AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Inverse representations (blue saltire on a white field) of the Scottish Saltire are also used outside Scotland. In Canada, an inverse representation of the Saltire, combined with the shield from the Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, forms the modern flag of the Canadian Province of Nova Scotia, the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland into the Americas.
In Russia, during the period before and after the Soviet Union, the naval ensign of the Russian Navy has been an inverse representation of the Cross of Saint Andrew. (Saint Andrew is also a patron saint of Russia). The very same Saltire was also flown as the flag of Galicia in Spain until 1891, when Russia requested the Galician flag to be modified in order to avoid confusion between Galician ships and Russian Navy ships. The current Galician flag is actually the original blue-over-white saltire but without one of the arms of the cross.
The U.S. state of Alabama's flag is officially "a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white," but the reference is used only to describe the shape without using the vexillological term saltire as that flag's origins are from either or both of the Confederate Battle Flag or the , both of which have saltires and are associated with the history of that state. Similarly, the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use the saltire on their flags.
The Scottish Saltire is also used unofficially by students and graduates of Xavier University because of the university's blue and white official colors and the resemblance of the flag to the letter "X". It is also the flag for St. Andrew's Scots School, Argentina (founded in 1838) and its "spinoff" university Universidad de San Andrés.
The Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode, named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda, also uses the Saltire as the basis of its flag.
The Scottish Saltire and field is one of the key components of the Union Flag. The Union Flag has been used in a variety of forms since 1606, when the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England were first merged to symbolise the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred in 1603.) In Scotland, and in particular on Scottish vessels at sea, historical evidence suggests that a separate design of Union Flag was sometimes flown to that used in England. Following the Acts of Union of 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, the standard Union Flag became the national flag of the new United Kingdom of Great Britain.
From 1801, in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, a new design was adopted for the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The 1801 design did not change with the partition of Ireland in 1921 and creation of the Irish Free State, and is the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland today.
The Royal Standard of the King of Scots, also known as the Royal Flag of Scotland or the Lion Rampant, is the flag used historically by the King of Scots. It remains the personal banner of the monarch and use of this flag is restricted under the Act of the Parliament of Scotland 1672 cap. 47 and 30 & 31 Vict. cap. 17.
Despite the legal restrictions concerning the use of this flag, it is often regarded as a second, albeit unofficial, national flag for Scotland, most often seen at sporting events.
Scanning tunneling microscope
Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is a way to view the shape of tiny objects. It can make pictures of atoms on a surface and move the atoms to different places. It was invented by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in 1981 at IBM, in Zürich. In 1986 they won the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing it.
The STM is called a microscope because it makes pictures of tiny objects. But it is different -- it doesn't have anything to look into with our eyes. It is similar to feeling the shape of objects on a table in a dark room: you can draw a picture of the shape even though you did not seen it with your eyes. The STM does this for very tiny objects. It works by scanning a sharp metal needle back and forth across a surface, and uses electric current instead of force to sense the shape. When the tip of sharp metal needle is brought very close to the surface of a thing being studied, a voltage between the two causes electrons to flow through the space between them. The electrons cross this space by a process called quantum tunneling, which gives the STM its name. This tiny current of electrons flows when the tip is almost touching the surface. The current changes as the probe moves along the surface. This change is recorded by a computer, which makes it into a picture that we can see.
The surface and the tip must conduct electrons, so they must be made of a metal or semiconductor. A related kind of microscope senses the force instead of the electric current. This kind of microscope is called an atomic force microscope.
STM is a hard thing to do, because it needs a very clean surface and a very sharp needle tip. The STM usually works in a vacuum to keep the air molecules from disturbing the surface, but it can also work in air or water.
First, the tip is brought very close to the surface of thing being studied. This distance is about half of a nanometer. Then the tip is moved very carefully back and forth across the surface. The electrical current is measured while the tip is moved back and forth (constant height method). The STM can also work by adjusting the tip so the tunnel current stays the same (constant current method). Using the constant-height method is faster. Using constant-current method helps avoid bumping the tip into things on the surface, so it can study things that are rougher.
The STM can move an atom (or a molecule) to a new place on the surface. To move an atom, the tip is moved so it touches the atom. Then the tip pulls or pushes the atom to a new place. Moving atoms allows scientists to arrange them into tiny objects, so they can test their properties and try out new ideas.
The parts of an STM are: scanning tip, something that moves the tip, something that stops it from vibrating, and a computer that controls the tip and makes the picture.
Energy level
Simply defined as the different states of potential energy for electrons in an atom. A quantum mechanical system can only be in certain states, so that only certain energy levels are possible. The term energy level is most commonly used in reference to the electron configuration in atoms or molecules. In other words, the energy spectrum can be quantized (see continuous spectrum for the more general case).
As with classical potentials, the potential energy is usually set to zero at infinity, leading to a negative potential energy for bound electron states.
Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is obtained by more than one quantum mechanical state. They are then called degenerate energy levels.
The following sections of this article gives an overview over the most important factors that determine the energy levels of atoms and molecules.
Assume an electron in a given atomic orbital. The energy of its state is mainly determined by the electrostatic interaction of the (negative) electron with the (positive) nucleus. The energy levels of an electron around a nucleus are given by :
where formula_2 is the Rydberg constant (typically between 1 eV and 10 eV), "Z" is the charge of the atom's nucleus, formula_3 is the principal quantum number, "e" is the charge of the electron, formula_4 is Planck's constant, and "c" is the speed of light.
The Rydberg levels depend only on the principal quantum number formula_3.
Fine structure arises from relativistic kinetic energy corrections, spin-orbit coupling (an electrodynamic interaction between the electron's spin and motion and the nucleus's electric field) and the Darwin term (contact term interaction of s-shell electrons inside the nucleus). Typical magnitude formula_6 eV.
Spin-nuclear-spin coupling ("see hyperfine structure"). Typical magnitude formula_7 eV.
If there is more than one electron around the atom, electron-electron-interactions raise the energy level. These interactions are often neglected if the spatial overlap of the electron wavefunctions is low.
The interaction energy is: formula_8 with formula_9
This takes both the magnetic dipole moment due to the orbital angular momentum and the magnetic momentum arising from the electron spin into account.
Due to relativistic effects (Dirac equation), the magnetic moment arising from the electron spin is formula_10 with formula_11 the gyro-magnetic factor (about 2).
The interaction energy therefore gets formula_13.
Interaction with an external electric field ("see Stark effect").
Roughly speaking, a molecular energy state, i.e. an eigenstate of the molecular Hamiltonian, is the sum of an electronic, vibrational, rotational, nuclear and translational component, such that:
where formula_15 is an eigenvalue of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian (the value of the potential energy surface) at the equilibrium geometry of the molecule.
The molecular energy levels are labelled by the molecular term symbols.
The specific energies of these components vary with the specific energy state and the substance.
In molecular physics and quantum chemistry, an energy level is a quantized energy of a bound quantum mechanical state.
Crystalline materials are often characterized by a number of important energy levels. The most important ones are the top of the valence band, the bottom of the conduction band, the Fermi energy, the vacuum level, and the energy levels of any defect states in the crystals.
Atomic nucleus
The nucleus is the center of an atom. It is made up of nucleons called (protons and neutrons) and is surrounded by the electron cloud. The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10 m) (for a proton in light hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium). These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen). Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus has most of the mass. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus with a very small contribution from the orbiting electrons.
Neutrons have no charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the strong nuclear force.
The word "nucleus" is from 1704, meaning “kernel of a nut”. In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the “central point of an atom”. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the word "nucleus" in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article "The Atom and the Molecule" that "the atom is composed of the "kernel" and an outer atom or "shell"".
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force. These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction. The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.
If the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 × 10 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10 m, and its volume is about 10 m.
The isotope of an atom is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Different isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties. Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer. The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.
The number of protons and neutrons together determine the nuclide (type of nucleus). Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom. The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.
The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. The problem would later lead to the discovery of the neutrino (see below).
In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter". Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
Around the same time that this was happening (1909) Ernest Rutherford performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. He was shocked to discover that a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge. As an example, in this model nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons, and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.
The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14 the 14 protons and six of the electrons should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final electron should have left the nucleus with a spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of one.
In 1930 Wolfgang Pauli was unable to attend a meeting in Tübingen, and instead sent a famous letter with the classic introduction "Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen". In his letter Pauli suggested that perhaps there was a third particle in the nucleus which he named the "neutron". He suggested that it was very light (lighter than an electron), had no charge, and that it did not readily interact with matter (which is why it had not yet been detected). This desperate way out solved both the problem of energy conservation and the spin of nitrogen-14, the first because Pauli's "neutron" was carrying away the extra energy and the second because an extra "neutron" paired off with the electron in the nitrogen-14 nucleus giving it spin one. Pauli's "neutron" was renamed the neutrino (Italian for little neutral one) by Enrico Fermi in 1931, and after about thirty years it was finally demonstrated that a neutrino really is emitted during beta decay.
In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron. In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay. To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to "Nature" (which the editors rejected for being "too remote from reality"). Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing. In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.
With Fermi and Yukawa's papers the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).
The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.
A nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.
Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.
Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.
Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.
If a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force. The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen). Many elements have multiple isotopes which are stable for weeks, years, or even billions of years.
When two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together. It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong force to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities. Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus. A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The "uncontrolled" fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a "controlled" fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).
For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission.
The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. [Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions]. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.
For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.
As the Universe cooled after the big bang it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist. The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers). Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.
Progressively heavier elements are made during the evolution of a star.
Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called "s" process) or by the rapid, or "r" process. The "s" process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The "r" process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers). The "r" process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds.
List of governors of Florida
The head of the government of the state of Florida is called the Governor of Florida. He is not the head of all parts of the government, but is like the state's president, and is head of the "executive branch" of the state, which is where decisions about running the state are made. He can also give orders to the military people of the state.
The Governor of Florida is elected every four years.
The territory of Florida was transferred from Spain to the United States on July 10 1821. Before that, governors were assigned by the government of Spain.
No governors were elected between 1821 and 1845. During that period, there were five military governors: William Duval (April 17 1822 - April 24 1834), John Eaton (April 24 1834 - March 16 1836), Richard Call (March 16 1836 - December 2 1839), Robert R. Reid (December 2 1839 - March 19 1841), Richard Call (his 2nd time) (March 19 1841 - August 11 1844), and John Branch (August 11 1844 - June 25 1845).
Florida acceded to statehood on March 3 1845. These are the governors of the State of Florida:
, six former governors were alive. The most recent death of a former governor was that of Wayne Mixson (1987), on July 8, 2020.
Fred McDowell
Fred McDowell (January 12 1904 - July 3 1972) (also known as Mississippi Fred McDowell) was a Delta blues singer and guitar player. His parents died when he was young.
McDowell was born in Rossville, Tennessee, near Memphis. He started playing guitar when he was 14 and played at parties around where he lived.
McDowell moved to Memphis in 1926 where he played for money. Soon after, he moved to Como, Mississippi in 1940 or 1941 and worked as a farmer. He still played at parties.
Mostly, he played slide guitar using a pocket knife and then a slide made from a beef rib bone, later switching to a glass slide. He played with the slide on his ring finger.
In the 1950s, people became more interested in Blues Music and McDowell became more famous. He recorded for the first time in 1959 with Alan Lomax and Shirley Collins. He started playing on electric guitar rather than acoustic but said "I do not play no rock and roll". He taught Bonnie Raitt the slide guitar technique, and was written about by The Rolling Stones'.
McDowell's first album came out in 1969, called "I Do Not Play No Rock 'N' Roll".
McDowell died of cancer in 1972 and is buried at Hammond Hill M.B. Church, between Como and Senatobia.
Taurus Mountains
Taurus Mountains (Turkish: "Toros Dağları") are a mountain range in Turkey, from which the Euphrates (Turkish: Fırat) and Tigris (Turkish: Dicle) descend into Syria and Iraq. The Manavgat River comes from its southern slopes.
The mountain range extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris in the east. It has many peaks rising above 10,000–12,000 ft (3,000–3,700 m), with the Demirkazık summit in the region known as Aladağlar, at 3,756 meters (12,322 ft.) as the highest point. Another important peak is Medetsiz (3,524 m/11,561 ft) in the Bolkar Dağları section.
This mountain range divides the Mediterranean region of southern Turkey from the central plateau.
Limestone has eroded to form karstic landscapes of waterfalls, underground rivers, and the largest caves of Asia.
At Kestel is a Bronze Age archaeological site where early evidence of tin mining was found.
Montes Taurus
Montes Taurus is a mountainous region on the Moon. These peaks are on a highland region to the east of the Mare Serenitatis, in the northeastern quadrant of the Moon's near side. The selenographic coordinates of this range are , and they have a diameter about 170 km. Some of the peaks within the range achieve heights of 3.0 km.
A number of craters lie within this range. At the southwestern edge of the range is Römer crater, and Newcomb crater is in the northeastern section. Several satellite craters also lie throughout the Montes Taurus.
The Montes Taurus were named by Johannes Hevelius for the Taurus mountains in southern Turkey.
Sassari
Sassari is a city in the region of Sardinia in Italy. It is the capital of the "Province of Sassari." About 130,000 people live in Sassari. This makes it the second largest city in Sardinia.
The first time that the city appeared in a map was in 1131 with the name Jordi de Sassaro, in 1135 the name was Tathari. The city grown up very fast and in 1294, became a "libero comune" (independent municipality). In the early 14th century the island of Sardinia was occupied by the Aragonese, the municipality sent a delegation to the court of Aragon, but they did not achieve any agreement. So with the support of the Republic of Genoa and the Doria's family, the people of Sassari rose up against the invaders, until 1417 when the king Alfonso V granted an acceptable status to the town. In 1617 in town the Jesuits founded the University. In 1713, after the Treaty of Utrecht, in the island of Sardinia started the brief period of the Austro-Hungarian administration. In fact since 1720 the island was annexed by the House of Savoy and since then was born the Kingdom of Sardinia. But in 1793, after years of political struggle, in the island started an uprising, called “Sarda rivoluzione” (Sardinian revolution), led by the patriot Giovanni Maria Angioy, who entered triumphantly in the city of Sassari, followed by thousand of revolutionaries coming from all over the island. But the Savoy, stifled the rebellion with ferocity, reconquered the town. But the rebellion in town will continued until the middle of the 19th century.
In 1861 the Kingdom of Sardinia, after the campaign to unify Italy and the annexation of many small states, it became the founding state of the new Kingdom of Italy. Since then Sassari is an Italian city.
"(Via Roma 64)" also called "Museo Sanna" - Sito
Consulates located in Sassari:
Bull Hill
Bull Hill, sometimes called Mount Taurus, is a mountain in the U.S. state of New York. It is north of the village of Cold Spring on the Hudson River, in Putnam County. It is part of the mountain range known as the Hudson Highlands.
An old quarry can be seen on its south ridge.
The mountain may have gotten its name from a bull that farmers chased down it. The bull's fall gave the Breakneck Ridge its name.
Forlì
Forlì is a city in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. It is the capital of the "Province of Forlì-Cesena". About 110,000 people live in Forli. It has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Koeppen climate classification).
Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy during World War Two, was born near Forli, in Predappio.
Zagros Mountains
The Zagros Mountains (, ), make up Iran's and Iraq's largest mountain range. They have a total length of 1 500 km. The north end is in northwestern Iran and they run near the border with Iraq and along the north coast of the Persian Gulf. The mountain range ends at the Straits of Hormuz. The highest points in the Zagros Mountains are Zard Kuh (4 548 m) and Mt. Dena (4 359 m).
The Zagros region is an important part of Persian Gulf oil production.
Latina, Lazio
Monza
Giugliano in Campania
French Revolution of 1848
The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852).
The revolution established the principle of the "right to work" ("droit au travail"), and decided to establish "National Workshops" for the unemployed. At the same time a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc. Tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists would cause the June Days Uprising a few months later.
Meanwhile the revolution inspired other European Revolutions of 1848.
The era of revolution in France came to an end when Louis Napoleon dissolved the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so, and became the sole ruler of France. In 1852 he reestablished the empire and took the title Emperors Napoleon III.
Nyon (district)
The District of Nyon is a district in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. The seat of the district is the city of Nyon.
On 1 September 2006, Nyon was reorganized. There are now fewer municipalities.
Skip James
Nehemiah Curtis "Skip" James (June 21, 1902 – October 3, 1969) was an American Delta blues singer, guitarist, pianist and songwriter.
James was born near Bentonia, Mississippi. He worked on road construction in the early 1920s, and wrote what his earliest song, "Illinois Blues", about his experience as a worker. He began playing guitar in open D-minor tuning with three fingers.
Skip James traveled to Grafton, Wisconsin to record for Paramount. James recorded blues and spirituals and cover versions of other songs.
The Great Depression happened just as James' records were put on the market. Not many people bought them because of this and James had to give up Blues music and worked in a church with his father.
For the next thirty years, James did not record any songs. In July 1964, James started playing again and he recorded for the Takoma, Melodeon, and Vanguard labels and played until his death in 1969.
Paramount 78s: 1931
After the depression: 1964-1969
Nirvana (band)
Nirvana was an American rock band formed in Aberdeen, Washington, in 1987. It was founded by singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic. Nirvana had many drummers, but the final and most well known drummer was Dave Grohl, who joined in 1990. The band ended in 1994 after the death of Cobain. Since they formed, they have sold over 75 million records all over the world.
Nirvana were part of a rock music genre from Seattle called grunge. The genre comes from both punk rock and heavy metal. They released their first album, called "Bleach", for record label Sub Pop in 1989. Nirvana's style was songs with quiet verses and loud choruses. After signing to record label DGC Records, in 1991, Nirvana became very popular after releasing the song "Smells Like Teen Spirit". This song was the first single from their second album "Nevermind" (1991), which sold over 30 million copies worldwide. Nirvana becoming popular also made alternative rock popular. Cobain was then called by some people the "spokesman of a generation".
After many tours and the 1992 compilation album "Incesticide" and EP "Hormoaning", Nirvana released their third studio album "In Utero" (1993). It was well liked by critics and sold 15 million records worldwide. Nirvana ended after the death of Kurt Cobain in 1994. Some live albums have been released since. "MTV Unplugged in New York" (1994) won a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album in 1996.
Singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic met while they were at Aberdeen High School. Cobain said they didn't speak much while there. They became friends after high school while they were both often in the practising space of the Melvins Cobain wanted to start a band with Novoselic, but Novoselic did not answer for a long time. Cobain sent him a demo of his band Fecal Matter. Three years later, Novoselic told Cobain he had listened to the tape and said they should start a band.
Following a tour stop in Munich, Germany on March 1, 1994, Kurt was diagnosed with severe Bronchitis. He flew to Rome the next day for treatment, and his wife Courtney Love met him there a few days later. On March 4, Kurt was rushed to the hospital after an overdose of Rohypnol, which he had consumed with Champagne. On March 18, Courtney called the Seattle Police to their home over one dispute, informing them that Kurt was suicidal and that he had locked himself in a room with a gun. When the police arrived, Kurt explained to them that he was not suicidal and that he only wanted to leave Courtney. On March 25, Courtney arranged an intervention for Kurt, however it was unsuccessful, with Kurt insulting its participants. On March 30, Kurt and his best friend Dylan Carlson went to buy a shotgun, which he told him he needed for home protection and because of prowlers. The guns Kurt owned previously had been seized by the police, leading Dylan to buy the gun in his name, and not Kurt’s. That same day, Kurt checked into Exodus Recovery Center, and flew to Los Angeles. After two days at the treatment center, Kurt jumped over a 6 foot perimeter wall and bought a plane ticket back to Seattle. On the flight, he sat next to Guns N' Roses’ Duff McKagan, who knew that in all of his instinct that something was wrong. When Kurt arrived back in Seattle, people reported sightings of him in the days following. When Courtney learned that he left Exodus, she began trying to locate him. On April 4, she called in a missing person’s report for him, pretending to be his mother Wendy when making the call. The day after, she instructed an assistant to hire electricians to install security lighting and motion censors on a greenhouse above the garage of the Cobains’ home. On April 7, Nirvana pulled out of that year’s Lollapalooza music festival. The next day, one of the hired electricians named Gary Smith found Kurt’s body lying in the greenhouse, and called the police. No attempt was ever made to reform Nirvana.
After Nirvana broke up, Dave Grohl started a new band called the Foo Fighters. Krist Novoselic became interested in politics and also kept making music. He was the bassist for Flipper, which Kurt Cobain was a fan of, but later left the band. Novoselic later founded alternative rock band Giants in the Trees in 2017.
Olaf Kölzig
Olaf Kölzig (born April 6, 1970) is a South African-born German retired professional ice hockey goaltender. He played a career total of 14 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Washington Capitals and the Tampa Bay Lightning.
Kölzig was born in South Africa, but he grew up in several cities across Canada and his family moved to Union Bay, British Columbia, Canada, when he was a teenager. Kölzig never applied for Canadian citizenship, which, combined with his German parentage and German passport, allows him to represent Germany internationally. In May 2008 Kolzig announced that he would not return to the Capitals.
WrestleMania I
WrestleMania (chronologically known as WrestleMania I) was the first WrestleMania professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation. It took place on March 31, 1985 at Madison Square Garden in New York, New York. The attendance for the event was 19,121 fans. The event was viewed by over one million fans through closed circuit television, making it the largest event on closed-circuit television in the United States at the time. The event was the start of the Rock 'n' Wrestling gimmick, which brought together professional wrestling and the music industry.
For the first WrestleMania, Vince McMahon began cross promoting with MTV and several celebrities like Muhammad Ali, Liberace and Cyndi Lauper appeared during the build up to and at the event. To build up the show, the WWF aired two wrestling specials on MTV. The first one was The Brawl to End it All, aired on July 23, 1984, in which a match from a live MSG broadcast was shown on MTV. Wendi Richter defeated The Fabulous Moolah to win the WWF Women's Championship on the card, with Lauper on her side. At The War to Settle the Score, which aired on February 18, 1985, Leilani Kai, accompanied by Moolah, defeated Richter, again accompanied by Lauper, to win the Women's Championship.
In the months leading up to the first WrestleMania, Roddy Piper began a talk-show segment on WWF television entitles "Piper's Pit". On one episode of the show, he hit Jimmy Snuka over the head with coconut, leading to a feud between the two men. As part of the storyline, Piper recruited Cowboy Bob Orton to be his bodyguard. On another episode of "Piper's Pit", Piper spoke out against the burgeoning Rock 'n' Wrestling connection, which led to a confrontation with Hulk Hogan. In February 1985, the two men faced each other at The War to Settle the Score, where Hogan won by disqualification. Their on-going feud led to their match at WrestleMania.
WWF announcer Gene Okerlund did the singing of the National Anthem, with Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse "The Body" Ventura calling the action. Gene Okerlund also did interviews backstage, with "Lord" Alfred Hayes doing interviews near the entrance to the locker room, right outside the ring. Howard Finkel began the first of his many times ring announcing WrestleMania events, on this broadcast. The opening theme for the event was the instrumental portion of the Phil Collins and Philip Bailey hit "Easy Lover", while the closing theme for the credits was "Axel F." by Harold Faltermeyer. Celebrity guests in attendance for this WrestleMania included Billy Martin, Cyndi Lauper, Mr. T, Muhammad Ali, and Liberace accompanied by The Rockettes.
The first match was between Tito Santana and The Executioner. Santana won the match after slamming The Executioner from the apron into the ring and then performing a flying forearm. This caused The Executioner to submit. Following the match, King Kong Bundy, accompanied by Jimmy Hart, and Special Delivery Jones made their way to the ring. After performing an avalanche and big splash, Bundy defeated Jones in record making time. The WWF's official time for the match is nine seconds.
The next match was between Ricky Steamboat and Matt Borne. Steamboat took the early advantage in the match-up, until Borne performed a belly-to-belly suplex on Steamboat. In retaliation, Steamboat used a several knife-edged chops, a belly-to-back suplex, and a flying double chop off of the ropes. After performing a flying crossbody, Steamboat pinned Borne for the win. After the match ended, David Sammartino, accompanied by his father Bruno Sammartino, and Brutus Beefcake, accompanied by Johnny Valiant, made their way to the ring. The action favored both contestants, as each wrestler alternated having the advantage. After Beefcake threw David Sammartino out of the ring, Valiant performed a body slam on him onto the cement floor. He then pushed Sammartino back into the ring. A short while later, all four men began fighting in the ring, and the match ended in a no-contest.
The first championship defense of WrestleMania was between Junkyard Dog (JYD) and the reigning WWF Intercontinental Champion Greg Valentine, who was accompanied to the ring by his manager Jimmy Hart. JYD began the match in the offensive position, performing headbutts and roundhouse right hands on Valentine. As the action went back and forth, Hart climbed on the ring apron, where Valentine accidentally hit him. Later, Valentine pinned JYD with his feet on the ropes for leverage, which is an illegal maneuver. As a result, Tito Santana ran down to the ring and explained what had happened to the match's official. The match was restarted, and JYD eventually won the match by count-out. Valentine, however, kept his title as titles do not change hands through count-out. The following match was a for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Nikolai Volkoff and Iron Sheik, accompanied to the ring by Freddie Blassie, challenged the reigning champions, The U.S. Express (Mike Rotundo and Barry Windham), who were accompanied by Lou Albano. The U.S. Express dominated the early part of the match until Volkoff and The Sheik began to gain the offensive advantage over Rotundo. After Rotundo tagged in his partner Windham, Windham performed a bulldog on The Sheik. After nearly being pinned, The Sheik hit Windham in the head with Blassie's cane as the referee had his back turned. After Volkloff got the pin, Volkoff and The Sheik were crowned as the new tag champions.
The next match on the card was a $15,000 Body Slam Challenge between André the Giant and Big John Studd, who was accompanied by Bobby Heenan. The stipulation of the match was that André the Giant had to body slam Studd to win $15,000, and if he failed, he would be forced to retire. After beginning the match in the defensive position, André countered with chops and a headbutt. After weakening his knees with multiple kicks, André was able to lift Studd over his shoulders and execute a body slam to win the match. After André collected his prize money, he threw some of it into the audience. Heenan, however, grabbed the bag holding the remainder of the winnings and ran from ringside. As a result of the match, André was able to continue his undefeated streak unscathed. After all the men had left ringside, it was time for the WWF Women's Championship match between Wendi Richter, managed by singer Cyndi Lauper, and Leilani Kai, managed by former champion The Fabulous Moolah. Shortly after the match began, Moolah grabbed Richter as she was outside on the floor, but Lauper saved her from an attack. Kai then performed a flying crossbody from the top rope, but Richter used Kai's momentum to roll-up Kai in a pinning position. With this pin, Richter became the new Women's Champion.
The main event and last match of the night pitted Hulk Hogan, the reigning WWF Champion, and Mr. T, accompanied by Jimmy Snuka, against Roddy Piper and Paul Orndorff, accompanied by Cowboy Bob Orton. Professional boxer Muhammad Ali was the special guest referee. First, Piper, Orndorff, and Orton made their way to the ring as drums and bagpipes played, causing the crowd to boo. Crowd favorites Hogan, Mr. T, and Snuka made their way to the ring next. The match began with Mr. T and Piper in the ring and the two traded blows. Mid-way through the match, all four men began brawling in the ring, and Muhammad Ali punched Piper in an attempt to restore order. After the match's order was restored, Orndorff and Piper had the offensive advantage. As Orndorff locked Hogan into a full nelson, Orton climbed the top rope to attempt to knock out Hogan. Instead, Orton mistakenly hit Orndorff, and Hogan pinned him to win the match. In frustration, Piper knocked out the other official, Pat Patterson, and went backstage.
Approximately three months after WrestleMania, Nikolai Volkoff and Iron Sheik lost the title back to The U.S. Express (Mike Rotundo and Barry Windham). They held the title until August, when the team of Brutus Beefcake and Greg Valentine became the new champions. The duo, later known as The Dream Team, revitalized the WWF's tag team scene and feuded with The British Bulldogs.
After André the Giant defeated Big John Studd at the event, Studd formed a tag team with King Kong Bundy, and the duo faced André and Hulk Hogan on a number of occasions.
In late 1985, Wendi Richter was defeated by The Fabulous Moolah, losing her WWF Women's Championship in controversial fashion. Moolah, who wrestled as a masked female wrestler known as The Spider Lady, won the title after convincing an official to call the match in her favor, but Richter was unaware of the planned title change. Richter left the WWF shortly after, and Moolah held the title for approximately two years.
In a new storyline after WrestleMania, Roddy Piper began training Cowboy Bob Orton as a boxer. Hulk Hogan accepted a challenge on the behalf of Mr. T to face Orton in match on an episode of "Saturday Night's Main Event". After Mr. T won the match, Orton and Piper attacked him, leading to a boxing match at WrestleMania II between Piper and Mr. T. At the second annual WrestleMania, Piper was disqualified in the third round.
The event was viewed by over one million fans through closed circuit television, making it the largest event on closed-circuit television in the United States at the time.