AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The subcontinent was once part of Gondwana, the ancient southern supercontinent. Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate travelling northward at 15 cm per year to slowly hit the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted as the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time were easily uplifted into mountains. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone.
About 50 million years ago, this fast moving plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean. The existence of the Tethys has been proved by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sank to the floor. The Indian plate is still driving horizontally below the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards.
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also leads to earthquakes from time to time.
Dike
Dike or dyke, can mean:
Horae
The Horae were three goddesses in Greek mythology.
There are in fact two different groups of goddesses which were known at different times: today they are called the first and second generation to distinguish between them.
They were the children of Zeus and Themis.
The first Horae were goddesses of the seasons.
They were:
The second Horae were goddesses of order, justice and law.
Alkmene
Alcmene "" is a person mentioned in Greek mythology. She is not a goddess, for Alcmene was mortal. She was the daughter of King Elektryon of Mycenae and his wife Anaxo. She was the wife of Amphitryon. She is the mother of Heracles "" and Iphicles.
Once when Amphitryon was not at home, the god Zeus, seduced Alcmene in the form of Amphitryon. Alcmene gave birth to Heracles, who was the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, who was the son of Amphitryon. Zeus wanted to kill her for yet another unknown reason of godlore, but Heracles, one day old, saved her.
Danaë
Danaë is a person in Greek mythology. She was the daughter of King Akrisios of Argos. She is the mother of Perseus by Zeus.
Akrisios was told by an oracle that he would be killed by his grandchild. Because of that he put his daughter Danaë in a tower where noone was allowed to enter, so she could not have a child. But the god Zeus could enter in the form of a golden rain, and with him her child was Perseus.
Akrisios
Akrisios (or Acrisius) is a person in Greek mythology. He was the King of Argos. He is the father of Danaë, and grandfather of Perseus.
Akrisios then put Danaë and her baby Perseus in a box and threw it into the sea. But Zeus tells the sea-god Poseidon to help them, and so Danaë and her son come to the island Seriphos. There they are found by , who lets them live with him.
Andromeda (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Andromeda (, "Androméda" or Ἀνδρομέδη, "Andromédē") is an Aethiopian princess, the daughter of King Cepheus and his wife Cassiopeia. When Cassiopeia boasted that her daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids, this angered the sea god Poseidon, who sent the sea monster Ceto to ravage the land as punishment. Desperate, King Cepheus consulted the Oracle of Delphi, who stated that Andromeda must be offered as a sacrifice to the sea monster; Andromeda was then chained to a rock by the shore. When the hero Perseus saw Andromeda (having flown over after beheading Medusa), he killed the sea monster and saved Andromeda. They were soon married, with Perseus going on to found the city of Mycenae. By Perseus, she is the mother of Perses, Alcaeus, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus and Electryon as well as two daughters Autochthe and Gorgophone. Andromeda is also the great-grandmother of Herakles.
In Greek, her name means "ruler of men," from ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ("anēr", "andrós" - "[of] man"), and "medon" ("ruler").
GB or Gb could mean:
A centaur is a creature in Greek mythology. It has the upper body of a human, but below the waist it has the body of a horse. There are also female centaurs.
Famous centaurs are Chiron and Nessus.
Bruntál
Bruntál is a small city in the Czech Republic. Bruntál is in the Hrubý Jeseník mountains (part of Nízký Jeseník). Approximately 20,000 people live there.
Bruntál was probably built in 1223. Its name is in the Unicov Charter published by Přemysl Otakar I. It is the oldest Czech city with Magdeburg Rights, meaning a city that can have its own wall and judges. Otakar I gave it these rights because of the gold, silver and other minerals from there.
In Bruntál there are many places that tourists visit – for example, the Castle of Bruntál, the Decanal church of the Virgin Mary, Gabriel's house, Mildner's villa, Klippel's column.
Some of the most notable authors who wrote about the place include: Erwin Weiser, Bruno Hanns Wittek, Josef Lowag, and Kurt Langer.
There are 5 primary schools and 6 intermediate schools. Since 2003, there are 2 universities.
There is one cinema, one theater, and one cultural building.
A concerto is a piece of music made for a solo instrument and an orchestra. When an orchestra plays at a concert they might play a symphony (a piece for orchestra) and they might play a concerto (with a soloist). If the solo instrument is a violin the piece is called a “violin concerto”, if it is a piano it is called a “piano concerto”, etc. The orchestra accompanies the soloist. This means that it is the soloist who decides how fast or slow to play. The conductor should listen to the way the soloist wants to play and make the orchestra accompany sensitively.
The word “concerto” is an Italian word (the second “c” is pronounced like an English “ch”). It means “agreeing” or “playing together”. The English plural is “concertos”.
The concerto became popular during the 17th century in Italy. Some concertos had several soloists instead of just one. This kind of concerto was called a concerto grosso.
The solo concerto became popular with composers like Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) who wrote over 400 concertos for various instruments. His most famous concertos are a group of four known as "The Four Seasons". These are violin concertos, and each concerto deals in turn with one of the seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter. Many other Baroque composers wrote concertos: Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote several concertos for violin although only two have survived, the others have been lost. He also wrote solo concertos for the harpsichord. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) wrote concertos for the organ. Organs in England were very small in those days and balanced well with an orchestra. Handel sometimes put pauses in his concertos where the soloist could improvise (make up) some music. These improvised bits became known as “cadenzas”. Concertos ever since have cadenzas where the soloist can show how brilliant they are at playing and at improvising. Some composers wrote their own cadenzas.
In the Classical period Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) wrote a few concertos including two for the cello, but he is better known for his symphonies. It was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) who wrote many wonderful piano concertos. This was at a time when the piano was a new instrument. Mozart was a brilliant pianist and he wrote most of them for himself to perform. He also wrote five violin concertos, four horn concertos, two flute concertos and a clarinet concerto. He also wrote concertos for more than one soloist e.g. a flute and harp concerto and a violin and viola concerto which he called "Sinfonia Concertante". By this time concertos always had three movements: a fast one (usually in sonata form), a slow one, and a fast movement (often a rondo) to finish with.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) became famous as a pianist before he was known as a composer. He wrote five piano concertos. The last one, known in English-speaking countries as the "Emperor Concerto", is a very big, powerful work which looks forward to the music of the Romantic period. Beethoven wrote a beautiful violin concerto. At the time everyone thought it was too hard for the soloist to play, but as composers wrote harder and harder music the players had to become better and better. Nowadays every professional violinist should be able to play it. Beethoven also wrote a "Triple Concerto" for piano, violin, cello and orchestra.
The 19th century is known as the age of Romanticism. People adored creative men like artists, musicians and writers (the time for women to be equal had not yet come). They were seen as heroes. The concerto fitted in very well with this way of thinking. The soloist was a great hero, and the concerto enabled him to show off his great technique. The violinist and composer Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840) was one of these great heroes. He played the violin like no one else had ever done, and because he was a thin, skinny man with a pale face and long hair people thought he looked like the devil. He wrote violin concertos which at the time only he could play.
Some of the most famous violin concertos of the 19th and 20th centuries include those by Felix Mendelssohn, Max Bruch (no 1), Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Edward Elgar, Dmitri Shostakovich (no 1), Béla Bartók, Alban Berg, Igor Stravinsky and Sir William Walton.
Famous piano concertos after Beethoven’s time include those by Frederic Chopin (2), Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms (2), Pjotr I. Tchaikovsky (3), Edvard Grieg, Sergei Rachmaninoff (4), Béla Bartók (3), Sergei Prokofiev (5) and Igor Stravinsky.
Famous cello concertos include those by Antonín Dvořák, Edouard Lalo, Edward Elgar and Dmitri Shostakovich. Tchaikovsky wrote a piece for cello and orchestra called "Rococo Variations" and Benjamin Britten wrote a piece for cello and orchestra which he called a “Cello Symphony” because the cello and orchestra are equal in importance. Brahms wrote a "Double Concerto" for violin and cello with orchestra.
There are viola concertos by Paul Hindemith and William Walton, and Hector Berlioz wrote "Harold in Italy" which is like a viola concerto.
Famous concertos for woodwind instruments include two for clarinet by Carl Maria von Weber, clarinet and flute concertos by Carl Nielsen, a clarinet concerto by Aaron Copland, an oboe concerto by Ralph Vaughan Williams.
Richard Strauss wrote two concertos for the French horn. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov wrote a trombone concerto and Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote a tuba concerto.
Modern composers have written percussion concertos. These are usually pieces for one percussion player playing lots of different percussion instruments, and an orchestra accompanying. James MacMillan wrote a piece for percussion and orchestra called "Veni, Veni Emmanuel".
Joaquin Rodrigo wrote several works for guitar and orchestra including "Concierto de Aranjuez".
Béla Bartók wrote a piece called "Concerto for Orchestra". He gave it this title because, although it is a piece for orchestra (like a symphony), there are lots of solos for the different instruments. Other composer, such as Alan Hovhaness, have also written concertos for orchestra.
Sir Peter Maxwell Davies has written ten concertos, each for a different solo instrument. They are known as the "Strathclyde Concertos".
Concerto grosso
A Concerto Grosso is a piece of music from the 18th century in which there are a small group of instruments and a large group of instruments. These two groups are contrasted with one another. Sometimes both play together, sometimes one plays by itself, or the two groups might imitate one another. The small group is called “concertino” and the large group is called "tutti", “ripieno” or “concerto grosso” (the same name as the musical piece). “Concerto grosso” is Italian for “big concerto”. The plural is “concerti grossi”. Notice that the second “c” in “concerto” is pronounced like an English “ch”.
A concerto grosso has several parts that differ in speed and character. There are usually three movements; the first is fast, the second is slow, and the last is fast. The first movement contrasts the tutti and the soloists, the second movement is quiet, while the last movement is lively.
The composer who made the concerto grosso very popular was the Italian Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713). The instruments in the small group of soloists in his concerti grossi were usually two violins and one cello. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) also used that combination for his concerti grossi.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote a set of six concertos known as the "Brandenburg Concertos". Each of the Brandenburg Concertos is for a different combination of instruments. Most of them are concerti grossi. The second one, for example, has a concertino group of four instruments: trumpet, violin, recorder and oboe.
After the Baroque period, few composers wrote concerti grossi. They were more interested in the solo concerto. However, in the 20th century, some composers, including Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Bela Bartok (1881-1945), wrote pieces of music that are like concerti grossi.
Hyundai Grandeur
The Hyundai Grandeur is an automobile made by Hyundai Motor Company. It was first sold in 1986. In North America the automobile was called Hyundai XG (third generation) and Hyundai Azera (fourth generation).
The first Grandeur of 1986 was developed together with Mitsubishi(Mitsubishi Debonair).
The New Grandeur was developed together with Mitsubishi (Mitsubishi Debonair). Mitsubishi provided the powertrain and Hyundai took care of the exterior and interior design. Production of the car began in September 1992 and ended in 1998.
The Grandeur XG, this time developed by Hyundai alone, used the same platform and engines as the Kia Amanti. In North America and Europe, it was called the Hyundai XG. Originally powered by a 3.0 L 6-cylinder engine, the XG300 was renamed to XG350 in 2002, to reflect the increase in engine size to 3.5 litres of displacement.
Sold as the Hyundai Azera in North America, the Grandeur TG is a full-size sedan introduced for the 2006 model year. It shares many of its components with the mid-size Sonata.
Being a step up from the Sonata, the Azera is the most luxurious model sold by Hyundai outside of Korea. Pricing for the base model starts at starts at US$24,995. The 2006 Hyundai Azera has a 3.8 L 6-cylinder engine, automatic gearbox, cruise control, automatic air-conditioning, power front seats, anti-lock brakes (ABS), electronic brake-force distribution (EBD), electronic stability control (ESC), and several airbags. The better equipped Limited trim level adds 17-inch alloy wheels, heated front seats, leather seat-upholstery, and a power sunshade for the rear window, and costs US$27,495.
The Hyundai Azera was named "Best New Family Car (over CAN$35,000)" in the 2006 Canadian Car of the Year awards.
Apes are mammals belonging to the primate family Hominoidea. Its members are called hominoids. They are native to Africa and Southeast Asia. Its living members are divided into two families:
One clear difference between monkeys and apes is that monkeys almost always have tails, but hominoids never do. There are also differences in their teeth and the way they move their arms. They have a wide degree of freedom at the shoulder joint, which helps them swing by their arms in the trees (brachiation).
The diets of apes are similar to those of other primates. They eat fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves and sometimes other animals. They are generally omnivores, though most of their intake is herbivorous.
Hattingen
Hattingen an der Ruhr is a city about 60.000 people in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It belongs to the Ruhr area. It lies south of Bochum and Essen. Very famous is its "Altstadt".
Shart
Shart is the name of several Bollywood and Tollywood movies.
Morning wood
Accompaniment
An accompaniment in music is music that accompanies (goes with) something else.
A piece of music may have a melody (tune) and an accompaniment underneath. The music may be played on the piano with the right hand playing the tune and the left hand playing the accompaniment. The accompaniment might also be played on a different instrument.
Music does not have to be a tune with accompaniment, although it often is. The accompaniment does not always have to be lower than the tune. To play the piano, the pianist has to learn to play a tune in the right hand and accompaniment in the left hand, or the tune might be passed from one hand to the other. The tune should usually be played a little louder than the accompaniment. The accompaniment must not ‘drown’ the tune.
An accompaniment might be single notes, or chords, or any other pattern. The accompaniments help us to feel the harmony. An accompaniment might be another tune (this is called counterpoint). Tunes can be played or sung without accompaniment. Folk songs are traditionally sung unaccompanied.
If one instrument accompanies another, the person who plays the accompaniment is an "accompanist". The piano is the most popular instrument for accompanying in Western music. A good pianist can accompany a violin, cello, oboe, trumpet, singer or choir. They have to listen carefully to the instrument(s) they are accompanying, and play with the same kind of feeling.
When a soloist plays a concerto the orchestra are accompanying the soloist. An organist playing a hymn is accompanying the congregation. A percussion player in a rock band is accompanying the lead instrument.
Guitars and electric keyboards are often used for accompaniment. In Elizabethan times the lute was popular. People sang songs and often accompanied themselves on the lute or harp. In the Baroque period the accompaniment was often played by the basso continuo (harpsichord or organ with cello or bassoon on the bass line).
The pianist Gerald Moore was a famous accompanist. When he started his career in the 1920s people did not think that the accompanist was very important. Sometimes their name would not even be printed in the programme. A singer would expect the audience to start to clap as soon as they had sung their last note, even if the piano had several more bars to play. This might not matter too much with some music, but in songs by Schubert, Wolf and other composers of Lieder the piano parts are very important. Gerald Moore made people realize how important the accompanist is. A good performance can be ruined by a bad accompaniment.
Tagalog language
Tagalog is one of the main languages spoken in the Philippines. More than 22 million people speak it as their first language.
It was originally spoken by the Tagalog people in the Philippines, who were mainly in Bulacan, Cavite, and some parts of Luzon. Now, Tagalog is spoken nationwide, just like English, and is a mix of Spanish, Malay, and English.
It originally was used with an abugida, the Baybayin script, but the Latin alphabet is now used.
Basso continuo
Basso continuo is a form of musical accompaniment used in the Baroque period. It means "continuous bass".
Basso continuo, sometimes just called "continuo", was played by an instrument providing chordal accompaniment such as a keyboard instrument or plucked string instrument such as the lute along with another bass instrument such as cello, violone, or bassoon. The keyboard instrument was normally a harpsichord but could also be an organ, such as a small portative instrument.
It was not usual to write out all the notes for the keyboard player. The composer normally just wrote the bass line which would be played by the left hand and doubled on the other bass instrument. The composer would indicate what the harmony should be (which chords should be played) by writing figures underneath the music.
Diwali (also: Deepawali) is one of India's biggest festivals. The word 'Deepawali' means rows of lighted lamps. It is a Festival of Lights and Hindus celebrate it with joy. During this festival, people light up their houses and shops with Diyas (small cup-shaped oil lamp made of baked clay). They worship the Lord Ganesha for welfare and prosperity and Goddess Lakshmi for wealth and wisdom.
This festival is celebrated in the Hindu month of Kartikamasam which falls sometime during October or November. It is celebrated to mark the return of Lord Rama after 14 years of exile and his victory over the Demon Ravana. In many parts of India, Deepawali is celebrated for five consecutive days. Hindus regard it as a celebration of life and use the occasion to strengthen relationships. In some parts of India, it marks the beginning of a new year. People clean and decorate their house before the festival. They do colorful rangoli art works on floors.
Deepawali is celebrated and is a public holiday in countries such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago. It is also a school holiday in many states of the United States with a large Hindu population.
President George W. Bush had the first celebration of the holiday in the White House.
Hindus light up their homes and shops to welcome the Goddess Lakshmi and to give them good luck for the year ahead. A few days before Ravtegh, which is the day before Deepavali, houses, buildings, shops and temples are thoroughly cleaned, whitewashed and decorated with pictures, toys and flowers. On the day of Deepawali, people put on their best clothes and exchange greetings, gifts and sweets with their friends and family.
At night, buildings are illuminated with earthen lamps, candle-sticks and electric bulbs. Sweets and toy shop are decorated to attract the passers-by. The bazaars and streets are overcrowded. People buy sweets for their own families and also send them as presents to their friends and relatives. The Goddess Lakshmi is also worshiped in the form of earthen images, silver rupee. Hindus believe that on this day, Lakshmi only enters houses which are neat and tidy. People offer prayers for their own health, wealth and prosperity. They leave the light on in buildings believing that Lakshmi will not have difficulty in finding her way in.
Diwali is one of the most important festival of the Hindus.It is also known as deepawali or the festival of lights. It comes on Amavasya day in the month of kartik. Both rich and poor wear new clothes on this day. Lots of sweets are made. People light diyas and burn crackers. They ex- change greetings and sweets. Goddess Laxmi is worshipped on this day.
Arthashastra is an ancient book of India. Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) wrote this book. Kautilya was a minister of Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC – 297 BC), an emperor of Ancient India. After many revisions and additions, the book took its present form about 1800 years before, in the 2nd century.
The book is divided into fifteen sections. It tells about politics and administration. Different sections of the book talk about many subjects, such as: war and politics "rule with a harsh hand"
Hanuman is one of the most popular gods of Hindus. He is also known by other names like Hanumat. His mother’s name was Anjana. Based on her mother’s name, Hanuman is sometimes called "Anjaneya", that is, one born of Anjana. His father’s name was Kesari.
He is blessed by Vayu as the god of winds. Hanuman’s image shows him as a strong man with the face of a monkey. He also has a tail it represents the morality, higher pride of being self.
Hanuman was awarded boon of Immortality by Mother Sita ( Wife of Lord rama) and is still alive
Hanuman is a very powerful and strong god. He finds an important place in the Ramayana. He was a devotee of Rama, a form (avatar) of Vishnu, a god of Hindus. Hanuman is a figure of strength, perseverance and devotion. When he was young he thought the sun a mango. One of his most famous stories was when he helped Rama rescue Sita from Ravana which is the famous story of Diwali.
Indra resides in a mythical city located above in the sky. The city’s name is Amravati. He lives there with his wife named Indrani, and several other smaller gods. There are many apsaras in amravati.
Indra was a very important God during the Vedic period. Later his importance became less. Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva became more important in Hinduism.
Indra in current form of mythology is similar to that of Zeus in Greek mythology. Though his importance has come down, he is still considered to be king of Gods. His status is below that of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus, he is considered to be king of lesser Gods.
Again, his weapon is Vajra which is represented by Thunderbolt! His means, at times, treacherous and he is shown as, at times, jealous and vengeful. Further, he is made to suffer his own bad deeds.
Badrinath
Badrinatha is an important pilgrimage place for the Hindus. The place is in Uttarakhand state of India, and is located at a high altitude in the Himalayas. The Hindu scriptures say that the place is sacred to Vishnu, one of the gods of Hindus.
Badrinath gets its name from a tree's name. The name of that tree is "badri-tree" or Indian Jujube tree. The botanical name of a badri-tree is "Zizyphus jujba Lam".
The modern Badrinath temple was established by Adi Shankaracharya in the ninth century after the old temple fell to ruin. The Badrinath area is referred to as Badarikaashram (बदरिकाश्रम) in Hindu scriptures.
The temple was renovated many times because of age or damage by avalanche. In the 17th century, the temple was renovated by the kings of Garhwal. After the great 1803 Himalayan earthquake, it was rebuilt by the King of Jaipur.
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram is one of the seven most holy cities of Hindus. It is about southwest of Chennai, Tamil Nadu state, India. Kanchipuram was an important religious and cultural place of Ancient India. The city continues to be an important religious place.
For a long time, from the 6th century till the 8th century, the city was capital city of the Pallava dynasty.
There are many temples in the city.
There is a Math (religious centre) of Shankaracharya in this city.
Kanchipuram silk sarees are famous
The History of Japan in written form dates from the 1st century, but archeologists have found proof of people living in Japan for the last several thousand years from the time when the last Ice Age ended.
The first period of Japan's history is its prehistory, before the written history of Japan. Archeologists have found pottery from that time. Japan’s Paleolithic era covers a period from around 100,000 BC to around 12,000 BC. Archeologists have found some polished tools made of stones. Some of them are kept in Tokyo National Museum. These tools are more than 32,000 years old.
The Jomon period lasted for about 10,000 years, from 10,000 BC to around 300 BC. This was the Mesolithic era for Japan. Some scholars say that during this period, Neolithic culture also developed in Japan.
Some believe that the Jomon people were the first people in the world to create pottery but other scholars do not think so. Archeologists have found several pieces of pottery of that time. Some are clay figures and some are vessels and potteries of different shapes.
The Yayoi period covered about 550 years, from around 300 BC till around 250. The period's name came from a location in Tokyo.
By that time, Japanese people had learnt the cultivation of rice, and agriculture became the main part of the Japanese society. Because of this, differences in social status started to occur.
Different clans controlled different areas and they also fought among themselves. Some Chinese texts tell about this time. These texts describe Japan as Wa. Later, the Yamatai came into being when about 30 smaller parts of Japan of that time united under a queen named Himiko.
The Ancient and Classical period covers about 900 years, beginning from the mid-3rd century till the end of the 12th century. Japanese history during this period may further be divided into several smaller periods. These are described below.
In the history of Japan, the period from the mid-3rd century till the mid-6th century is known as the Kofun period.
Kofun is a large tomb made at this era, and people who had social power were buried. Buddhism had not reached Japan by this time. Many kofuns were made in many places. This fact lets us to know that many social groups all around the country made up an authority, and this leads to the Yamato dynasty.
The Yamato dynasty started to have take more action against Korea and China. In the 4th century, they started to advance to Korea to get iron. By this, cultures and technologies of Korea and China started to be introduced to Japan. They also fought with Goguryeo and Silla, which are countries in Korea. In the 5th century, the five kings of Wa made effort to have relationship with China.
The second period is called the Asuka period (mid-6th century till around 710). Asuka is the place where the base of Yamato dynasty took place. By this time Buddhism had reached Japan.
From the end of the 6th century to the early 7th century, Empress Suiko and her nephew Prince Shotoku innovated the political system so that the emperor gets power. They also sent missions to the Sui dynasty.
The trend of centralization still continues. In 645, the Taika Reforms takes place, and the political system changes a lot.
In 663, the nation fights with the Tang dynasty and Silla (Battle of Baekgang), but loses.
In 672, the Jinshin war occurs and Prince Ōama becomes the emperor (Emperor Tenmu). In his era, Japan starts to make a Chinese style law system (Ritsuryo). Also, the word , which means "Japan" in Japanese, was started to be used in the era of Tenmu.
During this period, from the year 707, steps were taken to shift the capital to Heijō-kyō, a place near present-day Nara. This was completed in 710. A new city was built. The city was built to look like the Chinese capital city of that time. At that time, the Tang Dynasty was ruling China, and the capital was at Chang'an (now Xi'an).
During the Nara period, development was slow. The Emperor’s family members were always fighting for power with the Buddhists and other groups. At that time, Japan had friendly relations with Korea and China’s Tang Dynasty. The capital was shifted twice. In 784, the capital was moved to Nagaoka and in 794 to Kyoto.
The years from 794 to 1185 are known as the . This grouping of years is named after city of Heian-kyō, which is the early name of present-day Kyoto. The Heian period produced many cultural achievements, such as the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. The Heian Period ended due to the Genpei War.
The period from around the 12th century through the 19th century is called feudal period in the history of Japan. The Japanese Emperor was the head of the government, but he had no real power. Many powerful families (called daimyo and military groups called shogun) ruled Japan during this period. The feudal period of Japan is generally sub-divided into different periods named after the shogunate which ruled during that period.
The years 1185 to 1333 are known as the . This grouping of years is named after city of Kamakura which was the center of power of the Kamakura shogunate. Minamoto no Yoritomo was the founder and first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate.
The Muromachi Period began in 1336 and ended in 1573. Emperor Go-Daigo lost his throne. The government of the Ashikaga shogunate took control of most parts of Japan. This period ended in 1573. In that year the 15th and the last shogun named Ashikaga Yoshiaki was forced to leave the capital Kyōto.
During this period, in 1542, a Portuguese ship reached Japan and made the first direct contact between both cultures, including the knowledge of firearms. In the next few years, merchants and also some Christian missionaries from several European countries, mainly Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain, reached the shores of Japan.
Azuchi-Momoyama period covers the years from 1568 to 1600. During these years, different parts of Japan became united again. Japan's military power grew. In 1592, Japan wanted to conquer China. At that time China was ruled by the Ming dynasty. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was one of the main leaders of Japan. He sent an army of 160,000 samurai to Korea. The Japanese could not win and retreated back to Japan. In 1597, Japan again sent an army to Korea. In 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi died. After his death, the Japanese dropped the idea of conquering Korea and China.
During this period, the Japanese brought many Koreans to Japan. These Koreans were very good at making pottery and at other arts. Some of them were very educated. Japan gained new information and knowledge from these Koreans.
During the Edo period, Japan had many small rulers. There were about 200 of them. They were called daimyo, and they were all ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate which was leaded by the Tokugawa clan. The shoguate's capital was relocated to Edo. This place was at modern-day Tokyo. Fifteen shoguns controlled the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo Period.
The Edo period is also a very important period in the history of Japan. The main developments include:
In 1867, the Tokugawa Shogunate returned its political power to the emperor. Although, the emperor did not know how to rule the country because the last time the emperor had power was 500 years ago. So, the shogunate still remained in authority.
In 1868, the Boshin War occurred between the Japanese emperor and the Tokugawa shogunate. Japan again came under the actual rule of an emperor as the Tokugawa shogunate was defeated.
Beginning from the early 17th century, the Tokugawa shogunate followed a policy of seclusion, known as sakoku in Japanese language. They suspected that traders, merchants, and missionaries from Europe wanted to bring Japan under the control of European powers. All traders and missionaries from other countries were forced to leave Japan, except for the Dutch, the Koreans, and the Chinese.
Even during the period of seclusion, the Japanese continued to gain information and knowledge about other parts of the world.
This policy of seclusion lasted for about 200 years until it ended under American military force. On July 8th 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy reached Edo with four warships. The ships were heavily armed and their guns pointed towards the city. After this display of American military power, Japan was forced to agree to trade with other countries. The Japanese called these ships the "kurofune" or the Black Ships.
Next year, on March 31st 1854, Perry came with seven ships and the Japanese signed a treaty (known as the Convention of Kanagawa) that established a diplomatic relationship with the United States. Another treaty (known as the Harris Treaty) was signed with the United States on July 29th 1858. This treaty gave more facilities to foreigners coming to Japan and expanded trade with Japan. Many Japanese were not happy with reopening diplomatic relations and trade with other countries.
The Meiji Restoration is an important period of history of Japan. Emperor Meiji ruled Japan and regained power from the shogunate. The Meiji Restoration began with the Boshin War of 1868. Emperor Meiji wanted Japan to become Westernized. Many changes occurred in Japan’s government and culture.
At the end of the 19th century, many Japanese believed that Japan needed to expand in order to face Western foreign powers. This resulted in wars with its neighboring counties. In 1894-1895, Japan and China had a war. Another war took place with Russia in 1904-1905. Japan became a world power after these wars. Russian influence continued to grow inside China.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Russian influence was increasing in China. Japan and the United Kingdom used to get economic and other benefits from their relationship with China. Japan and the United Kingdom did not like Russia’s growing influence in China. Japan and the United Kingdom formed a military alliance, called the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, on January 30th 1902. Russia was not happy at this type of agreement between Japan and the United Kingdom. Russia tried to form a similar military alliance with Germany and France. On March 6th 1902, Russia formed a military alliance with France but not Germany.
The Russo-Japanese War began between Japan and Russia. Japan won the Russo-Japanese War. The United States mediated the peace negotiations between Japan and Russia. Japan got a number of concessions. In 1910, Japan invaded and annexed Korea.
In 1914, the First World War broke out. Japan also entered the war. It attacked several places (of East Asia), which were colonies of Germany. After the war ended in 1919, Japan developed very fast. It became one of the major powers of Asia.
Before the beginning of the Second World War, Japan was fighting with China. This is called Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Japan went to the side of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Japanese planes attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The fighting continued for years. When the USA dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan accepted defeat and surrendered in 1945.
World War II and Japanese occupation of the Philippines
Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay.
On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction. The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. It is estimated that about 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.
President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized a Council of State, through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity. The Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Forces Far East, continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces. One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.
The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.
After the end of the Second World War, Japan came under international control. Japan became an important friend of the USA when it entered into the Cold war with Korea. Over next few years, many political, economic and social changes took place. Japanese Diet (legislature) came into being. In 1951, USA and 45 other countries signed an agreement with Japan, and Japan again became an independent nation with full power (a country with full sovereignty) on 28th April 1952.
Post-Occupation Japan means Japan after its occupation and control by a group of nations had ended. This is the period after the Second World War. The Second World War had damaged Japan very badly. It has almost lost its industry and economy was in a very bad shape. After the war, Japan received assistance and technology from the USA and several other countries of Europe. The progress was very rapid. For about 30 years, from around the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan grew very fast. It became one of the major economic powers of the world.
When the UN forces were fighting in Korea during the Korean War, Japan was one of the major suppliers. This also helped Japan’s economy. By 1980s, Japan had become the world’s second largest economy, after the USA. At first, there was very close relationship between Japan and the USA. But, Japan’s economic might resulted into trade deficit for the USA. A trade deficit results when imports are more than exports. Thus, USA was importing more than it exported to Japan.
For various reasons, this phase of rapid development ended in the 1990s. Some historians have described this decade as the lost decade of Japanese economy. About 5 to 10 persons in 100 persons could not find any work.
By 1952, Japan had become free from most of the controls of the occupation period. It got its own democratic system. Various political parties came into being and Japan’s political life became active.
Historians and sociologists call the recent era modern life. In Japanese, this is called the Heisei period. By 1989, Japan’s economy had become very large. Much development had taken place. In the Gulf war of 1991, Japan gave billions of dollars.
Japan also faced some problems. In 1995, a big earthquake took place in Kobe. Another earthquake took place on 23rd October 2004 in Niigata Prefecture, and a very destructive tsunami damaged the north east coast in March 2011, causing a nuclear accident in Fukushima Prefecture.
History of Saudi Arabia
History of Saudi Arabia covers thousands of years with lots of people from different cultures living there. There was a culture called the Dilmun culture among them, which was very old and existed along the Persian Gulf. It was as old as the ancient civilizations of Sumerians and the Egyptians. Saudi Arabia had trading relations with many parts of the ancient world, but the hot and harsh climate had made large settlements difficult. Some settlements had always existed around oases; these are places in the deserts where growth and water are available.
Saudi Arabia became an important center, as Islam rose in the 620s. The cities of Medina and Mecca became the holiest places of Islam. They also became the two holiest cities for the Muslims in the whole world. The rulers and kings of Saudi Arabia also got more power.
The beginning of the modern history of Saudi Arabia was when an Islamic reformer named Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab and a local ruler named Muhammad bin Saud founded the Saudi state in the year 1744. It was founded in the central part of the Arabia. Over the next Century and a half, the Saud family saw bad and good times. The family also faced opposition from rulers of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. The family also faced opposition from other powerful families of Arabia
Finally after many decades,The modern state of Saudi Arabia could be established by King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (also known as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902, he took over the city of Riyadh from another family, named Al-Rashid. He continued to win more areas, and on 8 January 1926, he became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927, he took the title of King of Nejd. On 20th May 1927, the government of the United Kingdom accepted him as the King of the areas ruled by him. His kingdom now became a sovereignty. All the regions under his control were united to form the state of Saudi Arabia by the year 1932. Petroleum oil was found in Saudi Arabia on 3 March 1938, which made the country rich as export of oil started to bring a lot of money.
Saudi Arabia discussed from the beginning of the 1920s with its neighboring countries about fixing of definite boundaries. It finalized its boundaries with Iraq, Jordan, and Kuwait. On borders with Iraq and Kuwait, two neutral zones were created – one with Iraq, and the other one with Kuwait. In 1934, borders with Yemen were almost finalized.
In 1965, Saudi Arabia gave some of its areas to Jordan, and Jordan gave some of its areas to Saudi Area. In 1971, the neutral zone between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait was partitioned between these two countries. Likewise, Saudi Arabia and Iraq decided in 1981 to partition the neutral zone between them. The zone was partitioned between the two countries in 1984.
Still, Saudi Arabia's borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not final. The border with Qatar was finalized in 2001.
King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud died in 1953. His son named Saud became the king. He reigned for 11 years. In 1964, he was forced to step down, and his half-brother, Faisal, became the king. Faisal had the support of the senior members of the royal family and the religious leaders. Faisal also held the post of the Prime Minister. This tradition of being both the King and the Prime Minister still continues in Saudi Arabia. All Kings after Faisal had followed this practice.
Faisal took a number of new steps for economic development of Saudi Arabia. During his reign, many important political events also happened like the ones noted below:
In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews. The nephew was found guilty, and he was sentenced to death. King Faisal's half-brother Khalid became the King and the Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. During the reign of King Khalid, Saudi Arabia's importance in regional politics increased. The economic growth of the country also continued at a good rate.
King Khalid died in 1982. After his death, Fahd became the King. At the same time, he also became the Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. His half-brother Prince Abdullah became the Crown Prince.
The income of Saudi Arabia became less during the period of King Fahd's reign. This was a result of lower price of petroleum oil. King Fahd's government used an economic policy which helped the country to survive with a lower income.
King Fahd helped Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war. Iraq's economy had become very bad on account of this war. The King also discussed with these two countries to stop war. Both countries (Iran and Iraq) stopped the war in August 1988. The King also helped in making Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) a stronger organization. The GCC is an organization of six countries of the Persian Gulf. The purpose of the organization is to increase development and cooperation among the member countries.
In 1990, Saddam Hussain was ruling Iraq. The Gulf War of 1991 was when he invaded Kuwait. Many people thought that his army would also invade Saudi Arabia. King Fahd allowed some Western countries and USA to send their forces to the country. Many Muslims were against that their most holy land was used by non-Muslim soldiers.
During and after the Gulf War, King Fahd’s role was very important. During the war, he allowed the entry of the royal family of Kuwait inside Saudi Arabia and followed by 400,000 other persons from Kuwait to stay on a temporary basis. The King allowed the troops of countries like USA to mount attacks on Kuwait to liberate it. He also helped in arranging support of other Muslim countries for liberation of Kuwait. Iraqi forces were eventually ousted from Kuwait.
Presence of troops from the Western countries has angered many Muslims. One of them was the rich man Osama bin Laden. He was forced to leave Saudi Arabia when he disagreed and opposed the King of Saudi Arabia. Other than Osma bin laden and his groups, there were several other persons and groups who did not like the presence of Western troops inside Saudi Arabia.