AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
This, the long distance human transport theory, was bolstered in 2011 by the discovery of a megalithic bluestone quarry at Craig Rhos-y-felin, near Crymych in Pembrokeshire. This is the most likely place where some of the stones were got. Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier. This theory is not preferred, because there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England.
Later, ~2400 BC, 30 huge grey sarsen stones were brought to the site. They were erected in a circle 33 metres in diameter, with lintels on top of the standing stones. The remaining bluestones were placed as an inner circle. The site was in use until the Bronze Age. The modern Stonehenge consists entirely of original stones, some of which have been replaced in upright position.
The stones may have come from a quarry about 25 miles (40 km) north of Stonehenge on the Marlborough Downs, or they may have been collected from a "litter" of sarsens on the chalk downs, which are closer.
The stones were 'dressed' (worked on) and given mortice and tenon joints. 30 were erected as a 33 metres (108 ft) diameter circle of standing stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method, the tongue and groove joint. Each standing stone was about 4.1 metres (13 ft) high, 2.1 metres (6 ft 11 in) wide and weighed about 25 tons.
There are also several passage tombs and many tumuli nearby.
Stonehenge, however, does have a number of satellite structures which are part of the 'ritual landscape':
No one knows who built Stonehenge or why they built it. During the summer solstice, the sunrise lines up with some of the stones in a particular way. This suggests that the arrangement of stones may work as a calendar. In Egypt and South America, similar ancient buildings can be found. They also show the time of the solstice.
Stonehenge itself is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage. The surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.
The World Heritage Site includes Avebury and Stonhenge together, though they are quite distinct.
Granite is a kind of igneous rock, found on Earth but nowhere else in the Solar System. It is formed from hot, molten magma. Its colour can be dark or light grey, brown, or even pink, according to the proportions of its minerals.
The magma is forced between other layers of rock by the pressure under the Earth's surface. The magma cools and turns slowly into solid stone. Granite has many different types of minerals in it. These include quartz, feldspar, hornblende, and sometimes mica. As the magma cools, these minerals form crystals. The crystals can be seen easily if the granite is cut and polished.
Granite is a common stone on Earth, and makes up a big part of the crust (the Earth's outer layer). It is usually found in the continental plates of the Earth's crust. Although it forms under the surface of the Earth, there are many places where it has been forced upwards by tectonic movement. When plates in the Earth's crust move together, they get bent and pushed upwards. When this happens, granite mountains can be formed.
A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses:
Granite is dense, and can be cut, carved and shaped. It is resistant to water and pollution, and has a range of different colours.
Kitchen benches are often made of polished granite. Granite is found in many countries of the world. Some countries have beautifully patterned granite which is quarried (cut in open mines) and sold for building material.
1970 (MCMLXX) was .
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in the U.S. state of New York with a population of 147,306 in 2000, and a metropolitan area population of 732,117. It is often called the "Salt City" because salt used to be the main industry. Today, Syracuse is mostly known as a university city, but many companies have offices there, also.
Syracuse
Syracuse might mean:
A soap opera is a television or radio program that airs in episodic series. This means that each episode continues telling a story, which, in turn, tells more of the last episode's story. A single story on a soap opera can be told for weeks, months, or sometimes even years.
In America, each soap opera airs every day, Monday through Friday, in the afternoon. Because they air at this time, they are sometimes called daytime serials. In the U.K. and other countries, the soap operas air in the evening, twice or three times a week.
This is a list of soap operas that air in America, in their current order of popularity:
There are still two soaps that air in Australia, Network Ten's "Neighbours" and the Seven Network's "Home and Away". Strangely, "Neighbours" is more popular in England than it is in Australia.
In the U.K., the most popular soap operas are "Coronation Street" and "EastEnders". "Coronation Street" is about people who live in Manchester, in the northern part of England. "EastEnders" is about people who live in an imaginary place called Albert Square in the East End of London. Another popular soap opera is "Emmerdale", and it is about people who live in a small village in Yorkshire, also in the northern part of England. In the 1970s "Crossroads" became the most watched soap in England. It was shown from 1964 to 1988.
In Latin America (including Brazil) and Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa (like Angola), soap operas are called "telenovelas".
The Young and the Restless is a very popular American soap opera. The show is the highest-rated soap opera, which means that more people watch it than any other soap opera. It aired its first episode on March 26, 1973. It is set in fictional Genoa City, Wisconsin. In the beginning, the show was about the Brooks family, who were very rich, and the Foster family, who were poor. Today, very few members of either family are still on the show.
Today, the show tells stories about two cosmetics companies: Newman Enterprises and Jabot Cosmetics. Newman's president is Victor Newman (played by the actor Eric Braeden) and Jabot's president is Jack Abbott (played by Peter Bergman). These two men hate each other very much and would like to see the other fail. This hatred is the root of much of the story on the show.
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state in the southeastern part of the United States. It is bordered by Florida to the south, Alabama to the west, Tennessee and North Carolina to the north, and South Carolina to the east. All of Georgia's coastline is on the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean borders Georgia to the southeast.
Georgia was established in 1732 and became a state in 1788. It was the last of the original 13 colonies and eventually joined in the growing rebellion against Britain. Georgia was named after George II of Great Britain.
Spanish people explored Georgia in 1540. Native Americans were killed and enslaved during Spanish exploration in Georgia.
There are 5 regional habitats of Georgia. They are the Georgia mountains, Okeefenokee marsh/swamp area, the Georgia coastal region, the Georgia Piedmont, and Atlantic Coastal region .
The capital and largest city in Georgia is Atlanta. The 1996 Olympic Games took place there, and the book and movie "Gone with the Wind" was set in and around Atlanta in the 1860s. Other big cities in the state include Augusta, Columbus, Savannah, and Macon. Georgia has a total of 159 counties.
Prem Rawat
Prem Pal Singh Rawat (previously known as Maharaji, also known as Guru Maharaj Ji and Balyogeshwar) was born in India on December 10, 1957. Rawat is a self-help guru who teaches inner peace by the use of what he calls "self-knowledge".
His father was a spiritual master, guru (or teacher of religious matters) in India for three million people. Prem Rawat took over at the age of eight when his father died. He went to England and the United States when he was 13 years old in 1971.
He got married when he was 16 years old. In 1975, he had a fight with his mother and brother. They took over in India while Prem Rawat took over in America and the West. Now he lives in California. He shares self-knowledge for free, to help those interested to find inner peace.
Prem Rawat founded "The Prem Rawat Foundation", a nonprofit organization, to address the fundamental human needs of food, water, and peace.
Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher. He was born in Königsberg, East Prussia, and also died there. Kant studied philosophy in the university there, and later became a professor of philosophy. He called his system "transcendental idealism". Kant's thorough writing about epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in the history of philosophy.
Today the town Königsberg is part of Russia, and is renamed Kaliningrad. When Kant was alive, it was the second largest city in the kingdom of Prussia.
Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724. In 1740 he entered the University of Königsberg and studied the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and his follower Christian Wolff. He studied there until 1746 when his father died, then left Königsberg to take up a job as tutor. He became the tutor of Count Kayserling and his family. In 1755 Kant became a lecturer and stayed in this position until 1770. He was made the second librarian of the Royal Library in 1766. Kant was eventually given the Chair of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. In his entire life Kant never travelled more than seventy miles from the city of Königsberg. Kant died on February 12, 1804 with the final words "Es ist gut" ("It is good").
After finishing his study in the university, Kant hoped to be a teacher of philosophy, but it was very difficult. He could have lived a life of private lecturer as interested in physics, both astronomical objects (such as planets and stars) and the earth. He wrote some papers about this, but he became more interested in metaphysics. He wanted to learn the nature of human experience: how humans could know something, and what their knowledge was based on.
Under the strong influence of the philosophical system of Leibniz and Wolff, Kant began to doubt the basic answers of past philosophers. Then, Kant read a Scottish philosopher, David Hume. Hume had tried to make clear what our experience had been, and had reached a very strong opinion called "skepticism", that there was nothing to make our experience sure. Kant was very shocked by Hume, and saw the theory he had learned in a new point of view. He began to try finding a third way other than the two that Kant called "skepticism" and "dogmaticism".
Kant read another thinker, named Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His thought on human beings, especially on morals, human freedom and perpetual peace, impressed Kant.
Some scholars like to include Kant as one of the German idealists, but Kant himself did not belong to that group.
The most-known work of Kant is the book "Critique of Pure Reason" ("Kritik der reinen Vernunft") that Kant published in 1781. Kant called his way of thought "critique", not philosophy. Kant said that critique was a preparation for establishment of real philosophy. According to Kant, people should know what human reason can do and which limits it has. In the "Critique of Pure Reason" Kant wrote several limits of human reason, to both feeling and thinking something. For sensation, there are two limits inside of human perception: space and time. There are no physical objects, but the limitations of our mind that work whenever we feel something through our senses. For thinking, he said there are twelve categories or pure rational concepts, divided into four fields: quantity, quality, relation and modality. Kant thought human reason applied those ideas to everything.
Is what we think only our fantasy? Kant said "No", although without those sensual and rational limitations, we can think nothing, then Kant was convinced there would be something we could not know directly behind our limitations, and even with limitations we could know something. It can not be a personal fantasy either, since those limitations were common to all human reason before our particular experience. Kant called what we could not know directly "Ding an sich" -- "thing itself". We can think "thing itself" but cannot have any experience about it, nor know it. God, the eternity of soul, life after death, such things belong to "thing itself", so they were not right objects of philosophy according to Kant, although people had liked to discuss them from ancient times.
Kant wrote two other books named "Critique": "Critique of the practical reason" (1788) and "Critique of the Judgement" (1790). In "Critique of the practical reason" Kant wrote about the problem of freedom and God. It was his main work of ethics. In "Critique of the Judgement" Kant wrote about beauty and teleology, or the problem if there was a purpose in general, if the world, a living creature had a reason to exist, and so on. In both books, Kant said we could not answer those problems, because they were concerned with "thing itself".
Kant had a great influence on other thinkers. In the 19th century, German philosophers like Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer and writers like Herder, Schiller, and Goethe were influenced by Kant.
In the early 20th century Kant's ideas were very influential on one group of German philosophers. They became known as the new-Kantians. One of them, Windelband, said, "every philosophy before Kant poured into Kant, and every philosophy after Kant pours from Kant".
Kant has influenced many modern thinkers, including Hannah Arendt, and John Rawls.
Aunt
An aunt is relationship that describes a woman who is a sibling of a parent or is married to a sibling of a parent. Aunts are sometimes called Auntie or Aunty. A man is a nephew to their Aunt and a woman is a niece. An aunt is part of an extended family. The child of an aunt's is a cousin. Often the word aunt is used with people who are not related to show closeness or respect.
In many cultures there are different words to describe a person's mother's sister and father's sister. In Latin a mother's sister is "matertera" while a father's sister is "amita".
A maternal or paternal relative is one who is related through one's mother or father, respectively. For example, a maternal aunt is the subject's mother's sister. An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouse's relatives. For example a aunt in-law could be the wife of the subject's uncle.
Homer is the name of the Greek poet who wrote the epic poems the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey". These are the earliest works of Greek literature which have survived to the present day, and are among the greatest treasures of the ancient world. They are a product of Mycenaean culture. The Iliad tells the story of the Trojan war, which took place around 1190 BC. The manuscripts of Homer were written much later, probably later than 800 BC.
What makes the history of this period so difficult is that the Mycenaean civilization was followed by several hundred years of decline, from which little or no writing has survived. This period, the Greek Dark Ages, ended around 800 BC, when once again we find Greek writing, though this time in their newly developed alphabetic script. Therefore, there is a distinct possibility that the Homeric epics had a life, perhaps a long life, as oral literature, spoken by story-tellers.
We know little about Homer, and the later Greeks also knew little about him. Some have doubted he was a real person; others think he was a woman.
A legend, has it that he was a blind poet who lived in Ionia. There is no definite evidence for any of these ideas.
There is archaeological evidence that Troy existed. The site of Troy has been discovered, and excavated. Therefore, it is a fair guess that the epic began as a long oral poem based on the siege of Troy, but with details added and changed as time went on. Homer's poetry is different from other poetry because it had to be short in order to be memorized.
The date of Homer's existence is not known. Herodotus said that Homer lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BC; but other ancient sources gave dates much closer to the time of the Trojan War. The date of the Trojan War was given as 1194–1184 BC by Eratosthenes.
Today, "the date of Homer" means the date of the writing down the oral poems, rather than the life of Homer. This is called the "transcription date". The language suggests that the earliest possible date for the transcription is 800 BC, and the latest possible date is 600 AD.
Donatien Alphonse François, Comte de Sade, (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814), better known as the Marquis de Sade) was a French nobleman, writer and philosopher who was born in Paris. The de Sade family were French nobility, who came from Provence. Different members of the house held positions in the Church, and the French state at different times.
Once Donatien had grown up, he had troubles with the authorities several times. He was bisexual. He spent many years in prison and at a mental asylum.
The main points he was accused of were:
On one of his escapades, he ""accidentally"" raped a close relative of his, who was a nun. This caused his family to drop him, and to hand him over to the authorities.
For this, he was sentenced to death (while being absent). He later escaped the death penalty by moving to Italy. The death penalty against him was later changed to a prison sentence.
In prison, he started to read about philosophy. He also started to write down his ideas. He tried to hide his writing, and also wrote in a very small print, so that the consumption of paper would not be noticed.
In later years, he was moved to an asylum (for the mentally ill), and gave his wife the possibility of a divorce.
After the French Revolution, he got out of the asylum, but in 1803 was declared mentally ill (and again was sent to the asylum). He died in the asylum in Val-de-Marne in 1814 at the age of 74.
The term 'sadism' was named after him. It refers to the habit of getting pleasure from giving pain.
Eurozone
The Eurozone (also called Euro area or Euroland) is the set of countries in the European Union which have adopted the Euro (€) currency. The European Central Bank is responsible for managing the supply of money within the eurozone and political decisions are taken by the "euro group", which is a meeting of the politicians from each euro country in charge of that country's economy.
EU members that are not part of the Eurozone are Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Croatia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania.
There are 19 members in the Eurozone
Made the area on 1 January 1999
1 Austria
2 Belgium
3 Finland
4 France
5 Germany
6 Ireland
7 Italy
8 Luxembourg
9 Netherlands
10 Portugal
11 Spain
Joined on 1 January 2001
12 Greece
Joined on 1 January 2006
13 Slovenia
Joined on 1 January 2008
14 Cyprus
15 Malta
Joined on 1 January 2009
16 Slovakia
Joined on 1 January 2011
17 Estonia
Joined on 1 January 2014
18 Latvia
Joined on 1 January 2015
19 Lithuania
There are other countries outside the European Union which use the euro as well, but these are not officially in the eurozone.
Ordinal numbers (or ordinals) are numbers that show something's order, for example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th.
Suppose a person has four different T-shirts, and then lays them in front of the person, from left to right.
If the person then starts counting the shirts from the left, he would first see the red shirt. So the red shirt is the first T-shirt. The blue shirt is the second T-shirt. The yellow shirt is the third one, and the orange T-shirt is the fourth one.
The "first", "second", "third", and "fourth" in this case are ordinal numbers. They result from the fact that the person has many objects, and they give them an order (hence 'ordinal'). The person then simply counts those objects, and gives the ordinal numbers to them.
In set theory, ordinals are also ordinal numbers people use to order infinite sets. An example is the set formula_1 (or formula_2 for short), which is the set containing all natural numbers (including 0). This is the smallest ordinal number that is infinite, and there are many more (such as formula_2 + 1).
The word Gnome can mean different things:
A republic is a form of government that has no monarchy and no hereditary aristocracy. It originates from Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Roman Kingdom and established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.
National sovereignty lies in the authority of the government, not in an emperor or monarch. The word "republic" comes from the Latin words res publica, meaning a "public thing". For example, the United States and India are republics, but North Korea and Cuba are also called republics. However, the United Kingdom and Canada are not republics since they have a monarch (Queen Elizabeth II in both cases).
Countries with a king or other monarch and free elections is called a constitutional monarchy, not republics. A constitutional monarchy resembles a republic because the constitution has been amended to remove power from the monarch and install institutions conforming to a philosophy of republicanism. That includes the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Thailand, and countries in Scandinavia and elsewhere. What makes a republic different is that its laws are made and enforced without royal authority.
The head of state in a republic is generally a person who has been chosen by the citizens by direct election or by a group of elected representatives to act as the top representative of the people. In most republics, the head of state is called the president. In some countries, the president is elected and has a lot of political power. In others, the president does not hold much direct power but is important in the legal system for other reasons.
Sometimes, state is called a "republic" when its head is not called a "king". For example, the Roman Empire had an "emperor" and the Dutch Republic had a "stadholder", but they worked as hereditary monarchs.
Licchavi, in India, was the first republic in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. The earliest republics that were much imitated later were Greek cities, for example democracy in Athens. The biggest difference from the other city-states was that people chose their leaders by voting or by lottery.
Martin Luther (10 November 1483 in Eisleben - 18 February 1546 in Eisleben) was a German monk and theologian of Christianity. He is credited with starting the Protestant Reformation. As this happened, what are now called Protestant churches split from the Roman Catholic church. He started the Lutheran Church, the first Protestant church.
Luther studied philosophy at the University of Erfurt. In 1505, he entered into the Augustinian Order as a monk. Luther studied theology and ancient languages in Erfurt. In 1512 he became a doctor of theology in Wittenberg and began his lectures on the Psalms and Letters of Paul.
In October 1517, Luther wrote his 95 Theses. Many people think that he put them on the door of a church in Wittenberg, but this is not sure. Instead, he published a copy. He presented these to church officials at Worms Cathedral. Luther called them "The Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences". It questioned the teaching of the western Church and its ideas about penance, the authority of the Pope and the usefulness of "indulgences". At that time, the Catholic Church was selling indulgences to get out of purgatory, and go right to Heaven after death. They were selling indulgences for money for the dead so they could go to Heaven faster. If that was true, it would mean that poor people would not be able to go to Heaven as quickly, but that the priests in the church would be rich from selling these things. Luther thought that this was all wrong, and was against the Bible.
After studying the Letters of Paul, especially the Letter to Romans, Luther came up with an idea called "sola fide". This means that faith is the only way that people can get salvation from God. According to sola fide, this would mean that many church customs were useless, and should be cast away.
First, Luther believed that he could reform (change) the Roman Church from the inside (while still being a part of the Church) with his Theses, but the Papacy took his attitude as heresy and excommunicated him on June 15 1520 with a paper saying he did not have their permission to go to Heaven. In October, Luther burned the paper in public, and showed he would not obey the Church unless they accepted his words.
Emperor Charles V Opened the imperial Diet of Worms on 22 January 1521 to hear the case. For Luther, it was the last chance to say he had been wrong. But he did not change his mind. The Diet declared Luther an outlaw.
With the help of a friend, Luther hid in Wartburg Castle, near Erfurt. In the castle, he translated the Bible. First, he wrote the New Testament in German instead of the original Greek. Later, he translated the Old Testament into German, too. Until then, the Mass and the Bible were in Latin. Very few people understood it. Most people went to Mass, and did not understand what the priest said because they did not speak Latin. Luther translated the Bible so that more people could read and understand it. That way they were no longer depending on the priest to tell them what was in the Bible, but could read it themselves.
Luther started his own church, called the Lutheran Church, with his friend Philip Melanchthon. Luther died in 1546.
From the Bible, Luther formed firm ideas about families. Luther knew that what a child learned at home would greatly influence his life. He said in "Table Talks", "Sermons very little edify children, who learn little thereby; it is more needful they be taught and well instructed in schools, and at home, and that they be learned and examined what they have learned; this way profits much; 'tis very wearisome, but very necessary". Luther also preached against the Catholic Church's demands that ministers cannot marry. After hearing his preaching, many nuns wrote to him to ask for help in escaping their convents. Luther helped nine nuns escape from a convent. On April 4, 1524, Luther had a friend help the nuns sneak over the wall and then hid them in barrels on a wagon until they were out of the city. One of these nuns was Katherine von Bora.
After finding husbands for the nuns whose families would not accept them, Luther had to find a husband for Katherine von Bora. Katherine, however, not only rejected a match Luther arranged for her, but said she would accept only Luther or another pastor named Amsdorf as her husband.
At first Luther did not really like Katherine and thought "she was proud and haughty." His feelings changed, though, and they married on June 13, 1525. Luther later said, "And thank God it hath turned out well; for I have a pious (holy, God-loving) and faithful wife, to whom one may safely commit (give) his heart".
They had six children. On June 6, 1526, Luther wrote, "I am a happy husband...for from the most precious woman, my best of wives, I have received, by the blessing of God, a little son, John Luther, and, by God's wonderful grace, I have become a father."
The firstborn was John Luther. The next was a daughter, Elizabeth; but Elizabeth died when she was just eight months old, and Luther wrote in a letter, "My little daughter Elizabeth is taken from me, and hath left me with a bleeding and almost womanly heart, so sad am I on her account. I never thought the heart of a father was so tender towards his children. Pray the Lord for me." A third child, Magdalene, also died young. After Magdalene came Martin, then Paul, and finally Margaret. It was for his children that Luther wrote the Small Catechism - a book showing the basics of Lutheran beliefs.
Since the time of the silent movies 28 movies about Martin Luther have been made. The newest movie is titled Luther, released in 2003.
Noh
Noh or No (Japanese:能 Nō) is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama. It started in the 14th century and continues today. Noh is made up of "mai" (dances), "hayashi" (music) and "utai" (words usually in songs). The performers use masks and dance slowly. Zeami and his father Kan'ami brought Noh to its present-day form during the Muromachi period.
Theater pieces of Noh are classified into 5 groups.
All Noh players are men. They have been taught their skills by their fathers. When a woman or girl appears in the drama, a male actor plays her role with a woman mask.
There are three types of Noh players: "shite", "waki" and "kyogen". "Shite" plays the hero or the heroine. He talks sings and dances. "Waki" (meaning "Side") and plays the sidekick of "Shite". The Waki usually plays the role of a traveler role. He introduces us to the world in the drama. "Kyogen" appears in the middle of the drama if it has two parts, and plays the role of the local citizen. He talks to "Waki" and makes him notice something new or realize what has happened.
"Hayashi" means musical instrumentals. Two kinds of drum ("Tuzumi", "Taiko") and a flute ("Fue") are used in the theater.
A manga () is a Japanese comic book.
Manga is drawn by a "mangaka" () (Japanese for cartoonist: an artist of comics). Manga is usually read from right to left.
The word manga can be both singular and plural, and mean both the medium of comics or a single comic. It is a form of art that is used to draw comics and develop Anime (animated cartoons of manga art). Colors and symbols are important.
The Spree is a river in the north-east of Germany.
It runs through the centre of Berlin. The river is long.
Liberalism is a way of thinking about politics and government.
Some liberals believe that freedom is impossible without equality, and that governments should promote egalitarianism by providing education and health care supported by taxes. Other liberals believe that taxes are bad, and that people should provide their own education and health care; these people are usually called libertarians today. Most liberal governments today do provide at least some education and health care, though not necessarily equally for all citizens.
Other concepts important to some liberals include:
In the old days, kings or queens told people what to do (a form of government called a Monarchy), and there was very little freedom. A few hundred years ago, philosophers such as John Locke, Simón Bolívar, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham began to write about freedom. Earlier writers, such as Marcus Aurelius, had written about freedom, but this time the idea caught on. The United States of America was the first country to have a constitution which was based on the ideas of John Locke which were similar to those of Mill and Bentham, and which guaranteed certain rights to all citizens, including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, the right to assemble (get together in groups), the right to bear arms (weapons), and the right to ask their government to take action (right of petition) or to remove from office rulers they did not like (right of referendum).
Another idea that became popular around this time was the idea of free trade. A leading philosopher who promoted free trade was Adam Smith.
Most of the wealthy countries in the world today are liberal democracies with more or less free trade. An exception to this rule are the oil-rich countries, not all of which are liberal or democratic. Most of the poor countries in the world are dictatorships, with heavy restrictions on trade. China is a poor country which is rapidly becoming rich, and is trying the experiment of combining dictatorship with free trade. Whether it is possible to have the advantages of free trade without other freedoms remains to be seen.
All liberal governments support free elections, and this idea is defended in the legal systems of many countries. However, many countries have elections, but they are not free. This is because opposition candidates cannot use the mass media to publicize their ideas. This situation leads to long-term stability, and to rule by elite groups or dictators. That situation exists in Russia and almost all the former states of the Soviet Union to the east.
The government of the United States was created based on a belief in democracy and personal freedom. However the word "liberalism" has taken on a different meaning in modern times. Liberals in the United States still believe in supporting democracy and freedom, but many liberals also support other ideas. While not all liberals agree on everything, most liberals in the United States agree:
Liberals in the United States are also sometimes called "Progressives". The biggest liberal political party in the modern United States is the Democratic Party. However, the Green Party is seen to be more 'left', or liberal than the Democrats.
Liberals in Australia have many different ideas about government than liberals in the United States. Most liberals in Australia believe that government should not increase taxes, and would like a government that has lower taxes and less power over the economy. The main liberal political party in Australia is the Liberal Party of Australia. The Liberal Party also believes that government should support traditional values and morals, something which many conservatives believe as well.
Zeno's paradoxes are a famous set of thought-provoking stories or puzzles created by Zeno of Elea in the mid-5th century BC. Philosophers, physicists, and mathematicians have argued for 25 centuries over how to answer the questions raised by Zeno's paradoxes.
Nine paradoxes have been attributed to him. Zeno constructed them to answer those who thought that Parmenides's idea that "all is one and unchanging" was absurd. Three of Zeno's paradoxes are the most famous: two are presented below. They all deal with problems of the apparently continuous nature of space and time.
In the paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise, Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise. Achilles allows the tortoise a head start of 100 metres, for example. Suppose that each racer starts running at a constant speed, one very fast and one very slow. After some finite time, Achilles will have run 100 metres, bringing him to the tortoise's starting point. During this time, the slower tortoise has run a much shorter distance. It will then take Achilles some further time to run that distance, by which time the tortoise will have advanced farther. It will then take still more time for Achilles to reach this third point, while the tortoise again moves ahead. Thus, whenever Achilles reaches somewhere the tortoise has been, he still has farther to go. Therefore, because there are an infinite number of points Achilles must reach where the tortoise has already been, he can never overtake the tortoise.
Suppose someone wishes to get from point "A" to point "B". First, they must move halfway. Then, they must go half of the remaining way. Continuing in this manner, there will always be some small distance remaining, and the goal would never actually be reached. There will always be another number to add in a series such as 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ... So, motion from any point "A" to any different point "B" seems an impossibility.
This then is where Zeno's paradox lies: both pictures of reality cannot be true at the same time. Hence, either:
1. There is something wrong with the way we perceive the continuous nature of time,
2. In reality there is no such thing as a discrete, or incremental, amounts of time, distance, or perhaps anything else for that matter, or
3. There is a third picture of reality that unifies the two pictures--the mathematical one and the common sense or philosophical one--that we do not yet have the tools to fully understand.
Few people would bet that the tortoise would win the race against an athlete. But, what is wrong with the argument?
As one begins adding the terms in the series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 + ..., one may notice that the sum gets closer and closer to 1, and will never exceed 1. Aristotle (who is the source for much of what we know about Zeno) noted that as the distance (in the dichotomy paradox) decreases, the time to travel each distance gets exceedingly smaller and smaller. Before 212 BC, Archimedes had developed a method to get a finite answer for the sum of infinitely many terms which get progressively smaller (such as 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + ...).
Modern calculus achieves the same result, using more rigorous methods.
Some mathematicians, such as Carl Boyer, think that Zeno's paradoxes are just mathematical problems, for which modern calculus provides a mathematical solution.
However, Zeno's questions remain problematic if one approaches an infinite series of steps, one step at a time. This is known as a 'supertask'. Calculus does not actually involve adding numbers one at a time. Instead, it determines the value (called a "limit" that the addition is approaching.
Mandrake is the common name of a number of plants in the Nightshade family, genus Mandragora. The roots often look like man or woman, or can be easily made to resemble them. The plant has been used in witchcraft for a long time.
According to this literature, the plant shrieks in pain, when it is pulled from the ground. This shriek is able to make a person deaf. He might also lose his mind, or even be killed, if he is unprotected.
Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis) has been used as an anaestethic for a long time. For this, it was usually prepared in an alcoholic solution.
Debian is a free operating system. It is a distribution of an operating system known as the GNU operating system, which can be used with various kernels, including Linux, kFreeBSD, and Hurd. In combination with these kernels, the operating system can be referred to as Debian GNU/Linux, Debian GNU/kFreeBSD, and Debian GNU/Hurd, respectively. Debian GNU/Linux is one of the most complete and popular GNU/Linux distributions, on which many others, like Ubuntu, are based.
The Debian Project officially started on August 16th, 1993, led by Ian Murdock. He was a computer programmer. Today, in this project, Debian is developed by more than 1,000 computer specialists all over the world.
The name "Debian" was taken after Ian Murdock and his wife Debra. Some people say or pronounce 'deb-ee-n' but others also say 'de-bi-an' or 'de-bai-an' and in Japan 'de-bi-a-n' and so on.
Software packages in development are either uploaded to the project distribution named "unstable" (also known as "sid"), or to the "experimental" repository. Software packages uploaded to "unstable" are normally versions stable enough to be released by the original upstream developer, but with the added Debian-specific packaging and other modifications introduced by Debian developers. These additions may be new and untested. Software not ready yet for the "unstable" distribution is typically placed in the "experimental" repository.
After a version of a software package has remained in "unstable" for a certain length of time (depending on how urgent the changes are), that package is automatically moved to the "testing" distribution. The package's move to testing happens only if no serious ("release-critical") bugs in the package are reported and if other software needed for package functionality qualifies for inclusion in "testing".
Since updates to Debian software packages between official releases do not contain new features, some choose to use the "testing" and "unstable" distributions for their newer packages. However, these distributions are less tested than "stable", and "unstable" does not receive timely security updates. In particular, incautious upgrades to working "unstable" packages can sometimes seriously break software functionality. Since September 9, 2005 the "testing" distributions security updates have been provided by the "testing" security team.
After the packages in "testing" have matured and the goals for the next release are met, the "testing" distribution becomes the next stable release. The latest stable release of Debian ("Buster") is 10.0, released on July 6, 2019. The next release is codenamed ""Bullseye"".
Due to an incident involving a CD vendor who made an unofficial and broken release labeled "1.0", an official 1.0 release was never made.
Debian has been ported to different architectures or platforms. One version, which is based on the developer release (sid) that has been ported to the Xbox is called Xebian.
Debian's official software package repository includes, for example, UNetbootin.
GNU is the name of a computer operating system. The name is short for "GNU's Not Unix". Richard Stallman leads the project working on GNU, known as the GNU Project. It was created to replace the UNIX operating system with all free and open source software. The popular Linux operating systems made using Linux kernel include a large number of GNU tools. Due to this reason, many projects and developers call the Linux based operating systems "GNU/Linux."
The GNU project was started by Richard Stallman in 1983. His aim was to create a computer system fully free to modify, share and publish modified work. He and a group of developers started with creating copies, of each piece of Unix software, which are free to modify and share. The remaining part of GNU was the kernel, called the GNU Hurd, which is not yet completely built. The more popular Linux kernel is used instead. Linux vs. Unix or BIOS
The Republic of Serbia (Serbian: "Република Србија" / Republika Srbija), or usually just Serbia (Serbian: "Србија" / Srbija), is a country in Central Europe. The capital city is Belgrade. To the north of Serbia is the country Hungary. To the east of Serbia are the countries Bulgaria and Romania. To the south of Serbia are countries North Macedonia and Kosovo. To the west of Serbia are the countries Montenegro (the country that was once united with Serbia), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.
The oldest form of writing comes from an ancient civilization which inhabited Serbia called the Vinča culture and the symbols are called the Vinča script. Serbia is also home to the earliest known copper smelting sites and the birth of the Copper Age which lead humanity out of the Stone Age and into regular use of metallurgy. The same culture contains the earliest evidence of tin alloy bronze which replaced the much weaker arsenic bronze.
White Serbs, an early Slavic tribe from Northern Europe, came to Northern Greece in the 6th century. By the 8th century they had created the Serbian Principality, a Serbian country, in the Balkans. The Serbs became Christian around the 10th century. For 200 years, the Nemanjić dynasty ruled. They made Serbia a kingdom, built new towns, monasteries, and forts, and made Serbia bigger. In 1371 the Nemanjic Dynasty died out. Serbia became unsafe and local leaders fought each other for control. In 1389 the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia. They fought against Serbia, Bosnia, the Knights Hospitaller, and the forces of many other local leaders, and won. The Turks fought the Serbs for 70 years until in 1459 the Ottoman Turks conquered Serbia.
Once the Ottomans conquered Serbia, they got rid of the Serbian upper class. Most Serbs worked as farmers on land owned by Turks. They had to pay high taxes to the Turks. Some Serbs were forced to become Muslims. But the Serbs had their own laws in the Ottoman Empire through the millet system. During the 19th century Serbia gradually became independent. During World War I Austria conquered Serbia but lost the bigger war. Serbia joined other Balkan countries to form Yugoslavia.
Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. The Danube passes through Serbia. The Šar Mountains of Kosovo form the border with Albania. Over 31% of Serbia is covered by forest. National parks take up 10% of the country's territory. Serbia has 5 national parks and 22 nature reserves.
Serbia is on the Vardar-Morava Flyway of bird migration, so many birds fly across Serbia when going to Africa and back. Golden Eagle, Nutcracker and Coal Tit live high in the mountains. Nightingale, Chaffinch and Greater Spotted Woodpecker live in the forests in the hills. Saker Falcon, Whinchat and Quail live in steppe and fields in the northern lowland part of Serbia which is called Vojvodina. Syrian Woodpecker, Common Redstart and Collared Dove live in the orchards and farmyards. Black Redstart, Kestrel and Common Swift live in the city center. Hooded Crow lives everywhere.
The town of Kikinda is known for Long-eared Owls that form flocks in trees at the city squares. Tourists come from other countries to see them. In winter you can see Pygmy Cormorants in Belgrade, at the rivers Sava and Danube.
Serbia is classed as an upper-middle income economy.
The major processed vegetable crops in Serbia are potatoes, tomatoes and pepper. Serbia is one of the biggest world producers and exporters of raspberries. They are a leading exporter of frozen fruit.
There are five international airports in Serbia: Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport, Niš Constantine the Great Airport, Morava International Airport, Vršac International Airport and Pristina International Airport.
89% of households in Serbia have fixed telephone lines. There are over 9.60 million cell-phones users. This is larger than the number of the total population of Serbia itself by 30%.
Serbia has a total of eight sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list: The Early Medieval capital Stari Ras and the 13th-century monastery Sopoćani, and the 12th-century monastery Studenica, and the endangered Medieval Monuments in Kosovo group, comprising the monasteries of Visoki Dečani, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchate of Peć (former seat of the Serbian Church, mausoleum of Serbian royalty) and finally the Roman estate of Gamzigrad–Felix Romuliana. There are two literary memorials on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme: The 12th-century Miroslav Gospel, and scientist Nikola Tesla's valuable archive.
The most prominent museum in Serbia is the National Museum of Serbia. It was founded in 1844. It houses a collection of more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5,600 paintings and 8,400 drawings and prints, and includes many foreign masterpiece collections, including Miroslav Gospel.
The official language, Serbian, is written in both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets.
Composer and musicologist Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac is said to be one of the most important founders of modern Serbian music.
In the 1990s and the 2000s, many pop music performers rose to fame. Željko Joksimović won second place at the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest. Marija Šerifović won the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest. Serbia was the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2008.
The most popular sports in Serbia are football, basketball, volleyball, handball, water polo and tennis.
The three main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star and Partizan, both from the capital city of Belgrade, and Vojvodina from Novi Sad.
Novak Djokovic, a multiple Grand Slam-winning tennis player and current number one, is from Serbia. Other tennis players from Serbia include Ana Ivanovic and Jelena Jankovic.
Cancer is a type of disease where cells grow out of control, divide and invade other tissues. In a person without cancer, cell division is under control. In most tissues, healthy cells divide in a controlled way and copy themselves to create new healthy cells. With cancer, this normal process of cell division goes out of control. Cells change their nature because mutations have occurred in their genes. All the daughter cells of cancer cells are also cancerous.
If the abnormal cells do not invade, but just divide and swell up their original tissue, this is not called "cancer". It is called a tumour. Tumours are usually not a threat to life because they can be cut out. However, some tumours occur in places where they cannot be cut out, and they can be fatal. Some brain tumours are of this type.
The symptoms of cancer are caused by the cancerous cells invading other tissues. This is called metastasis. Metastasis is a process in which cancer cells move through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. When this happens, a person's cancer can be spread throughout his or her body. Eventually those other tissues cannot work as well, and the whole body begins to get worse, and may die.