AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
It once owned the Disney Store shopping chain until 2004. Jim Henson's Muppets have taken its place since then.
Hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemia means that the cholesterol level is too high in the blood.
Cholesterol is a molecule in cells. It is a type of lipid which is a fat or fat-like molecule. Cholesterol is a special type of lipid that is called a steroid. Steroids are lipids that have a special chemical structure. This structure is made of four rings of carbon atoms.
Other steroids include hormone steroids like cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone. In fact, all steroid hormones are made from changing the basic chemical structure of cholesterol. When scientists talk about making one molecule from changing simpler ones, they sometimes call it "synthesis".
Cholesterol does many important jobs in a cell. Cholesterols main function is as a structural component of cell membranes. It is also the starting material for bile acids that are made by the liver and used to digest fats, and for steroid hormones. However, it is best known for something bad that it does. High levels of cholesterol can lead to atherosclerosis. This is an inflammatory disease of artery walls in which white blood cells invade the vessel wall and become engorged with cholesterol and other lipids. These
areas can slowly close off a blood vessel or can suddenly rupture and trigger formation of a blood clot.
Not all cholesterol is bad. There are different kinds of cholesterol in the blood. Doctors often measure these different types to see if someone has hypercholesterolemia.
HDL, an acronym for 'high density lipoprotein' is sometimes called 'good cholesterol' because people with high levels of HDL cholesterol have "less" atherosclerosis.
LDL (low density lipoprotein) is sometimes called 'bad cholesterol' because people with high levels of LDL cholesterol have more atherosclerosis.
High blood levels of VLDL (very low density lipoprotein) also causes more atherosclerosis. However, measuring its level in blood is more expensive. So the blood level of triglycerides (a kind of fat) is used instead. High triglycerides (TG) are found in people with high VLDL.
The most common type of medicine to treat hypercholesterolemia are 'statin' drugs. They are called 'statins' because their names all end in -statin. They are also called "HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors". This is because they work by "inhibiting" the enzyme HMG-CoA Reductase. Inhibiting an enzyme means to make it work less well.
The HMG-CoA Reductase enzyme causes the body to make more cholesterol. If it is inhibited, the body makes "less" cholesterol. So statin drugs lower the amount of LDL (bad) cholesterol in the blood which stops atherosclerosis from getting worse. Statin drugs can even help make atherosclerosis better. However, statins are not as good at increasing the HDL (good) cholesterol. Low HDL is hard to treat with medicines, but goes up with more exercise.
There are two big problems with taking statins: Liver problems and 'Rhabdomyolysis.'
Rhabdomyolysis means a disease where muscle cells are damaged and die. Statins can cause damage to muscle cells. This can cause weakness and muscle pain. The worse problem though is that when muscle cells die, they release cell proteins into the blood. The kidney removes the muscle protein from the blood. If the kidney takes up too much protein, it can be hurt. If it is bad enough it can cause kidney failure. So if people take statins and get muscle pain or weakness, stop the medicine and see a doctor.
Statins can also cause liver problems. They can cause mild irritation of the liver. They can rarely cause very bad liver damage. Because of this, when someone starts taking a statin, doctors check liver blood tests after six weeks. Doctors also warn patients to watch for the signs of liver damage: pain in the right side of the abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice.
However, both of these problems are "rare". In someone with hypercholesterolemia, the benefit from statins is more than the risk. This means that someone is more likely to prevent problems than cause problems by taking them. There are many big scientific studies of this problem that show the same thing: if people have hypercholesterolemia and take statins, "they are more likely to live longer and be healthier".
There are other kinds of medicines to treat hypercholesterolemia. But statins are the most effective treatment.
"Fibrates" are medicines that lower cholesterol levels. They may also help people with Type II Diabetes. This is a good effect because diabetes and hypercholesterolemia cause some of the same problems. If both diabetes and hypercholesterolemia happen in the same person the problems from these diseases can be much worse. Fibrates can have rhabdomyolysis like the statins and also can cause upset stomach. Use of fibrates and statins at the same time makes rhabdomyolysis happen much more often.
Niacin is a vitamin that lowers cholesterol levels. It is also called Vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid. Severe niacin deficiency in the diet can cause a disease called "Pellagra". This is rare in the developed world today. However, less bad deficiency of niacin can cause high blood pressure, weight gain, and hypercholesterolemia. So sometimes Niacin is used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Niacin is one of the medicines that may make HDL (good) cholesterol go up. The biggest problem with taking enough Niacin to help cholesterol is that it causes severe "flushing" (hot, red, sometimes itchy skin). This 'side-effect' is so bad, sometimes people stop taking the medicine.
Bile Acid Resins are medicines that make people not absorb as much bile when they digest food. This causes them to take up less cholesterol also, which lowers blood levels of cholesterol.
Cholesterol is a molecule that is found in animal cells and body fluids. Cholesterol is not found in plant sources. It is a type of lipid which is a fat or fat-like molecule. Cholesterol is a soft waxy substance. Cholesterol is a special type of lipid that is called a steroid. Steroids are lipids that have a special chemical structure. This structure is made of four rings of carbon atoms. Cholesterol is found especially in animal fats.
Cholesterol is the main steroid synthesized by animals. Other steroids include hormone steroids like cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone. These and other steroid hormones are made by changing the basic chemical structure of cholesterol. This is an example of "chemical synthesis".
Hypercholesterolemia means that cholesterol level is too high in the blood. High cholesterol levels show that heart disease may develop.
Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its name comes from the Iowa River, which was named after the Ioway people, one of the Native American tribes that lived in Iowa. Iowa was a part of New France, but was sold to the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Its settlers were mostly farmers: Iowa is part of the Corn Belt and is often known as the "Food Capital of the World." However, Iowa's landscape, culture, and economy are diverse, with the economy changing in the second half of the 20th Century to include many kinds of business.
Iowa has more than 3 million people . Its capital and largest city is Des Moines. Iowa became a state in December 28, 1846. It was the 29th state to join the United States.
Iowa is in the Midwestern United States. To the north of Iowa is Minnesota; to the west are Nebraska and South Dakota; to the south is Missouri; and to the east are Illinois and Wisconsin.
The eastern border of the state is marked by the Mississippi River which runs between Iowa and Illinois. The western border is marked by the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers. The northern border is a line 43 degrees, 30 minutes north latitude. The southern border follows the northern border of Missouri. Iowa and Missouri disagreed about the location of the Iowa-Missouri border. This argument was ended by the Supreme Court of the United States in the 1896 case, "State of Missouri v. State of Iowa", after a standoff called the Honey War. The border follows the Des Moines River for the far eastern part of the state and is at close to 40 degrees, 35 minutes north for the rest of the state.
Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two. The state capital, Des Moines, is in Polk County.
Most of Iowa is considered to be a plain.
The government of Iowa has three branches, similar to the federal government of the United States. The executive branch is headed by the governor, currently Kim Reynolds (R) since May 24, 2017. The legislative branch is the Iowa General Assembly, composed of two houses - the Iowa Senate and the Iowa House of Representatives. The judicial branch is headed by the Iowa Supreme Court under the chief justice, currently Marsha Ternus.
There are two major political parties in Iowa, the Iowa Democratic Party and the Republican Party of Iowa, as well as several unofficial third parties. No one party is in charge of the government ; the governor is a Republican and the House has a Republican majority under Kraig Paulsen, but the Senate has a Democratic majority under Mike Gronstal.
Iowa sends two senators and four representatives to Congress. The number of representatives was five, but starting with the 2012 elections is only four, because of redistricting.
Senators:
Representatives:
There are many farms in Iowa. Iowa is well known for its agriculture. Its main agricultural outputs are hogs, corn, soybeans, oats, cattle, and dairy products. Its industrial outputs include food processing and machinery. Iowa also produces more ethanol fuel than any other U.S. state.
There are diesel pumps in Iowa.
Much of dominant society across cultures follows the construction of the gender binary, prescribing that everyone must either be a man or a woman. However, more genders exist outside of male and female. Recent decades have brought new terminology and means of using language to make space for a range of genders. And more importantly, the rise of LGBTQ+ education and rights have brought transgender issues to the attention of the public, as well as the many genders that a person can identify as.
'Transgender' is both an identity label and an umbrella term. A person can identify as a trans woman or trans man, but there are more genders that fall underneath the transgender category. Nonbinary genders (or people who do not identify as male or female) may fall underneath transgender, depending on how the person self-identifies. 'Nonbinary' may be used as a synonym for agender, or someone doesn't identify with a gender, but also may refer to other genders. Some of those other nonbinary genders include, but aren't limited to:
In 2014, to keep up with changing views about gender identity, Facebook changed their gender options that users can pick from, to 58 different gender identities. This change was noticed and widely reported at the time.
Gender expression (also called, "gender presentation") means how a person dresses, looks, and acts, in ways that might affect how other people view their gender. Someone who wears men's clothes and acts in a masculine way has a "male gender expression." Someone who wears women's clothes and acts in a feminine way has a "female gender expression". This is different from "gender identity" because people can choose to look or behave one way even if that is not how they feel inside. Sometimes people call this "gender presentation" or just "presentation".
'Transgender' is a term that means that the gender assigned at birth (typically 'AMAB' or 'assigned male at birth' and 'AFAB' or 'assigned female at birth') does not match with the gender a person identifies as. The experiences that transgender people have are vast and may differ from one another, although there are sometimes shared experiences. For instance, a transgender person may feel gender dysphoria (but not everyone will be dysphoric). A transgender person may also feel it necessary to medically transition, or take hormones, or a combination of the two. 'Transsexual' is a term that some transgender people may use after receiving sex-reassignment surgeries and medical transition, but depending on who one is talking to, this term may be considered outdated and the person may instead opt to simply continue using the term 'transgender' as their identification.
Some people use the word 'transgender' to mean somewhat different things, as the word has expanded and changed since it was first invented in 1965.
Some factors involved in transgender identification are:
All three of these factors contribute to how a person labels their self, and make gender a confusing construct to navigate. People can have gender presentations that don't match their gender identity, or a gender identity that doesn't match the gender they were assigned at birth, etc. A person whose gender identity matches the gender they were assigned at birth is called 'cisgender'. As time has passed, the growing voice of LGBTQ+ issues and rise of educational resources on the topics of gender and sexuality has allowed for many to learn about transgender issues, and help others with their own gender navigation.
It is possible to have every different combination of sex, gender identity, and gender expression. For example:
There are many people whose gender identity differs from the one they are at birth, but the person hides it due to fear of rejection, laws that do not protect transgender people, being abandoned or cut off by family and friends, and even fear of getting assaulted.
For instance, a woman going on a date may have to grapple with the decision of when and or if she should tell her date that she is transgender. There is the chance that her date will not care that she is transgender and they can carry on, and she will be happy knowing that she can safely be herself around this person. However, there's also the chance that her date will react angrily and misgender her after finding out she is transgender, and maybe even assault her. A person who identifies as nonbinary may keep their identity a secret to their family out of fear of being kicked out and left homeless, or sent to conversion therapy.
Many people go through this fear, so it is very normal to feel scared.
Another issue that has come up recently is one that feminists, who believe one can dress however they want, argue over whether someone claiming to be a woman and deciding to wear a dress
should be treated as a woman based on this self-identification. This is a matter of dispute within the feminist movement. You can wear whatever you want and still be a woman. A transwoman AMAB who wears a dress makes it so that the feminist movement can not move past this idea that women must wear a dress. Women who see themselves as feminists have strong views on both sides of the issue of whether or not trans women are women,to the point that they deny those who hold the opposite view are real feminists.
Women who see feminism as based on fighting against the oppression of biological women based on biological sex often call themselves "gender critical" or "gender abolitionists" (the latter idea based on the expectation of particular dress or behavior being itself oppression). Those who disagree often label these women "Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminists", or "TERFs".
When a person's gender identity and body do not match, they may go to see a doctor. The doctor may help them change their body if that is what they want. A psychiatrist may diagnose this person with Gender identity disorder (gender dysphoria), but medical diagnosis itself is a controversial subject because being transgender has one been considered to be a mental illness, the stigma is still there. Principle 18 of the Yogyakarta Principles, a document about international law on human rights states that "any classifications to the contrary, a person's gender identity is not in and of itself, medical condition". And "Activist's Guide" to them says that "gender identity" or "gender identity disorder" exists still in categories of mental illness, contrary to the "sexual orientation" removed from such categories.
But despite the strides taken to remove the stigma of mental illness in being transgender, gatekeeping by doctors and therapists make most transgender people struggle to achieve their ideal self. In most cases, doctors require therapists to 'diagnose' whether their patient is 'transgender enough' to take hormones or have surgery. And even if you do that diagnosis, a surgeon can refuse to perform surgery on you.
America's Army
America's Army is a multiplayer first-person shooter computer game series. It can be played using Windows, Macintosh, or Linux. It is the official game of the United States Army. The first version was free. It came out on July 4, 2002. It has been updated many times since then. The second important release was "America's Army: Special Forces" in November 2003. "America's Army" was made by the "MOVES Institute" at the Naval Postgraduate School. It is based on the Unreal engine.
"America's Army" is a tactical shooter. It is also called a "serious games". According to the game's website, America's Army "provides civilians with an inside perspective and a virtual role in today's premier land force: the U.S. Army. The game is designed for verisimilitude and to provide an accurate portrayal of Soldier experiences across a number of occupations. In the game, players will explore progressive individual and collective training events within the game. Once they successfully completed these events they will advance to multiplayer operations in small units."
On February 20, 2005 there were 4.6 million registered players, and 2.7 million of them had finished basic training. Also, there were more than 15,000 servers being used, and 1.3 million rounds being played each day. The game has been changed a lot. This keeps people interested in the game. It can be found as a free download on the Internet or on a CD-ROM at recruiting centers around the United States.
In 1999, Lieutenant Colonel E. Casey Wardynski, a professor at the U.S Military Academy at West Point decided to tell the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel and the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Military Manpower about his idea for an online computer game. His basic idea eventually became America's Army. In the same year, fewer people were joining the army.. Congress decided to use "aggressive, innovative experiments" including America's Army to get more people to join the Army.
The first release was July 4, 2002, and other changes (called patches) were added. On November 6, 2003, version 2.0 of "America's Army: Special Forces" was made. (Go here for more information about the different version). The Army is spending about USD$3 million a year to make more versions of the game.
Another AA version called "America's Army: Rise of a Soldier" is available on Playstation 2 and Xbox. This version was developed by UbiSoft.
Since "America's Army" was created, people have complained about its purpose. People have argued about the Army using its money to make a game. They are also worried about how this game will change people's lives.
In "America's Army" there are teams of soldiers fighting in a war. The person who is playing controls a soldier of the "US Army" from the character's eyes. This is called first person.
Players fight as either the US Army or Indigenous forces ("IF"). They fight against a team called "OPFOR" (Army lingo for "Opposing Forces"). There are different kinds of OPFORs called "insurgents", "enemy forces" or "terrorists".
One of "America's Army"'s different features is the way the enemies are. The players are split into two different teams. There is usually an "assault" group and a "defense" group. The "assault" loses the round if the time limit runs out, which is usually ten minutes.
The players on each team see themselves as American soldiers with American weapons, such as the "M16A2". Their opponents look like non-uniformed people with Eastern bloc weapons, like the "AK-47" (the counterpart of the "M16A2" in the game). In training maps the only distinguishing features are the players' uniforms. The development team did this to make the game realistic for players on both sides. They allowed everyone to play on the side of the American forces. They also avoided the problem of asking players to kill American soldiers.
On the Special Forces maps, players can also play as non-uniformed people with Eastern bloc weapons (known as Indigenous forces ("IF") in the game), but be on the same team as regular army forces.
This is confusing to many players because when they pick up an enemy weapon, it works differently than the US version. An AK-47 removed from a fallen opponent is fully automatic, more powerful, but less accurate than his M16. But when his opponent had it, to him it "was" an M16. The important thing is that each weapon behaves as the owner sees it. It transforms when it is picked up. If people pay a lot of attention might notice that the enemies weapons behave wrong, but it is hard to notice.
Every round starts with both teams spawning at the same time. Players can join the other team, but cannot play as the OPFOR. Equipment is not bought but selected through choosing a class.
The goal of the game is to complete the objectives, kill the enemy team. For example, one objective could be to kill the "V.I.P.", who is trying to survive and escape. If a player joined the other team, he would have to protect the same V.I.P. The round is over if a team wins0, or if the time limit is reached. For a listing of missions gohere.
The game remembers how many people each player has killed, how many times each team has won, how many times each player has been killed, and how well the player is completing the objectives. The game then distributes score which calculates the player's "Honor" level.
Every time a player is killed, every time he fails to protect an objective which he is assigned to defend, and especially every killing of teammates or his allies caused by friendly fire is called a violation of the "ROE" (Rules of engagement) in the game and has an extremely negative effect on his score and "Honor". If too many points are lost in a round, the player is put in "jail" and kicked out of the server. As of February 2005 95.2% of AA players had 0-20 HONOR points, 3.3% had 20-40 points, 1% had 40-60, and .4% had 61-80 points.
Every healing of injured teammates and every killing of opponents increases a players score and "Honor". Completing the game's missions affects a player's score in a good way and his "Honor" points as well. The score is saved in the player's account that was being used. Some servers only allow players with certain Honor levels to join. The most common is to not let anyone with less than 10 Honor in because this is the base level that everyone starts with. Some also do not let players with too much Honor in. The developers say that "Honor" is based on the values of the Army: "Loyalty, Duty, Respect, Selfless Service, Honor, Integrity and Personal Courage or Leadership". Its main purpose in the game is stop "team-killing", which is a problem in a lot of online first-person shooters (see team killer).
The game depicts real guns. The guns have all the same traits as the real versions. Each gun has different accuracy, power, recoil, and rate of jamming. To aim, there are cross-hairs and iron sights.
Players may select a "class" like "squad leader", "rifleman", "automatic rifleman", "grenadier", or "sniper"; these classes decide what weapon the player will have at the beginning of each round. Some players from each team may be "medics". Medics can help their teammates get better after they get shot. Being a medic is an extra ability which is added to the class. The Honor points are used to decide which players gets which class. Players with more Honor usually get to pick their class first.
Each gun also can jam in action. When a gun jams it means that it stops working because a part is stuck. The player then needs to press a button to fix the gun. This can be a problem because it makes it so that the player cannot shoot for a few seconds. AA was the first game ever to have player's guns jam.
Every firearm in the game has either iron sights or a telescopic sight (for sniper rifles); while using the sights, a zoom effect enlarges objects in view. The iron sights enlarge to a small degree, the telescopic sights to large one. Until he stops zooming, the player's moving speed is additionally decreased.
In the first few versions, weapons could only hurt players and glass. For example, a grenade could not destroy a television but a gun could put a bullet hole in the screen. Compared to most games, the grenades and are more deadly. They tried to make the blast radius of grenades more like real life than it usually is in other games. Getting hurt by weapons always leads to some bleeding, which causes a player's health gauge to go down over time. Injuries make players slower, they also make it harder for the player to shoot where they are aiming. Sometimes, if the player does not get help from a medic, they will die.
In the newer versions of the game players can make changes to their weapons. For example, the M4 Carbine can be change in different ways and let the soldier have features that work better on a certain map. For example, on a large map a scope and a bi-pod might be picked, but in a city a player might choose only iron sights and a M203 grenade launcher.
Every player starts the round with one or two guns, some grenades and, on some maps, night vision goggles or binoculars. A list of the weapons is here:
The map list is sorted by the version they were released with, with newer maps coming first. The game currently has 28 multiplayer maps and 14 single player training missions. Completing these training missions unlocks things like the ability to play online or to become a medic, a special forces unit or a sniper. Maps have different sizes, objectives, and weapons that players can have.
However, no known custom maps have been made because there is no level editor for the game and the developers made it impossible for players to use the level design computer program "UnrealEd", which works for other Unreal engine games.
Newest Version is 2.8.3.1
Version 2.7 came out June 2006
Version 2.6 is available for Microsoft Windows, Linux and for Mac OS X.
Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation. Heterosexual people are sexually attracted to the opposite gender, and this may involve romantic feelings. A heterosexual man likes women. A heterosexual woman likes men. Another less formal word for heterosexual is "straight".
People who are not heterosexual may be homosexual, bisexual or asexual. Many people in Western society are heteronormative, which means that they believe that heterosexuality is better than other forms of sexuality. This often leads to discrimination.
Sexual orientation is thought to be caused by genetics and hormones when a baby is growing in it's mother. Hormones play a role in making men and women have differences in a region of the brain called the sexually dimorphic nucleus, which is involved in sexual attraction. Men have larger clusters in the hypothalamus than women, similar to other mammals.
In the Catholic Church and many Christian churches as well as in Islam and Judaism, a marriage can only be made in a heterosexual pair - man and woman. Marriage that is done in homosexual pair is often seen as a serious sin by those religions.
A hate crime is when someone breaks a law by hurting another person because of prejudice against a group the victim belongs to. Normally, a hate crime is not caused in any way by something the victim did or said, but just because of who they are. Hate crime is often in the form of physical violence, but can also be vandalism and damage to property, insults or other hurtful words, or other violations of human rights. People often commit hate crime because of prejudice about the victim's sex, ethnicity, religion, nationality, gender identity, class, sexual orientation, age, or other things about them.
The term "hate crime" was first used in the 1980s in the United States, when crimes caused by bias against certain types of people were being talked about in the media. Hate crime is sometimes a way to frighten other people who belong to the same group. This intimidation can be seen as terrorism when it is carried out on a large scale.
In 2009, the Matthew Shepard Act has changed the definition of a hate crime in the law of the United States. It says that crimes which were committed because of the victim's sexual orientation, gender identity or disability are hate crimes. It is the first law that protects transgender people.
Gay bashing
Gay bashing and gay bullying is when someone attacks a person or group of people because they are gay or lesbian or bisexual or transgender.
Studies show that bullying happens to people who are gay or lesbian more often than to others in general. As teenagers, gay young men are more likely to be bullied than lesbians.
Gay bullying can become a type of hate crime or hate speech.
Emergency Medicine is a specialty of medicine. A specialty is a special part of medicine where a doctor may have more knowledge. Examples are Pediatrics (doctors who care for children), Geriatrics (doctors who care for elderly people), and Cardiology (doctors who know more about the heart.)
Emergency Medicine (abbreviation EM) is sometimes also called "Accident and Emergency Medicine" (AEM).
EM doctors specialize in treating diseases and injuries that need "immediate" care. These kind of diseases or injuries are called "emergencies". If they are not helped quickly, the person may become more sick or even die.
Doctors that specialize in EM usually work in Emergency Departments. This is also called a casualty department or Emergency room. These are places in hospitals where people go if they have an emergency. They may have a red cross or red letters on the sign to show it is the Emergency Department. This way, even people who cannot read know where to go.
Doctors who specialize in EM must know some about all of the different specialties of medicine. They treat people of all ages. They treat both men and women. They must know how to treat any kind of emergency. But they may not know "quite" as much about the "chronic" treatments of diseases over years. However, many people come to the Emergency Department with problems that are not emergencies. So EM doctors must also know about how to treat "non"-emergencies.
Berkeley, California
Berkeley is a city in the U.S. State of California. It is a suburb of San Francisco. It is famous for the college, University of California, Berkeley, where many political protests were held in the 1960s. It is also famous for its gourmet food and art scenes. Also, it is the native city of the punk band Green Day. BOINC or the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing was created at the University of California in Berkeley.
Medical specialty
Medicine is a very complex field. In the past, a doctor could learn almost all that we knew about medicine. Now that is impossible. So after finishing medical school, young doctors choose what kind of doctor they wish to be. After school, they usually do more years of training to learn about the kind of medical specialty they want to do.
Some doctors try to learn "some" about all of the different subjects of medicine and how to treat all patients. These doctors are called 'primary care' doctors or "primary care physicians" (PCPs). Sometimes they are also called 'generalists' or even 'general practitioners.' In the United States, these kind of doctors are sometimes called family practitioners or family medicine doctors. When a problem is strange or complex, they give it to a specialist.
There are other doctors who are also 'primary care' doctors. Pediatricians are primary care doctors, but only for children. Internists are primary care doctors for adults. Some gynecologists do primary care, but for women only.
Other doctors are called 'specialists'. This means they have learned more about certain types of medical care. For example:
In the broadest meaning of 'medicine', there are many different specialties. However, within medical circles, there are two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery."
There are some medical specialties that do not fit into either of these categories, like radiology, pathology, and anesthesia.
In the U.S., all specialties must pass all three steps of the national medical board examinations. Steps I and II happen during medical school. Step III happens during intern year, where a person works as a student at a hospital.
After a person passes these exams, they then have to pass more exams that are specifically about their specialty. These tests are both written and oral.
A doctor is board-certified in their specialty after:
There are only a few training spots per specialty each year, so some specialties can be very competitive. Some medical students do not get to train in the specialty they want. Other specialties do not have nearly enough doctors. This can happen because not enough doctors apply for training spots; because more training spots are needed; or because many people fail out of their training program.
Surgical training requires at least five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last another one to three years. Because fellowships can be competitive, many trainees spend another two years on research. Because of this, for some people, their surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school.
Surgical training can be very difficult and can take a lot of time. An average surgical resident works 75 hours per week.
Some subspecialties of surgery, like neurosurgery, require even longer hours. Residents training in these specialties often work 80 hours a week. Officially, these specialties only allow their residents to work up to 88 hours per week. However, many surgical programs still require residents to work more than 88 hours a week.
Attempts to limit the amount of hours that surgical residents work have been difficult, because:
Medical training, unlike surgical training, requires three years of residency training after medical school. Doctors can then do a one- to two-year fellowship in their subspecialty. In general, medical residents work less hours than surgical residents.
Pediatrics is the specialty of medicine that cares for infants, children, and adolescents. The ages can vary from the early months until 18-21. A person who works in pediatrics is called a pediatrician.
Pediatricians can be primary care doctors or they can be specialists.
Pediatricians take care of diseases that children get. They also make sure that children develop normally and try to prevent illness. One of the most important ways that children's diseases can be prevented is by immunization. Immunization is also called vaccination.
In the nineteenth century, one in five children died before the age of five. Most of these deaths were from infectious diseases. Today "some" of these deaths are prevented by treating disease when it happens. Most of it is from preventing disease with immunizations.
Pediatricians also try to prevent other diseases and injury before they happen. They teach parents about safety and nutrition. They may teach older children or "adolescents" about avoiding injury or addiction to alcohol and tobacco. Because childhood is such a time of change, prevention is a major part of pediatrics.
Jenna Bush Hager
Jenna Welch Bush Hager (born "Jenna Welch Bush" November 25, 1981)
Jenna was born in Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, She is the younger of two fraternal twin girls born to George W. Bush, President of the United States. Her twin sister is Barbara Pierce Bush.
Jenna graduated from the University of Texas in 2004. She has become a public school teacher like her mother Laura Bush was.
Jenna has been married to Henry Chase Hager since May 10, 2008. They have one child together, a daughter named Margaret Laura Hager (b.April 14, 2013).
Uncyclopedia
Uncyclopedia, calling itself "the content-free encyclopedia", is a website parody of Wikipedia.
Uncyclopedia was started by Jonathan Huang and his friend named "Stillwaters". It was made on January 5, 2005. Uncyclopedia's logo is a hollow potato named Sophia. This makes fun of Wikipedia's globe logo.
Uncyclopedia is a joke wiki that pretends to be useful. Every page is filled with made up facts and jokes. Users make fun of things by creating pages about them.
They have a guide on writing called HTBFANJS (How To Be Funny And Not Just Stupid). This page helps users learn how Uncyclopedia is not like Wikipedia. It also helps people write so it matches the rest of Uncyclopedia.Most encyclopedias try not to have opinions on things. They just try to tell facts. Uncyclopedia has its own opinions about things. These opinions are often silly. For example, Uncyclopedia thinks that Oscar Wilde was the best man ever. These opinions become memes that are added into jokes all over Uncyclopedia.
Barbara Bush Coyne
Barbara Bush Coyne ("née" Barbara Pierce Bush; born November 25, 1981)
Barbara was born at Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, Texas, She is the older of two fraternal twin girls born to George W. Bush, the 43rd President of the United States. Her sister is Jenna Bush. Barbara was named after her grandmother, the former first lady, Barbara Bush.
Barbara graduated from Yale University in 2004. After that, she spent some time working in the re-election campaign of her father.
Esperanto is a constructed auxiliary language. Its creator was L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish eye doctor. He created the language to make international communication easier. His goal was to design Esperanto in such a way that people can learn it much more easily than any other national language.
At first, Zamenhof called the language ', which means "The International Language" in Esperanto. Soon, people began calling it by the simpler name ', which means "one who hopes". That name comes from "" ("Doctor who hopes"), which is what Zamenhof called himself in his first book about Esperanto.
There are people who speak Esperanto in many countries and in all the major continents. No one knows exactly how many people now speak Esperanto in the world. Most sources say that there are between several hundred thousand and two million Esperanto speakers. A few people grew up speaking Esperanto as their first language. There may perhaps be around 2,000 of these people. Therefore, Esperanto is the most-used constructed language in the world.
A person who speaks or supports Esperanto is often called an "Esperantist".
L. L. Zamenhof created Esperanto. He grew up in Białystok, a town that was in the Russian Empire, but is now in Poland. People in Białystok spoke many languages. Zamenhof saw conflicts between individual ethnic groups living there (Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews). He thought that lack of a common language caused these conflicts, so he began creating a language people could share and use internationally. He thought this language should be different from national languages. He wanted it to be culturally neutral and easy-to-learn. He thought people should learn it along with national languages and use Esperanto for communication between people with different native languages.
First, Zamenhof thought about bringing Latin back into use. Although he learned it in school, he realized it was too difficult for normal use. He also studied English and understood that languages did not need to conjugate verbs by person or number. Once he saw two Russian words: "швейцарская" (reception, derived from "швейцар" - receptionist) and "кондитерская" (confectionery, derived from "кондитер" - confectioner). These words with the same ending gave him an idea. He decided that regular prefixes and suffixes could decrease the number of word roots, which one would need for a communication. Zamenhof wanted the root words to be neutral, so he decided to use word roots from Romance and Germanic languages. Those languages were taught in many schools in many places around the world at that time.
Zamenhof did his first project "Lingwe uniwersala" (Universal Language) in 1878. But his father, a language teacher, regarded his son's work as unrealistic. So, he destroyed the original work. Between 1879 and 1885 Zamenhof studied medicine in Moscow and Warsaw. In these days he again worked on an international language. In 1887 he published his first textbook ' ("The International Language"). According to Zamenhof's pen-name ' ("Doctor who hopes"), many people started calling the language as "Esperanto".
Zamenhof received a lot of enthusiastic letters. In the letters, people wrote their suggestions for changes to the language. He noted all of the suggestions. He published them in the magazine "La Esperantisto". In this magazine, Esperanto speakers could vote about the changes. They did not accept them. The magazine had many subscribers in Russia. It was eventually banned (stopped) there because of an article about Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Publishing of the magazine ended after that. The new magazine "Lingvo Internacia" replaced it.
In the first years of Esperanto's life, people used it only in written form, but in 1905 they organized the first (1st) World Congress of Esperanto in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. This was the first notable use of Esperanto in international communication. Because of the success of the congress, it is organized each year (except years of the World Wars) to this day.
In 1912 Zamenhof resigned his leading position in the movement during the eighth (8th) World Congress of Esperanto in Kraków, Poland. The tenth (10th) World Congress of Esperanto in Paris, France, did not take place because of the start of World War I. Nearly 4000 people signed up for this congress.
During World War I the World Esperanto Association had its main office in Switzerland, which was neutral in the war. Hector Hodler's group of volunteers with support of Romain Rolland helped send letters between the enemy countries through Switzerland. In total, they helped with 200,000 cases.
After World War I there was new hope for Esperanto because of the desire of people to live in peace. Esperanto and its community grew in those days. The first World Congress after the war took place in Hague, Netherlands, in 1920. An Esperanto Museum was opened in Vienna, Austria, in 1929. Today it is part of the Austrian National Library.
World War II stopped this growing of the language. Many Esperantists were sent into the battle. Nazis broke up Esperanto groups because they saw the language as a part of a worldwide Jewish conspiracy. Many Esperanto speakers died in concentration camps. The Soviet Union also treated Esperantists badly when Stalin was their leader.
After World War II many people supported Esperanto. 80 million people signed a petition supporting Esperanto for use in the United Nations.
Every year they organize big Esperanto meetings such as the World Congress of Esperanto, International Youth Congress of Esperanto and SAT-Congress (meeting of "Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda" - World Non-national Association).
In 1990, the Holy See published the document "Norme per la celebrazione della Messa in esperanto", allowing the use of Esperanto in Masses without special permission. Esperanto is the only constructed language which received a permission like this one from the Roman Catholic Church.
Esperanto has many web pages, blogs, podcasts, and videos. People also use Esperanto in social media and online discussions and in their private communication through e-mail and instant messaging. Several (especially open source and free software) programmes have their own language version in Esperanto. Internet radio station "Muzaiko" has been broadcasting 24 hours a day in Esperanto since 2011.
Zamenhof wanted to make an easy language to increase international understanding. He wanted Esperanto to be a universal second language. In other words, although he did not want Esperanto to replace national languages, he wanted a majority of people around the world to speak Esperanto. Many Esperantists initially shared this goal. General Assembly of UNESCO recognized Esperanto in 1954. Since then World Esperanto Association has got official relations with UNESCO. However, Esperanto was never chosen by the United Nations or other international organizations and it has not become a widely accepted second language.
Some Esperanto speakers like Esperanto for reasons other than its use as a universal second language. They like the Esperanto community and culture. Developing the Esperanto culture is a goal for that people.
People who care more about Esperanto's current value than about its potential for universal use are sometimes called "raŭmistoj" in Esperanto. The ideas of these people can together be called "", or "Raumism" in English. The names come from the name of the town of Rauma, in Finland. The International Youth Congress of Esperanto met there in 1980 and made a big statement. They said that making Esperanto a universal second language was not their main goal.
People who have goals for Esperanto that are more similar to Zamenhof's are sometimes called ' in Esperanto. The name comes from ', an Esperanto phrase which means "final victory". It refers to a theoretical future in which nearly everyone on Earth speaks Esperanto as a second language.
The Prague Manifesto (1996) states the ideas of the ordinary people of the Esperanto movement and of its main organization, the World Esperanto Association (UEA).
German town Herzberg am Harz uses nickname "die Esperanto-Stadt/la Esperanto-urbo" ("the Esperanto town") since July 12, 2006. They also teach the language in elementary schools and do some other cultural and educational events using the Esperanto language together with the Polish twin town Góra.
Esperanto is the only constructed language that the Roman Catholic Church recognises as a liturgical language. They allow Masses in the language and Vatican Radio broadcasts in Esperanto every week.
Many people use Esperanto to communicate by mail, email, blogs or chat rooms with Esperantists in other countries. Some travel to other countries to meet and talk in Esperanto with other Esperantists.
There are annual meetings of Esperantists. The largest is the ' ("World Congress of Esperanto"), which is held in a different country each year. In recent years around 2,000 people have attended it, from 60 or more countries. For young people there is ' ("International Youth Congress of Esperanto").
A lot of different cultural activities take place during Esperanto meetings: concerts of Esperanto musicians, dramas, discos, presentations of the culture of the host country and culture of the countries of the participants, lectures, language-courses, and so on. At the location of Esperanto meetings there is also a pub, a tearoom, a bookstore, etc. with Esperanto-speaking workers. The number of activities and possibilities depends on the size or on the theme of the meeting.
There are books and magazines written in Esperanto. Much literature has been translated into Esperanto from other languages, including famous works, like the Bible (first time in 1926) and plays by Shakespeare. Works that are less famous have also been translated into Esperanto, and some of these do not have English translations.
Important Esperanto writers are for example: Trevor Steele (Australia), István Nemere (Hungary) and Mao Zifu (China). William Auld was a British writer of poetry in Esperanto and honorary president of the Esperanto PEN Centre (Esperanto part of International PEN). Some people recommended him for the Nobel Prize in Literature.