AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Kanis states: "We don’t know exactly what’s going to work here in New York, but we know what’s worked in other cities. Therefore, we’re going to spend our efforts doing those things, and as we find smarter and better ways to do things we will adopt them.
Chinese mountain cat
The Chinese Mountain cat ("Felis bieti"), also known as the Chinese Desert cat, is a small wild cat of western China. It is a little-known member of the genus "Felis", the common cats.
Some authorities regard the "chutchta" and "vellerosa" subspecies of the Wildcat as Chinese Mountain cat subspecies.
Mason Ryan
Barri Griffiths (born January 13, 1982 in Tremadog, Wales) better known by his ring name Mason Ryan, is a Welsh professional wrestler currently signed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and to the Raw brand where he used to be part of the stable, The Nexus. He also wrestled for Florida Championship Wrestling where was a one time FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship. Griffiths is a former Gladiator where he was known by the name, Goliath. He has also wrestled in several wrestling tournaments throughout his home country Wales before joining the WWE.
Expansion pack
An expansion pack is an addition (extra part) of a video game, that adds to it. Expansion packs can add characters, worlds, weapons, or scenarios. They can be for all types of video games.
Most expansion packs need the main version of the game to play, although there are a few exceptions which can be purchased stand-alone, such as "The Ultimate Doom".
Expansion packs are usually cheaper than the main game, or may even be free.
The term "Expansion Pack" was also used by Nintendo for a hardware add-on that plugged into the Nintendo 64 and was required for some games. It increased the RAM from 4 MB to 8 MB.
Florence Henderson
Florence Agnes Henderson (February 14, 1934 – November 24, 2016) was an American actress and singer. She starred as Carol Brady in "The Brady Bunch" between 1969 and 1974. She was hosting her own talk show, "The Florence Henderson Show", on television.
Henderson died suddenly of heart failure at a hospital in Los Angeles, California on November 24, 2016, aged 82.
The Subtle Knife is the second book of the "His Dark Materials" trilogy written by Philip Pullman and first published in 1997.
In the first world that Lyra enters, Lyra meets a boy of 12 years named Will Parry who comes from Oxford of the reader's universe and is escaping from the authorities. Defending his sick mother he has accidentally killed a man.They travel through a silent world to resolve many mysteries. They begin to realize that there is something special about that world.
Minerva McGonagall
Minerva McGonagall is a fictional character in the "Harry Potter" books written by J. K. Rowling. This character is a teacher at the school Hogwarts, and a good character in the series. She helps Harry Potter, the main character, many times in the series. She teaches "transfiguration", a type of magic where you change objects or animals into other objects and animals. At the end of the books, McGonagall becomes the school principal. Her honorary title is Hogwarts Headmistress.
When McGonagall was young she went to Hogwarts. She was in Gryffindor, a house for brave and bold students. When she got older she decided to train herself to be an "animagus", a wizard who can change themselves into an animal without a wand. She can change into a cat. Later, she became a member of the Order Of the Phoenix, an organization trained to fight evil wizards. In a quidditch match, she was hurt by a Slytherin player.
McGonagall is played by Maggie Smith in the movies.
Knots Landing
Knots Landing was an American soap opera which began December 27, 1979 and ended May 13, 1993. It was a spin-off of "Dallas". The show aired on CBS throughout its run. It was set around a fictional coastal suburb of Los Angeles and focuses on four married couples living in a cul-de-sac. By the time of the show's end, it had become one of the longest running primetime drama shows on television in the US.
Okra ("Abelmoschus esculentus") are known in many English-speaking countries as lady's fingers or gumbo) is a flowering plant in the mallow family, related to cotton and hibiscus. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. It is cultivated for the pods, which are harvested in the immature stage and used in salads, soups and dishes. It is the national vegetable of Pakistan.
Daniel (name)
Daniel is a Hebrew given name for males and a surname. It means, "GOD IS MY JUDGE".
There are many nicknames for "Daniel": "Dan", "Danny, Dani" (English) and "Danya" (Russia). For females, nicknames include "Danielle", "Daniela", "Dani", and "Danitza". "Daniel" as a surname developed into Daniels, meaning "son of Daniel".
Alexandertorte
Alexandertorte, also known as Alexander Torte or Aleksander Torte, is a dessert of pastry strips filled with raspberry preserves.
Its origin is not really known. Although Alexander I employed Carême, this dessert is not claimed by Carême. It was possibly first made in Finland, by Swiss pastry chefs in Helsinki in 1818, when Alexander was due to visit. It is also said to be a Latvian dish.
2011 Christchurch earthquake
The 2011 Christchurch earthquake was a 6.3 magnitude earthquake which struck the South Island of New Zealand at on NZT. (This is 23:51 UTC). It was about 5 km underground. It struck the Canterbury region of the island and caused a lot of damage and many deaths in Christchurch, New Zealand's second largest city.
It was the largest aftershock of the 4 September 2010 Canterbury earthquake, although it is being regarded as a separate earthquake. It was smaller than the September earthquake, but it was more damaging because it was closer to Christchurch and nearer to the surface of the earth. It also happened at lunchtime on a Tuesday compared to before dawn on a Saturday, which meant that more people were outside and in danger of being injured by falling buildings. Buildings were also already weakened from the previous quakes. The intensity felt in Christchurch was MM VIII.
Prime Minister John Key said that the 22nd of February "may well be New Zealand's darkest day".
At least 166 people have been confirmed dead with the final death toll expected to be over 200.
At the end of the first day 65 people were known to have died, and the number is expected to rise. Over 100 people may be trapped in one building alone. The New Zealand Fire Service says many people were injured and trapped in buildings. At 5pm local time Radio New Zealand reported that 80% of the city was without electricity. Water and wastewater services are not working in many parts of the city. People are being asked to use as little water as possible and to collect rainwater. It is expected that the State of Emergency Level 3, the highest possible in a regional disaster, will last at least five days. Medical staff from the army are being used.
The "Sydney Morning Herald" reported that two buses and a number of cars were crushed by falling buildings.
Buildings have collapsed around Cathedral Square in downtown Christchurch. The spire of ChristChurch Cathedral has completely collapsed. Christchurch Hospital was evacuated due to damage in some areas, but soon reopened to treat the injured. It has treated over 220 serious injuries so far, even though sometimes they were working by torchlight. The New Zealand defence forces have been called in to help move people out of the central business district. Fires were reported at the Canterbury Television (CTV) building.
The Pyne Gould Corporation building on Cambridge Terrace has suffered a lot of damage (photo), and some of the building's 200 workers are believed to be trapped within. Screams have been heard from inside.
The historic Canterbury Provincial Chambers building has also suffered major damage from the earthquake.
The Statistics New Zealand buildings in Christchurch were also damaged. They were due to process much of the March 2011 census of New Zealand. The census has been cancelled because people living in Christchurch have had their lives seriously disrupted. This is the third time the census has been cancelled, the previous two times being during the Great Depression and World War II.
ChristChurch Cathedral has lost the top of its main spire and its roof has fallen in. (photos) Initial reports said 22 people were in the spire at the time of the collapse. However, after the building was made safe to enter over a week after the quake, and searched thoroughly, "no" bodies were located.
The Catholic cathedral of Christchurch, the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, has half collapsed.
Buildings in Lyttelton have been damaged; a fire officer said that 60% of the buildings in the main street have collapsed. The town's historic Timeball Station was also badly damaged. The New Zealand Historic Places Trust who own the building have decided that it is unsafe to try to repair it. It will be dismantled, if possible, and perhaps re-constructed.
Around 30 million tonnes of ice fell off Tasman Glacier into Tasman Lake, about from the epicentre, hitting tour boats with waves 3.5 high.
The quake was felt as far north as Tauranga and as far south as Invercargill, where the 111 emergency network was damaged and stopped working.
New Zealand Prime Minister, John Key, said "All Civil Defence procedures have now been activated; the Civil Defence bunker at Parliament is in operation here in Wellington." Civil Defence has alerted all Urban Search and Rescue teams in Christchurch. The New Zealand Red Cross is also involved.
Australia has offered help, and immediately sent a search and rescue team of 70 from New South Wales on a RAAF C-130 Hercules. Foreign Affairs Minister Kevin Rudd also said a second team from South Australia will also be sent with more equipment. Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard has offered John Key any other help he may need.
The United States and Japan have also offered help.
Christchurch International Airport was only open for emergency air traffic, but has now been opened to all local and domestic flights. The earthquake has affected all air traffic in New Zealand. Air traffic control services by Airways New Zealand, the national Air Traffic Control organisation, have been disrupted.
Adolphe Dugléré
Adolphe Dugléré (born Bordeaux, June 3, 1805 - died Paris April 4, 1884) was a French chef and a pupil of Carême.
Dugléré was a "chef de cuisine" to the Rothschild family until 1848, and was manager at the restaurant "Les Frères Provençaux" at the Palais-Royal from 1848 to 1866 which was owned by three men from Provence named Barthélémy, Maneille and Simonas (who were, in reality, not brothers).
In 1866 he became the head chef of the which was the most famous Paris restaurant of the 19th century and where he is believed to have created the dish "Pommes Anna".
It was at the Café Anglais in 1867 that Dugléré served a famous meal that became known as the Dîner des trois empereurs, () for Tsar Alexander II of Russia, his son the tsarevitch (who later became Tsar Alexander III) and King William I of Prussia, as well as Prince Otto von Bismarck who were in Paris for "L'Exposition Universelle". The table service used for this meal is on display to this day at the oldest existing restaurant in Paris, "La Tour d'Argent" which is owned by the descendants of Claudius Burdel, the last owner of Café Anglais which was demolished in 1913.
The evening of 7 June 1867 is reputed to have been the most magnificent ever to have occurred in any restaurant in the world. The three emperors and Prince Bismarck had requested of Dugléré a meal that would live in their memories and the "maître de cave", Claudius Burdel, was instructed to accompany the dishes with the greatest wines in the world.
The most famous dish attributed to Dugléré is almost certainly "Pommes Anna". Other dishes created by Dugléré include "Potage Germiny", a sorrel soup created for the Count of Germiny, governor of the Bank of France, "Poularde Albufera", dedicated to Maréchal Suchet, Duke of Albufera, "Soufflé à l'anglaise", "Sole Dugléré" and "Culotte de bœuf Salomon", (dedicated to Salomon de Rothschild) and "Barbue à la Dugléré" (brill in tomato and parsley sauce).
He is also credited with inventing "Tournedos Rossini", but this dish has also been credited to both Escoffier as well as Carême (although not the title itself). It was composer Gioachino Rossini who dubbed Dugléré "Le Mozart de la cuisine" (The Mozart of the Kitchen). It was a title he used on the menu for the Dinner of the Three Emperors.
Sean Avery
Sean Christopher Avery (born April 10, 1980 in Pickering, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey left winger. He played 12 years in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played with the Detroit Red Wings, Los Angeles Kings, New York Rangers, and Dallas Stars. Avery was known for his agitating playing style, as well as his controversial behavior both on and off the ice.
He has also worked as an intern for Vogue, a male model and a restaurateur.
Avery has been featured on MTV Cribs, Punk'd and TRL and has also opened a sports bar called, Warren 77 in Manhattan.
Daniel Boone(1734 – 1820) was an American explorer and frontiersman. He is probably most famous for exploring Kentucky when it was not part of the U.S. In 1769 he made the Wilderness Road, a trail through the Appalachian Mountains from North Carolina and Tennessee and through Kentucky. He spent the last 20 years of his life in Missouri.
Boone was born on October 24 1734 (N.S.). Boone's grandfather, George Boone, a Quaker, immigrated from England in 1717. Daniel Boone was born in Berks County, Pennsylvania, the son of Squire Boone and Sarah Morgan. His father was a weaver while his mother ran the family farm. In addition to his chores on the farm, Boone learned to hunt, fish and trap. When he was 15 his family moved to the Yadkin Valley of North Carolina.
Boone was a part of an British expedition in 1755 into French territory. When the column was attacked by Indians allied to the French, the British commander, General Edward Braddock was mortally wounded and many of the soldiers were killed. This was the Battle of the Monongahela where then colonel George Washington rallied the British and the Virginia militia into an organized retreat. Boone, who was supervisor of the wagon train was one of those who retreated with Washington. He returned to North Carolina and settled on a farm near his father's. In 1756 he married Rebecca Bryan.
1757 saw several more British defeats but life on Boone's farm remained peaceful. In 1758 the British had several victories over the French. But at the same time their Cherokee allies were becoming tired of poor treatment by the British and the Americans. The French took advantage of this and encouraged the Cherokees to attack American homesteads. In 1759 the indians attacked in Virginia, North and South Carolina. To protect their families many settlers left their farms for safer areas. Boone took his wife, two young sons, and all the belongings they could carry in a single wagon to Culpeper County, Virginia. To make a living Boone hauled tobacco to market in Fredericksburg, Virginia. In 1763 Boone and his family returned to their farm in North Carolina.
Boone first heard of the lands of Kentucky while he was serving with General Braddock in 1755. The person he heard it from was John Findley, another member of the wagon train. Findley had been there as a trader at a Shawnee village called "Blue Lick". He talked about Kentucky as a paradise full of wild game. Boone decided he had to see Kentucky. On a long hunt in the winter of 1767–68 he, his brother Squire and a friend named William Hill moved westward trying to find Kentucky. They reached as far as the present site of Prestonsburg, Kentucky where they remained the rest of the winter. Not realizing they had reached Kentucky, they returned to North Carolina in the spring. Boone again met John Findley and asked him for the route from North Carolina to Kentucky. Findley was not a but did know of a trail the Cherokee used when they made war on the Carolina colonies. In the summer of 1769 Boone and five companions used the warrior's trail to get to Kentucky. They hunted and explored the area. Most of his friends were killed or captured by Indians, but Boone and his brother escaped every time. He made another attempt to reach eastern Kentucky in 1763 but had to turn back. In 1775 he founded the settlement of Boonesborough, Kentucky.
In 1778, Boone and a party were gathering salt when they were attacked. Boone was captured and taken to Detroit where the indians made him a member of their tribe. Boone soon escaped and returned to Boonesborough. In one of the last battles of the American Revolutionary War, Boone, a lieutenant colonel, was at the Battle of Blue Licks on 19 August 1782. The Americans were led into an ambush. Boone was one of the last to retreat. His son Israel Boone was killed in the battle. Boone was the hero of the battle, but other leaders had not listened to his warnings that it was a trap. Boone remained a leading figure in Kentucky for the next 24 years. Through a series of defective land titles and being cheated by land speculators, Boone lost all his lands in Kentucky. There were swarms of people coming into Kentucky and Boone felt crowded. Kentucky was no longer the wilderness it was when he first came there. Now he wanted to discover new lands. He was drawn to the wilds of what is now eastern Missouri.
In 1799, Boone moved with much of his extended family to what is now Warren County, Missouri. It was then part of Spanish Louisiana. The area later became part of Missouri. The Spanish were eager to promote settlement in the sparsely populated region and so they did not enforce the requirement for all immigrants to be Roman Catholic. The Spanish governor appointed Boone "syndic" (Justice of the peace) of the "Femme Osage" district. Boone served as syndic and commandant until 1804, when the area became part of the Louisiana Purchase. His land grants from the Spanish government had been largely based on verbal agreements, but the former lieutenant-governor, Zenon Trudeau, made the promise in writing and Boone's lands were confirmed. However, Boone had not made the necessary improvements under the law and so the lands were again taken away. About 1810 Boone sent a petition to Congress to restore his lands. It took them until 1814 to create a special bill which was signed by President James Monroe on 10 February 1814.
Boone spent his final years in Missouri, often in the company of children and grandchildren, where he continued to hunt and trap as much as his health and energy levels permitted. He died on 26 September 1820 just before sunrise. His body was taken to Charette, Louisiana territory (now Marthasville, Missouri) and buried next to his wife Rebecca.
In 1845, a group from Kentucky removed the bones of Daniel and Rebecca Boone from their cemetery in Missouri. They took them to Frankfort, Kentucky to be buried in a tomb there. Reverend Philip Fall made a plaster cast of the skull of the body they removed from Missouri. The plaster cast was then presented to the Kentucky State Historical Society. In 1862 the State of Kentucky created a monument over the grave in the Frankfurt cemetery.
A forensic anthropologist, Dr. David Wolf, examined the plaster cast and stated it was probably that of a black slave. Wolf said the cast made by Rev. Fall did not provide enough evidence to be certain, but several clues also point to the conclusion it may not be Daniel Boone. Wolf stated he does not believe the skull shape, slope of the brow, the brow ridges and occipital bone are caucasian. The body removed from Missouri was that of a "large and robust man". According to Boone's brother-in-law Daniel Bryan described Boone as about 5 foot 8 or 9 inches tall. Boone had blonde hair and blue eyes.
Several Missouri historians have stated before that the bones taken from the Missouri cemetery were actually those of a slave. When Boone died at 85, the gravediggers discovered an unmarked body had been buried next to Rebecca Boone (died 1813). The stranger was left in his grave and Daniel was buried at the foot of his wife's grave, but 16 years later, a gravestone was mistakenly placed over the stranger's grave. When the party from Kentucky took the bodies in 1845, it took the bodies of Rebecca and the stranger next to her wrongly marked as Daniel Boone. Both states claim to have the actual grave of Daniel Boone.
International Labour Organization
The International Labour Organization (ILO) is an international organization created in Geneva in 1919 for better for working conditions and standard of living. In 1946, this organization has become a special organization of the United Nations and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969.
Juan Somavía was the ILO's director-general from 1999 until October 2012, when Guy Ryder was elected as his replacement. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives, 14 workers' representatives, and 14 employers' representatives.
The constitution of the International Labour Organization affirms that "universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice." An additional declaration adopted in Philadelphia at the 26th section affirms that "Labour is not a commodity" (I (a)), "Freedom of expression and association are essential to sustained progress" (I (b)), "Poverty anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere" (I (c)), and that "All human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity". (II (a))
For this purpose, ILO has made 189 Conventions called "International Labour Convention" but many countries do not ratify the Conventions despite its importance.
James Graham Brown
James Graham Brown (August 18, 1881 — March 20, 1969) was an American businessman and philanthropist. He was a hotel owner in Louisville, Kentucky. It was his hotel, the Brown Hotel, which first served the hot sandwich.
The name Hot Brown meaning a type of hot sandwich comes either from Brown himself, or his hotel.
Social justice is an idea of justice that is based on equality in society. The idea of social justice goes against any kind of discrimination or abuse based on social class, social status or any other reasons.
This idea is discussed by modern philosophers such as John Rawls. It is a fundamental idea for International Labour Organization for universal and lasting peace; And Vienna Declaration also affirm social justice as a subject and a purpose of education for human rights.
Baker County, Oregon
Baker County, Oregon is a county in Oregon.
Bradford County
Bradford County is the name of two counties in the United States:
Bradford County, Florida
Bradford County is a county in Florida.
Bradford County, Pennsylvania
Bradford County is a county in Pennsylvania.
Calhoun County
Calhoun County, Florida
Melrose Place (1992 TV series)
Speciation is about how species form. It is a major part of evolutionary biology.
Darwin thought most species came directly from pre-existing species. This is called anagenesis: species by changing, or 'phyletic evolution'. For much of the 20th century, scientists thought most species came when earlier species split. This is called cladogenesis.
The general view was that most species splitting is caused or helped on its way by isolating mechanisms.
No doubt the physical separation of species which once lived together is a main factor. It is illustrated by so many examples, some of which are discussed below.
However, work in the last 20 years has shown some other causes. Analysing the DNA sequence of living things has shown that there is often some hybridisation between related species. That means genes have been transferred by these crosses. In turn, that means reproductive isolation is not the only definition of a species, and speciation does not always need allopatry (species to be reproductively separated). The sections below illustrate the idea that physical separation was of prime importance in the formation of new species.
Isolating mechanisms are things which prevent successful breeding between groups in a species. Reproductive isolation of populations is established. This is particularly important to the biological species concept, as species are defined by reproductive isolation.
Isolating mechanisms can be divided into two groups, before and after fertilisation.
Factors which prevent individuals from mating.
Factors which prevent mating being successful, such as genetic incompatibility, hybrid inviability or sterility.
This is thought to be the most comon cause of speciation. The first person to think of it was Moritz Wagner, a German explorer and natural historian.
Wagner's early career was as a geographer, and he published a number of geographical books about North Africa, the Middle East, and Tropical America. He was also a keen naturalist and collector, and it is for this work he is best known among biologists. Ernst Mayr, the evolutionist and historian of biology, has given an account of Wagner's significance.
During his three years in Algeria, Wagner (amongst other activities) studied the flightless beetles "Pimelia" and "Melasoma". Each genus is split into a number of species, each of which is confined to a stretch of the north coast between rivers which descend from the Atlas Mountains to the Mediterranean. As soon as one crosses a river, a different but closely related species appears.
This was an early description of a process of one kind of geographic speciation. In 1942 it was reintroduced by Mayr, and the importance of geographic speciation became one of the core ideas of the evolutionary synthesis.
Another term for geographic speciation is allopatric speciation. Allopatry means 'different land'.
Volcanic islands are formed with no life, and all life has to arrive carried by wind or water. We know from the Hawaiian islands and from the Galapagos Islands that all forms of life change when they reach the islands from the mainland.
Studies show a clear "flow" of species from older to newer islands. There are also cases of colonization back to older islands, and skipping of islands, but these are much less frequent.
By potassium/argon radioactive dating, the present islands date from 0.4 million years ago (mya) (Mauna Kea) to 10mya (Necker). The oldest member of the Hawaiian archipelago still above the sea is Kure Atoll, which can be dated to 30 mya.
The archipelago itself, produced by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot, has existed for far longer, at least into the Cretaceous. The Hawaiian islands plus former islands which are now beneath the sea make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain; and many of the underwater mountains are guyots.
In biology, a ring species is a connected series of neighboring populations, each of which can interbreed with next-door populations. The two ends of the chain overlap.
The two end populations in the series are too distantly related to interbreed. Such non-breeding-though-genetically-connected 'end' populations may co-exist in the same region, thus closing a 'ring'.
Ring species provide important evidence of evolution: they illustrate what happens over time as populations genetically diverge. Richard Dawkins observed that ring species "are only showing us in the spatial dimension something that must always happen in the time dimension".
However, it is difficult to find a simple, straightforward example.
This was the classic example of ring species. The range of these gulls nearly forms a ring around the North Pole (which is not normally flown over by gulls). The lesser black-backed gulls and herring gulls are sufficiently different that they do not normally hybridize; so, it was said, the group of gulls forms a continuum except where the two lineages meet in Europe. However, it is generally agreed that this is not quite correct, though the details are extremely complicated.
The "Ensatina" salamander is a ring species in the mountains around the Californian Central Valley. The complex forms a horseshoe shape around the mountains. Though interbreeding can happen between each of the 19 populations around the horseshoe, the "Ensatina eschscholtzii" subspecies on the western end of the horseshoe cannot interbreed with the "Ensatina klauberi" on the eastern end. It is an illustration of "nearly all stages in a speciation process" (Dobzhansky). Richard Highton argued that "Ensatina" is a case of multiple species and not a continuum of one species.
The "greenish warbler" ("Phylloscopus trochiloides") has a number of subspecies, of which "P. t . viridianus" is the most familiar in Europe. It is a ring species with populations diverging east and westwards of the Tibetan Plateau, later meeting on the northern side. Their relationships are fairly confusing.
Sympatric speciation refers to the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location. This is now thought to be very common.
In sympatric speciation, species diverge while inhabiting the same place. Often-cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different host plants in the same area.
The existence of sympatric speciation as a mechanism of speciation was hotly contested. People argued that the evidences of sympatric speciation are in fact examples of micro-geographic speciation. In general, this is not now the preferred explanation. Rather, it is the result of hybridisation between closely related species, followed by natural selection working on the offspring of such crosses. One widely accepted example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of Lake Nabugabo in East Africa, which is thought to be due to sexual selection.
Polyploidy has caused many rapid speciation events because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny.
However, not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids.
Many of the existing plant and most animal species have apparently undergone polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis. For unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid.
One example of evolution at work is the case of the hawthorn fly, "Rhagoletis pomonella", which appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation.
Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples.
Some evidence suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring. Hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4-6% hybridization rate).
The emergence of the new hawthorn fly is an example of evolution in progress.
Rarely, a new species forms when individual members of different species mate. Usually, the products of such hybrid matings are infertile (not fertile), or relatively so, and so get eliminated by natural selection.
One example of a new and successful hybrid species has been found. The new species is a hybrid of the Italian and Spanish sparrows, and the basic facts have been checked by sequence analysis from the DNA in their blood. The bird lives in Italy in a region where both parent species live. It does not reproduce with the Spanish sparrow even though it lives with them side-by-side.
New species have been created by domesticated animal husbandry, but the initial dates and methods are not clear. For example, domestic sheep were created by hybridisation, and no longer produce viable offspring with "Ovis orientalis", one species from which they are descended.
Domestic cattle, on the other hand, can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild ox, gaur, yak, etc., as they readily produce fertile offspring with them.
The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William Rice and G.W. Salt bred fruit flies, "Drosophila melanogaster," using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry.
Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described in Rice and Hostert (1993).
Diane Dodd was also able to show how reproductive isolation can develop from mating preferences in "Drosophila pseudoobscura" after only eight generations using different food types, starch and maltose.
Dodd's experiment has been easy for many others to replicate, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.
Reinforcement is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation.
It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species.
If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be no further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred (e.g., as in horses and donkeys.)
The reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own different environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, and would not fit either niche as well as either parent. The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favour assortative mating, which would reduce hybridization.
This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation.
If the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact.
Reinforcement is required for separation when there is a "hybrid zone" between two forms of a species. Hybrid zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are very common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into secondary contact.
Without reinforcement the two populations or species would have uncontrollable interbreeding. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described above.
Calhoun County, Alabama
Calhoun County is a county in the U.S. state of Alabama. As of 2010 the population was 118,572. It is included in the Anniston-Oxford Metropolitan Statistical Area. Its county seat is Anniston.
Benton County was formed on December 18, 1832. It was named for Thomas Hart Benton, a member of the United States Senate from Missouri. The first county seat was at Jacksonville.
An F4 tornado struck here on Palm Sunday March 27, 1994. It destroyed Piedmont's Goshen United Methodist Church twelve minutes after the National Weather Service of Birmingham issued a tornado warning for northern Calhoun, southeastern Etowah, and southern Cherokee.
According to the 2000 census, the county has a total area of . (or 99.37%) is land and (or 0.63%) is water.
Calhoun County is home to the Anniston Museum of Natural History and the Berman Museum of World History. It also contains a part of the Talladega National Forest.
Dallas (1978 TV series)
Dallas is an American soap opera. It is about the Ewings, a family from Texas involved in oil and cattle ranching. The show began as a television miniseries during April 1978. It was broadcasted until May 3, 1991 on CBS. The cast included Charlene Tilton, Victoria Principal, Priscilla Presley, Patrick Duffy, and Larry Hagman as J.R. Ewing. The series lasted for fourteen seasons.
The show was revived on TNT in June 2012.
Calhoun County, Arkansas
Calhoun County is a county in Arkansas.
Calhoun County, Georgia
Calhoun County is a county in Georgia. Its county seat is Morgan.
Calhoun County, Illinois
Calhoun County is a county in Illinois.
Elasmobranchii
Elasmobranchii is a subclass of the Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish. It includes the modern sharks and the rays and skates.
Fossilised shark teeth are known from the early Devonian, around 400 million years ago. During the following Carboniferous period, the sharks underwent a period of diversification, with many new forms evolving. Many of these became extinct during the Permian, but the remaining sharks underwent a second burst of adaptive radiation during the Jurassic, around which time the skates and rays first appeared.
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.
Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr. (November 19, 1915 – March 9, 1974) was an American pharmacologist and biochemist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1971 for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones. He was born in Burlingame, Kansas in 1915 and died in Miami, Florida, United States in 1974.
Persian Wikipedia
Persian Wikipedia is a member of Wikimedia Foundation. It started work in December 2003. founder of Persian version is Roozbeh Pour-Nader.
It is the 18th largest edition by article count. Persian Wikipedia has currently more than 500,000 articles.
Many of the first articles on the Persian Wikipedia were about chemical materials and historical subjects. The Wikipedia added geography and religious subjects soon after. On December 16, 2004, the Wikipedia reached 10,000 articles.
Edward B. Lewis
Edward B. Lewis (May 20, 1918 – July 21, 2004) was an American geneticist. He shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Lewis was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania He received a BA in Biostatistics from the University of Minnesota in 1939.
In 1942 Lewis received a PhD from California Institute of Technology (Caltech), working on "Drosophila melanogaster" under the guidance of Alfred Sturtevant.
After serving as a meteorologist in the U.S. Air Force in World War II, Lewis joined the Caltech faculty in 1946 as an instructor. In 1956 he was appointed Professor of Biology, and in 1966 the Thomas Hunt Morgan Professor of Biology.
His Nobel Prize winning studies with "Drosophila" founded the field of developmental genetics and laid the groundwork for our current understanding of the universal, evolutionarily conserved strategies controlling animal development.
His key publications in the fields of genetics, developmental biology, radiation and cancer are available in a book.
During the 1950s, Lewis studied the effects of radiation from X-rays, nuclear fallout and other sources as possible causes of cancer. He reviewed medical records from survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as well as radiologists and patients exposed to X-rays. Lewis concluded that "health risks from radiation had been underestimated". Lewis published articles in "Science" and other journals and made a presentation to a Congressional committee on atomic energy in 1957.
At the scientific level of the debate, the crucial question was whether the "threshold theory" was valid or whether, as Lewis insisted, the effects of radioactivity were "linear with no threshold", where every exposure to radiation had a long-term cumulative effect.
In a series of experiments with the fruit-fly "Drosophila", Lewis was able to identify a complex of genes whose proteins bind to the regulatory regions of target genes. The latter then activate or repress cell processes which direct the final development of the organism.
Furthermore, the sequence of these control genes show "co-linearity": the order of the loci in the chromosome parallels the order in which the loci are expressed in segments along the body. Not only that, but this cluster of master control genes programs the development of all higher organisms.
Each of the genes contains a homeobox, a remarkably conserved DNA sequence. This suggests the complex itself arose by gene duplication.
In his Nobel lecture, Lewis said "Ultimately, comparisons of the [control complexes] throughout the animal kingdom should provide a picture of how the organisms, as well as the [control genes] have evolved".
Christine Baranski
Christine Jane Baranski (b. 2 May 1952) is an American Actress, Singer and Producer. On stage, she played Mrs. Lovett in "Sweeney Todd" and the title character in "Mame". She has also acted in multiple movies. Baranski was born in Buffalo, New York.
Angela Burdett-Coutts
Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts (21 April 1814 – 30 December 1906), born Angela Georgina Burdett, was a noted nineteenth century philanthropist. She was the daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, 5th Baronet and Sophia Coutts, daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker. In 1837 she became the wealthiest woman in England when she inherited her grandfather's fortune of nearly three million pounds sterling. At the same time she got a Royal Licence (permission from the monarch) to join her father's and grandfather's surnames and become Angela Burdett-Coutts.
Lady Burdett-Coutts did not mary until she was 67. She married her 29-year-old secretary, the American born William Lehman Ashmead Bartlett, who later became MP for Westminster on 12 February, 1881. Her new husband changed his surname to Burdett-Coutts. Lady Burdett-Coutts had no children.
She gave away most of her wealth, setting up on scholarships, endowments, and giving to a wide range of charitable causes. One of her earliest was to establish, with the novelist Charles Dickens, Urania Cottage, a home that helped young women who had 'turned to a life of immorality'including theft and prostitution.
Among many gifts to churches, she also personally endowed the bishoprics of Cape Town, and Adelaide (1847), and the founding bishopric of British Columbia (1857). The money from these endowments was invested to help pay for the Bishop's expenses.
The granite fountain in Edinburgh, with a statue of Greyfriars Bobby, was erected by Baroness Burdett-Coutts.
Other roles and charitable projects included:
In 1871, in recognition of her charity work, Queen Victoria made her a peer on her own under the title Baroness Burdett-Coutts, of Highgate and Brookfield in the County of Middlesex., although as a woman she was not a member of the House of Lords. On 18 July 1872 she became the first woman to be presented with the Freedom of the City of London at the Guildhall and in 1874 was Edinburgh's first woman Burgess, also being presented with the Freedom of that city.
Lady Burdett-Coutts died of acute bronchitis at her house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly. By the time of her death she had given more than £3 million to good causes. She was buried on 5 January 1907 near the West Door in the nave of Westminster Abbey. The barony became extinct on her death.
Charles Dickens dedicated his novel "Martin Chuzzlewit" to her and she had many royal and eminent friends. The book "Flashman's Lady" by George MacDonald Fraser makes reference to Angela Burdett-Coutts (fictional) love interest for James Brooke (The White Rajah); and his rejection of her due to his physical affliction.
General Secretary
General Secretary is a title most often used in political parties, and is usually the leader of the party. The General Secretary (sometimes called First Secretary or Secretary-General) is usually the leader of the Secretariat and the Politburo.
On April 3, 1922, Joseph Stalin became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and had the job of deciding who was a member of the party and where they went. Vladimir Lenin was "de facto" leader at the time. Once Lenin died, Stalin used his power to give allies jobs in the party to become more powerful than everybody else.
Sid Caesar
Sid Caesar (Isaac Sidney Caesar; September 8, 1922 – February 12, 2014) was an American comedian and actor. Caesar stared in "Your Show of Shows" from 1950 until 1954 and in "Grease" as Coach Calhoun. Before becoming a comedian, Caesar was a musician. He won two Emmy Awards during his career.
Caesar was born on September 8, 1922 in Yonkers, New York. He was of Polish-Russian-Jewish descent. Caesar was married to Florence Levy from 1943 until her death in 2010. They had three children.
Caesar died on the morning of February 12, 2014 in Beverly Hills, California from natural causes, aged 91.
The swallows and martins are a group of passerine birds in the family Hirundinidae. These birds are adapted to aerial feeding. "Swallow" is used colloquially in Europe as a synonym for the barn swallow.
Within the swallow, the name "martin" tends to be used for the squarer-tailed species, and the name "swallow" for the more fork-tailed species. However, there is no scientific distinction between these two groups. The family contains around 83 species in 19 genera.
Clara Ann Fowler, better known as Patti Page, (November 8, 1927 - January 1, 2013) was an American singer. She is one of the best known female singers of traditional pop. She was the best selling female artist in the 1950s. She will win an honorary Grammy Award in 2013.
Page was born in Claremore, Oklahoma. Page died on January 1, 2013 in Encinitas, California from natural causes, aged 85.
Oregon State University
Oregon State University is a four-year university in Corvallis, Oregon in the United States. It is the largest university in Oregon, and as of February 2011, has over 23,000 students. The university has classes for both graduate and undergraduate students, and also offers classes online.
Oregon State's athletic teams are known as the Beavers. Its baseball team won the College World Series in 2006 and 2007.
Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone
Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (Alice Mary Victoria Augusta Pauline; née Princess Alice of Albany; 25 February 1883 – 3 January 1981) was a member of the British Royal Family. She was the longest-lived Princess of the Blood Royal of the British Royal Family and the last surviving grandchild of Queen Victoria. She also was a Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and a "Duchess in Saxony" from birth, as well as a Princess of Teck by marriage, until 1917 when she was ordered to give up all German titles by the Letters Patent of George V. She was godmother to Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, who was the granddaughter of her first cousin, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. Princess Alice was the last grandchild of Queen Victoria to die, in January 1981, almost 115 years after the death of Prince Sigismund of Prussia, the first grandchild of Queen Victoria to die. (He died in June 1866.)
Princess Alice was born 25 February 1883 at Windsor Castle. Her father was Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, the youngest son of Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort. Her mother was Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont. She had one brother, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany (1884–1954) who was reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1900–1918). As the granddaughter of the Sovereign through the male line, she was a Princess of the United Kingdom and a Royal Highness. As the daughter of the Duke of Albany, she was, therefore, styled "Her Royal Highness" Princess Alice of Albany.
On 10 February 1904, at St George's Chapel, Windsor, Princess Alice of Albany married her second cousin once-removed, Prince Alexander of Teck, the brother of Queen Mary. After their marriage, Princess Alice was styled HRH Princess Alexander of Teck.
Prince and Princess Alexander of Teck had three children:
Princess Alice was one of the carriers of the gene for haemophilia which arose with Queen Victoria. Princess Alice inherited the gene from her father who himself was a sufferer. Her eldest son, Rupert, inherited the disease from her; this led to his early death following an automobile accident.