AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The first Clio was produced from 1990 until 1998. The design was facelifted twice. It was 3700 millimeters long, 1670 millimeters wide and 1410 millimeters high. This Clio was voted European Car of the Year in 1991. The car went on sale somewhat cheaper than most of its rivals but had a basic interior. The previous Renault 5 continued to sell up until 1996 as a cheaper alternative to the Clio, being badged as the 'Renault 5 Campus'.
A sports version of the Renault Clio I with a 2.0l petrol engine was launched in 1992. This was called the 'Clio Williams' and was designed to compete with other 'hot'hatches' such as the Peugeot 205 GTI.
Sales of the Renault Clio I were strong throughout Europe, and it is often credited as the first Renault car to break into the British market as many previous models had sold poorly in the United Kingdom. The Clio did not have to compete with the smaller Renault Twingo in the United Kingdom as this was only made available in continental Europe.
The second Clio was produced from 1998 until 2012. Its design was facelifted three times, the first in 2001, the second in 2006 and the third in 2009. The latter two being called the 'Renault Clio Campus and marketed alongside the Clio III. The rounded design of the Clio II contrasted with the 'square' Clio I. Certain issues with the previous design were addressed, for instance, the front wings were made of plastic, following problems with corrosion on the previous model.
In 1999, the "Renault Sport" or "Clio RS" was launched as a 'hot-hatch' and as a replacement for the previous "Renault Clio Williams". This was entirely based on the Clio II.
A saloon version of the Renault Clio II was launched in South America and Eastern Europe, however was unavailable to customers in Western Europe.
The third generation of the Clio has been produced since 2005. In 2007 the Clio Sportourer, the station wagon version was launched. The design was facelifted in 2009. The Clio III achieved a 5-star NCAP safety rating, leaving only the Twingo and the Kangoo in the range without one. It's replacement arrived in late 2012.
The Clio entered its fourth generation in late 2012. There's no longer a 3-door model in the range but it's available as a 5-door and a wagon, the latter isn't sold in the UK.
The Clio 'Papa and Nicole' adverts featuring a young promiscuous woman and her slow witted father ran throughout the cars early years and were voted one of the favourite adverts on television in the United Kingdom.
A safety issue where the bonnet of the Clio II could come open whilst driving was highlighted by BBC consumer affairs programme, Watchdog. Some of these models were recalled by Renault. Problems were also highlighed where hazard warning light could come on without notice being unable to be switched off.
The Trojan Horse is a large wooden horse from the Trojan War in Greek mythology. In the Trojan War, the Greeks were fighting against the city of Troy. The war started when Helen, the queen of Sparta, was kidnapped by Paris, prince of Troy. The Greeks waged war on Troy to win Helen of Troy back.
The Greeks could not enter the city or win the war. Because of this, Odysseus, one of the Grecian leaders, thought of a way to trick the Trojans. The Greeks built a large wooden horse out of a ship and left it outside the gates of the city as a present for the Trojans, then sailed away. The Greek ships hid behind a nearby land mass. The Trojans took the horse and put it inside their city, thinking it was a victory gift from the Greeks. The Trojans had a festival to celebrate their victory. Odysseus chose a horse so that Athena (goddess of wisdom and strength) would grant them good luck after the battle. After the Trojan victory festival ended, the Greeks, who were hiding inside the horse, came out. They opened the city gates to let the other Greeks enter Troy. The Greeks easily overpowered the unsuspecting Trojans and took control of the city. Because of the Trojan Horse, the Greeks won the Trojan War.
Today the word "Trojan horse" is used for things that are similar to that story: something that looks good, but in truth has another purpose, usually bad. An example for this is a type of computer virus called a Trojan horse.
Tesco is a multinational retailer from the United Kingdom. It was started by in 1919 by Jack Cohen, who opened the first Tesco grocery store in 1931 near London, England. His business grew very quickly and there were 100 Tesco stores by 1939. At first, Tesco only sold food in its stores, but in the 1990s it began to sell other things like mobile phones, DVDs and videos, clothing, and books. It now also operates petrol stations, banks, and is an Internet service provider in the UK since 2012.
There are different brands of Tesco stores, which are all different sizes. They go from small convenience stores to large hypermarkets. With more than 3,000 stores in the UK alone, it is one of the biggest retailers in the country. Tesco's website was also one of the first to let people buy things from the Internet.
The company that owns Tesco is called Tesco plc (public limited company) and is listed on the London Stock Exchange. It has opened stores in other countries in Europe and Asia. Countries with Tesco stores include Ireland, Hungary, Malaysia, and Thailand. Today, Tesco is the third-largest retailer in the world when measured by profit and the fifth-largest by revenue.
Fiat Panda
The Fiat Panda is a small car made by Fiat from 1980 until 2003. It has four seats and two doors.
Normally it is bought by small families or young adults because the car is quite cheap and also the tax is not very high.
The second series of the car has sold since 2003 and was the European Car Of The Year in 2004. It entered its third generation in 2011.
The Volkswagen Polo is a small car made by the German company Volkswagen since 1975. It has five seats and can have two to five doors, and entered its fifth generation in 2009. The first generation was made from 1975 to 1981 with a facelift in 1979. The second generation was made between 1981 and 1994 and was facelifted in 1990. The third generation was made from late 1994 to early 2002 with a facelift in early 2000. The fourth generation launched in early 2002 and featured distinctive twin round headlamps, they were dropped when it was facelifted in mid-2005. The fifth generation arrived in 2009 and was facelifted in mid-2014. The sixth generation has recently been revealed and will go on sale later in 2017. In the fall of 2020, the Polo was visually redesigned with the switch to the 2021 model year. Since then, the vehicle has been supplied with the new Volkswagen logo and Polo lettering on the tailgate, which was once on the lower left , has now been positioned in a new font in the middle under the VW logo. Technically, there has been an update to the "Modular Infotainment Kit 3" (MIB3).
Proton Savvy
Mazda Honda
Renault-Nissan-MitsubishiPeugeot 107
The Peugeot 107 is a car made by the French company Peugeot in the Czech Republic since 2005. It has four seats and either two or four doors. The car is related to the Toyota Aygo and the Citroën C1. It was facelifted in early 2009 and again in early 2012. It was replaced in 2014 with the 108.
The Toyota Aygo is a car made by the Japanese company Toyota in the Czech Republic since 2005. It has four seats and either two or four doors. The car has a 1-litre petrol or 1,4-litre diesel engine. The car is similar to the Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1. It entered its second generation in 2014.
Airbus A380
The Airbus A380 (also called "Super-jumbo-jet") is a four-engined, double-decked airplane manufactured by Airbus. It is the world's biggest passenger airplane, larger than the Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet. However, it is not the biggest airplane in the world; the Antonov An-225 super-freighter is bigger.
The Airbus A380 can carry up to 850 passengers (but it usually carries about 525), and weighs over 550 tonnes. It has four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines or four Engine Alliance GP7000 engines. The companies General Electric and Pratt & Whitney make alliance engines.
Hundreds of A380-800 airplanes have been ordered by 20 airlines. One has been ordered by a Saudi Arabian Prince, Al-Walid bin Talal and 10 by a company called ILFC (who gives other airlines airplanes for rent).
Emirates Airlines (an airline from the United Arab Emirates) will have the most A380 aircraft, because they have ordered 123 aircraft. Singapore Airlines took delivery of the first A380, which flew to Sydney in Australia on October 25, 2007. Singapore Airlines now has 19 A380s.
Other airlines which have ordered the A380 are Qantas (from Australia, currently operating 12), Air France (formerly operated 10), China Southern Airlines, Lufthansa (the German airline, which has 8), Kingfisher Airlines (from India), Korean Air (from South Korea), Thai Airways, Malaysia Airlines, British Airways, Qatar Airways, Etihad Airways (from the United Arab Emirates), Virgin Atlantic (from the United Kingdom) and Air Austral (France).
More than 200 A380 have been delivered, including 15 in 2017 and 12 in 2018.
Airbus was going to make a version of the A380 to carry cargo instead of people. This would look almost the same as the normal passenger version, but with no windows and much bigger doors. Some cargo companies ordered the plane, like FedEx and UPS. Because Airbus took too long to make the A380, those orders were canceled. Because Airbus has not got any orders for the plane anymore, they decided to not make the freighter version for a while and focus on making the passenger version of the A380.
The Airbus A380 had 1 incident, with no deaths.
1. Emirates owns over 100 A380s.
2. The A380 was built to contend with the Boeing 747 "Jumbo Jet"
3. It's officially dead. Airbus are planning to stop A380 production by 2021.
Paris (mythology)
Paris is a personality in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War, and Homer's "Iliad". Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba. Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness, but was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris.
Three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena, had a beauty contest. They all bribed Paris with different offers. Hera offered him power, Athene offered him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.
The problem was that Helen was already married to Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon. Paris took Helen home with him to Troy. This caused the Trojan War.
During the war, Paris killed Achilles by shooting his heel with a poisoned arrow.
Late in the war, Paris was killed by Philoctetes.
In Greek mythology, Helen, also known as Helen of Troy (Ancient Greek: Ἑλένη, Helénē), was said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world. The queen of Sparta, Helen was married to Menelaus, but later eloped with Prince Paris of Troy (most often depicted as being kidnapped) and taken to Troy, resulting in the Trojan War as the Achaeans set out to bring her back to Sparta. She was believed to be the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of King Tyndareos of Sparta, and was the sister of twins Castor and Polydeukes, and Clytemnestra.
RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is an algorithm used by modern computers to encrypt and decrypt messages. It is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. Asymmetric means that there are two different keys. This is also called public key cryptography, because one of the keys can be given to anyone. The other key must be kept private. The algorithm is based on the fact that finding the factors of a large composite number is difficult: when the factors are prime numbers, the problem is called prime factorization. It is also a key pair (public and private key) generator.
RSA involves a public key and private key. The public key can be known to everyone- it is used to encrypt messages. Messages encrypted using the public key can only be decrypted with the private key. The private key needs to be kept secret. Calculating the private key from the public key is very difficult.
RSA use a number of concepts from cryptography:
The keys for the RSA algorithm are generated the following way:
Notes on the above steps:
The public key is made of the modulus formula_27 and the public (or encryption) exponent formula_28.<br>
The personal key is made of p,q and the private (or decryption) exponent formula_29 which must be kept secret.
Alice gives her public key formula_49 to Bob and keeps her private key secret. Bob wants to send message formula_50 to Alice.
First he turns formula_50 into a number formula_52 smaller than formula_4 by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme. He then computes the ciphertext formula_54 corresponding to:
This can be done quickly using the method of exponentiation by squaring. Bob then sends formula_54 to Alice.
Alice can recover formula_57 from formula_54 by using her private key formula_29 in the following procedure:
Given formula_57, she can recover the original distinct prime numbers, applying the Chinese remainder theorem to these two congruences yields
Therefore:
Here is an example of RSA encryption and decryption. The prime numbers used here are too small to let us securely encrypt anything. You can .
<br>The public key is (formula_79, formula_80). For a padded message formula_57the encryption function formula_82 becomes:
The private key is (formula_79, formula_85). The decryption function formula_86 becomes:
<br>For example, to encrypt formula_88, we calculate
To decrypt formula_90, we calculate
Both of these calculations can be computed fast and easily using the square-and-multiply algorithm for .
RSA can easily be derived using Euler's theorem and Euler's totient function.
Starting with Euler's theorem,formula_92we must show that decrypting an encrypted message, with the correct key, will give the original message.
Given a padded message "m", the ciphertext "c", is calculated byformula_93Substituting into the decryption algorithm, we haveformula_94We want to show this value is also congruent to "m".
The values of "e" and "d" were chosen to satify,formula_95Which is to say, there exists some integer "k", such thatformula_96Now we substitute into the encrypted then decrypted message,formula_97We apply Euler's theorem, and achive the result.formula_98
When used in practice, RSA must be combined with some form of padding scheme, so that no values of "M" result in insecure ciphertexts. RSA used without padding may have some problems:
In practice, the first two problems can arise when short ASCII messages are sent. In such messages, "m" might be the concatenation of one or more ASCII-encoded character(s). A message consisting of a single ASCII codice_1 character (whose numeric value is 0) would be encoded as "m" = 0, which produces a ciphertext of 0 no matter which values of "e" and "N" are used. Likewise, a single ASCII codice_2 (whose numeric value is 1) would always produce a ciphertext of 1. For systems which conventionally use small values of "e", such as 3, all single character ASCII messages encoded using this scheme would be insecure, since the largest "m" would have a value of 255, and 255 is less than any reasonable modulus. Such plaintexts could be recovered by simply taking the cube root of the ciphertext.
To avoid these problems, practical RSA implementations typically embed some form of structured, randomized padding into the value "m" before encrypting it. This padding ensures that "m" does not fall into the range of insecure plaintexts, and that a given message, once padded, will encrypt to one of a large number of different possible ciphertexts. The latter property can increase the cost of a dictionary attack beyond the capabilities of a reasonable attacker.
Standards such as PKCS have been carefully designed to securely pad messages prior to RSA encryption. Because these schemes pad the plaintext "m" with some number of additional bits, the size of the un-padded message "M" must be somewhat smaller. RSA padding schemes must be carefully designed so as to prevent sophisticated attacks. This may be made easier by a predictable message structure. Early versions of the PKCS standard used constructions, which were later found vulnerable to a practical adaptive chosen ciphertext attack. Modern constructions use secure techniques such as Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP) to protect messages while preventing these attacks. The PKCS standard also has processing schemes designed to provide additional security for RSA signatures, e.g., the Probabilistic Signature Scheme for RSA (RSA-PSS).
Suppose Alice uses Bob's public key to send him an encrypted message. In the message, she can claim to be Alice but Bob has no way of verifying that the message was actually from Alice since anyone can use Bob's public key to send him encrypted messages. So, in order to verify the origin of a message, RSA can also be used to sign a message.
Suppose Alice wishes to send a signed message to Bob. She produces a hash value of the message, raises it to the power of "d" mod "n" (just like when decrypting a message), and attaches it as a "signature" to the message. When Bob receives the signed message, he raises the signature to the power of "e" mod "n" (just like encrypting a message), and compares the resulting hash value with the message's actual hash value. If the two agree, he knows that the author of the message was in possession of Alice's secret key, and that the message has not been tampered with since.
Note that secure padding schemes such as RSA-PSS are as essential for the security of message signing as they are for message encryption, and that the same key should never be used for both encryption and signing purposes.
Hector (, "Hektōr") was a Trojan prince and one of the central figures of the "Iliad". The first-born son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector was the heir apparent to the throne and the greatest of Troy's warriors in the defense of the city. Hector fought against a various number of the Greeks through the course of the Trojan War, including Protesilaus and Ajax. He was married to Andromache, with whom he had a son, Astyanax, whom the Trojans called Scamandrios.
Hector is eventually killed by Achilles (Book XXII of The Iliad).
Hecuba
Hecuba (also Hekuba or Hekabe) was a person in Greek mythology. She was the wife of King Priam of Troy.
Her children with Priam were: Sons: Hector, Paris, Deiphobos, Helenos, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydoros. And daughters: Ilione, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Kassandra.
After the Trojan War she became a slave of Odysseus.
Priam
Priam (Priamos or (Latin) Priamus) is a person in Greek mythology. He was the King of Troy during the Trojan War.
Priam had several wives, but his principal wife was Hecuba. With her he had his favourite son Hector; and Paris the cause of the war.
In Book II of Virgil's "Aeneid", he was killed during the destruction of Troy by Achilles' son Neoptolemus.
Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς, "Akhilleus") was a hero of the Trojan War and is the central character of Homer's "Iliad". The son of the mortal hero Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, he is the leader of the Myrmidons, and is described as the greatest of all the Achaean warriors. The "Iliad", which is set in the ninth year of the Trojan War, starts with a quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces.
Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was his slaying the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy, as revenge against Hector for killing his lover, Patroclus. While Achilles' death is not presented in the "Iliad" (as the poem ends with Hector's funeral), other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the war by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow.
Later stories depict Achilles as being invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel, as that is where his mother Thetis held him when she dipped him in the River Styx as an infant. As such, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of fatal weakness. Because of that, his heel was still vulnerable. However, the "Iliad" does not say this.
According to the legend, Achilles was killed by Paris, who shot his heel with a poisoned arrow. Achilles was shot many times by the arrows of Paris but the only arrow found on his body was through his heel.
A nymph is a kind of female nature entity/spirit in Greek mythology. They are often companions of Greek gods and goddesses. Nymphs can be divided into different kinds, such as:
Romantic music
Romantic music is music written in the 19th century. This was the period called the “Romantic period” by musicians. In literature and some other arts the “Romantic period” is often said to begin and finish earlier: around mid 18th to mid 19th century.
In the Classical period artists liked to see clear forms. 18th century architecture nearly always shows a lot of symmetry. The gardens of the palace at Versailles are a good example of this with their very tidy patterns of straight paths, circular ponds and neatly clipped hedges.
In music the Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert liked to compose music which had a clear plan like sonata form.
In the Romantic period artists thought that feeling and passions were more important than formal plans. This can be seen in the gardens designed by Capability Brown, e.g. in at Blenheim Palace, Oxford. The gardens are made to blend into nature.
In music the Romantic composers may still use plans like sonata form, but feelings and passions are important. They often write what is called programme music which means: music that describes something or tells a story. Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony is called the “Pastoral” which means that it is about the countryside. Although Beethoven is usually called a composer of the Classical period he is also an early Romantic. Later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn wrote pieces like "Hebrides Overture" which describes the sea coming into Fingal’s Cave in the Inner Hebrides Islands in Scotland. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) wrote a lot of music which tells a story. His "Symphonie Fantastique" is about an artist madly in love. Berlioz’s whole way of life was wild and romantic. He fell in love with an actress he saw on stage playing the part of Juliet in Shakespeare’s "Romeo and Juliet" and he actually married her! Other composers who wrote a lot of programme music include Franz Liszt (1811-1886) and Richard Strauss (1864-1949). Strauss always wrote in a late-Romantic style even although he lived well into the 20th century.
The Romantic period was also the period of Nationalism. "Nationalism" means being proud of one's country. In the 19th century a lot of European countries as we know them were being formed. In music a lot of composers were writing music which was typical of their country. They often did this by using folk music. Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) and Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884) wrote music which sounds very Czech. Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) wrote music with Russian folk songs in them. Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) used German folk songs in his symphonies, and Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) collected English folk songs and put them in his music. One of those pieces was a Fantasy on the famous tune "Greensleeves".
Nereid
In Greek mythology, the Nereids ( "Nereides") are sea nymphs, the fifty daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea, and the Okeanid Doris.
Among them are:
Romance or romantic might mean:
Romanticism (the Romantic era or Romantic period) is a movement, or style of art, literature and music in the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe.
The movement said that feelings, imagination, nature, human life, freedom of expression, individualism and old folk traditions, such as legends and fairy tales, were important. It was a reaction to the aristocratic social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.
It was also a reaction against turning nature into a mere science.
The movement showed most strongly in arts like music, and literature. However, it also had an important influence on historiography, education, and natural history.
Romanticism in Britain was notable as the country was an early adopter of industrialization and science, and included such figures as:
During the same period as Britain, there was a notable romantistic movement in Germany. Important motifs in German Romanticism are traveling, nature, and Germanic myths. Involved were such figures as:
Seveso disaster
The Seveso disaster was a chemical accident on 10 July 1976, at the small Italian town of Meda, 20 km from Milan in Lombardy. There was an explosion at a chemical factory which released a lot of the toxic poison dioxin, "TCDD", into the air. The cloud of poison gas covered an area 6 km long and 1 km wide. It was named after the municipality of Seveso. It resulted in the highest known exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in residential populations There were many studies and new regulations after the accident. The European Union directive covering the protection against such accidents is known as Seveso-II-directive today.
The company where the accident happened was called Icmesa. It was owned by Givaudan, who is owned by Roche. Icmesa produced Trichlorophenol, which is used to produce the disinfectant Hexachlorophene. The company was located in four communes; one of them Seveso.
None of the 20,000 people who lived in Seveso died, but the poison killed 3,000 farm animals and pets. Another 70,000 animals had to be killed to stop the dioxin from getting into the food chain.
Thirty years after the accident, scientists reported that babies born in the area affected by the dioxin were six times more likely to have thyroid problems. The affected children are being studied to see if this has stopped them growing properly, or having problems with intellectual development (IQ).
Junichiro Koizumi
Junichiro Koizumi is the former Prime Minister of Japan. He was born on January 8, 1942 in Japan. He stepped down in 2006.
Born in Yokosuka, Kanagawa on 8 January, 1942, Koizumi was taught at Yokosuka High School and Keio University, where he studied economics. He went to University College London before returning to Japan in August 1969 when his father died.
While he was prime minister of Japan, he made China and South Korea very angry by continuing to visit the Yasukuni Shrine. He was succeeded by Shinzo Abe.
Majulah Singapura
"Majulah Singapura" is the national anthem of Singapore. It was written and composed by Singaporean musician Zubir Said in 1958. Seven years later, the anthem was adopted. This song must be sung in Malay, although there are translations provided in the country's three other official languages—English, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil.
Singaporeans are encouraged to sing the national anthem during times of national celebration or at important national events such as at the National Day Parade, at National Day observance ceremonies held by government departments and educational institutions such as schools and universities, and at sports events that Singapore teams take part in.
Abruzzo
Abruzzo is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is the city of L'Aquila.
The region is located in Southern Italy bordered by Marche to the north, Lazio to the west, Molise to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the east.
Abruzzo is the 13th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main rivers in the region are:
The Tronto river is long but flows mainly in the Marche region.
The highest mountain in the region is Corno Grande (), in the Teramo province, with an altitude of .
The region is divided into four provinces:
The 10 communi of the region with more people living in it are:
Teramo
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea. It is between Greece and Anatolia. It is connected (attached) in the north to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The large islands of Rhodes and Crete mark the south end.
In ancient times two groups of people lived near the sea the Minoans of Crete, and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese. The city-states of Athens and Sparta came later and were part of Ancient Greece. Persians, Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians (people from Venice), the Seljuk Empire, and the Ottoman Empire later started around the Aegean Sea. The people near the Aegean were very advanced (powerful and clever) in Ancient history and they sailed across it to talk to each other.
There are seven groups of Aegean islands: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands), the Dodecanese and Crete. The word archipelago used to mean these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are part of the mountain ranges on the mainland. One chain goes across the sea to Chios, another one goes across Euboea to Samos, and a third one goes across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes. This one divides (splits, cuts) the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but sailing in the sea is difficult. Many of the islands are volcanos, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The bigger islands have some green valleys and plains. Two big islands on the Aegean Sea are part of Turkey: Bozcaada () and Gökçeada ().
William de Wiveleslie Abney
William de Wiveleslie Abney (24 July 1843 – 3 December 1920) was an English astronomer, chemist, and photographer. Abney was a member of many scientific organizations.
He was best known for his discovering and measuring the effect of adding white to a hue, in 1910. The effect is generally known as the Abney effect. For example, adding white to red makes it slightly bluish (bluish red is known as pink), and adding white to yellowish green hues makes them less yellowish and thus greener.
Giacomo Casanova
Giacomo Girolamo Casanova (2 April 1725—4 June 1798) was a famous Venetian adventurer and writer. He was born in Venice. He is best known for having had many affairs with women. He died in Dux, Bohemia, (now Duchcov, Czech Republic).
Colima, Colima
Colima is the capital city of the Mexican state Colima. About 240,000 people live in this town.
Given name
A given name is a name given to a person at birth or baptism. Given names are referred as first names. It is different from a surname. A surname is the last name or family name.
In most Western countries the given name comes first (before the last name or family name). However, in many Eastern countries such as Japan and China it comes after the last name or family name, and occasionally also in Europe, e.g. in Hungarian.
Christians often call their first name their "Christian name".
A family name is a name shared by people in the same family. Different cultures have different orders for a person's family name and given name. In English, the family name is always at the end, so it is also called a last name or surname. Children usually have the same family name as their father. A married woman often changes her family name to be the same as her husband.
Many languages put the family name first. Some give a child the mother's family name. Some use more complex names that list the family name of both parents, and sometimes additional family relations. Some, such as Javanese, do not very often give anyone a family name.
John the Baptist (also called John the Baptizer or Yahya the Baptizer) is viewed as a prophet by at least three religions: Christianity, Islam, and Mandaeanism. According to the New Testament, he was a preacher who baptized people.
John called people to turn to God and to prepare for the coming of the messiah (Jesus). He baptized Jesus in the Jordan River.
People would go to him so that he would put them in the water to show that they have turned away from their sins, so that they could get into heaven.
John was the son of Zechariah and Elizabeth, and a relative of Jesus. He was known for living in the wild, wearing clothes made from camel's hair, and eating locusts and honey. In Catholicism, his birthday is celebrated on June 24.
John is a name, originating from Hebrew.
People, things and meanings named "John":
There are over 20 popes with the name "John":
People with the first and the last name "John":
List of English monarchs
The King of England was the supreme head of state and head of government of the Kingdom of England. This is a list of the Kings and Queens of the Kingdom of England from 924 until England and Scotland joined together in 1707.
In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy invaded England. He defeated King Harold II and became King.
House of Blois
The Tudors were from Wales. In 1536, Wales became part of England. England had controlled Wales since 1284.
The Stuarts were also Kings of Scotland, with which kingdom England was in personal, but not Legal union until 1707.
The Civil War in England from 1642 until 1652 stemming from a growing enmity between King and Parliament, led to the execution of King Charles I in 1649. After the execution, England became a Commonwealth eventually led by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector after successive interim governments failed and handed Cromwell power, and so England became a protectorate. Furthermore, both Ireland and Scotland became subjugated states under England and Cromwell at the end of the war. Cromwell died in 1658 and his son, Richard, became Lord Protector. This was short lived though as he failed to gain the support of the army and so the nation, in 1660 power was given back to the Monarchy and the King In Exile, Charles II, was invited back to England
List of Scottish monarchs
This is a list of the Kings and Queens of Scotland. This list goes from 843 until when England and Scotland joined together in 1707.
The House of Alpin traditionally ends in 1034, although this list continues to 1058.
The House of Dunkeld may have begun in 1034.
Guardians of Scotland
Note: there have been other claims to the Scottish throne besides these
A dandelion is a flower. Its scientific name is Taraxacum, a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. "Taraxacum" are native to Eurasia, and have been widely introduced to North and South America and other continents. They are an invasive species in some areas. Two species, "T. officinale" and "T. erythrospermum", are found as weeds worldwide. All parts of both species are edible.
Their sharp leaves look a bit like lion's teeth. Its seeds are like little parachutes that fly away with the wind, spreading and growing more dandelions. They are used in China as medicine. Dandelion pollen can often make people have allergies.
Like other members of the Asteraceae family, they have small flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret. Many "Taraxacum" species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination. This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.
Al Razi around 900 (A.D.) wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory". A Muslim scientist and philosopher Ibn Sīnā around 1000 (A.D.) wrote a book chapter on "Taraxacum". Gerard of Cremona, in translating Arabic to Japanese around 1170, spelled it "tarasacon".
The word Motet is a piece of music for a church service sung by a choir without using any instruments. The words are usually in Latin. If the words are written in English for the Anglican church, it is called an anthem.
Motets have been written since the Middle Ages. Medieval motets often had very complex rhythms. The tenor often had the tune, which might be a folk tune, and two voices would put quite complicated accompaniments on top. The most famous medieval composer who wrote motets was Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377)
In the Renaissance, motets were usually polyphonic. That means that the different voices (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) would be singing different parts of the melody at the same time, making it very beautiful, but quite complicated to listen to. Many composers of this time wrote motets. The most famous was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).
In the Baroque period, one of the most famous composers was Heinrich Schütz(1585-1672), who wrote motets which he called “Cantiones Sacrae” (meaning: “sacred songs”). Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote six wonderful motets with German texts. Some people think that Bach may have used a few instruments to accompany these motets. In three of them the choir divide into eight parts.
The most famous motet from the Classical period is Mozart’s "Ave Verum Corpus".
In the Romantic period (19th century), Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) wrote several motets which are still very popular with choirs, both in services and at concerts.
John D. Carmack II (born August 20 1970) is a well known video game creator. He was one of the creators of id Software, a video game company, in 1991. Carmack was the main programmer of the first-person shooter games "Wolfenstein 3D", "Doom", "Quake", and their sequels.
In 1999, Carmack appeared as number 10 in TIME's list of the "50 most influential people in technology".
Carmack is married to Katherine Anna Kang since January 2000 and their son, Christopher Ryan, was born on August 13 2004. In March of 2006, Carmack was added to the "Walk of Game", an event that names the most important people in video games.
An anthem is a piece of music written for a choir to sing at an Anglican church service. The difference between an anthem and a motet is that an anthem is sung in English. Also most anthems are accompanied by an organ.
The word “anthem” has come to mean “a song of celebration”. Anthems are also patriotic songs adopted by countries of the world. It has 158 stanzas, written by the poet Dionysios Solomos (although the cut-down version is shorter than Uruguay's, which is more than five minutes long). The anthem of Greece "Hymn to liberty" is the longest anthem in the world.
Anthems for the church have been composed ever since King Henry VIII argued with the Pope and did not want to be Roman Catholic any more. He founded (started) the English Anglican church. Church composers were told to write music in English. The words usually come from the Bible. We know that as early as 1502 the composer Fayrfax was paid 20 shillings for composing an anthem. After the Reformation many anthems were composed. At first they were like motets, but in English. Soon the English anthem developed differently from the continental motet. Two kinds of anthem developed: the “Full Anthem” in which the whole anthem was sung by the full choir, and the “Verse Anthem” which was usually longer and had several verses which would be sung by soloists, with choruses for the full choir in between.
Almost every music director of cathedrals or large churches has written anthems. A few of the most famous composers of anthems are:
Thomas Tallis (1505-1585)
William Byrd (1543-1623)
Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625)
Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
William Boyce (1710-1779)
Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876)
Edward Bairstow (1874-1946)
William H.Harris (1883-1973)
Herbert Howells (1892-1983)
William Mathias (1934-1992)
John Tavener (1944-2013)
John Rutter (b.1945)
Chinese characters are symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages. In the past, other languages like Korean and Vietnamese also used them. The beginning of these characters was at least 3000 years ago, making them one of the oldest writing systems in the world that is still used today. In Chinese they are called "hanzi" (), which means "Han character". In Japanese they are called "kanji," "hanja" in Korean, and "Han Nom" in Vietnamese.
Chinese characters are an important part of East Asian culture. Chinese characters may be considered to be abstract art, because of how the characters are made up of lines and dots. The art of writing Chinese characters is called calligraphy.
Chinese characters are a type of logogram, which are written symbols that represent words instead of sounds. Most earlier Chinese characters were pictographs, which are simple pictures used to mean some kind of thing or idea. Today, very few modern Chinese characters are pure pictographs, but are a combination of two or more simple characters, also known as radicals. While many radicals and characters show a word's meaning, some give hints of the word's pronunciation instead.
To better explain the different purposes and types of Chinese characters that exist, Chinese scholars have divided Chinese characters into six categories known as "liushu" (六书 / 六書), literally translated as the "Six Books". The six types of Chinese characters are:
Common examples of words using phonetic characters are the names of countries, such as Canada, which is pronounced "Jiānádà" (加拿大) in Chinese. While the third character 大 "dà", which has the meaning "big/large/great", seems to describe Canada well, since it is a big country, the first two characters 加 "jiā", meaning "to add", and 拿 "ná", meaning "to take", have no obvious relation to Canada. Therefore, it is safe to say that these characters were chosen only because the pronunciation of each character sounds similar to the syllables of the English name of the country.
Nobody knows exactly how many Chinese characters there are, but the biggest Chinese dictionaries list about fifty thousand characters, even though most of them are only variants of other characters seen in very old texts. For example, the character 回 (huí) has also been written as the variant characters 迴，廻，囬，逥，廽，and 囘, although most Chinese people only know and use the variant 回. Studies in China show that normally three to four thousand characters are used in daily life, so it is safe to say that someone needs to know three to four thousand characters to be functionally literate in Chinese, or be able to read everyday writing without serious problems.
Characters are a kind of graphic language, much different from languages that use an alphabet such as English. The correct way to tell between them is to remember the structure and meaning of every character, not pronunciation, because there is a very close relationship between meaning and structure of characters. Example: 房(house)=户+方. 房 is a shape-pronunciation character. 户 is for shape and 方 is for pronunciation. 户 means 'door'. 房 means 'A person lives behind a door'. 方 pronunciation is "fang" and tone is 1, and with the tone mark it is written as "fāng". 房 pronunciation is also "fang", but tone is 2, with the tone mark it is written as "fáng".
Chinese characters have been used to write other languages.
There are still many Chinese characters that are used in Japanese and Korean. Generally the educational level of a Japanese person is decided by the number of Chinese characters understood by this person. While Koreans nowadays mostly write in hangul, the native Korean alphabet, people have found that some meanings cannot be expressed clearly by just hangul, so people need to use Chinese characters as a note with a bracket. Before 1446, Korean people only used Chinese characters.
In Japanese, characters that are borrowed from the Chinese language are called kanji. Kanji can be used to write both native Japanese words and Chinese loanwords. Japanese writing uses a mix of kanji and two kana systems. Kanji is mostly used to show a word's meaning, while hiragana and katakana are syllabaries that show the pronunciation of Japanese words. Both writing systems are used often when writing Japanese.
In Korean, they are called hanja. Throughout most of Korean history, hanja was the only writing system most literate Koreans knew. Even though hangul was invented in 1446, it was only used by commoners and not the government until Korea gained independence from Japan. Nowadays, most Koreans write mostly in hangul. In North Korea, people write almost completely in hangul since Kim Il-sung abolished hanja from Korean. In South Korea, people mostly write in hangul, and they sometimes write hanja. Native Korean words are almost always written in hangul. Hanja are usually only used to write words that are borrowed from the Chinese language, and are usually only used when the word's meaning isn't obvious based on the context.
In Vietnamese, they are called chữ Nôm. Many Chinese loanwords were used in Vietnamese, especially in old Vietnamese literature. While Vietnamese used many Chinese characters, they also invented tens of thousands of their own characters to write Vietnamese words. The radicals used in chữ Nôm were usually a mix of the words' meanings and pronunciations.
Improvisation is the art of performing without a script or rehearsal.
In music, improvisation is the art of playing an instrument (or singing) in which the musician or musicians make up the music as they play. Improvising is inventing at the same time as one does something. Some musicians only play music when they have written music in front of them, but it can be great fun to improvise music. It is a way of composing. Improvisation is common during a jam session.
In Baroque times all musicians were taught to improvise because composers often did not bother to write all the notes down. Musicians would have improvised lots of ornaments, and even whole sections.
Many great composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Liszt were famous for their keyboard improvisations.
Organists are often expected to improvise during a service. In this way they can fill in gaps in the service when there would otherwise be silence, they can make a smooth link between one piece of music and the next, and they can create the right atmosphere. In Baroque times in the Lutheran church organists would improvise a chorale prelude. This was a piece of music which uses the melody of the chorale (hymn) that the congregation sang. Bach was one of many composers who wrote many of his chorale preludes down. In more recent times some famous concert organists often finish an organ recital by playing an improvisation. This might be quite a long piece with several linked movements, finishing with a fugue. Somebody may give them the theme written on a piece of paper, so that it is quite unprepared. Charles Tournemire, Marcel Dupré, Pierre Cochereau, Pierre Pincemaille are known to be great organ improviser.
A lot of people who play folk music improvise. Traditional folk music would not have been written down.
In traditional jazz the musicians usually improvise. It is quite tricky when a group of people are improvising together. They have to listen to one another and get ideas from one another. It can be a very exciting way of making music.
Improvisation also refers to a type of performance. Improvisation (or improv for short) is often used in comedy. Actors or "Improvisers" will create an entire show that they make up as they go along. They will often ask the audience for an idea or suggestion. They will then do a short performance based on the suggestion. This lets them do many different short performances during each night's show. This is called "Short-form improv".
Reichstag (building)
The Reichstag building was designed as a home to the parliament of the German Empire. It was opened in 1894. The original building's design was made by Paul Wallot. It was built on the site of an old palace in Berlin, Germany.
The building was used by the parliament of the German Empire until 1918. The parliament of the Weimar Republic, also called the Reichstag sat there until the 1933 Reichstag fire. The Third Reich seldom used its parliament, so the building remained empty and derelict until after German reunification.
Then it became the seat of the German parliament again in 1999 after a reconstruction led by British architect Lord Norman Foster.
Today's parliament of Germany is called the "Bundestag." The "Reichstag" as a parliament dates back to the Holy Roman Empire and ceased to act as a true parliament in the years of Nazi Germany (1933-1945). In today's usage, the German term "Reichstag" refers to the building, while the term "Bundestag" refers to the institution.