AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
By 1357, Chaucer was a page to Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence. In 1360, he was captured by the French near Reims during a battle in the Hundred Years' War. He was then ransomed and released. King Edward III gave £16 towards his release. Chaucer married Phillipa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen and had close family connections to John of Gaunt. He had about three or four children.
Chaucer may have studied law in the "Inner Temple". He joined the Royal court and travelled around Europe on business for the king. He became one of the king's esquires. One of his first known poems was written in 1369. It was called "The Book of The Duchess", and was written after the death of John of Gaunt's wife, Blanche. In 1374, he became "Comptroller" (in charge of the money) of the Customs for the Port of London. He did this job for 12 years. It was a well paid job and Chaucer was quite rich.
When Richard II became king, Chaucer continued to work in Customs. He was also sent to Europe on several more diplomatic jobs for the king.
Chaucer moved to Kent in 1385 where he had a new position as Justice of the Peace. He was also elected as one of two knights of the shire to be a member of parliament. At the end of the year he lost his customs jobs. His wife, Phillipa, died in 1387. But on 12 July 1389, he was made the "Clerk of the Kings Works", looking after repairs to the royal palaces. He was given other small positions, including looking after the river banks of the Thames, and as a deputy forester in the Royal Forest. Over the next few years, Chaucer became poorer and often was given small payments and pensions from the king.
He died at St.Mary's Chapel in Sevenoaks on 25 October 1400. Chaucer is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is now called the Poets' Corner.
Chaucer did most of his writing between 1369 and 1393. He is famous for his collection of stories in verse called the "Canterbury Tales". He also wrote "The Book of the Duchess", "The House of Fame" and "Troilus and Criseyde".
Echidna, the spiny anteater, is a monotreme that lives in Australia and in New Guinea. They are the living members of the family Tachyglossidae.
Echnidas have a long, tube-like mouth with a sticky tongue. They are also covered in spines. They have mammary glands, and lay eggs.
The echidna has a method of protecting itself. With its long, sharp claws, they quickly dig a hole until only their spines are showing when they are hiding in the hole. The predator will not be able to get it without injuring itself on the spines.
When there is a fire, the echidna will dig down out of reach of the fire.
The short-beaked echidna ("Tachyglossus") eats termites and ants. The three "Zaglossus" species also eat other small insects and grubs. Echidnas pick up the prey with their sticky tongues.
2002 Bali terrorist bombing
The 2002 Bali terrorist bombings took place in Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack was the deadliest act of terrorism in the history of Indonesia. Kuta is a popular tourist destination. 202 people were killed. 164 of them were foreigners, 38 were Indonesian citizens. Most of those killed were Australians, Britons and Indonesians. In addition, 209 people were injured.
At around 11 in the evening, a bomb destroyed a bar on Bali. The bomb was in a backpack, and only the person that owned it died. A few seconds later, a larger bomb went off. This bomb was close to 1,000 kilograms.
A terrorist group called Jemaah Islamiyah are believed to be responsible for making and exploding the device.
In total, four people were charged with the terrorist attack. An Indonesian court sentenced three of them to death. One person received a long prison sentence.
The Boeing 17 Flying Fortress was a heavy bomber, that was used by the United States Strategic Air Force during World War II. It first flew in 1935, and was introduced in 1938. It had a shorter range, and a smaller bomb load, than its sister bomber the B-24 Liberator, but it had more defensive armament. It dropped large amounts of bombs during air raids against Germany, such as the raid on Dresden. The B-17 was also used in the Pacific, including the Battle of Midway. The Flying Fortress had its name for a good reason, it could survive the hits and was able to fly while under enemy fire. The B-17 was a heavy bomber plane that carried 2 tons of bombs. The reason why few B-17's survived WWII was because lack of escort by allied fighters and enemy fire. Later in WWII, the U.S. increased escort fighters for the bombers giving more protection. The escort fights flew until the end of WWII.
Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith
Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith is the third film in the "Star Wars" saga produced by Lucasfilms It was released in 2005.
The movie shows the events that led to the transformation of Anakin Skywalker to Darth Vader of the original trilogy. It also shows how Palpatine turned the Galactic Republic into the Galactic Empire as well as showing the destruction of the Jedi because of Order 66.
Midway Atoll
Midway Atoll was the site of a famous battle in World War II, the Battle of Midway. The United States of America took control of the atoll in the 19th century when nobody lived there.
Midway Atoll is now home to 67-70% of the world's Laysan Albatross population, and 34-39% of the global Black-footed Albatross.
While Midway supports nearly three million birds, each seabird species has carved out a specific site on the atoll in which to nest. Seventeen different species of seabird can be found, the rarest of which is the Short-tailed Albatross, otherwise known as the “Golden Gooney.” Fewer than 2,200 are believed to exist due to excessive feather hunting in the late nineteenth century.
Over 250 different species of looli marine life are found in the of lagoon and surrounding waters. The critically endangered Hawaiian monk seals raise their pups on the beaches. Monk seals are benthic foragers and rely on the Midway Atoll’s reef fish, squid, octopus and crustaceans. Green sea turtles, another threatened species, occasionally nest on the island. The first was found in 2006 on Spitsy Rinaia Island and another in 2007 on Sand Island. A resident pod of 300 spinner dolphins live in the lagoons and nearshore waters.
Beşiktaş J.K.
Beşiktaş Jimnastik Kulübü (Besiktas JK) is a Turkish football club from Istanbul. Besiktas JK was founded in 1903 by 26 young men in "Osman Pasa Konagi".
It was the beginning of the 20th century and it was forbidden then to attend sports activities on a club basis. People were gathering together all around Istanbul. Twenty-six young men (Huseyin Bereket, Mehmet Samil, Ahmet Fetgeri, Mehmet Ali Fetgeri, Fuat Balkan, Muhittin Pasa, Mazhar Kazanci, Nazim Nazif Ander, Haydar Bey, Cami Baykurt, Behcet Bey, Sevket Cenani, Mahmut Naci Bey, Refik Bey, Sukru Pasa, Haci Ahmet Pasa, Kilic Ali, Ziya Karamursel, Kenan Bey, Yuzbasi Fethi Bey, Seraffettin Bey, Seref Bey, Celal Davut, Hami Bey, Fuat Pasa, and Kamil Beyler) gathered together on November in 1902 and decided to found a club. Next year in 1903 the vision came to life and Besiktas JK was founded.
Besiktas is one of the 3 big clubs in Turkey. Others are Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe.
Phosphorus has the chemical symbol P, and its atomic number is 15. Its mass number is 30.97. It is not found in nature as an element but as compounds, such as phosphates. It can be a red or a white waxy solid.
Phosphorus comes in several forms. White and red phosphorus are the most common forms. White phosphorus is a waxy white solid. When pure, it is colourless. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide, an organic solvent. It turns light yellow when in air. It glows in the dark because it "burns" very slowly in air.
When exposed to sunlight, or when heated in its own vapour to 250 °C, it is converted to the red variety. This form does not ignite spontaneously and it is less toxic and less flammable than white phosphorus. The red modification is fairly stable and sublimes with a vapor pressure of 1 atmosphere at 417 °C.
White phosphorus is more reactive than red phosphorus. White phosphorus catches fire spontaneously in air, burning to make smoke of phosphorus(V) oxide. If it burns in a little air, it produces poisonous phosphorus(III) oxide. When white phosphorus is heated in an alkali, it disproportionates to produce hypophosphites and phosphine. Red phosphorus can burn but needs to be ignited. Phosphorus reacts with the halogens to make phosphorus halides. It reacts with some metals to make phosphides.
Phosphorus compounds are chemical compounds containing phosphorus. They are listed below with some of their properties. Phosphorus comes in several oxidation states, the number of electrons moved during a redox reaction. -3 is flammable, powerful reducing agent, and toxic; +1 is a strong reducing agent and is rare; +3 is a weaker reducing agent that is poisonous; +5 is not a reducing agent and is very common.
It is an essential component of living systems and is found as phosphate in nervous tissue, bones and cell protoplasm. It is also found in the earth as phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is the main source of phosphorus and phosphorus compounds. Many body tissues have calcium phosphates in them.
Phosphorus was first made by heating a mixture of phosphates and carbon in an iron pot. The phosphates were made by dissolving bones in strong acids and evaporating the solution.
Phosphorus is made now by heating calcium phosphate, carbon, and silicon dioxide in an electric arc furnace. The heat of the electric arc melts the mixture of materials, and phosphorus gas is given off. It is absorbed under water. This makes white phosphorus.
White phosphorus is used in incendiary weapons and smoke grenades. It is also used to make organic compounds that have phosphorus in them. Phosphorus is used to dope semiconductors. Phosphorus is used to remove oxygen from copper. It is also used in making alloys. Red phosphorus is used in matches and flares.
Phosphorus compounds are used for fertilizers, soft drinks, toothpaste, and detergents. Most of these are phosphates. Phosphides can be used to kill rodents.
White phosphorus is very dangerous. It is very toxic and ignites easily, burning with a very hot flame. Red phosphorus is much safer. Some phosphorus compounds are toxic, but the common phosphates are not toxic.
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th President of the United States (1853–1857) and is the only President from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate.
Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He attended school at Hillsborough Center but then moved to Hancock Academy in Hancock at the age of 12. After attending school there for five years, he was transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy in the spring of 1820. After he entered, he felt homesick and returned home. Consequently, his father then put him in a wagon, drove him half way back to school, and left him on the roadside without saying a word. Franklin walked the seven remaining miles back to school. Later that year, he was transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college. That fall, he was sent to Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. While he was there, Franklin Pierce participated in literary, political, and debating clubs. During his second year there, his grades were the lowest in his class, but he was able to improve them and graduated with the rank of fifth in his class.
Once finished with college, he went to law school in Northampton, Massachusetts. Pierce was admitted to the bar and began law practice in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1827. Franklin Pierce rose to a central position in the Democratic party of New Hampshire and was elected to the lower house in New Hampshire’s General Court in 1828. Pierce served in the State House from 1829 to 1833 and also served as Speaker from 1832 to 1833. Then in 1832, Franklin was elected Democrat to the 23rd and 24th of Congress from March 4, 1833, to March 4, 1837. At 27 years of age, Pierce was the youngest U.S. Representative at that time. In 1836, he was elected by the New Hampshire General Court as a Democrat to the U.S Senate, serving from March 4, 1837, to February 28, 1842. After serving in the Senate, Pierce went back to Concord to resume law practice. He then was U.S. Attorney from 1845 to 1847 for the district of New Hampshire, though he declined Democratic nomination for Governor of New Hampshire and refused the appointment as General of the United States.
On November 19, 1834, Franklin Pierce married Jane Means Appleton. They had three children, all of which died in childhood. Franklin Pierce Jr. died only three days after birth; and Frank Robert Pierce died at four years of age from epidemic typhus; just two months before his inauguration, Franklin Pierce and his family boarded a train bound for Boston. Shortly after, their derailed car started to roll down an embankment. Franklin and Jane survived, merely shaken up, but saw their 11-year-old son Benjamin get crushed to death. Jane Pierce thought the train accident was a divine punishment for Franklin’s pursuit and acceptance of high office.
Franklin Pierce served as President from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. He was the first President to “affirm” his oath of office instead of swearing it (the only other president to do this has been Herbert Hoover). So rather than placing his hands on the Bible, Franklin Pierce placed his hands on a law book. He was also the first President to recite his inaugural address from memory. Surprisingly, Franklin Pierce selected men of different opinions for his Cabinet. Many people expected a diverse group to break up quickly, but the Cabinet stayed together for Pierce’s four-year term.
Franklin Pierce’s toughest challenge as President was the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. This act repealed the Missouri Compromise and, in the west, reopened the question of slavery. These and more triggered a series of events known as "Bleeding Kansas". Pro-slavery Border Ruffians, mostly from Missouri, illegally voted in a government. Pierce recognized this and called the Topeka Constitution, set up by Free-Staters, as an act of “rebellion.” Overall, Franklin Pierce is ranked among the least effective Presidents of the United States, as he was unable to steer a steady, prudent course.
After losing the Democratic reelection in 1856, Pierce retired with his wife. Franklin Pierce died in Concord, New Hampshire of cirrhosis on October 8, 1869 at the age of 64. He was buried in Old North Cemetery in Concord.
The Ottoman Empire, officially the Sublime State of Ottomania (in Ottoman Turkish: دولت عالیه عثمانیه), was a multinational state that lasted from 1299 to 1923. It was centered in Turkey and controlled the eastern and southern lands around the Mediterranean Sea. The empire was founded by Osman I around 1299, and was most powerful from around 1400 to 1600, when it controlled trade and politics in southeastern Europe, southwest Asia, and northern Africa. Suleiman the Magnificent was one of the most powerful rulers.
The empire was a collection of conquered countries. The Sultan sent governors to rule these countries or provinces, with titles such as Pasha or Bey. The most famous in the early 19th century was Muhammad Ali Pasha. Besides provinces, the empire also had tributary states.
In later years, the Ottoman Empire began to weaken. In the later part of the 19th century, it became known as "the sick man of Europe". The empire was defeated in World War I and broke apart.
The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in 1299. His son, Orhan, captured its first capital, Bursa, from the Byzantine Empire. In the late 1300s, the Ottomans began consolidating power, especially in the Balkans, where Serbia was defeated in 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo Polje by Sultan Murad I. He died at the battle, and Bayezid I took control. At the 1396 Battle of Nicopolis, a large crusade of the Western European powers was defeated. Despite the victory, Bayezid was deposed by Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. His absence led to a civil war, referred to as the Ottoman Interregnum. Mehmed Çelebi won and became Mehmed I. His son, Murad II had to battle pretenders to the throne backed by the Byzantine Empire. He retaliated with an attack on Constantinople, and Venice helped the Byzantines. Murad defeated them at Thessaloniki. He also defeated the Karamanid "beylik" (principality), Hungary, Poland, and Wallachia at Varna in 1444. John Hunyadi, a Hungarian general, tried his hand at defeating the Turks but lost in 1448.
Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453. He also subjugated Albania and expanded tolerance for the Orthodox Church. Mehmed continued his expansion, followed by his son Bayezid II. Selim I conquered Egypt and the Levant, which were ruled by the Mamluks, in early 1517. He also obliterated the Safavid Persians at Chaldiran in 1514. The Ottomans were at odds with Portugal over their expansion as well. Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim's son, captured Belgrade and most of Hungary after the Battle of Mohács in 1526. His Siege of Vienna was repulsed by the deeply-divided Holy Roman Empire in 1529. Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia became tributary to the Ottoman Empire soon afterwards.
In the east, the Ottomans captured Baghdad from the Safavids and partitioned the Caucasus with them. Meanwhile, Suleiman allied Francis I of France over mutual hatred of the Habsburgs. This led to Ottoman activity in the Mediterranean, where Rhodes, Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli would eventually be captured. Barbarossa Hayreddin led the Ottoman advance. In 1566, Suleiman died, and many historians consider that the start of the Ottoman stagnation.
The Ottomans lost the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 by Philip II of Spain and his Holy League. The Ottomans quickly recovered by capturing Cyprus from the Republic of Venice. However, the defeat shattered the myth of Ottoman invincibility. The Ottomans suffered many defeats in the next 30 years: the Long War with the Austrian Empire ended in stalemate, and the Safavids invaded the eastern Ottoman provinces. Murad IV recaptured Iraq and the Caucasus from Persia. The "Sultanate of Women" became an nickname for the Ottoman Empire after consorts Kösem Sultan and Turhan Sultan became important in the empire and sometimes made even economic decisions in the Sultan's place. The Grand Vizier also took a greater role under the leadership of the Köprülüs. Crete was captured from Venice and southern Ukraine was captured from Poland.
However, Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha carelessly opened up the empire to attack when he attacked Vienna. The Austrians, Poles, Russians, and Venetians all attacked the Ottomans back in the Great Turkish War. Austria and Poland attacked the overstretched Turks in Hungary and Transylvania while Russia hammered Crimea. Venice settled to attack Greece. The warring sides signed the Treaty of Karlowitz, ceding Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Podolia (southern Ukraine) to Poland, Morea (southern Greece) to Venice, and Azov (a Black Sea port) to Russia.
Russia and Sweden went to war, and the Ottomans got involved by retaking Azov and then making peace. Austria, Russia, Venice, and the Ottomans would go to war several times. By 1739, the Ottomans had actually retaken the Morea and Serbia. In the 1740s and the 1750s, the Ottomans began to modernize their military, but in the 1760s, the Ottomans went to war with Russia again. Russia took over Crimea in 1783 and claimed that Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire were under Russian protection. Selim III continued modernising the military, but the elite Janissary corps troops revolted. Napoleon attacked Egypt but was repulsed by the British.
Serbia revolted and gained nominal independence in 1815, but they were still vassals of the Ottoman Empire. Greece won their independence after a long war of independence from 1821 to 1829. The al-Saud family revolted in 1811 with the support of the Wahhabi sect. Then, Egypt under Muhammad Ali almost captured Constantinople, but the Russians repulsed them. The Egyptians settled with the Levant, and the Ottomans tried to retake it but were were soundly defeated. The Ottomans was dubbed the "sick man of Europe" because of the empire's incompetence in international affairs.
The Ottoman Tanzimat period brought reform: conscription was introduced, a central bank was formed, homosexuality was decriminalised, the law was secularised, and the guilds were replaced with factories. The Christian part of the empire became much more advanced than the Muslim part, and the divide created tension. In the 1850s, the British and the French helped the Ottomans in the Crimean War. The Ottoman debts led to a state of bankruptcy, and the European countries began providing loans and controlling the finances of the empire. Worse yet, the Ottomans began war with Russia over Bulgarian independence. Ar the 1878 Congress of Berlin, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro gained complete independence. Bulgaria remained a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The British took Cyprus and in 1882 Egypt.
In 1908, the Ottomans underwent a revolution by the Young Turks. Abdul Hamid II abdicated, and Mehmed V was instated. Bulgaria gained independence, and Austria invaded Bosnia that same year. In 1912, the Ottomans lost Libya to the Italians. The ensuing Balkan Wars saw the Ottomans lose all of their European territories except Eastern Thrace to a combined force of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria. The Second Balkan War allowed the Ottomans to attack Bulgaria in conjunction with Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. Their victory meant little since the unrest continued, with a 1909 countercoup to the Young Turk coup and then three countercoups.
In 1914, although they were utterly disorganised, the Ottomans attacked Russia and declared war. Britain and France went to war with the Ottomans, and World War I had come to Turkey.
The Ottomans early in the war performed better than expected. They won the Battle of Gallipoli, partly because of the incompetence of the British commanders. The Ottomans also won the Battle of Kut though Iraq was lost later. In 1915, some of the worst mass killings in history began. Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, and others were targeted, and many as 2.5 million people died. The Ottoman Empire fell soon after the Arabs revolted in 1916 with British help. The empire fell after the Sinai, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and eventually Anatolia itself fell. The Ottomans surrendered in 1918.
The Turkish War of Independence was a series of ethnic cleansing and military campaigns by The Turkish National Movement, which lead to the foundation of the Republic of Turkey. In 1923, the Ottoman Empire formally ceased to exist.
The empire was a hereditary monarchy. The ruler's title was 'Sultan'. (It was used in front of the name, e.g. ""Sultan" Süleyman".) The title of 'Sultan' was also used for the wives and the daughters of the monarchs. (It was used at the end of the name, e.g. "Hürrem "Sultan"".) In the early years of the empire, shahzadahs, the sons of the Sultan, were sent to different parts of the empire (Sanjaks) to get experience of governing. Later they might be candidates for the Sultanate and Caliphate.
After Ahmed this system changed. In the new system the Sultan would keep his male relatives locked in a small apartment called a "kafes" where they would never be able to see the outside world, and would therefore be unable to take power from him. Often, a new Sultan would have his male relatives killed, a simpler solution since it removed competition for the Sultanate and prevented rebel movements. However, the women in his harem often sought greater status and influence, and the Sultan's mother might become a powerful political force in the Empire. Each mother in the harem would try to make her own son the next Sultan, since they knew he would probably be killed if he was not.
The Sultans gradually lost their ability to govern far-away territories well. Distant governors did whatever they wanted and made their own laws instead of obeying the Sultan. By its end, the Ottoman Empire grew so worn out and corrupt that it was ready to collapse.
Bursa was the first capital of the Ottoman Empire. Edirne in Thrace became the capital city of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, until Istanbul was conquered by the Turks and became the empire's final capital.
Many places were vassal states to the empire, rather than being directly ruled. They included Transylvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, (all of them later joined to form Romania), Caucasus (Georgia, Dagestan, and Chechnya). Their rulers received a degree of independence and autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, but they had to pay more money (tax or tribute) to the sultan.
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used to destroy the enemies' economic ability to fight a war. It is an attack from the air. Strategic bombing missions usually attack targets such as factories, railroads, oil refineries and cities. Missions would attack targets such as military bases, command and control facilities, airfields, and ammunition dumps.
The United States Air Force (USAF) has used strategic bombers in later conflicts.
Strategic bombing was an idea first tried in World War I. It was used by the German Luftwaffe. They bombed Antwerp. Zeppelins were used to bomb England.
However, the strategic bombing in World War II was on a far larger scale than anything which went before. First, In the Battle of Britain the German Air Force almost defeated Britain by attacking the Royal Air Force planes on the ground. This was partly successful, and some think it was a mistake to switch to other targets. The British had primitive radar, good enough to know whereabouts each attack was going. There was time to get the fighters in the air to intercept and damage the attacks.
Despairing of victory this way, the attack was switched to the cities.
German bombing of London and the larger provincial cities such as Coventry (an industrial city). They used high explosives and incendiary devices to cause fires.
Once the attacks on British air bases was diverted to the city targets, the Luftwaffe began to lose planes to the defences. The German air force, which had previously fought easy targets (for example, in the Spanish Civil War) began to take losses. Eventually these losses began to tell, and Hitler cancelled the planned invasion. He realised that no invasion across the Channel could succeed while Britain still had an active air force.
United States Army Air Force (USAAF) Colonel Billy Mitchell promoted strategic bombing in the United States. He had new ideas on the strategic, and tactical air war. The first USAAF strategic bomber was the B-17 Flying Fortress.
In the end, the large bomber fleets of the Allies devastated Nazi Germany with conventional bombs, and the atomic bomb was dropped on the Japan.
After World War II, the Strategic Air Command was located at Omaha, Nebraska, at Offutt Air Force Base. Nuclear weapons became an important mission.
A full cadre of generals at Offutt participated in many of the missions of the "Looking Glass", a KC-135 air tanker which was stripped and refitted with state of the art electronics which would take over in case the president was killed in wartime. The plane had several generals on board to assume wartime duties. The "red telephone" was an instant connection to the president at the White House. The plane flew all day every day, three planes took off a day in overlapping flights to provide this level of coverage. Since the end of the cold war, this flight ended, however, the Strategic Air Command still maintains the main facility at Offutt AFB - this is where President Bush flew to when the Twin Towers were bombed on 9-11-01 to set up his command center.
Edsel was a make of car and a new car making division introduced by the Ford Motor Company on September 4, 1957. The company called that day, "E-Day." It was named after Henry Ford's son, Edsel Ford. The Edsel was also one of the biggest failures in history. It was sold for only three years, ending in 1960.
Ford planned to move their Lincoln brand upmarket and put another make in beneath it. Design of the Edsel began in 1955 under the name "E-car" which stood for "Experimental car".
Edsel produced four models their first year, the 1958 model year. These were the large Citation and Corsair, and the smaller, easier to buy Pacer and Ranger.
These were the different body styles offered:
The Bermuda, Villager and Roundup were station wagons based on the two smaller Edsel models. They were basically the same as the 1957-59 Ford wagons.
63,110 Edsels sold the first year, which was the second largest car launch for any brand in history. Only the Plymouth introduction in 1928 was better, but still not as many cars as Ford hoped would sell.
There were only 2 Edsels in 1959, the Ranger and the Corsair. Only 44,891 cars were sold in that model year.
Only the Ranger and Villager were produced in 1960. These were almost exactly like the 1960 Ford cars. Only 2848 cars were built before the Edsel Motor Division was closed on November 19, 1959.
Edsel's failure is very famous because it failed after Ford put US$400,000,000 into its development. It had many innovations which are still in use today, including brakes which adjusted themselves and a very powerful V-8 engine called the "FE-series" that would be used for many years in later Fords. Also, the car did not live up to all of the promises in the advertisements before it was released. Some people blamed the look of the new car because of its very unusual grille shaped like a horse's collar. One famous quote from an auto writer said that the Edsel looked like "an Oldsmobile sucking on a lemon." Quality of the Edsel was a problem as well. Even the name was a problem to some buyers. Worst of all, the U.S. was entering a period of recession. All car sales were down.
Many drivers did not like having the automatic transmission as push-buttons mounted on the steering wheel hub. Since this was the place the horn was normally found, drivers ended up shifting gears instead of honking the horn.
The planned 1960 Edsel Comet compact car was relabeled Mercury Comet and sold more cars in its first year than all models of Edsel ever produced.
Fewer than 6,000 Edsels survive and today they are considered collectors’ items, with convertibles sometimes selling for over US$20,000 if in good condition. As usual with classics, hardtop models are worth considerably less, station wagons less than that, and sedans least of all. It is possible to get a very good 1959 sedan for about US$3000–$3500.
1000 (M) in the Gregorian Calendar was the last year of the 10th century and the 1st millennium in the Christian era ending on December 31. According to the then used Julian Calendar, 1000 AD was a leap year starting on Monday. In the Gregorian Calendar (not invented at the time) the year would have been a common year starting on Wednesday.
Chino Hills, California
Chino Hills is a city in the U.S. state of California. It is in San Bernardino County. Almost 75,000 people live in Chino Hills. It is named for the hills that cover most of the city.
Learning is getting new things into your brain.
There are a number of different types of learning:
Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development. According to James Zull, Professor of Biology and Biochemistry at Case Western University, "Learn­ing is phys­i­cal. Learn­ing means the mod­i­fi­ca­tion, growth, and prun­ing of our neu­rons, connectionscalled synapsesand neu­ronal net­works, through expe­ri­ence".
Acrocorinth
Acrocorinth is the acropolis of the Greek city Corinth.
Neutrons, with protons and electrons, make up an atom. Neutrons and protons are found in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike protons, which have a positive charge, or electrons, which have a negative charge, neutrons have zero charge which means they are neutral particles. Neutrons bind with protons with the residual strong force.
Neutrons were predicted by Ernest Rutherford, and discovered by James Chadwick, in 1932. Atoms were fired at a thin pane of beryllium. Particles emerged which had no charge, and he called these 'neutrons'. They were later added to the modern image of the atom.
Neutrons have a mass of 1.675 × 10g, which is a little heavier than the proton. Neutrons are 1839 times heavier than electrons.
Like all hadrons, neutrons are made of quarks. A neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. One up quark has a charge of +2/3, and the two down quarks each have a charge of -1/3. The fact that these charges cancel out is why neutrons have a neutral (0) charge. Quarks are held together by gluons.
Neutrons can be found in almost all atoms together with protons and electrons. Hydrogen-1 is the only exception. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the same element.
The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect its chemical properties. However it affects its half-life, a measure of its stability. An unstable isotope has a short half-life, in which half of it decays to lighter elements. By contrast, a stable isotope has a long half-life, much longer than that of an unstable isotope. The stability of an isotope is related to radioactivity: an unstable isotope can be highly radioactive.
Neutrons are the key to nuclear chain reactions, nuclear power and nuclear weapons.
LiveJournal
LiveJournal (often called LJ) is a website on which Internet users can keep a blog. It is also the name of the software that was designed to run it. LiveJournal is different from some other blogging sites, because a user can interact with friends in certain ways that are unique to the website (such as instant messaging in LJ Talk). It is based in San Francisco, California.
LiveJournal was started in 1999 by Brad Fitzpatrick as a way of keeping his high school friends updated on his activities. In January 2005, a blogging software company called Six Apart bought Danga Interactive, the company that was owned by Fitzpatrick, which operates LiveJournal.
LiveJournal has a service called a "friends list", which makes the site a way to socialise with friends and other people, even though it is a blog service too.
LiveJournal lets users change their accounts in several ways. A programming language called S2 can help users make their blogs look different. Users may upload small pictures (maximum 100 by 100 pixels) called "userpics", which appear next to the username. People can pay to get more features, like extra userpics, the ability to record their voices into a post ("voice posts"), the ability to make polls, and better layouts.
Each user also has a "User Info" page, which may contain contact information, a biography of the user, and lists of friends, interests, communities, and even schools the user had attended.
Currently LiveJournal has five kinds of accounts. About 95% of all LiveJournal users use a non-paid account ("plus" accounts). People can pay for their accounts ("Paid" accounts) and get more features, or they can get a "sponsored" account, which is free and has more features, but has advertisements. "Early adopters" are the accounts of people who signed up for LiveJournal back in 1999 or 2000. There are also permanent accounts. Most people can not get a permanent account. LiveJournal only sells them sometimes, and they may not sell them again.
RNA is an acronym for ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid. Many different kinds are now known.
RNA is physically different from DNA: DNA contains two intercoiled strands, but RNA only contains one single strand. RNA also contains different bases from DNA. These bases are the following:
Adenine forms bonds with uracil, and guanine forms bonds with cytosine. In this way, we say that adenine is complementary to uracil and that guanine is complementary to cytosine. The first three bases are also found in DNA, but uracil replaces thymine as a complement to adenine.
RNA also contains ribose as opposed to deoxyribose found in DNA. These differences result in RNA being chemically more reactive than DNA. This makes it the more suitable molecule to take part in cell reactions.
RNA is the carrier of genetic information in certain viruses, especially the retroviruses like the HIV virus. This is the only exception to the general rule that DNA is the hereditary substance.
This is done by messenger RNA (mRNA). A single strand of DNA is the blueprint for the mRNA which is transcribed from that DNA strand. The sequence of base pairs is transcribed from DNA by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. Then the mRNA moves from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to form proteins. The mRNA translates the sequence of base pairs into a sequence of amino acids to form proteins. This process is called translation.
DNA does not leave the nucleus for various reasons. DNA is a "very" long molecule, and is bound in with proteins, called histones, in the chromosomes. mRNA, on the other hand is able to move and to react with various cell enzymes. Once transcribed, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and moves to the ribosomes.
Two kinds of non-coding RNAs help in the process of building proteins in the cell. They are transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a short molecule of about 80 nucleotides which carries a specific amino acid to the polypeptide chain at a ribosome. There is a different tRNA for each amino acid. Each one has a site for the amino acid to attach, and an anti-codon to match the codon on the mRNA. For example, codons UUU or UUC code for the amino acid phenylalanine.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the nucleolus, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time. rRNA is extremely abundant and makes up 80% of the 10 mg/ml RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cytoplasm.
Small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) join with proteins to form spliceosomes. The spliceosomes govern alternative splicing.
Genes code for proteins in bits called exons. The bits can be joined together in different ways to make different mRNAs. Thus, from one gene many proteins can be made. This is the process of alternative splicing. Any unwanted versions of the protein get chopped up by proteases, and the chemical bits re-used.
There are a number of RNAs which regulate genes, that is, they regulate the rate at which genes are transcribed or translated.
Micro RNAs (miRNA) act by joining an enzyme and blocking mRNA, or speeding its breakdown. This is called RNA interference.
Small interfering RNAs (sometimes called silencing RNAs) interfere with the expression of a specific gene. They are quite small (20/25 nucleotides) double-stranded molecules. Their discovery has caused a surge in biomedical research and drug development.
Transposons are only one of several types of mobile genetic elements.
Retrotransposons copy themselves in two stages: first from DNA to RNA by transcription, then from RNA back to DNA by reverse transcription. The DNA copy is then inserted into the genome in a new position. Retrotransposons behave very similarly to retroviruses, such as HIV.
Viral genomes, which are usually RNA, take over the cell machinery and make both new viral RNA and the protein coat of the virus.
Phage genomes are quite varied. The genetic material can be ssRNA (single-stranded RNA), dsRNA (double-stranded RNA), ssDNA (single-stranded DNA), or dsDNA (double-stranded DNA). It may be between 5 and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are usually between 20 and 200 nanometers in size.
Phage genomes may code for as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes.
Some scientists and doctors have used messenger RNA in vaccines to treat cancer and prevent people from becoming sick.
Figure skating
Figure skating is both an art and a sport, in which people skate around on ice, doing jumps and spins. It is done at the Winter Olympics, and it has its own world championships. The name means to make figures or patterns on the ice. People skate with music.
In figure skating, sometimes women or men skate alone, or they skate in couples. Couples dancing includes "pairs" and ice dancing. Pairs skating has jumps, and sometimes the man lifts the woman in the air. These things are not done in ice dancing. In ice dancing, the woman must be held in the man's arms. Another kind of figure skating is synchronized skating done in groups.
The first ever figure skating club was started in 1742 in Edinburgh, Scotland. World Championships began in 1896 (the first in St. Petersburg, Russia). Before the Winter Olympic Games were started, competitions in figure skating were part of the Summer Olympic Games, in 1908 and 1920.
The International Skating Union (ISU) made the rules.
Singles skating is composed of a Short Program and a Free Skate. Both of them have a technical score and a presentation score.
Under the ISU Judging System the Judges focus entirely on evaluating the quality of each element performed (technical aspect) and the quality of the performance. There will be a panel of 9 Judges per segment. Out of these 9 scores, the highest and lowest score of each element or program component are ignored and the average will be taken.
The score for the element is composed of a “Base Value” of each element and the “Grade of Execution - GOE”. GOE is that the Judge grades the quality of the element on a scale of +5 to -5. The total of all the elements scores gives the Technical Score.
The Judges award points on a scale from 0.25 to 10.00 with increments of 0.25 for the Presentation Score to grade the overall presentation of the performance. There are five items in the Presentation Score.
Skating Skills
Transitions, Linking Footwork and Movement
Performance/Execution
Choreography/Composition
There are six types of jump that ISU decides to score. The following items are listed in order of the score (difficulty). There are two types of jumps: edge jump and toe jump. The Axel, loop, and Salchow are edge jumps and the lutz, flip and toe loop are toe jumps.
Spins are classified as Sit spins, Upright spins or Camel spin. Each of them has various variations. Any position which is not basic is a non-basic position.
Sit spin
The position of this spin is that the upper part of the skating leg is at least parallel to the ice.
Upright spin
The position of this spin is any position with the skating leg is extended or slightly bent which is not a camel position.
Camel spin
The position of this spin is any position where the free leg backwards and the knee is higher than the hip level, however Layback, Biellmann and similar variations are still considered upright spins.
Pairs:
Ice dance:
Gabriel in the Bible is an angel, specifically an archangel (arch means "highest" or "chief"). The name means "God is my strength" or "man of God",
The greeting of the Angel Gabriel opens the prayer Ave Maria.
In the Christian calendar, the Archangel Gabriel is celebrated together with the Archangels Michael and Raphael on September 29th.
Gabriel is also a given name. Cognates: Hungarian: Gábor. Italian: Gabriele. Finnish: Kaapo. The feminine form of the name Gabriel is Gabrielle.
Gabriel is first mentioned in the Bible, in the book of Daniel, when he appeared to Daniel. In the New Testament, St. Gabriel appears first in the book of Daniel in the Old Testament, the angel announced to Daniel the prophecy of the seventy weeks. And most famously, to Mary to announce the coming birth of Jesus. The Catholic feast of the Annunciation celebrates this visit every year, nine months before Christmas.
The Bible does not say angels have wings, but Christian artists usually show them that way.
Lahn
The Lahn is a river in Hesse, Germany with a length of .
Its source is in the Rothaargebirge.
It flows through the towns Marburg, Gießen, Wetzlar, and Limburg an der Lahn.
It joins the River Rhine at Lahnstein, near Koblenz.
The Rottweiler ( or , ) is a breed of domestic dog, regarded as medium-to-large or large. Their coat of fur is mostly black, with brown on the legs and face. They are excellent guard dogs, as well as herding, and companion dogs.
The Rottweiler is one of the oldest of herding breeds. With a history possibly dating back to the Roman Empire, the Rottweiler may be a descendant of ancient Roman drover dogs; a mastiff-type dog that was a dependable, rugged dog with great intelligence and guarding instincts.
Dogs are pack animals. When they feel threatened, they will defend themselves. They will also protect other members of the pack to a certain extent. How they defend themselves, and how close they feel to the rest of the pack (their owners) depends on the dog's nature. It also depends on how they were raised. Since dogs judge dangerous situations differently, they should not be left unattended near a place where people are arguing. They may also judge "unattended" moves of a child as an attack. Therefore, dogs should not be left alone near children.
There is no specific weight for a Rottweiler to qualify to be judged in dog shows. The dog must be neither too thin or too fat for its size. Both males and females must be "medium-large" in size for the American Kennel Club. The General German Rottweiler Club (ADRK) lists 50 kilograms (110 pounds) for males and 42 kilograms (93 pounds) for females .
When the Rottweilers' owners are not experienced, problems arise. Sometimes humans, mostly children, are attacked by these dogs. The attacks are often a result of irresponsible owners. Rottweilers are very intelligent and need equally smart handlers to raise them.
In some areas, breeding certain dogs has been restricted or forbidden.
Morna Anne Murrary (born June 20, 1945) is a Canadian Pop and Country musician. She was born in Nova Scotia. She was a teacher in physical education. “I wasn’t all that young,” as she told later. “I did go to university and I did teach school for a year. I had my feet planted fairly firmly on the ground when it all began.” But also sang and made records. One of her records, "Snowbird", became a hit late in 1970. The song was not about Christmas, but was popular during the Christmas season. The record became a perennial through association with the holiday.
Murray later had hits with remakes of Beatles ("I'm Happy Just to Dance With You") and Monkees songs ("Daydream Believer"). She also recorded "Shadows in the Moonlight" and "A Little Good News", which became popular.
She publicly retired from a singer in the music industry in 2008 when she had the last concert tour.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by J. K. Rowling is the second novel (published in 1998) in the Harry Potter series of books. A movie of the book was released in 2002.
The story begins as Harry, orphaned, spends summer with an aunt, uncle and cousin who do not love him. Harry is visited by Dobby, a house-elf, who is forced to serve the Malfoy family. Dobby warns Harry not to go back to Hogwarts, the magical school that Harry went to the year before, saying that terrible things will happen there. Harry doesn't listen to the warning, so Dobby causes a mess to make Harry's aunt and uncle angry. They lock Harry in his room for the rest of the summer. Harry is rescued by his best friend Ron Weasley in a flying car. He spends the rest of the summer at the Weasley home, called "The Burrow". The reader is introduced to the Weasley family, including Ron's sister Ginny, who is just starting at Hogwarts.