José Aveiro, died of liver disease at age 52 in September 2005. Ronaldo was 20 years old at the time. Ronaldo said that he does not like to drink alcohol, mostly because of his dad's death, but has on some very few occasions.
In 2006, Ronaldo opened his first fashion boutique under the name "CR7" (his initials and shirt number) on the island he was born in, Madeira. He opened a second boutique in Lisbon in 2008, and a third in 2009, located in Madrid. In December 2013, Ronaldo opened his own museum called "Museu CR7", which has all of his trophies and awards from his career.
Ronaldo became a father on 17 June 2010. He had a son, named Cristiano Jr. He was born in the United States through an American surrogate he met in a restaurant, and Ronaldo announced that he had full custody. Ronaldo has never publicly revealed information about his son's mother, but he says he will reveal it to Cristiano Jr. when he gets older. On 8 June 2017, Ronaldo confirmed on social media that he had become the father to twins, Mateo and Eva. They were born in the United States to a mother. In November 2017, his girlfriend Georgina Rodriguez gave birth to their first daughter, Alana.
Ronaldo has had many relationships. He was in a relationship with Russian model Irina Shayk from 2010–2015. In 2016, he began to date Spanish model Georgina Rodriguez. They were publicly seen for the first time at Disneyland Paris in November 2016.
Ronaldo is a Roman Catholic. He does not have tattoos because it would prevent him from donating blood. On 9 November 2015, a movie about his lifestyle and his career was released. The title of the movie is "Ronaldo".
On 29 March 2017, Madeira Airport was renamed to Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport. A bust of Ronaldo was also revealed as part of the official renaming ceremony.
He is currently the most followed Instagram user, with over 200 million followers as of February 2020. He passed Selena Gomez as the most followed person in October 2018, with 144 million followers.
In June 2018, Ronaldo was given a suspended jail sentence of 2 years and a fine of €18.8 million for tax evasion.
In 2017, a woman claimed she was raped by Ronaldo at a hotel in Las Vegas in June 2009. Many articles state that Ronaldo and the woman both met each other at the nightclub of the hotel. Ronaldo later invited her to his suite, and that was where the rape occurred. Ronaldo paid that woman $375,000 to stay quiet, and an agreement was made between Ronaldo's lawyers and the woman's lawyers that if she publicly shared information of what happened, she had to pay those $375,000 back. Ronaldo himself denies raping the woman and calls it "fake news". In July 2019, prosecutors said they would not charge Ronaldo because there was not enough evidence.
Oaxaca is a state in Mexico. The capital is Oaxaca de Juárez. Oaxaca is next to Guerrero, Puebla, Veracruz, and Chiapas. About 3.5 million people live there. The Zapotec and the Mixtec people live in the state. There are more speakers of indigenous languages in this state than in any other state of Mexico. This Mexican state is known for it's diverse culture and it's native people.
Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany
The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany is the name of Germany's constitution. It was written in 1949 when Germany was split into the countries of East Germany and West Germany. Many parts of the constitution are very different from the constitution of the Weimar Republic.
The writers decided not to call it the constitution because they hoped it would only be a temporary law for West Germany and that the two Germanys would soon be made into one.
It was more than 40 years before East Germany and West Germany became one country again, but the old name of Basic Law has been kept.
The Federal Constiutional Court (German: Bundesverfassungsgericht) protects the constitution by banning laws which break the constitution. There are "eternal clauses" in the constitution which the court will protect even by banning "constitutional amendments" (laws to change them). Article 1, about human life and dignity, and article 20's basic principles are protected from change. This is to make sure nothing like the Nazi period happens again. The Nazis were able to pass an Enabling Act which allowed Hitler to rule by decree.
Germany is a federal parliamentary democracy. To show this there are five "constitutional institutions".
The Federal President () is the head of state. It is largely ceremonial position with only a small role in daily politics. The president does not have the massive power of the president of the Weimar Republic, or the President of the United States. He is the formal head of state, and signs laws before they can enter into force and appoints federal officials, he cannot decide when to dissolve the Bundestag or name a new chancellor until a majority of the members of the parliament () vote in favour.
The Chancellor is chosen by the Bundestag. He or she is head of the executive branch, and heads the federal Cabinet.
The Judicial branch is made up of the Federal Constitutional Court and five other Supreme Courts. There are also local and regional courts which make the first decision about cases. Their decisions can be overturnned by the courts of appeal or Supreme Courts.
The Federal Constitutional Court is the most important court in Germany. Its job is to protect the Basic Law. Its decisions are like laws. The court can cancel laws if they break the Basic Law.
The Federal Social Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about social security, pensions and health insurance
The Federal Labour Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about labour law. This includes contracts of employment, strikes and trade union agreements
The Federal Tax Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about tax and customs law
The Federal Social Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases involving a government body. These may be because a person might feel they have been treated unfairly by government or because there is a dispute between two government bodies about which of them is allowed to do something.
This court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases all civil and criminal cases which are not heard by one of the other supreme courts
The legislative branch has two of the constitutional bodies.
Germany's upper chamber of parliament, the Bundesrat, represents the "Länder". It also shows that Germany is a federal state. Federalism is one of the "eternal clauses" of the constitution, that can never be changed..
The Bundestag is the part of the legislature chosen by election. The Chancellor must be a member of the Bundestag.
The Weimar Constitution had the Reichswehr outside of the control of the parliament or the public. The army directly reported to the president, and the president did not have to report to the parliament.
Under the Basic Law, the Defence Forces Bundeswehr are responsible to parliament, because
The chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the government by electing a new chancellor.
The Basic Law also created a soldiers' ombudsman or "Wehrbeauftragter", reporting to parliament not to the government. Soldiers can write directly to the "Wehrbeauftragter" if they feel they have been treated unfairly or unlawfully, or if they think their commanders are acting illegally. Soldiers cannot be punished for writing to the "Wehrbeauftragter".
A number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s said that the Bundeswehr cannot be used by the government outside NATO territory unless the Bundestag first gives permission in a resolution. The resultion must describe where the Bundeswehr is to go, and for who long the mission will last.
The Basic Law only allows referendums about changing borders of the "Länder". There have been two referundums:
Important changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956.
During reunification East Germany and West Germany decided not to write a new constitution, but to keep the old one, which had worked so well in West Germany. The constitution was amended to allow East Germany to join, and then changed again to strengthen the claim that Germany wanted no more territory. This was a promise made in the Final Settlement.
Oaxaca de Juárez
Oaxaca de Juárez is the capital city of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is called La'a in the Zapotec language. Ñuu Nunduva is its name in the Mixtec language. Since 1872, when Benito Juárez died there, the city is called "de Juárez", in his honour. Currently, 258,000 people live in the city.
A armadillo is in the Cingulata, an order of New World placental mammals. The living ones have a leathery armored shell. The word "armadillo" is Spanish for "little armored one".
There are about 10 living genera and about 20 species of armadillo. Their average length is about 75 centimeters (30 in), including the tail. The giant armadillo grows up to 100 cm (39 in) and weigh 30 kg (66lbs). All species live in the Americas. Most of the 20 species are found in open areas, such as grasslands, but some also live in forests.
Armadillos species are mostly found in South and Central America, especially around Paraguay. Many species are endangered.
The nine-banded armadillo has an unusual reproductive system, in which genetically identical quadruplets are born in each litter.
Because they are always genetically identical clones, the group of four young is a good subject for scientific, behavioural or medical tests. They provide the same biological and genetic makeup, and then get different treatment. This is the only regular case of 'polyembryony' in the class Mammalia, where one fertilised egg splits into four embryos. It only happens in the genus Dasypus, and not in all armadillos. Other animals which have this reproductive method are parasitoid wasps, certain flatworms and various aquatic invertebrates.
Order CINGULATA
† indicates extinct taxon
Niacin is a vitamin. It is also known by the name nicotinic acid. It is Vitamin B. It can be dissolved in water. It plays a very important role in the metabolism of living cells.
Other functions of niacin include removing toxic chemicals from the body, and helping with the production of steroid hormones made by the adrenal gland. These hormones include sex hormones and stress-related ones.
Niacin was first discovered from the oxidation of nicotine to form nicotinic acid. When the properties of nicotinic acid were discovered, it was thought prudent to choose a name to dissociate it from nicotine, in order to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contain nicotine. The resulting name 'niacin' was made from nicotinic acid + vitamin.
Niacin is also referred to as Vitamin B because it was the third of the B vitamins to be discovered. It has historically been referred to as "vitamin PP". That name was derived from the term "pellagra-preventing factor", because the disease pellagra is due to a deficiency of niacin in the diet.
The recommended daily allowance of niacin is 2–12 mg a day for children, 14 mg a day for women, 16 mg a day for men, and 18 mg a day for pregnant or breast-feeding women.
Severe deficiency of niacin in the diet causes the disease pellagra. A mild deficiency will slow down the metabolism, causing decreased tolerance to cold.
Dietary niacin deficiency tends to occur only in areas where people eat corn (maize), the only grain low in niacin, as a staple food, "and" that do not use lime during meal/flour production. Alkali lime releases the tryptophan from the corn in a process called nixtamalization so that it can be absorbed in the intestine, and converted to niacin.
An octagon or 8-gon is a shape with 8 sides and 8 corners.
All sides of a regular octagon are the same length. Each corner is 135°. All corners added together equal 1080°.
The amount of space a regular octagon takes up is
"a" is the length of one of its sides.
Another way to write it is
Registration is a method of officially recording something. Usually something is registered to claim more rights, or to protect ownership, or because the law says it must be registered to be used legally.
A register was a large book. It was used like a diary to record business dealings or other events.
Births, deaths, and marriages are registered to prove the date the event happened. In the United Kingdom these records are kept by the local registrar, who is in charge of the Register office.
Motor vehicles are registered to prove who owns the vehicle and to identify them. Those that not registered cannot be driven on roads. Aircraft not registered cannot be flown. Proof that a vehicle is registered is the vehicle registration plate. Vehicles must also be registered before they can be insured in case of an accident or theft.
Books might be registered to show the date when copyright protection starts. Usually this is done by sending a copy of the book to a special national library.
People who stay in a hotel register their names and addresses when they arrive. The hotel can work out how much the people must pay for their stay. The local police may also keep a copy of these names to help fight crime.
Eschweiler
Eschweiler is a German town in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is next to the river Inde, near the German-Belgian-Dutch frontier, and about 15 km east of Aachen and west of Cologne. It has about 55,000 inhabitants. Its area has about .
In Eschweiler, there are many castles. Eschweiler is a big carnival town. There are also many sport places. These include two public swimming pools, a golf place and an artificial lake. A well-known school in Eschweiler is the "Bischöfliche Liebfrauenschule" with its over 100 years of tradition.
Eschweiler is on the railway line from Aachen to Cologne. The Eschweiler Central railway station was opened in 1841. Next to Eschweiler, there is a village called "Bergrath". In 2010, a new shopping center with a "MediaMarkt"-store opened next to the motorway.
Tropical Storm Arlene (2005)
Tropical Storm Arlene was the first named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. Arlene was a large storm that formed early in the year. It had maximum wind speeds of 70 mph (110 km/h). It also caused one death and created $11.8 million (2005 USD) in damage.
The storm formed near Honduras on June 8 and moved north. It came close to western Cuba on June 10 before entering the Gulf of Mexico. Arlene strengthened just below hurricane strength before making landfall on western Florida. The storm quickly weakened while moving inland, and later became an extratropical remnant on June 13.
When Tropical Storm Arlene formed on June 8, it was the ninth time that the name has been used to name a storm in the Atlantic. This meant Arlene kept its position as the most commonly used name for Atlantic storms. But because the storm did not cause any major damages, its name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization and will be on the list of names for the 2011 season.
Sirenia
Sirenia is an order of herbivorous mammals. In this order are the dugong and three species of manatee.
Keihan Main Line
The Keihan Main Line (京阪本線, "-honsen") is a railway line of Keihan Electric Railway. The line starts from Sanjo Station in Kyoto, and ends at Yodoyabashi Station in Osaka, and travels a distance of about 51 km. The line is not "the Main Line" but "the Keihan Main Line". Trains go direct to the Oto Line.
Sanjo Station (Kyoto)
Limited Express trains and K-Limited Express trains arrive at and depart from Tracks (Platforms) 1 and 3.
Sanjō Keihan Station (, "Sanjō Keihan Eki") is a subway station on Kyoto's Tozai Line. It intersects with the Keihan Electric Railway's Keihan Main Line. It is connected to the adjacent Keihan Sanjō Station. The station is underneath Sanjō-dori, just east of the Kamo River and Kyoto's Kawaramachi shopping district.
William Anthony "Tony" Parker (born ) is a retired French basketball player that played for the San Antonio Spurs of the NBA. He was drafted by them in 2001.
Parker retired from the French national team after the 2016 Rio Olympics.
Parker was born in Bruges, Belgium, and raised in France. His father, Tony Parker Sr., was also a professional basketball player.
Kawaramachi Station
Kawaramachi Station (河原町駅, "Kawaramachi eki") is the terminal station of the Hankyu Kyoto Line of Hankyu Railway in Kyoto, Japan. The Kawaramachi and Shijo streets cross over the underground station. Keihan Shijo Station is beyond the Kamo River.
The area around the station is one of commercial centers of Kyoto. The real estate around the station is the most valuable in Kyoto.
The station is attached underground to department stores such as Takashimaya, which has a food market on its basement floor. The station also connects underground to Karasuma Station.
The station opened on June 17, 1963. Before the opening of Kawaramachi Station and Karasuma Station, the Hankyu Kyoto Line ended at Ōmiya Station.
Girlfriend (Avril Lavigne song)
"Girlfriend" is a song by Avril Lavigne. It was the lead single from her third album, "The Best Damn Thing" (2007). It was produced by Lukasz "Dr. Luke" Gottwald. "Girlfriend" became Lavigne's biggest hit in the United States, where it reached number one on the U.S. Hot 100, in Australia, where it topped the chart, and in the United Kingdom, where it reached number two. A remix version featuring singer Lil' Mama was released in June 2007.
"Girlfriend" was the subject of a lawsuit filed by songwriters for The Rubinoos, who alleged that the writers of the song copied The Rubinoos' single "I Wanna Be Your Boyfriend". Only one line, not even of the same tune was: "Hey, hey, you, you! I want to be your girlfriend!" Note it was "I want to" not "I wanna".
The music video became the second most viewed video of all time on YouTube, currently having over 100,000,000 views. In the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, it is nominated for the category Monster Single of the Year.
M×0
M×0 (エム×ゼロ, Emu x Zero) is a Japanese comedy manga series by Japanese author Yasuhiro Kanō (author of "Pretty Face"). It is about a school that teaches students how to do magic and the crazy adventures of a normal boy who was admitted to the school under special circumstances. It was first serialized in "Weekly Shonen Jump" on May 1, 2006, published by Shueisha. The first volume of the series was released in Japan on November 2, 2006.
Currently, four volumes have been released:
Chip Douglas
Henry Wood
Sir Henry Wood (3 March 1869 - 19 August 1944) was an English conductor. He is famous for having been the conductor of the Proms. He conducted the Proms for 50 years. They became known as the "Henry Wood Promenade Concerts". Today they are called the "BBC Proms".
Henry Wood was born in London. His father was an optician, but had become well known for making model trains. He sold them in his shop in Oxford Street in London. His parents liked music. They both sang and his father played the cello.
Although Henry heard a lot of music around him he did not have proper music lessons until he was already quite old. When he was 14 he learned to play the organ. He also played the piano and violin. When he was 16 he went to the Royal Academy of Music where he had lessons in piano, organ, composition and singing. He wanted to become a singing teacher, and he did in fact give singing lessons all his life. He became good at the piano so that he could accompany singers.
When he left the Royal Academy of Music he found work as a singing teacher and as a conductor of choirs and orchestras. He wrote a small book called "The Gentle Art of Singing".
In 1893 a man called Robert Newman, who was manager of the Queen's Hall, had an idea. He wanted to organize a series of concerts in which the audience could walk about and listen to music. He wanted to call them "Promenade Concerts" (the word comes from the French "se promener" = "to walk"). There were already promenade concerts in the parks in London, but those Promenade concerts were just for music that was easy to listen to. Newman wanted people to get to know good classical music. He wanted the tickets to be cheap so that people who were not rich would be able to afford to go. Newman thought that Henry Wood was a good conductor and asked him to conduct these concerts.
The first series of Promenade Concerts (or "Proms" for short) was in 1895. The programmes were much longer than they are in concerts today. There were lots of short pieces of music. Wood gradually made his audiences get used to listening to longer pieces of music. He introduced them to new music which had only recently been written. He conducted music by many British composers and European composers. People at that time were very prejudiced. They thought that only German conductors knew how to conduct German composers such as Richard Wagner. Wood showed them that he could do it too. He conducted every night during the Proms season. On Mondays he played a lot of Wagner and on Fridays he played Beethoven. He played music by European composers whose music was not yet well known in England, e.g. Sibelius, Schoenberg and many Russian composers.
Wood conducted the Proms until his death in 1944. Most of that time he was the only conductor of the Proms. Later in life he shared the conducting with other conductors such as Basil Cameron and Sir Adrian Boult. Wood had a big influence on the standard of music making in England. He made orchestral playing better, making sure that the players did not send in deputies instead of them. He made sure that the orchestral players were paid well and he allowed women to play in the orchestra.
Wood is mainly remembered for the promenade concerts, but he conducted many other groups as well. He travelled around England, conducting at music festivals. He often conducted amateur groups. He made sure that he knew the music he was conducting very well. Many conductors in the 19th century did not do this. They were more keen to show off, but Wood prepared the music carefully, marking things in his score with coloured pencils.
Wood made arrangements of other composer's music, e.g. Bach's "Toccata and Fugue in D minor" for organ. He arranged a group of songs called "Fantasia on British Sea Songs" for the 1905 centenary celebrations of the Battle of Trafalgar. These are always played at the Last Night of the Proms.
In 1938 he conducted a jubilee concert in the Royal Albert Hall. Rachmaninov was the soloist, and Vaughan Williams wrote his "Serenade to Music" for orchestra and sixteen soloists. Wood often worked too hard and it was not good for his health. He died on 19 August 1944, just over a week after the fiftieth anniversary concert of the Proms, which he had been too ill even to listen to on the radio.
Wood was given many honours: he was knighted by the king in 1911, he was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1921 and was made a Companion of Honour in 1944. At the Proms today his bust is put at the front of the Royal Albert Hall during the whole of each Prom season. At the Last Night of the Proms it is decorated by a chaplet.
Divine grace
In Christianity Divine Grace means a favour of God for humankind. God favours every person, without looking at what they did or how much they are worth. This grace of God to humans may happen in the gifts that God gives him, such as creation or salvation.
Common grace refers to blessings which God gives to everyone. Jesus said that God "sends the rain upon the just and the unjust. This idea is found in Greek philosophy. Plato spoke of God's "gifts". The Reformers listed many ways in which God gives undeserved gifts to mankind. These include life itself, food and earthly pleasures. God also restrains evil so that people will not destroy themselves in wars and conflict.
Prevenient grace (or enabling grace) is a Christian teaching in Arminian theology. It appeared earlier in Catholic and early Anabaptist teaching. It is divine grace that goes before human decision. In other words, God will start showing special love to a person at a certain time of his life.
Prevenient grace is taught by Christians who are influenced by the theology of Jacob Arminius or John Wesley. Wesleyan Arminians believe God helps people to accept the gift of salvation.
This refers to the good things that God gives to those who believe in Jesus. The gifts include forgiveness of sin, eternal life, and the power to live a good and holy life.
"Grace" is a common girl's name in many countries.
"Amazing Grace" is a song that became very popular. It is played at funerals, sometimes on a bagpipe. This song was written by John Newton who was an evil slave trader. His life was changed when he became a Christian. He later worked to stop the practice of slavery. His story is told in a 2006 movie.
In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (computer) which clients (people or computers) use to access other computers. A proxy server that passes information to its clients without changing it is usually called a gateway or sometimes called "tunneling proxy".
Proxy servers get their name because they act like a proxy (a stand-in) and act on behalf of a Client's computer.
A client that connects to the proxy server will ask for some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, that is available on a "different" server. The proxy server then goes to the "other" server and asks for what the client wants for them.
A proxy server can change the information that it gives to the client, and if the same information is accessed many times or by many different clients it can use what is called a cache to make things faster. A cache is the term for information that has been accessed and saved for future use; if a proxy server has what the client is accessing in its cache, it will make it faster because it does not need to go and access the other server to provide what the client wants.
A proxy server can be placed anywhere in the connection between the client and the server, which could include software on the client computer itself or on any computer between.
Some proxy servers use Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) to secure the connection between the client and the remote server. This security layer helps to make sure that no other computers can read or understand what the client is asking from the server.
There are many benefits of using a proxy server. First, the client machine can exchange data with the remote server without making a direct connection. This way, the client's real internet address will not be known to the remote server. This is sometimes called anonymitizing because it makes the client anonymous.
A second advantage is that when the proxy server itself is able to serve the request made by the client, it will not contact the remote server any more. So the load on the remote server will be reduced by using a proxy server. This type of proxy servers are called "caching servers".
Big organizations (or even countries) sometimes use proxy servers to control access to the Internet. A large bank may use a proxy server that only allows connections to other websites relevant to banking. The proxy server might however block access to Websites offering free email or serving pornographic material. It might also block access to file sharing applications. Limiting access to specific content on the internet is also called "internet filtering".
A proxy server may have one or more of the functions described below:
A caching proxy server can service requests from clients, without contacting the remote server; instead, it sends the data which it has stored from a previous request. This is called caching.
Caching proxy servers reduce the work load of the remote server. However, they have their own problems, especially if they are not configured well. Some problems are described in RFC 3143.
A web proxy is a proxy server that focuses on the traffic over the World Wide Web. It may be used to block offensive web content, or to control access of clients to online content. They may be used by corporations or countries.
Web proxies can also be used to track how different individuals have used internet access.
An anonymizing proxy server removes identifying information from the clients' requests, for the purpose of anonymity. They may also be used to break through filtered contents on the internet.
A proxy server is called an "open proxy" if everyone can connect to it and use it. Usually, open proxies are proxy servers which are badly configured. Open proxies may be abused easily; for example, a bad user may send a corrupting request to a remote server, but hide himself behind an open proxy, so the administrators of the remote server cannot stop him. Open proxies can also be used for spamming. For this reason, some websites do not allow connections to their web servers or to edit content on them through known open proxies.
A "forced proxy" server is a proxy server which handles all of the traffic from the client to the internet. The client will not know that the proxy exists, but all of the information passes through the proxy server. They are sometimes called "transparent" proxy servers, because the user does not know a proxy server is between the client and remote server.
A Transparent SMTP Proxy is a SMTP proxy server that is inserted in between a sending mail server and a receiving mail server. The main purpose of the SMTP proxy is to filter outbound spam. The proxy masquerades itself in such a way that the client and server believe that they are talking to each other even though there is a proxy in between.
There is a lot of software which can be used for running a proxy server. Some software can only work as a proxy server, while other software can also work as a firewall or caching server. Squid, Varnish and Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server (ISA Server) are among the best known pieces of proxy server software. Some proxy software uses the SOCKS protocol. An example is the Java SOCKS Proxy Server.
In net jargon (words people use about the Internet) a client is a computer used by a user to connect to a network and make requests to servers. For example, a web browser is a client software.
Cache (computing)
Caching is a term used in computer science. The idea behind a cache (pronounced "cash" ) is very simple: Very often, obtaining a result for a calculation is very time-consuming, so storing the result is generally a good idea. Two kinds of storage media are used: One is usually quite big, but accessing it is "slow"; the other one can be accessed much faster, but generally it is small. The very basic idea behind caching is to use the medium that is fast to access to have copies of data. There is no difference between the copy, and the original. Accessing the original data may take a long time, or it may be expensive to do (for example: the results of a difficult problem that take a long time to solve). For this reason, it is much "cheaper" to simply use the copy of the data from the cache. Put differently, a cache is a temporary storage area that has copies of data that is used often. When a copy of the data is in this cache, it is faster to use this copy rather than re-fetching or re-calculating the original data. This will make the average time needed to access the data shorter. Putting a new value into a cache often means that an older value needs to be replaced. There are different ideas (usually called "strategies") on how to select the value to replace.
A buffer is very similar to a cache. It is different in that the client accessing the data in a buffer knows there is a buffer; the buffer is managed by the application. With a cache, the client accessing the data need not be aware there is a cache.
Typical computer applications access data in very similar ways. Suppose the data is structured into "blocks", which can be accessed individually. When an application accesses a block it is also very likely to access (or reference) a block that is "close" to the original block. This is known as locality of reference. There are different kinds of such "locality". Locality of reference is one of the reasons why caches work well in many areas of computing.
In order to work well, caches are small, compared to the whole amount of data. The bigger the cache, the longer it takes to lookup an entry. Bigger caches are also more expensive to build.
A cache is a block of memory for storing data which is likely used again. The CPU and hard drive often use a cache, as do web browsers and web servers.
A cache is made up of many entries, called a "pool". Each entry holds a datum (a bit of data) which is a copy of a datum in another place. Caches usually use what is called a "backing store". Backing stores are slow or expensive to access, compared to the cache. A disk cache uses a hard disk as a backing store, for example.
Each entry also has a little information attached, called a "tag". This tag is used to find the location where the original data is stored.
A client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) wants to access a bit of data, it believes to be in the backing store, it first checks to see if the datum can be found in the cache. If the data can be found in the cache, the client can use it and does not need to use the main memory. This is known as a cache hit. So, for example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL. In this example, the URL is the tag, and the contents of the web page is the datum.
The other situation that can occur is that the datum with the tag cannot be found in the cache. This is known as cache miss. The datum needs to be fetched from the backing store. Usually, it is copied into the cache, so that the next time, it no longer needs to be fetched from the backing store.
The cache only has a limited size. To make room for the previously uncached entry, another cached entry may need to be deleted from the cache. Special rules are used to find the entry that should best be deleted. These rules are usually called Heuristics. Heuristics used to find the entry are called replacement policy. A very simple rule used is called "Least recently used" (or LRU). It simply takes the entry that was used the longest time ago. Other heuristics are listed at cache algorithm..
Caches can also be used for writing data; the benefit of this is that the client can continue its operation once the entry has been written to the cache; it does not have to wait until the entry is written to the backing store.
However, the entry must be written to the backing store at some point in time. The timing when this happens is controlled by the write policy.
In a write-through cache, each entry is written to the backing store immediately, as well as being stored in cache.
The other option is to only write to cache, and write to the backing store later. This is known as write-back (or write-behind) cache. The cache marks the entries that have not yet been written to the backing store; the mark that is used is often referred to as dirty flag. Before the entries are deleted from the cache, they are written to the backing store. This is known as lazy write. A miss in a write-back cache (which requires a block to be replaced by another) will often need two memory accesses: one to get the needed datum, and another to write replaced data from the cache to the store.
The caching policy may also say that a certain datum must be written to cache. The client may have made many changes to the datum in the cache. After it is done, it may explicitly tell the cache to write back the datum.
No-write allocation is a cache policy where only reads are cached. This avoids the need for write-back or write-through caching. Writes are done to the backing store all the time.
The client is not the application that changes data in the backing store. If the data changed in the backing store, the copy in the cache will be out of date, or "stale". Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. There are special communication protocols that allow cache managers to talk to each other to keep the data meaningful. These are known as coherency protocols.
A cache is small, and it will be full, or almost full, most of the time. So when a new value is added, an old one needs to be removed. There are different ways in which this selection can be done:
The word "cache" was first used in computing in 1967, when a scientific article was prepared to be published in IBM Systems Journal. The article was about a new improvement of the memory in Model 85. Model 85 was a computer of the IBM System/360 product line. The editor of the Journal wanted a better word for "high-speed buffer", used in the article. He got no input, and suggested "cache", from the French "cacher", meaning "to hide". The article was published in early 1968, and the authors were honored by IBM. Their work was widely welcomed and improved."Cache" soon became standard usage in computer literature.
Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches. Modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may have as many as half a dozen. Each cache may be specialised to a different part of the task of executing programs.
CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, other caches are managed by a different kinds of software. The operating system usually manages a "page cache" in main memory. Users outside computer science usually call this cache virtual memory. It is managed by the kernel of the operating system.
Modern hard drives have disk buffers. These are sometimes called "disk cache", but this is wrong. The main function of these buffers is to order disk writes, and to manage reads. Repeated cache hits are rare, because the buffer is very small compared to the size of the hard drive.
Local hard disks are fast compared to other storage devices, such as remote servers, local tape drives, or optical jukeboxes. Using local hard disks as caches is the main concept of hierarchical storage management.
Web browsers and web proxy servers use caches to store previous responses from web servers, such as web pages. Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be transmitted over the network. Information previously stored in the cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsiveness for users of the web.
Modern web browsers use a built-in web cache, but some internet service providers or organizations also use a caching proxy server. This is a web cache that is shared between all users of that network.
Search engines also often make web pages they have indexed available from their cache. For example, Google provides a "Cached" link next to each search result. This is useful when web pages are temporarily inaccessible from a web server.
Write-through operation is common in unreliable networks (like an Ethernet LAN). The protocol used to make sure the data in the write cache makes sense when several write caches are used is very complex, in such a case.
For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in NFS or SMB) are typically read-only or write-through to keep the network protocol simple and reliable.
Buffer and cache are not mutually exclusive; they are also often used together. The reason why they are used is different, though. A buffer is a location in memory that is traditionally used because CPU instructions cannot directly address data stored in peripheral devices. Computer memory is used as an intermediate store.
Additionally such a buffer may be feasible when a large block of data is assembled or disassembled (as required by a storage device), or when data may be delivered in a different order than that in which it is produced. Also a whole buffer of data is usually transferred sequentially (for example to hard disk), so buffering itself sometimes increases transfer performance. These benefits are present even if the buffered data are written to the buffer once and read from the buffer once.
A cache also increases transfer performance. A part of the increase similarly comes from the possibility that multiple small transfers will combine into one large block. But the main performance gain occurs because there is a good chance that the same datum will be read from cache several times, or that written data will soon be read. The only purpose of Caches is to reduce accesses to the underlying slower storage. Cache is also usually an abstraction layer that is designed to be invisible from the perspective of neighboring layers. That way, the applications or clients may not be aware that there is a cache.
Ammonium sulfide
Ammonium sulfide, also known as the "stink bomb" is made up of a solution of ammonium sulfide in water, sealed inside a glass ampoule (a small bottle-like container used to store a liquid securely). When the ampoule is broken, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases are released from the solution. These chemicals have a very strong and unpleasant smell.
Ammonium sulfide is a very toxic chemical. It is also explosive and highly flammable. It is added to cigarettes.
Metre per second
Metre per second is an SI unit of measurement of both speed and velocity. It is defined by the distance in metres divided by the time in seconds. Its abbreviation is m/s or m·s. In astronomy, the unit is sometimes used in "kilometres per second" (equivalent to 1000 metres per second).
1 metre per second is equivalent to:
1 foot per second = 0.3048 m·s (exactly)
1 mile per hour ≈ 0.4470 m·s (approximately)
1 km·h ≈ 0.2778 m·s (approximately)
1 kilometre per second is equivalent to:
Hydroxide in chemistry is a name given to the diatomic anion OH, made up of oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Most chemical compounds that contain hydroxides are bases.
An Arrhenius base is a substance that when dissolved in an aqueous solution, it produces hydroxide ions. Therefore, hydroxide ions are heavily involved in acid-base reactions.
Many useful chemical reactions or processes involve hydroxide or hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is used in industry as a strong base, potassium hydroxide is used in agriculture, and iron hydroxide minerals such as goethite and limonite have been used as iron ore. The aluminium ore bauxite is made mainly out of aluminium hydroxides.
Most inorganic hydroxide salts do not dissolve in water.
Many useful chemicals and chemical processes involve hydroxides or hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is used in factories as an alkali, potassium hydroxide is used in farming, and iron hydroxide have been used as low grade brown iron ore.