AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Katharine Hepburn (May 12, 1907 - June 29, 2003) was an American actress. Her career lasted 66 years. She is thought of as one of the top screen actresses in movie history. She was nominated for 12 Academy Awards, winning four.
Hepburn was born in Hartford, Connecticut and went to Bryn Mawr College. She got her degree in 1928 and started on Broadway that same year.
In 1932 she got a role in the George Cukor movie "A Bill of Divorcement", with John Barrymore. She was very successful in the early 1930s, but then she became unpopular. She became popular again with the movie "The Philadelphia Story". In 1942 she starred in "Woman of the Year" with Spencer Tracy. They made eight more movies together, including "Adam's Rib" and "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner". They also had an off-screen romance that lasted until Tracy's death in 1967, but they never married because Tracy did not want to divorce his wife. Before this, Hepburn was married to Ludlow Ogden Smith from 1928-1934, and also had relationships with Leland Hayward and Howard Hughes.
Her autobiography, "Me: Stories of My Life", came out in 1991. She died on June 29, 2003 at 2:50 p.m., at Fenwick, the Hepburn family home, in Old Saybrook, Connecticut. She was 96.
Charles Kay Ogden
Charles Kay Ogden (1 June 1889 – 21 March 1957) was an English linguist, philosopher, psycholinguist and writer. He is a well-known book writer about the controlled language called Basic English. He is known for his work with I. A. Richards on "The Meaning of Meaning" (1923). He also translated "Tractatus", a book by Ludwig Wittgenstein, into English.
"God Save the Queen" has been the national anthem of the United Kingdom since 1745. Its also the royal anthem of the Commonwealth realms, played alongside their official national anthems. Its composer remains unknown to this date.
When the ruling monarch is a king instead of a queen, the title of the anthem then becomes "God Save the King".
The tune for "God Save the Queen" was used in many countries as a national anthem. Apart from the German state, many of which were linked to Great Britain by marriage, Liechtenstein and Switzerland used the tune. Switzerland changed to a different tune in the 1960s. Liechtenstein still uses the tune.
The tune is both American and British. In the 1930s the United States chose an official anthem. "The Star-Spangled Banner" was chosen instead of the equally popular "My Country 'tis of Thee" which used the "God Save the Queen" tune.
The lion ("Panthera leo") is a large mammal of the "Felidae" (cat) family. Some of the larger males weigh over . Today, wild lions live in sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia. Lions are adapted for life in grasslands and mixed areas with trees and grass. The relatively small females are fast runners over short distances, and coordinate their hunting of herd animals.
Lions have disappeared from North Africa and southwest Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene, about 10,000 years ago, the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans. They were found in most of Africa, across Eurasia from western Europe to India, and in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru. The lion is now a vulnerable species. There was a decline in its African range of 30–50% over two decades in the second half of the 20th century. Habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern.
Lions are often called the "king of the beasts". They are used as symbols representing courage. They appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They are an icon of courage and royalty.
Lions live for 10 to 14 years when they are in the wild. When they are captured, they can live longer than 20 years. In the wild, males do not usually live longer than 10 years. This is because wounds from fighting with other males make their lives shorter. They usually live in savanna and grassland. These areas do have bushes and trees, but lions are mainly adapted to catch prey on grasslands. Compared to other cats, lions are social. A group of lions is called a pride. In a pride of lions, there are related females, their young, and one or two adult males. Groups of female lions often hunt together.
Lions are carnivores and scavengers. Lions are apex predators. Lions eat antelope, buffalo, zebras, warthogs, wildebeest, birds, hares, turtles and fish. Lions scavenge animals either dead from natural causes (disease) or killed by other predators. They keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, because this means there is a dead or injured animal close by.
They have an archetypal roar which is used to communicate with other group members and warn different intruders of territorial boundaries.
They have long, retractable claws which help the lion to grab and hold prey. They also have a rough tongue that helps them peel the skin of prey animals away from flesh and flesh away from bone. Across their belly, they have loose skin which allows the species to be kicked by prey with little chance of an injury.
There are about 30,000 lions left in the wild in Africa. Only 350 lions (of the Asiatic lion subspecies) are left in Asia. They live in the Gir Forest in the state of Gujarat, India.
Lions hunt many animals, such as gnus and antelopes. Male lions usually weigh between . Large lions have reached . Females (lionesses) are usually . Mature male lions are the only cats with a mane. The lion has a long body, short legs, large claws, big head, and a yellowish-brown coat.
Lions live in groups that are called prides. 10 to 40 lions may live in a pride. Each pride has a home area that is called its territory. Lions do not allow other carnivores(meat-eating animals) to hunt in their territory. A territory can be as large as .
The lions' roar is distinct to each individual. It is used for territorial marking and warning off other lions in separate prides (or lone individuals). This however, is usually carried out by competing males. Other male lions will challenge the alpha of the pride to a fight in order to take their spot of dominance if they win. Lions actually have prides in order to strengthen their species throughout the generations (Boothalingam 2018).
Lions are not as built for extreme speed as cheetahs are, but hunt in packs. This is unusual in cats. The females usually do the hunting for the pride. However the males can sometimes help if needed, to take down large animals. After lions have brought down a prey, they suffocate it by biting the front of its face to prevent it breathing. Lions prey are zebra and deer. Lions also have long retractable claws which act like grappling hooks, to keep hold of the prey.
Even though a lion is good at killing prey for food, they are not among the most dangerous animals for humans.
A lioness is ready to have young when she is 2–3 years old. Young lions are called cubs. Cubs are born after 3 1/2 months. The cubs are born blind; their eyes do not open until they are about a week old, and cannot see well until they are about two weeks old. Lions do not have a den (home) where they would live for a long time. The lioness conceals the cubs in thick bush, gullies, or rocky outcrops. If the hiding place has been seen by other predators, then the lioness will move the cubs to a new hiding place. The cubs will be introduced to the pride at about 6 weeks old. The cubs are very vulnerable when the lioness goes out to hunt and needs to leave the cubs behind. Also, when a new male takes over a pride from another male, he usually kills all of the cubs. The cubs' mothers will then mate with the new pride male, which means that the first batch of new cubs will be his offspring. A litter of 2-6 cubs are born. Usually, only 1-2 cubs survive until introduced to the pride, at which point they are protected by the whole pride.
In zoos, lions have been known to breed with tigers. If the parents are a male lion and a female tiger, the offspring is called a liger. If the parents are a male tiger and a female lion, the offspring is called a tigon.
Lions appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They traditionally symbolise courage, valour and royalty.
Galatasaray S.K.
Galatasaray is a sports club in Istanbul, Turkey. They started in 1905.
In 2000, they became the first Turkish club to win both the UEFA Cup and the UEFA Super Cup in the same year.
The team's colors are red and yellow. Turkish people also call it "Cim Bom". Their mascot is a lion. The Turk Telecom Stadium is their stadium, and is also known as Aslantepe; Lion Hill. It's an all-seater stadium. It can hold 52,652 people.
Galatasaray is one of the "big five" clubs in Turkey. The other clubs are Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş, Trabzonspor and Bursaspor. They have won the Spor Toto Super League 22 times and Ziraat Turkish Cup 18 times. As of January 2016, the Chairman is Mustafa Cengiz, and the coach is Fatih Terim.
B is the second letter in the English alphabet. Use a capital B at the start of a sentence if you are trying to communicate. B comes after A. B has a capital and lowercase kind, like every letter in the alphabet.
C is the third (3rd) letter in the English alphabet and ISO basic latin alphabet.
D is the fourth (number 4) letter in the alphabet.
E is the fifth (number 5) letter in the English alphabet.
In English it has two main sounds when it is spoken. Usually it is a short E (ĕ), but sometimes it is a long E (ē).
One more thing in English is the so-called magic E. That is when a silent e at the end of a word makes the previous e long. Example: morpheme, which is pronounced as morphēm.
The variants of E include (but may not be limited to)
lower-case e
é È è Ê ê Ë
É ë Ě ě Ē ē
Ĕ ĕ Ė ė Ę ę
"None" of these variants is used in English, except occasionally É/é for some French words.
These meanings are for E/e as a separate letter.
F is the sixth letter in the English alphabet.
G is the 7th (number 7) letter in the English alphabet (or Latin alphabet).u
The letter G was created in the third century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. At the time, the letter C sounded like the "c" in "cat" and the "g" in "girl". To make the difference more clear, Ruga created the letter G.
H () is the eighth (number 8) letter in the English alphabet.
I is the ninth (9) letter in the English alphabet.
In English, I is a pronoun which means "me".
In Turkish, the letter I has two kinds, one with a dot (İ, i) and one without (I, ı).
K is the eleventh (number 11) letter in the English alphabet.
K or kappa is the tenth (number 10) letter in the Greek alphabet
L is the twelfth (number 12) letter in the English alphabet.
M is the 13th letter in the English alphabet.
N is the fourteenth (number 14) letter in the English alphabet.
"For technical reasons, :P redirects here. For the emoticon, see emoticons."
P is the sixteenth (number 16) letter in the English alphabet.
Q is the seventeenth (number 17) letter in the English alphabet.
Some people say that the letter Q is not needed, because the sound it makes can be made with "K" and "W" instead. The same sort of things are said about the letters "X" and "C".
Below are some ancient ways of writing "Q":
R is the eighteenth (number 18) letter in the English alphabet.
S is the nineteenth (number 19) letter in the English alphabet.
T is the twentieth (number 20) letter in the English alphabet.
U (u) is the twenty-first (21) letter in the English alphabet (it is also used as a short form for 'you').
V is the twenty-second (number 22) letter in the English alphabet.
W is the twenty-third (number 23) letter in the Latin alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like "away, what, write and women," the W is a consonant. In words like "draw", "few", and "low," the W is a vowel
X is the twenty-fourth (number 24) letter in the English alphabet. It sometimes makes a sound like "ks" (for example: "exit", "next", "fox"), or if it is at the beginning of a word, it makes a sound like "zzz" (for example: "xylophone").
Y is the twenty-fifth (number 25) letter in the English alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like "year", "yell", and "yes", the Y is a consonant. In words like "cry", "fly", and "sky", the Y is considered a vowel.
"Y" has appeared as the Semitic letter "waw". This was the first time it appeared in an alphabet. F, U, V, and W also come from the Semitic alphabet. The Greek and Latin alphabets used the Phoenician form of this early alphabet. There are similarities to the old English letter yogh (Ȝȝ). The table shows where the letter "y" came from.
Z is the twenty-sixth (number 26) and last letter in the English alphabet. The small letter, z, is used as a lowercase consonant. Z is not used much. It is the most rarely used letter in the English language. The same letter of the Greek alphabet is named zeta.
The letter is said as either zed or zee. The first way of saying it comes from the Greek "zeta". In American English, its name is zee , because it comes from a late 17th century English speech.
The name of the Semitic symbol was "zayin" and was the seventh letter. It might have meant "weapon". It could have helped form English and French's "z".
The Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician symbol I. It stayed like this for a long time. The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made from the Greek letters "eta" (η) and "theta" (θ).
In Etruscan, "Z" may have been .
In Old Latin, (written "s") became and the symbol for became useless. It was taken away from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, and a new letter, "G", was put in.
In the 1st century BC, "Z" was put in the alphabet again at the end of the Latin alphabet. This was done to accurately represent the sound of the Greek zeta. The letter "Z" appeared only in Greek words, and is the only letter besides "Y" that the Romans took from Greek.
A virus is a parasite that can only be seen under a microscope and can infect living organisms and cause disease. It can make copies of itself inside another organism's cells. Viruses consist of nucleic acid and a protein coat. Usually the nucleic acid is RNA; sometimes it is DNA. Viruses are able to cause many types of diseases, such as polio, ebola and hepatitis. Virology is the study of viruses.
Viruses reproduce by getting their nucleic acid strand into a prokaryote or eukaryote (cell). The RNA or DNA strand then takes over the cell machinery to reproduce copies of itself and the protein coat. The cell then bursts open, spreading the newly created viruses. All viruses reproduce this way, and there are no free-living viruses. Viruses are everywhere in the environment, and all organisms can be infected by them.
Viruses are so much smaller than bacteria. They were not visible until the invention of the electron microscope. A virus has a simple structure, it has no internal cellular structure, no cell wall or cell membrane, just the protein coat that holds the string of nucleic acid. Viruses live and reproduce in the cell which is why medication such as antibiotics cannot help fight against the virus as it cannot enter the cell without damaging the cell.
With eukaryotic cells, the virus protein coat is able to enter the target cells via certain cell membrane receptors. With prokaryote bacteria cells, the bacteriophage physically injects the nucleic acid strand into the host cell.
Viruses have the following characteristics:
When the host cell has finished making more viruses, it undergoes lysis, or breaks apart. The viruses are released and are then able to infect other cells. Viruses can remain intact for a long time, and will infect cells when the time and conditions are right.
Some special viruses are worth noting. Bacteriophages have evolved to enter bacterial cells, which have a different type of cell wall from eukaryote cell membranes. "Envelope viruses", when they reproduce, cover themselves with a modified form of the host cell membrane, thus gaining an outer lipid layer that helps entry. Some of our most difficult-to-combat viruses, like influenza and HIV, use this method.
Viral infections in animals trigger an immune response which usually kills the infecting virus. Vaccines can also produce immune responses. They give an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses (including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis) escape from these immune responses and cause chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but there are some other drugs against viruses.
There are a many genomic structures in viruses. As a group they have more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses, but only about 5,000 of them have been described in detail.
A virus has either RNA or DNA genes and is called an RNA virus or a DNA virus respectively. "The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes". Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.
Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they do not have cells. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce many copies of themselves, and they "assemble" ("put together") in the cell.
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six "basic" stages in the life cycle of viruses:
The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.
The body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This has cells and other mechanisms which defend the host from any infection. The cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a general way.
RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses. Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule. A protein complex called dicer sticks to it and chops the RNA into pieces. Then a biochemical pathway, called the RISC complex, starts up. This attacks the viral mRNA, and the cell survives the infection.
Rotaviruses avoid this by not uncoating fully inside the cell and by releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. The genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.
The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.
Vertebrates have a second, more specific, immune system. It is called the adaptive immune system. When it meets a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and render it non-infectious. Two types of antibodies are important.
The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past. IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.
Another vertebrate defence against viruses is cell-mediated immunity. It involves immune cells known as T cells. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by "killer T" cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as macrophages are specialists at this antigen presentation.
Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration (hiding away); blocking antigen presentation; cytokine resistance; evading natural killer cell activity; escape from apoptosis (cell death), and antigenic shift (changing surface proteins). HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. Other viruses, called neurotropic viruses, move along nerves to places the immune system cannot reach.
Viruses do not belong to any of the six kingdoms. They do not meet all the requirements for being classified as a living organism because they are not active until the point of infection. However, that is just a verbal point.
Obviously, their structure and mode of operation means they have evolved from other living things, and the loss of normal structure occurs in many endoparasites. The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.
A recent project discovered nearly 1500 new RNA viruses by sampling over 200 invertebrate species. "The research team... extracted their RNA and, using next-generation sequencing, deciphered the sequence of a staggering 6 trillion letters present in the invertebrate RNA libraries". The research showed that viruses changed bits and pieces of their RNA by a variety of genetic mechanisms. "The invertebrate virome [shows] remarkable genomic flexibility that includes frequent recombination, lateral gene transfer among viruses and hosts, gene gain and loss, and complex genomic rearrangements".
A group of large viruses infect amoebae. The largest is "Pithovirus". Others in order of size are "Pandoravirus", then "Megavirus", then "Mimivirus". They are bigger than some bacteria, and visible under a light microscope.
Viruses are used widely in cell biology. Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria.
Microprocessor
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second.
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when opened. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
Like other central processing units, microprocessors use three steps commonly called Fetch, Decode, and Execute. In the Fetch step, an instruction is copied from the computer memory into the microprocessor. In the Decode step, the microprocessor figures out what operation the instruction is meant to do. In the Execute step, this operation is performed. Different computers can have different instruction sets.
Heat, or thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules. In thermodynamics, heat means energy which is moved between two things, when one of them has a higher temperature than the other thing.
Adding heat to something increases its temperature, but heat is not the same as temperature. The temperature of an object is the measure of the average speed of the moving particles in it. The energy of the particles is called the internal energy. When an object is heated, its internal energy can increase to make the object hotter. The first law of thermodynamics says that the increase in internal energy is equal to the heat added minus the work done on the surroundings.
Heat can also be defined as the amount of thermal energy in a system. Thermal energy is the type of energy that a thing has because of its temperature. In thermodynamics, thermal energy is the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium because of its temperature. That is, heat is defined as a spontaneous "flow of energy" (energy in transit) from one object to another, caused by a difference in temperature between two objects; therefore, objects do not possess heat.
Heat is a form of energy and not a physical substance. Heat has no mass.
Heat can move from one place to another in different ways:
The measure of how much heat is needed to cause a change in temperature for a material is the specific heat capacity of the material. If the particles in the material are hard to move, then more energy is needed to make them move quickly, so a lot of heat will cause a small change in temperature. A different particle that is easier to move will need less heat for the same change in temperature.
Specific heat capacities can be looked up in a table, like this one.
Unless some work is done, heat moves only from hot things to cold things.
Heat can be measured. That is, the amount of heat given out or taken in can be given a value. The calorie is one of the units of measurement for heat but the joule is also used for all kinds of energy including heat.
Heat is usually measured with a calorimeter, where the energy in a material is allowed to flow into nearby water, which has a known specific heat capacity. The temperature of the water is then measured before and after, and heat can be found using a formula.
In the earlier times, Shogun were simply generals for emperors. The emperor had power over the shogun, choosing each shogun. Later however, the Shogun held much of the actual power. In 1192 a samurai, military leader Minamoto no Yoritomo got the title of Shogun from the last Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Excluding the later middle of the 16th century, Shogun was the real ruler of Japan.
The office of the Shogun is called the shogunate ("bakufu", meaning "office in a tent").- This is because Shogun had originally been military leaders and he had his office in a tent on a battle field.
There were three shogunates in Japan.
In 1868 the 15th Shogun of Tokugawa Shogunate, Tokugawa Yosinobu gave up his office. Then the time of Shogun rule ended. It was the end of the feudal time of Japan.
Bratislava is the capital city of Slovakia. About 450,000 people live there. It used to be called Pressburg (German) or Pozsony (Hungarian) and by some other names. Bratislava is the seat of national government, the presidency, and the parliament. It has several museums, galleries and of other educational, cultural and economic institutions.
There is a small Old Town, and a castle called Bratislavský Hrad. The Danube river goes through Bratislava.
Bratislava had many names through its history. Here are some of them:
and many others.
Bratislava is in the extreme southwest of Slovakia, on the borders with Austria and Hungary, and not far from the Czech Republic border. It is on the Morava and Danube rivers.
People have lived here since the Neolithic age. The Celts inhabited this area from 400 BC-50 BC. The Roman Empire set up border military camps near Bratislava from the 1st century until the 5th century, for example ""Gerulata"". The Slavs started moving here from the 6th century. Bratislava was part of the Slavic empire called Great Moravia in the 9th century. From the second half of the 10th century until 1918, it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, with some exceptions. It was even capital of the Kingdom between 1524 and 1830/1848. After the World War I ended in 1918, it was part of newly founded Czechoslovakia until 1939, when it became capital of World War II Slovak Republic until 1945. After 1945, it was part of Czechoslovakia again, becoming capital of Slovak Socialist Republic (which was still part of Czechoslovakia) in 1968. After the event called Velvet Divorce, when the Czechoslovakia broke up, Bratislava became capital of Slovakia.
List of notable structures:
Economy of Bratislava is prosperous and based on automobile industry, chemical industry and services. The unemployment (people without work) is lowest in Slovakia (around 2%, compared to the national average 7%). Approximately 250,000 people from all over the Slovakia travel to Bratislava for work.
Position of Bratislava made it a natural crossroads for international traffic. It is a motorway junction, rail junction, has its own international airport. The international river traffic passes along the Danube through Bratislava, with its own river port.
Bratislava has its own public transport system, with buses, trams and trolleybuses.
Bratislava is divided into 5 national districts and 17 city parts:
Further it is divided into 20 cadastral areas, which are identical with the city parts with 2 exceptions:
Wellington is the capital of New Zealand. It has been the capital since 1865. Before then Auckland was the capital. Wellington is the second largest city in New Zealand. It had about 448,000 people in 2006. Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world.
Wellington is in the middle of New Zealand, at the south end of the North Island. South of Wellington is Cook Strait, the sea between the North Island and the South Island. The city has a lot of hills and a deep harbour. The middle of the city is busier than most small cities and is easy for people to walk around.
It was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Wellington recently became famous because "The Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy was made there.
The city averages 2,068 hours of sunshine per year. The climate is a temperate marine one, (Köppen: "Cfb ") is generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above or below . The hottest recorded temperature is , while is the coldest. The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder. It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is , June and July being the wettest months. Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September. Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions in living beings, and of biological molecules in general. It is important to cell biology and physiology. The study of biochemistry involves enzymes, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, and lipids. In the body, most of the molecules are polymers built of long chains of smaller molecules. Biochemistry studies the chemical transformations which produce these small building-block molecules, and which produce energy from food.
The biologic polymers can have between tens of thousands to tens of millions of atoms, or more. These polymers are composed of many small molecules, each of which has no more than fifty atoms. These small molecules are made almost exclusively from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. They also contain sulfur, phosphorus, and few other atoms, which are critical to the biological functioning of these polymers.
There are four types of macromolecules.
Nucleic acids are long-chain molecules which are of two kinds: DNA and RNA. Their building blocks are called nucleotides.
DNA is found in every cell. It contains the information needed to make all of the nucleic acids, and all of the proteins. It is found joined up in a "double helix". It is the substance of heredity, and holds the information which life passes from generation to generation.
RNA acts to make the information from DNA work inside the cells of the body. To make a particular protein the information in the DNA is transferred to an RNA molecule. Another RNA molecule uses this as a set of instructions for making the protein. The RNA which makes protein is called a ribosome and it acts as a ribozyme vastly increasing the speed with which the individual amino acids connect together to form the protein.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. There are twenty different common types of amino acid.
Broadly speaking, proteins have two kinds of function. The first is structural: they make up many of the key structures in cells and tissues. Muscle, hair, and skin are all mainly made of protein. The second is functional: as enzymes they greatly speed up the chemical reactions in a living cell. All cellular life consists of a thousand, or more, chemical reactions, called metabolism, which transform the molecules eaten into energy, or into other molecules the cell needs to survive. The function of proteins is to speed up these reactions, often by over a million times faster. In addition they cause chemical reactions to occur which would not without the action of the protein.
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches.
Sugars are the simplest carbohydrates. The monosaccharides are "single sugars", such as glucose and fructose. The disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined together. Table sugar (cane sugar) is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. The polysaccharides are made from many monosaccharids joined together. The vast majority of polysaccharides are polymers of glucose, and are of two types: starch and cellulose. Starch is the white stuff of grain, potatoes, apples, and bread, and is a readily available source of energy for the body. Cellulose is the structural material that holds up all plants. Half of the material that makes wood is cellulose.
Carbohydrates have a number of functions in the body, but the most important is to act as a ready source of energy for the cell's metabolism. By breaking the chemical bonds in carbohydrates, energy is released and can be used by the body.
Lipids are fats, and waxes. Saturated lipids contain single bonds, and are found in butter and lard. Unsaturated lipids have one or more double bonds, and are often found in oils. The human body stores lipids as an energy source. When the body needs a large amount of energy, lipid molecules are broken down to release that energy.
Sadness is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died.
In big letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal Affective Disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.
When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.
It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.
Microeconomics is the science of how people make decisions at the small scale. It is different from macroeconomics which looks at how the economy works as a whole ("on aggregate"). In microeconomics, we might look at how a person chooses what to buy at the store, or how many things a company will make. Some parts of microeconomics include "Consumer Theory" and "Theory of the Firm", which study how people and businesses make decisions. Game theory looks at how people make decisions when the outcome (how something ends) depends on what decision another person makes; when agents are said to act "strategically".
__NOEDITSECTION__Port (disambiguation)
A port is a place at the edge of an ocean, river, or lake for ships to load and unload their cargo.
It can also refer to:
Cryptography, or cryptology, is the practice and study of hiding information. It is sometimes called code, but this is not really a correct name. It is the science used to try to keep information secret and safe. Modern cryptography is a mix of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Cryptography is used in ATM (bank) cards, computer passwords, and shopping on the internet.
When a message is sent using cryptography, it is changed (or "encrypted") before it is sent. The method of changing text is called a "code" or, more precisely, a "cipher". The changed text is called "ciphertext". The change makes the message hard to read. Someone who wants to read it must change it back (or "decrypt" it). How to change it back is a secret. Both the person that sends the message and the one that gets it should know the secret way to change it, but other people should not be able to. Studying the cyphertext to discover the secret is called "cryptanalysis" or "cracking" or sometimes "code breaking".
Different types of cryptography can be easier or harder to use and can hide the secret message better or worse. Ciphers use a "key" which is a secret that hides the secret messages. The cryptographic method needn't be secret. Various people can use the same method but different keys, so they cannot read each other's messages. Since the Caesar cipher has only as many keys as the number of letters in the alphabet, it is easily cracked by trying all the keys. Ciphers that allow billions of keys are cracked by more complex methods.
Since the time of Caesar, many improved cyphers have been made. Some involved clever mathematics to resist clever cryptanalysis. During the 20th century computers became the principle tool of cryptography.
In a symmetric-key algorithm, both the sender and receiver share the key. The sender uses the key to hide the message. Then, the receiver will use the same key in the opposite way to reveal the message. For centuries, most cryptography has been symmetric. Advanced Encryption Standard is a widely used one. However this is not to be confused with symmetry.
Asymmetric cryptography is harder to use. Each person who wants to use asymmetric cryptography uses a secret number (a "private key") that is not shared, and a different number (a "public key") that they can tell everyone. If someone else wants to send this person a message, they'll use the number they've been told to hide the message. Now the message cannot be revealed, even by the sender, but the receiver can easily reveal the message with his secret or "private key". This way, nobody else needs to know the secret key.
Asymmetric cryptography generally takes more time and requires more computer power, therefore it is not used most of the time. Instead, it is often used for computer signatures, when a computer must know that some data (like a file or a website) was sent from a certain sender. For example, computer software companies that release updates for their software can sign those updates to prove that the update was made by them, so that hackers cannot make their own updates that would cause harm. Websites that use HTTPS use an popular algorithm named RSA to create certificates, that show they own the website and that it is secure. Computers can also use asymmetric ciphers to give each other the keys for symmetric ciphers.
Computers can calculate quickly. They can do very strong encryption, and most 21st century cryptography uses them. Examples are computer algorithms like RSA, AES, and there are many others. Using good algorithms like these can make it very hard to read the information that is sent.
Because people are slower than computers, any cryptography they use can probably be broken if enough of the secret way to change it is known.
Simple forms of cryptography that people can do without machines are Caesar ciphers and transposition ciphers, but many other kinds were used before computers were used.
Tuesday is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday. In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.
The name "Tuesday" comes from a Middle English word, "Tiwesday". This word came from the Old English word "Tiwes dæg". This was named after the Nordic god Tyr. Tyr was the God of War, like the Roman war god Mars, and Greek god Ares.
In Latin, "Tuesday" is called "Martis dies" which means "Mars's Day". In French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian, the (Romance languages), the word for "Tuesday" is nearly the same as the Latin name. Tuesday is "mardi" in French, "martes" in Spanish, "martedì" in Italian, "dimarts" in Catalan, and "marţi" in Romanian.
The Celtic languages still spoken use the Latin names, even though none of these languages came from Latin. Tuesday is "dé máirt" in Irish, "Meurzh" in Breton, "dydd Mawrth" in Welsh and "Dimàirt" in Scottish Gaelic.
The English and Scandinavian names for "Tuesday" come from the Nordic god Tyr (Old English "Tiw"):
In some countries, like the United States of America, Wednesday is the fourth day of the week. In other parts of the world Wednesday is said to be the third day of the week.
Wednesday is named after the Norse god Woden.
Friday is a day of the week. In some countries, for example the United States, it is the sixth day of the week. In other parts of the world, for example the United Kingdom, it is said to be the fifth day of the week. Friday is the Sabbath for Muslims.
There is a superstition that a Friday on the 13th day of a month is unlucky. If the first day of a month is a Sunday, the month will have a Friday the 13th.
Some people consider Friday to be the last day of the week before the weekend. Others see Friday night as part of the weekend, since work or school is over for the week. In some places, the weekend is Friday and Saturday. Because many people are happy to not have to go to work during the weekend, there are sayings like "Thank God it's Friday!".
Friday is named after Norse Goddess Frigg.
Lao People's Democratic Republic or Laos (ລາວ), is a country in southeast Asia. The capital of Laos is Vientiane.
Laos is landlocked (it does not have a coast on a sea or ocean). It is bordered by Myanmar (used to be known in English as "Burma") and by China to the northwest, by Vietnam to the east, by Cambodia to the south and by Thailand to the west. The Mekong river forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand. Boats from Laos cannot get to the ocean using the Mekong because of rapids and waterfalls in the south of the country.
The official language is Lao, a language belonging to the Tai language group. 98% of Lao people believe in Buddhism. The main crop in Laos is rice.
Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. The country is slightly smaller than Romania and Colorado. The landscape is mostly rugged mountains. The highest point is Phou Bia at . The Mekong River forms the border with Thailand. The mountains of the Annamite Range form the eastern border with Vietnam. The climate is tropical. The rainy season is from May to November. The dry season is from December to April. Laos has three seasons (rainy, cold and hot). The capital and largest city is Vientiane.
Fa Ngum created the first unified Lao Kingdom.
Lao became a French colony in 1893 and also became part of French Indochina. In 1949 it became independent from France, as the Kingdom of Laos. Later there was a civil war, and in 1975 it became a One-party state under the leadership of the communist party.
Laos is divided in 16 provinces and one prefecture.
Laos is one of the world's five remaining communist states. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone. He is the General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.
Shortly after the end of the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) joined forces with the Pathet Lao, started a coup on December 2, 1975 to overthrow the royalist Lao government, and established a communist government that continues to run the country to this day.
The current head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith, as of 2016. The current President is Bounnhang Vorachith. Government policies are determined by the party. Important government decisions are checked by the Council of Ministers.
Yes is an English word that shows acceptance or agreement, or making a positive response or exclamation. It is the opposite of no.
Yes may also mean:
In music:
In other uses:
Amaterasu (), Amaterasu-ōmikami ( or ) or Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami (), is a goddess in Japanese mythology. She is the Sun Goddess, and the most sacred of all Shinto deities. Her name, "Amaterasu", means ""(that which) illuminates Heaven."" Her shrine is at Ise.
Amaterasu is the sister of Susano'o, the god of the sea and storms, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susano'o from the washing of the nose.
The tales tell of great rivalry between Amaterasu and Susano'o. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu, suspicious, proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other's into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susanoo's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said the men were hers because they were born of her necklace. Susano'o destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. For this, Amaterasu, sad, angry and scared, went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the ""heavenly rock cave"", so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time. The Oni (devils of Japanese mythology) came out to the dark world, and the gods could not make Amaterasu come out of the cave.
The intelligent goddess of happiness, Ama-no-Uzume (天宇受売命), took a big bucket, turned it upside down near the cave entrance, and began a dance on it, tearing off her clothing in front of the other Kami. They thought this was so funny that they laughed happily.
Amaterasu heard them, and looked out to see why the gods were laughing. When she opened the cave, she saw her wonderful reflection in a mirror Uzume had put on a tree, and slowly came out of the cave.
At that moment, the god Ameno-Tajikarao (天手力男命) closed the cave behind her, so she could not go back in. Another god tied a magic rope across the entrance. The sun goddess was then asked by the Kami Ame-no-Koyane (天児屋根命) to go back with the gods. She agreed, and light came back to the earth, but Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven.
An organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.
Organisms usually have five basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, and a place to live. However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Many organisms do not need access to air at all.
A little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.
Another example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.
Some organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.
Most organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called "unicellular organisms" or "single celled organisms". Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the "Amoeba" and "Paramecium".
The Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).