AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Throughout history, there have been many accounts of people experiencing symptoms of what is now called PTSD. One such account describes Samuel Pepys, who witnessed the Great Fire of London in 1666. "Six months after the event, he wrote in his diary that he was unable to sleep at night, because a great fear of fire took him; one night he was unable to fall asleep before two in the morning, because of that fear."
Between 50% and 90% of people in the United States will experience a trauma at least once in their life. However, not everyone who experiences a trauma will develop PTSD. In the US, the prevalence of PTSD - the percentage of people who have the condition - is about 8%.
PTSD is more common among specific groups of people who are more likely to experience a trauma. These groups include physicians, firefighters, soldiers and people working in emergency medical services. Among these people, the prevalence of PTSD is much higher, reaching over 50%.
For PTSD to be diagnosed officially, a person has to meet specific criteria, or requirements, and show specific symptoms. These requirements are listed in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV-TR" (usually called the DSM-IV-TR). Written by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the DSM-IV-TR (DSM, 4th Edition, Text Revision) lists all of the mental health conditions that are recognized by the APA, and sets out the official requirements that have to be met for each condition to be diagnosed.
According to the DSM-IV-TR, for PTSD to be diagnosed, a person has to meet the following requirements:
(A) Traumatic Exposure: The person has experienced a traumatic event. (Common traumatic events include being raped or sexually abused; being attacked or badly hurt; having a loved one die or be hurt; being a victim of a crime; and experiencing war or terrorism.) The traumatic event caused the person to be physically hurt or violated, or it put the person or others around them in danger of being hurt or killed. During the traumatic event, the person felt very scared, horrified, or helpless.
(B) Re-experiencing: Even after the trauma has ended, the person continues to re-experience the trauma in some way. For example, the person might have nightmares, or flashbacks (strong memories of the trauma, which are so vivid and intense that the person feels like they are experiencing the trauma all over again). The person might also have a strong physical or emotional reaction when something happens which reminds them of the trauma.
(C) Avoidance/Numbing: The person keeps trying to avoid things which remind them of the trauma, or things which bring up upsetting feelings about what happened. They might also forget parts of what happened to them, or might feel numb emotionally (have trouble feeling emotions as strongly as usual).
(D) Increased Arousal: The person's body shows signs of being on high alert, like it is always under attack. They might be jumpy, or have trouble with sleeping, concentrating, or feeling angry.
(E) The person's symptoms have lasted for at least a month. (If the person's symptoms have lasted for less than a month, Acute Stress Disorder is usually diagnosed instead of PTSD).
(F) The person's symptoms causes them to have trouble at work, in his relationships, or in some other important area of their life.
Some experts have written that fabricated posttraumatic stress disorder should be considered when a patient's symptoms are suspicious or unusual. These experts (specifically, the "American Psychiatric Association" DSM IV manual; expert witnesses such as Eli S. Chesen, M.D.; and the textbook "Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry," by Freedman & Kaplan) have suggested that it should raise a "red flag" if a patient claims to be suffering from both PTSD and a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) as a result of the same accident. They suggest that TBI - a physical injury to the brain - causes amnesia, or memory loss, for the event that caused the brain injury. Without memory of the traumatic event, they reason, a patient probably could not experience certain symptoms of PTSD, like nightmares or flashbacks about the event, because they do not remember what happened. They conclude that in typical cases, Traumatic Brain Injury "trumps" the diagnosis of PTSD.
Hugo de Vries
Hugo Marie de Vries (Haarlem, 16 February 1848 – Lunteren, 21 May 1935) was a Dutch botanist and one of the first geneticists. He suggested the concept of genes, rediscovered Gregor Mendel's laws of heredity, and introduced the term "mutation". He developed a mistaken mutation theory of evolution, mainly due to the peculiarities of his favourite organism, the Evening Primrose ("Oenothera lamarckiana").
Carl Correns also – independently – rediscovered Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Erich von Tschermak's status as a third rediscoverer is now less convincing.
Carl Correns
Carl Erich Correns (10 September 1864 – 14 February 1933) was a German botanist and geneticist. His research into heredity led to his rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's earlier work.
Hugo de Vries also – independently – rediscovered Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Erich von Tschermak's status as a third rediscoverer is now less convincing.
Correns grew hybrids of peas, and of maize, and reached the same interpretation as Mendel, in 1899.
The occurrence of cases in which the heterozygote is intermediate (the absence of dominance) was added in a footnote to his 1900 paper. That dominance was not always present had been seen and understood by Mendel, according to his letters to Nägeli. By a quirk of history Correns was a student of Nägeli, a renowned botanist with whom Mendel corresponded about his work with peas. Nägeli failed to understand how significant Mendel's work was.
In 1913 Correns became the first director of the newly founded Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology in Berlin-Dahlem.
Correns produced the first evidence of cytoplasmic inheritance, in his 1909 paper on variegated leaf colour in "Mirabilis jalapa". The basis of this inheritance is that chloroplasts, the organelles which conduct photosynthesis, are inherited solely from the maternal parent.
Erich von Tschermak
Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg (15 November 1871 – October 11 1962) was an Austrian botanist.
Von Tschermak is one of three men – the others were Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns – who were credited with independently rediscovering Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Von Tschermak published his findings in June 1900.
By a quirk of history, Correns had been a student of Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli. Nageli was a renowned botanist with whom Mendel corresponded about his work with peas, but who failed to understand how significant Mendel's work was. Von Tschermak was a grandson of a man who taught Mendel botany during his student days in Vienna.
Though von Tschermak was originally also credited with the rediscovery, this is no longer generally accepted, because he did not understand Mendel's laws.
Woodward's wallaroo
Woodward's wallaroo ("Macropus bernardus"), also called the black wallaroo and Bernard's wallaroo, is the smallest of the wallaroos. The male is black or dark brown and the female is a grey colour. It is a shy nocturnal grazer and does not live in big groups. It uses the rocky cliffs where it lives to shelter and hide from danger.
It is only found in a small, mountainous area in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, between South Alligator River and Nabarlek. It classified as near threatened, because it is only found in this small area. The name wallaroo means a "rock kangaroo."
Alex Rodriguez
Alexander Emmanuel Rodriguez (born July 27, 1975 in New York City, New York). In the past, he played as shortstop for the Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers.
He is currently first in runs scored and total bases; second in extra base hits and RBI, and 4th in hits among all players in baseball history since their 31st birthday. Also, Rodriguez has more HR, RBI, runs scored and more base hits than all-time leaders Hank Aaron (RBI), Barry Bonds (HR), Rickey Henderson (runs scored), and Pete Rose (hits) did before their 31st birthdays. He is the youngest player ever to hit 500 home runs, breaking the record Jimmie Foxx set in 1939.
He has been said to be one of the best all-around players currently in baseball.
In 2009, he admitted to using steroids from 2001-2003, during his time with the Texas Rangers, in order to become better at baseball.
His playing career ended in August of 2016.
Alex shortened version of the male name Alexander or the female version Alexandria. Both names mean "protector of men" or "defender of men".
Tomatina
La Tomatina is a festival held on the last Wednesday of August each year in the town of Buñol in the Valencia region of Spain. Many people come from all over the world to throw one hundred tons of over-ripe tomatoes in the streets.
Wallaroo
A wallaroo is an Australian macropod with its size between the big kangaroos and the small wallabies. The name "wallaroo" is a mix of wallaby and kangaroo. Most wallaroos are smaller than a kangaroo, and live in open, rocky country. Wallaroo means "rock kangaroo". There are three types of wallaroo. They all stand the same way: wrists raised, elbows close into the body, and shoulders back, and all have a large, black nose.
The eastern wallaroo, "Macropus robustus", sometimes called the, common wallaroo or just wallaroo lives on the sides of the Great Dividing Range (which runs for more than 3,000 km along the eastern and south-eastern coast of Australia). There are four subspecies of Eastern Wallaroo:
Woodward's wallaroo or black wallaroo, "Macropus bernardus", lives in steep, rocky ground in Arnhem Land. Between 60 to 70 cm in length (without tail) it is the smallest wallaroo and the most heavily built. Males weigh 19 to 22 kg, females about 13 kg.
The antilopine wallaroo, "Macropus antilopinus", also called the antilopine kangaroo, is different to other wallaroos. It is, more like the eastern and western grey kangaroos. It lives in groups on the grassy plains and woodlands, where the other wallaroos live by themselves.
Zoe could mean:
ZOE may stand for:
Zoe (name)
Zoë (and other such names) is a female name which came from ancient Greece and means "life" in Greek.
Some uses of the name are:
Rick Warren
Richard Duane "Rick" Warren (born January 28, 1954) is both founder and pastor of the evangelical Baptist Saddleback Church in Southern California. It is the largest church in California. He is also the best-selling author of many Christian books, such as "The Purpose Driven Life". He is also an influential evangelical leader.
Warren was born in San Jose, California.
Antilopine kangaroo
The antilopine kangaroo ("Macropus antilopinus"), also called the antilopine wallaroo or the antilopine wallaby, is a large macropod that lives only in the tropical areas of northern Australia. They live in Cape York Peninsula in north Queensland, the "Top End" of the Northern Territory, and the Kimberley region of Western Australia. They live in groups feeding on the open grass lands. Antilopine kangaroos are often in groups of all males, or all females.
The male is a red colour and females are grey. The males can get as big as 70 kg, but the females are usually around 30 kg. It is slightly smaller than the red kangaroo ("Macropus rufus") and the eastern grey kangaroo ("Macropus giganteus"). Babies are born in the summer (February-March), and leave the mother's pouch in Novemember, at the start of the wet season
Climate change could mean that this kangaroo could become extinct in the future.
Synchronization is the co-ordination of a set of events into a system that works according to time. For example, a conductor of an orchestra serves to keep the orchestra "in time", or "synchronized". Systems that operate with all their parts in synchrony are said to be "synchronous" or "in sync".
In synchronization, time and order are important. It is used in many everyday systems, including those in transport, computer science, music, multimedia and telecommunication.
Today, synchronization can be done across the world due to digital signals and GPS-enabled time-keeping systems.
Peptide
Peptides are organic chemical molecules. They are polymers made from linking amino acids together in a certain order. The link between one amino acid residue and the next is known as an amide bond or a peptide bond.
Linking peptides together gives proteins, which are also known as "Polypeptides".
Cubic foot
A cubic foot is a measure of volume. It is the amount of liquid that can be fit into a box 1 foot deep, one foot wide, and one foot in length. A cubic foot can be written ft. It is used in the United States, and partially in Canada, and the United Kingdom.
Webmin is a web-based system configuration tool for OpenSolaris, Linux and other Unix-like systems. It can configure many operating system internals, such as users, disk quotas, services, configuration files, as well as modify and control many opensource applications, such as the Apache HTTP Server, PHP and MySQL.
Webmin is largely based on Perl, running as its own process and web server. It defaults to TCP port 10000 for communicating, and can be configured to use SSL if OpenSSL is installed with extra required Perl Modules.
A family tree is a chart showing family relationships in a tree structure form. The more detailed family trees used in medicine, genealogy, and social work are known as genograms.
As normally showed, a family tree "grows" down from the top, from the oldest generations at the top to the newer generations at the bottom. A tree showing the descendants of an individual (illustration right) will more closely look like a tree in shape; one showing the ancestors of an individual (illustration below in "The Family Tree of Sigmund") will be wider at the top than the bottom. When looking at the closer to the bottom of the tree, it will show more recent generations, and when looking farther up, there will be older generations.
the oldest family members go on the right maybe the left.
Survival of the fittest is a famous phrase of Herbert Spencer which describes the idea that, in nature, there is competition to survive and reproduce. It is a metaphor, as are the phrases "struggle for existence", and "natural selection", both of which were used by Charles Darwin. Scientists often use such metaphors as shorthand for key ideas. These metaphors stick in the mind, but they need to be properly understood, or they may be used wrongly.
Herbert Spencer was a British social philosopher who applied his personal conception of evolution to many other fields, from the origin of the solar system to economics. He first used the term in his book "Principles of Biology", published in 1864. In that book (vol 1 p444) he wrote: "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called ‘natural selection’, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life".
Spencer later published a book called "The Man versus the State". There, he used the phrase to explain why societies of a militant type would not adopt his theories. The way he uses the term suggests he is talking about a general principle.
Thus by survival of the fittest, the militant type of society becomes characterized by profound confidence in the governing power, joined with a loyalty causing submission to it in all matters whatever.
In the first four editions of "On the Origin of Species", Darwin used only the phrase "natural selection". It was his way of making an analogy with artificial selection (selective breeding), a practice which was well understood in England at that time.
Spencer's "Principles of Biology" was the first to use the phrase "survival of the fittest" in print. Darwin agreed that the phrase "survival of the fittest" was better than "natural selection". Natural selection personified nature, but was really about survival. "Survival of the fittest" would avoid this problem, but it "lost the analogy between nature's selection and the fanciers" (breeders). The phrase was first used by Darwin in the 5th edition of "The Origin" published in 1869, in which Chapter 4 describes "Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest".
In the introduction to the 5th edition Darwin gave full credit to Spencer, writing "I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient".
The co-discoverer of natural selection, Alfred Russel Wallace, also used the terms "survival of the fittest" and "struggle for existence". He rather preferred the last two terms to natural selection. Since both these evolutionists used them, the three metaphors were obviously useful in getting over what were, at the time, unfamiliar ideas.
The phrase "survival of the fittest" is shorthand for the fact that not all members of a species will contribute equally to the next generation. It is not a value judgement, but a concept of evolution equivalent to natural selection. Fitness is now used in a highly technical sense in population genetics, which should not be confused with its use in everyday language.
Today, the phrase "survival of the fittest" is widely used in popular literature for many topics, not just those related to biology. It has widely been used both by people who are in favour of Social Darwinism and those who are against it. It has also been used to talk about competition of all kinds. Popular literature often uses the phrase as a catchphrase. All such extensions of a metaphor need to be watched carefully. They may preserve the original meaning, or they may not.
Social responses to the idea of evolution
Evolution was an idea debated before Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species". In very broad terms, this idea says that species change over time. Even today, some people still talk about the concept of evolution and what it means to them, to their philosophy and their religion. Sometimes these people also talk about the social implications of evolution. This debate is mostly about the meaning of evolution to human life, or about human nature, not about how evolution works.
Some people believe in "guided evolution" or "theistic evolution". They say that evolution is real, but it is being guided it some way.
There are many different concepts of "theistic evolution". Many creationists believe that the creation myth found in their religion goes against the idea of evolution. As Darwin found out early on, the most controversial part of the evolutionary thought is its implications for human origins.
In some countries, especially in the United States, there is tension between people who accept the idea of evolution and those who reject it. The debate is mostly about if the ideas in evolution should be taught in schools, and in what way.
Other fields, like cosmology and earth science also do not match with the original writings of many religious texts. These ideas were once also fiercely opposed. Death for heresy was threatened to those who wrote against the idea that the Earth was the centre of the universe. Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition for teaching that the Earth moved around the Sun (and other ideas).
Evolutionary biology is opposed much more from religious believers than other groups or organizations.
The Roman Catholic Church now has a neutral position with regards to evolution. Pope Pius XII stated in his encyclical "Humani Generis" published in the 1950s:
In the Bible, for instance, after Noah's Ark landed, there is a passage that describes how Noah got drunk while naked and Ham laughed at him. Noah cursed Ham, which somehow became part of a justification for racism and slavery.
Later, people also tried to use evolution to support racism. Evolution itself is not about racism. However, people wanting to justify racism claimed that black people were inferior. They said that because evolution shows that, in nature, "better" animals tend to survive, leading to evolution of improved animals, they had the right to oppress the "weaker". They believed they were clearly "better", but that would need evidence. There is no agreed evidence that any race of humans is better than any other race.
The idea to improve the human species by selective breeding is called eugenics. The name was proposed by Francis Galton, a bright scientist who meant to do good. Today, Galton is remembered for many things he did in statistics and psychology. He was the first to use regression analysis to see how different things that depend on one another influence one another. He used fingerprints in forensic science. He is seen as the father of experimental psychology, together with Wilhelm Wundt. He developed the bean machine to show probability distributions, among other things.
Galton's ideas were meant to do good. He said that the human gene pool should be improved by selective breeding policies. This would mean that those who were considered "good stock" would receive a reward if they reproduced. However, other people added to this, and said those considered "bad stock" would need to undergo compulsory sterilization, prenatal testing and birth control; and they might even have to be killed.
The problem with Galton's idea is how to decide which features to select. There's so many different skills people could have, you could not agree who was "good stock" and who was "bad stock". There was rather more agreement on who should "not" be breeding. Several countries passed laws for the compulsory sterilisation of unwelcome groups. Most of these laws were passed during between 1900 and 1940. After World War II, disgust at what the Nazis had done lowered public support for forced eugenics.
Another example of using wrong ideas about evolution to support bad things is "Social Darwinism". Social Darwinism is a term given to the ideas of the 19th century British social philosopher Herbert Spencer. Spencer had ideas about "survival of the fittest", which he applied to commerce and human societies as a whole.
Other people used these ideas to claim that social differences, racism, and imperialism were justified. Today, most scientists and philosophers say that the theory of evolution should not be used to support such ideas. They also say that it is difficult to find data that can support them.
Certain people oppose the idea of evolution. They disagree with it for a number of reasons. Most often these reasons are influenced by their religious beliefs. Their beliefs are usually called creationism or intelligent design.
Despite this, evolution is one of the most successful theories in science. People have found it to be useful for different kinds of research. None of the other proposals explain things, such as fossil records, as well. So, for almost all scientists, evolution is not in doubt.
Palembang
Palembang is a city of 1,286,000 people in the south of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is the capital of the province of South Sumatra.
The city was the capital of the old, Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya that included a large part of Malaysia and Indonesia. After a 1025 raid by the Chola Empire of southern India it became less imortant. Srivijaya's capital moved north to Jambi. Palembang is also the home of Parameswara, the ruler of Malacca (a state in Malaysia) who started the most important empire in Malaysian history.
The Battle of Palembang was fought near the city during the Second World War between February 13-February 15 1942. Japanese forces captured the airport and nearby oil refinery after a short but bloody battle.
Palembang's economy has grown after it became a venue for National Sporting Event in 2004. . Palembang was also one of hosts of the 2007 AFC Asian Cup.
The city is served by Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Airport which has many flights to many cities in Indonesia and also to Singapore and Malaysia.
This city is famous in Indonesia for its "Pempek" fish cakes.
Social darwinism
Social darwinism is a term used for different movements. Charles Darwin was one of the main proponents of evolution. Evolution is a concept from biology that tries to explain how different life-forms change over time. It basically says that because most children are not exactly like their parents, there is change. Some of the children will have different features (or traits). These features will mean that some children are better adapted to the place where they live. They will therefore be better able to have offspring. Some of the offspring might also have the trait of their parents.
Social darwinism theories try to use these ideas from biology for human society. They talk about a "Struggle for survival" of human societies. During the era of Nazi ideologies, the idea of Survival of the fittest combined with racism. They claimed the Aryan race was better than all the other races and therefore needed more space to live. This space was to be provided in the east (where mostly Slavs lived).
Today, this is seen as badly named. Most of the ideas for the theories are from Lamarckism and not from the theory of evolution, proposed by Charles Darwin.
Although Darwin's idea was revered in most of the western societies, many Russian intellectuals did not accept his ideas. They feared that accepting Darwin's ideas would harm their morality. One of Darwin's biggest critic was Leo Tolstoy, who felt strongly against what he thought was Darwin's idea. In a letter from his death bed, he warned his children not to take Darwin's struggle for existence as a moral guide. Darwin never suggested his ideas were a basis for human life, just a description of what had happened in evolution.
Beccles
Beccles is a small market town in Suffolk, England, around the area of The Broads. The town had a population of about 9, 850 people around 2005. Beccles has a suburb called Worlingham which has a combined population of about 13,580. Beccles is twinned with Petit-Couronne in France.
Beccles was once a flourishing Saxon riverport, but today it is in the Waveney valley. There is a popular boating centre. The town was granted its Charter in 1584 by Queen Elizabeth I.
The Peck family was associated with Beccles for a long time. The Puritan Peck was eventually forced to leave, and went to Hingham, Massachusetts, founded by many members of his parish, where he lived for several years, until King Charles I had been executed and Oliver Cromwell was in charge of government. At that time, Robert Peck decided to return to Hingham, Norfolk, and continued his pastorship of St. Andrews Church. He died in Hingham but he left descendants in America, as well as his brother Joseph Peck, who settled in Rehoboth, Massachusetts.
Lamarckism (also called Lamarckian evolution) is a hypothesis regarding evolution. Evolution tries to explain how species change over time. Today, the only widely accepted theory of evolution is that developed from the ideas of Charles Darwin.
Lamarckism was developed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck. He based his ideas, to some extent, on those of Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin. Lamarckism says that individuals do not only pass on the things they received from their parents, but also some things they experienced during their lifetime. As an example, he cited giraffes. Giraffes, which have long necks, must have evolved from ancestors with much shorter necks. His idea was that adults needed to stretch their neck to reach leaves from high branches. Therefore, he thought, the children inherited longer necks. This idea is called "the inheritance of acquired characteristics".
Although Darwin did not entirely break with these ideas, his characteristic idea of natural selection relates to the individuals's relative survival and success in reproduction. Better adapted forms leave, on average, more offspring. This changes the proportion of alleles in the population.
Gregor Mendel discovered some basic rules of heredity. These rules of Mendelian inheritance contradict Lamarck's hypotheses entirely, but are consistent with natural selection. This explains why Lamarck's ideas are no longer regarded as a sound explanation of evolution. Where Lamarck and Darwin do agree is that evolution did take place.
The identification of "Lamarckism" with the inheritance of acquired characteristics alone is regarded by some as an over-simplification, rehashed in textbooks repeatedly. Stephen Jay Gould wrote that late 19th century evolutionists "re-read Lamarck, cast aside the guts of it... and elevated one aspect of the mechanics – inheritance of acquired characters – to a central focus it never had for Lamarck himself". He argued that "the restriction of Lamarckism to this relatively small and non-distinctive corner of Lamarck's thought must be labelled as more than a misnomer, and truly a discredit to the memory of a man and his much more comprehensive system". Gould advocated defining "Lamarckism" more broadly, in line with Lamarck's overall evolutionary theory.
However, as scientist historians such as Michael Ghiselin and Stephen Jay Gould have pointed out, none of these views were original to Lamarck. On the contrary, Lamarck's contribution was a systematic theoretical framework for understanding evolution. He saw evolution as comprising two processes;
In essence, a change in the environment brings about a change in needs ("besoins"), resulting in a change in behavior, bringing change in organ usage and development, bringing change in form over time — and thus the gradual transmutation (change) of the species.
The modern point of view is that neither of his two 'forces' exists; Lamarck can be credited with the first fully worked-out account of evolution. However, his ideas of how it came about are entirely mistaken.
Darwinism is a term used to talk about ideas connected to those Charles Darwin had about evolution. The meaning of 'Darwinism' has changed over time, and depends on who uses the term.
The term was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in April 1860. He used it to describe evolutionary concepts, including similar ideas such as Malthusianism and Spencerism. In the late 19th century it came to mean the concept that natural selection was the only mechanism of evolution, in contrast to Lamarckism. Around 1900, Gregor Mendel's work was rediscovered. Today, Darwin and Mendel's ideas have been brought together. The term 'Darwinism' has become associated with the modern evolutionary synthesis.
Istria (Croatian, Slovene: "Istra", Italian: "Istria"), formerly Histria (Latin), is the biggest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea.
Source: Croatian Census - 2001. Slovenian Census - 2002. Italian Census - 1970/2001
Prenatal diagnosis
Prenatal testing or Prenatal diagnosis are tests done on pregnant women. They are used to test fetuses for birth defects and some genetic disorders.
Prenatal tests can be non-invasive or invasive. Non-invasive tests include things like utrasounds. In invasive tests, a needle is inserted - for example, to get a sample of fluid from the placenta).
Prenatal tests can check for many conditions, like:
In some cases, the tests are administered to determine if the parents want to abort the fetus.
In some cases, fetal screening has been done to identify things that are not birth defects. For example, in some parts of the world, if an ultrasound shows that a fetus is female, it is sometimes aborted. The rise of designer babies raises a number of ethical and legal issues.
Compulsory sterilization
Compulsory sterilization is a term used for laws that force certain groups of people to be sterilized so that they can no longer make babies. International Criminal Court considers compulsory sterilization for a "crime against humanity". Transgender persons are often obliged to undergo sterilization for legal rocognition of legal status depite the Principle 3 of the Yogyakarta Principles.
Such laws were mainly introduced because of Eugenic views of the start of the 20th century. Today, most compulsory sterilizations are done to mentally ill people who are not able to handle a pregnancy on their own. In China, compulsory sterilization is part of family planning.
List of Italian place names in Dalmatia
Malthusianism is a set of ideas developed by Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus. Malthus was an economist who lived during the industrial revolution.
In 1798, Mathus published a book, called "An Essay on the Principle of Population". In it, he describes the Malthusian growth model. He wrote that the growth of the population is exponential. The growth of the food supply however is only arithmetical. This means if there are no limits to the growth of the population, that it will not be possible to produce food for all of them. This is known as Malthusian catastrophe. Malthus wrote during the time of the Manchester School of thought.
The Tory party had paternalistic ideas such as charity for the poor. Malthus said this would not work, and it would only lead to increased numbers of the poor. The theory was developed into Whig economic ideas such as The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. Its opponents described the act as "a Malthusian bill designed to force the poor to emigrate, to work for lower wages, to live on a coarser sort of food". The act brought the construction of workhouses despite riots and arson.
By that time the ideas were widespread in progressive social circles. One supporter was the novelist Harriet Martineau whose circle of acquaintances included Charles Darwin. The ideas of Malthus were a significant influence on the inception of Darwin's theory.
According to Dr. Dan Ritschel of the Center for History Education at the University of Maryland, The great Malthusian dread was that "indiscriminate charity" would lead to exponential growth in the population in poverty, increased charges to the public purse to support this growing army of the dependent, and, eventually, the catastrophe of national bankruptcy. Though Malthusianism has since come to be identified with the issue of general over-population, the original Malthusian concern was more specifically with the fear of over-population by the dependent poor!
One of the earliest critics of Malthusian theory was Karl Marx who referred (in "Capital", see Marx's footnote on Malthus from Capital - a reference below) to it as "nothing more than a schoolboyish, superficial plagiary of De Foe, Sir James Steuart, Townsend, Franklin, Wallace" and others, postulating that progress in science and technology would allow for indefinite exponential population growth.
Many people today still believe that Mathus was right about human population growth getting out of hand.
Gregory James "Greg" LeMond (born June 26, 1961 in Lakewood, California) is an American road racing cyclist who raced as a professional from 1981 to 1994.
He became the first American to win the Tour de France in 1986. In 1987 he was injured in a shooting accident, and could not race again until 1989, when he won the Tour de France again. He beat the French cyclist Laurent Fignon in an individual time trial using aero bars, which made him more aerodynamic (able to move through air easily). He won the Tour de France again in 1990. He now runs a bicycle company, and works to help people who are victims of sexual abuse. He has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
"First year as a professional."
Sir Francis Galton FRS (Birmingham, 16 February 1822 – Surrey, 17 January 1911), half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English scientist. His main field of work was human biology and inheritance of mental characteristics.
Galton was a polymath: an anthropologist, a eugenicist, a tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909.
Galton produced over 340 papers and books in his lifetime. He created the statistical concepts of normal distribution, correlation and regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence.
He was the first person to do twin studies. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.
He also introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on human communities. He needed such data for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the very term itself and the phrase "nature versus nurture". As an investigator of the human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology.
Galton created a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science. As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena on a European scale. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability.
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, and a prominent liberal political and social theorist of the Victorian era.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution. He saw evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.
Spencer never married; he remained a bachelor. He contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.
Like Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, he read Malthus' "Essay on the principle of population", and was deeply impressed by its argument. Malthus said that sooner or later population growth gets checked by famine and disease, and there are then many deaths. So, he was prepared for Darwin's idea of natural selection, which he preferred to call "survival of the fittest". He did this in "Principles of Biology" (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species".
Spencer's term does strongly suggest natural selection, yet as he extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, Spencer made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection, so it seems he was not a Darwinian after all. Others took up his social ideas, and drew the conclusion that it was useless to try and help the poor, and that competition without limits was the way society should go. Darwin himself did not accept these ideas, but they were quite widespread in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century.
National sport
A national sport is a sport or game that was invented and firstly played by citizens of the same country or nation. It also means the game or sport has a long history of popularity in the country or nation.
Each country has its own national sport.
Coevolution is where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of one or more other species. Species whose lives connect, evolve together. What happens is that survival rates in each species changes as a result of changes in the other species.
Examples of coevolution are:
Coevolution is extremely common, and may involve more than two species. Mimicry rings, with dozens of species, are known.
New or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of related features in the other species.
The study of coevolution dates back to Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". There he discussed how cats increased heather by reducing mice. The point being that mice raid bumblebee nests and bumblebees pollinate red heather. So more cats cause more heather. In the last paragraph of the Origin Darwin remarks:
Hermann Müller was an important worker on co-evolution. His studies on bees and the evolution of flowers were quoted by Darwin in "The Descent of Man". His papers in the journal "Nature" had heading "On the fertilisation of flowers by insects and on the reciprocal adaptations of both". This shows Müller fully understood the concept of coevolution.
The life and death of living things is intimately connected, not just with the physical environment, but with the life of other species. These relationships are dynamic, and may continue for millions of years, as has the relationship between flowering plants and insects (pollination).<br>The gut contents, wing structures, and mouthparts of fossilized beetles and flies suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between beetles and angiosperms during the Lower Cretaceous period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in Upper Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the mutualism between hymenopterans and angiosperms.
Another good example is malaria, in which there are three 'partners': the mosquito, the parasite "Plasmodium", and a land vertebrate, such as a mammal or bird. The actual species of malaria differs according to the vertebrate, so there are actually thousands of different relationships which follow the same pattern.
Adaptive radiation and speciation rates can be high in parasites. Sibling species are very common in the bug "Erythroneura", in which about 150 transfers from one host to another has resulted in about 500 species in the genus.
A huge number of species are parasitic. A survey of the feeding habits of British insects showed that about 35% were parasites on plants, and slightly more were parasites on animals. That means that nearly 71% of insects in Britain are parasitic. Since British insects are better known than those elsewhere (because of the length of time they have been studied), this means that by far the majority of insect species throughout the world are parasitic. Another estimate went:
There are several other invertebrate phyla which are wholly or largely parasitic. Flatworms and roundworms are found in virtually every wild species of vertebrate. Protozoan parasites are also ubiquitous. Hence parasitism is almost certainly the most common feeding method on Earth.
Recent publications have given an overview of the 150 years of research into co-evolution after the "Origin of species".
Many species are parasites or are specialised to live in one or a few hosts. A single species of tropical tree is, on average, a host to 162 host-specific beetle species. Since there are 50,000 tropical tree species, and beetles amount to 40% of total insect species, and there are also tree-specific species below the canopy, it is possible to estimate the total number of arthropod species living in tropical forests. The number is 30 million. This contrasts rather strongly with the total of 1.4 to 1.8 million species which have already been described. It seems textbooks have underestimated the number of species in existence by a factor of about 20.
The single factor which most causes this high number of species is phytophagy: the huge number of insect species, each eating one or a few plant species. And what insects do, so do fungi, nematodes, mites and other invertebrates.
The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution was developed by John N Thompson as a framework for envisioning the coevolutionary process in real populations and species. It has been an attempt to incorporate the minimum components of population biology needed for an ecologically and evolutionarily realistic theory of coevolution and evolving interactions in general. It applies to pairs of interacting species, small groups of interacting species, and large webs of interactions.
Assumptions: Geographic mosaic theory is based on several observations long known to biologists. These observation are taken as assumptions in the development of geographic mosaic theory:
1. Species are often collections of genetically distinct populations
2. Interacting species often differ in their geographic ranges
3. interactions among species differ among environments in their ecological outcomes.
The Hypothesis: From these assumptions, geographic mosaic theory argues that coevolution proceeds by natural selection acting on three sources of variation that affect interactions among species. These three sources of variation can be formally partitioned as genotype by genotype by environment interactions (GxGxE).
1. Geographic selection mosaics: The "structure of natural selection" on interactions differs among environments (e.g., high vs. low temperatures, high vs. low nutrient conditions; a surrounding species web that is species-rich vs. species poor). This variation occurs because genes are expressed in different ways in different environments (GxE interactions) and species affect each other's fitness in different ways in different environments.
For example,  an interaction may be antagonistic in one environment and mutualistic in another environment; or it may be antagonistic in all environments but selection may favor different traits in different environments).
2. Coevolutionary hotspots: The i"ntensity of reciprocal selection" differs among environments. Interactions are subject to reciprocal selection only within some local communities, called coevolutionary hotspots. These coevolutionary hotspots are embedded in a broader matrix of coevolutionary coldspots, where local natural selection is non-reciprocal or where only one of the participants occurs.
For example, an interaction may be mutualistic or antagonistic in some environments (coevolutionary hotspots) but commensalistic in other environments (coevolutionary coldspots).
3. Trait remixing: The overall genetic structure of coevolving species continually changes through new mutations, genomic alterations, gene flow among populations, differential random genetic drift among populations, and extinction of local populations that differ in the combinations of coevolving traits they harbor. New genetic material on which natural selection can act can result from simple genetic mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, hybridization between populations, or whole genome duplications (polypoloidy). These processes contribute to the shifting geographic mosaic of coevolution by continually altering the spatial distributions of potentially coevolving genes and traits.
The combination of these processes continually changes the distribution of genotypes within any local population and the distribution of genotypes among populations.
NOTE: Some descriptions of geographic mosaic theory collapse this “trait remixing” part of geographic mosaic theory to gene flow. That is an incorrect characterization. The point of trait remixing is that through a combination of genetic, genomic, and ecological processes, the available distribution of coevolving traits on which natural selection can act continues to change over time within and among populations.
In studies of coevolution, a GxGxE interaction can be viewed either in the most formal way at the gene or genotype level (i.e., how selection acts on the same gene or genotype in across contrasting environments), or it can be viewed more generally at the level of how natural selection acts on two or more interacting species across many contrasting environments.
See books by John N Thompson (1982 Interaction and Coevolution; 1994 The Coevolutionary Process; 2005 The Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution; 2013 Relentless Evolution)
Rongorongo is a system of writing native to Easter Island. It cannot be read. There are two dozen examples of rongorongo script, mostly carved on tablets made from wood of the portia tree "Thespesia populnea," known as "makoi" in Rapanui (Easter Island) language. The longest inscription in existence is the Santiago Staff, a wooden sceptre 126 centimetres long and 6.5 centimetres wide, bearing 2300 glyphs (Gr. "γλυφη" "carving"). The staff, which once belonged to an Easter Island king, was acquired by the Chilean Navy in 1870 and is now in Santiago's Museum of Natural History.