AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Often two hormones control the same product, one increasing and the other decreasing the target. Blood glucose is very important to an organism, and is controlled by more than one hormone. Other hormones also make the glucose level go up or down. If the glucose level gets too low, the body releases hormones that do the opposite of insulin. They do not tell the cells in the body to take up glucose from the blood. They tell the cells to put glucose back into the blood. These kind of hormones that work opposite of other hormones are called counter-regulatory hormones. Counter-regulatory hormones for insulin are glucagon and epinephrine.
Most important things in an organism are kept in homeostasis by negative feedback and counter-regulatory hormones. However a few things are controlled in different ways. One rare way is positive feedback. In negative feedback, the hormone's effect makes a gland stop making hormones. In positive feedback the opposite happens. The effect of the hormone tells the gland to make even more hormones.
An example of positive feedback is the hormone that causes childbirth (when babies are born.) The hormone that causes this is oxytocin. This hormone is made by the pituitary gland. When the baby starts coming out, it stretches the muscle in the cervix (the bottom of the uterus). Nerves in the cervix send a message to the pituitary. This message makes the pituitary release more oxytocin. The oxytocin then causes the muscles of the uterus to contract, or squeeze. This causes more stretching in the cervix. This stretching then tells the pituitary to make even more oxytocin. So levels of oxytocin keep rising until the squeezing or contractions of the uterus force the baby out.
There are clear distinctions between hormones and neurotransmitters:
Most hormones start a cellular response by binding to cell membranes or receptors inside the cell. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.
Hormones are defined functionally, not structurally. They may have various chemical structures. Hormones occur in multicellular organisms (plants, animals, fungi, brown algae and red algae). These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms, and may act as signalling molecules,
Peptide hormones are hormones with a short chain of amino acids.
Testosterone is an androgen sex hormone. A hormone is one that is made from cholesterol. A sex hormone is one that regulates sexual changes in the body. An androgen is the male type of sex hormone.
The testicles of men make lots of testosterone. Ovaries and adrenal glands make testosterone too. But they make much less than the testicles do. So men have much higher testosterone levels than women. The process takes place during the ages of puberty for both males and females
Testosterone has two different kinds of effects. One effect is anabolic. This effect causes growth of muscle and bone. The other effect of testosterone is androgenic. These effects make the body look male. This includes the effects that boys have at puberty: growing a beard, making the penis and testicles bigger, and making the voice deeper.
A patio is a paved area in a garden often used for barbeques or relaxing outside.
Cholera
Cholera is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium "Vibrio cholerae". It infects the small intestine.
There are many types (strains) of the "Vibrio cholera" bacteria. Some of them cause more serious illnesses than others. Because of this, some people who get cholera have no symptoms; others have symptoms that are not very bad, and others have very bad symptoms.
The most common symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea. In the worst cases, diarrhea can be so bad that people can die in a few hours from dehydration.
Cholera is a very old disease. Writings about cholera (written in Sanskrit) have been found from the 5th century BC. Throughout history, there have been many outbreaks and epidemics of cholera.
Cholera still affects many people throughout the world. Estimates from 2010 say that between 3 million and 5 million people get cholera every year, and 58,000–130,000 people die from the disease every year. Today, cholera is considered a pandemic. However, it is most common in developing countries, especially in children.
People usually get cholera by eating food or drinking water that is unclean. When people have cholera, they have a lot of diarrhea, and the cholera bacteria stays alive in their feces. In developing countries, often there is not good sanitation. Cholera can spread if this diarrhea gets into water that other people use. For example, if sewage (human waste) gets into a river, people can get cholera if they:
Cholera is very rarely spread directly from person to person.
Cholera's main symptoms are bad diarrhea and vomiting clear fluid. These symptoms usually start suddenly. They start half a day to five days after the person gets infected. (This is called cholera's "incubation period".)
If they do not get treatment, about half of people with serious cholera die. People with bad cholera may have so much diarrhea that they do not have enough water and electrolytes (salts) left in their bodies to survive. Cholera has been nicknamed the "blue death" because a person dying of cholera may lose so many body fluids that their skin turns bluish-gray.
Other symptoms may include:
If people with cholera get good, quick medical treatment, less than 1% die from the disease. However, if cholera is not treated, at least half of people with the disease (50% to 60%) die.
Some strains of the "Vibrio cholera" bacteria have different genes than others, which make them more dangerous. These more dangerous strains of cholera bacteria caused the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India. A person who gets these strains of cholera can die within two hours of getting sick. This means there is very little time to get the person treated.
There are antibiotics for cholera. There are various treatments which can help. For example:
There is a cholera vaccine that can be taken by mouth. It provides some protection from cholera for about six months.
People can also do some other things to prevent cholera. For example:
Governments could stop outbreaks or epidemics from happening by improving sanitation. For example, cholera is very uncommon in developed countries because they have good sanitation and because they add chemicals to their water to kill germs. Even after people start to get cholera, it is possible for governments to stop the disease from spreading, though:
Cholera probably started in the Indian subcontinent. As early as the 5th century BC, people in the Ganges River delta area wrote about cholera. The disease first spread to Russia in 1817 by trade routes (over both land and sea). Later, cholera spread to the rest of Europe, and from Europe to North America and the rest of the world.
Seven cholera pandemics have happened in the past 200 years. The latest started in Indonesia in 1961. There have also been many serious outbreaks. The worst outbreak in recent history happened in Haiti after the earthquake there in 2010. Between October 2010 and August 2015, more than 700,000 Haitians got cholera, and over 9,000 died. The outbreak was caused by a United Nations base where Nepalese soldiers were living. The soldiers would dump human waste into the Artibonite River, which many Haitians used for drinking, cooking, and bathing.
Cholera was common in the 19th century. It has killed tens of millions of people. Just in Russia, between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died of cholera. During the second pandemic, which lasted from 18271835, the disease killed 150,000 Americans. Between 1900 and 1920, in India, up to eight million people died of cholera.
in 1854, an English doctor named John Snow was the first person to realize that contaminated water caused cholera.
The English engineer Joseph Bazalgette solved the problem for London in the middle of the 19th century. He invented the system for cleaning foul water, a system which is still used world-wide. Cholera has come back to the world because cities have hugely increased populations, and the treatment of sewage has overrun the facilities. It was the British who built most of the world's sewage plants, and until about 1950 they were able to work well unless they were damaged by warfare. Later governments did not invest money in their infrastructure, which meant the increased population eventually caused cholera to return.
Cholera is not the only problem with water supply. Blooms of red algae occur from time to time in hot weather, and they have to be killed off. Emergency control is got by adding chlorine to the water supply. This works, but makes the water rather distasteful.
Fortunately, infections transmitted in bad water can be cured. There is at least one antibiotic which works well against amoeboid parasites, and another which usually works against bacteria. Treatment costs money, of course, and in many countries that means the treatment is not widely available.
Mandriva Linux
"For the type of plant, see Mandrake"
Mandriva (formerly Mandrake Linux) is a Linux distribution.
The last release was the 2011 version released in August that year. Most Mandriva Linux developers who were laid off went to Mageia.
In May 2015, Mandriva went into administration, as of the 27th of May the organizations website was offline.
Mandriva was first made public by a French software company MandrakeSoft. Its first release was based on Red Hat Linux 5.1 and was released in July 1998. Mandriva Linux was originated by Gaël Duval, and intended to focus on ease of use for new users.
From its first release to version 8.0, Mandrake named its flagship distribution "Linux-Mandrake". From version 8.1 to 9.2 it was called "Mandrake Linux".
In February 2004, MandrakeSoft lost a court case for infringement. And it renamed its products. Starting from version 10.0, Mandrake Linux became known as "Mandrakelinux", and its logo changed accordingly. Similarly, MandrakeMove became Mandrakemove.
In April 2005, Mandrakesoft announced the corporate acquisition of Conectiva. As a result of this acquisition and the legal dispute with Hearst Corporation, Mandrakesoft announced that the company was changing its name to Mandriva, and that their Linux distribution "Mandrake Linux" would henceforward be known as Mandriva Linux.
Since 2007, Mandriva is released on a 6-month fixed-release cycle, similar to Ubuntu and Fedora. However, while newer features are added during each release, the timing of the Spring release stays the same as the first release, so as to ensure the stability each year.
The latest stable version is Mandriva Linux 2011.0 (2011.0), released on 2011-08-28.
The development tree of Mandriva Linux has always been known as "Cooker". This tree is directly released as a new stable version.
The current release is named 2009.1 and was released in April 2009.
Action theory
Action theory is an area in philosophy that talks about theories about the processes that cause intentional (willful) human body movements.
Some Philosophers ask the question 'What is an action?' or 'What makes somebody do an action?'. Here are two theories.
Some philosophers say that an action is caused by a person wanting something and thinking that by doing that action they can get it. For example, if I want an apple and think that by walking to a table with some apples on it I can get one, then I will walk to the table. It is important to have both a want (desire) and a thought about how to get it (belief).
If I think that by walking to a table with some apples on it I can get an apple, but want an orange and not an apple, then I will not walk to the table. If I want an apple, but think that the table across the room is just a picture of a table, then I will not walk to the table.
Other philosophers say that the want-think theory is not true. They say that it is my brain and my nerves that causes an action. They see the brain as working like a computer that directs small electric packages from some nerves to other nerves and stores some for a while in memory. These packages cannot be named, they are just like computer bits and bytes. These philosophers say that we talk about what we want and what we think because the brain is very complicated and we do not understand it yet.
These questions form part of the philosophy of mind.
Xiangqi is a form of chess that started in China. In English it is called Chinese chess.
Though derived from the original Indian Chaturanga, Chinese chess is quite different from modern international chess. The board is different, there are different pieces, and they have different moves. The "general" and his "mandarin" may not leave the nine-pointed fortress; they have only limited movement. Clearly, this is more similar to the old Indo-Arabic game than to modern chess.
Xiangqi is a chess game for two people to play. Each player has 16 pieces to move on the board. One player's set is red, and one is black. The way to win is to kill the other player's Jiang (Shuai). Each kind of piece has different ways to move. Xiangqi is one of the most popular chess games in China.
A governor is a leader of some kind. In some countries, the governor is the leader of a state or a province. For instance, in the United States of America, each of the 50 states has a governor elected by its own people. The governor is the executive for the state's administrative processes.
In Australia and Canada a governor represents the monarch in ceremonies. In many countries such as Pakistan a provincial governor is appointed by the central government acting as the ceremonial head of the provinces.
Republican Party (United States)
The United States Republican Party is one of the two dominant political parties in the United States of America, besides the Democratic party. The United States has many other small parties known as third parties.
The Republicans are often called "the right" or "conservatives". The Republican Party itself is also known as the GOP, which stands for "Grand Old Party". The symbol of the Republican party is the elephant. This symbol was first used in 1874 in a political cartoon by Thomas Nast.
The Republican National Committee, or "RNC", is the main organization for the Republican Party in all 50 states.The Republican Party is not the same political party as the Democratic-Republican Party. A state where most voters vote for Republican politicians is sometimes called a "red state".
The Republican Party was founded in Ripon, Wisconsin in 1854, with the help of Francis Preston Blair. The Republican Party was formed by people who did not like the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which would let each territory allow slavery. The Republican Party was founded by past members of the Free Soil Party and the Whig Party who wanted to stop the expansion of slavery. The founders of the Republican Party wanted to stop the expansion of slavery because they believed it was against the ideals of the Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Some founders of the Republican Party wanted to abolish slavery everywhere in the United States. The Republican Party's first candidate for President of the United States was John C. Frémont in 1856.
As the Whig Party collapsed, the Republicans became one of two major political parties in the United States (the Democratic Party was the other major political party). In 1860 Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican president, was elected. For the rest of the second half of the 19th century, the country had mostly Republican presidents. From 1860 until 1912 the Republicans lost the presidential election just twice (non-consecutively to Democrat Grover Cleveland in 1884 and 1892).
Republicans believed in protectionism (the belief that raising taxes on trades with other countries would protect the economy) during the second half of the 19th century and during the early half of the 20th century.
After World War I, the 1920's had three Republican presidents: Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover. It was called the Republican Decade for that reason. Harding and Coolidge made a plan for the economy which lowered taxes, made the government spend less money, and got rid of rules and laws that affected the economy.
Near the end of the 1920s, the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. During the Great Depression, the Republican Party became less popular. No Republicans were president between 1933 and 1953, when Dwight Eisenhower began his first of two consecutive terms as president. (He was re-elected in 1956.) Richard Nixon lost the election in 1960, but was elected president on the Republican ticket in 1968 and again in 1972.
Ronald Reagan, an actor and conservative political activist, was elected as president in 1980. Ronald Reagan became the first Republican president who was a former member of the Democratic Party. Ronald Reagan served two terms and his successor George H.W. Bush served one term. Reagan wanted fewer laws to affect the economy, and wanted the military to be stronger.
Bill Clinton (a Democrat) was elected president in 1992, and re-elected in 1996. However, a new Congress was elected in 1994, and Republicans gained control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. They voted against many of Clinton's ideas and proposed ideas of their own such as a line item veto and a balanced budget amendment.
After elections held in 2006, Republicans lost control of Congress. Democrat Barack Obama was elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012. Republican John Boehner was elected the Speaker of the House of Representatives in 2010 and re-elected in 2012. In 2014, Republicans gained control of the senate and the house. Boehner resigned in early October 2015 and was eventually succeeded by Paul Ryan of Wisconsin on October 29, 2015. On November 9, 2016, Donald Trump was elected president, defeating Democrat Hillary Clinton in the Electoral College. Trump was the first Republican to take office as president since January 20, 2001, when George W. Bush was inaugurated. The Republicans lost the House and won the Senate in 2018. Paul Ryan retired in 2019 and was succeeded by Nancy Pelosi, who is a member of the Democratic Party.
Currently, the Republican Party is identified by classical liberalism, conservatism, and right-wing policies.
Not all Republicans believe in the same things, but generally these are the things many Republicans support:
Most supporters for the Republican Party come from states in the Southern, Deep South, parts of the Midwest, and the rural Northeast areas of the USA, as well as from Montana; though they come from all over the United States, including the northern portion of California.
Republican Presidents in the 19th Century
Republican Presidents in the 20th Century
Republican Presidents in the 21st Century
Democratic Party (United States)
The United States Democratic Party is one of the two biggest political parties in the United States of America. The other is the Republican Party. The U.S. also has several smaller political parties known as third parties. Supporters of this party are known as Democrats.
Every four years the party holds a National Convention where they agree on their candidate for President. The Democratic National Committee coordinates most of the activities of the Democratic Party in all 50 United States. Since Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration in 1801, there have been 21 Democratic presidents, the most recent (and current) being former Vice President Joseph R. Biden Jr. (D-DE) who took office as President of the United States in 2021.
The Democratic Party represents a broad spectrum of liberal and left-wing ideologies, including—but not limited to—classical liberalism, social democracy, progressivism, and social (modern) liberalism.
Democrats, also sometimes called 'the left', 'liberals' or 'progressives' make up one of the two main political parties in the United States. A mostly Democratic state is sometimes called a 'blue state'. This comes from the party’s main color, which is blue, referring to a state supporting ‘blue’ candidates.
Democrats believe in a strong government with social assistance programs to help members of society. They prefer diplomatic solutions to conflicts, and take generally multilateralist views on trade, believing that trade must be free, but fair to protect American workers, consumers, local communities, and the environment. Some Democrats are economic centrists.
Socially, most Democrats believe in sociocultural liberalism, taking pro-immigration, pro-gay marriage, and pro-choice views.
Currently, the Democratic Party is identified by progressivism, liberalism, and left-wing policies.
Not all Democrats believe in the same thing, but generally these are the things many Democrats support:
Most support for Democrats comes from states in the Northeast, Upper Midwest, and the Pacific Coast, as well as from the state of Hawaii.
The symbol of the Democratic Party is the Donkey. Since the election of 2000, the color blue has become a symbol for Democrats.
Historically, Thomas Jefferson, whom the party claims as its founder, has been often seen as symbols of the Democratic Party, particularly emphasized in the annual celebrations of Jefferson Day Dinners held since the days of Andrew Jackson. As such, the Democratic Party is also often referred to as the “Party of Jefferson.”
Taste is one of the senses experienced by humans and other animals. It is felt by the tongue while eating, and is used to sense the flavor of food that is in the mouth. Humans can sense five tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami.
Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The perception of taste is organised by a special part of the cerebral cortex. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.
Many common foods are bitter, like coffee, bitter melon, olives and citrus peel.
Bitterness is of interest to those who study evolution, as well as various health researchers. Many naturally bitter compounds are toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds may have a protective function, but some test have not confirmed this. Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, and among leaf-eating primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves. Young leaves tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves. Amongst humans, various food processing techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.
Animals which eat a lot of bitter plant material, such as browsers do have ways of dealing with it. They produce tannin-binding proteins, which other animals do not. Tannins are bitter compounds common in material from trees and bushes, though not grass.
Saltiness is felt when there is sodium in the food. A common spice that is salty is common salt, sodium chloride.
Savouriness (or savoriness) is the taste of savoury foods. It is also known by the Japanese word , and comes from umai, which means 'yummy'. This taste was known for a long time, but only became an official scientific term in 1985.
To taste savoriness, your tongue has special parts that detect amino acids that are in foods like meats and cheeses.
Sourness is tasted when acids are on your tongue. Many foods have acid in them and are sour, like lemons and vinegar.
Sweetness is a taste felt when sugars are in the food. Most people consider sweetness to be a pleasant taste.
This sensation is not a special sense of taste because it does not have specific taste buds. It is a complex sensation.
Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation called chemesthesis, piquance, spiciness, hotness, or prickliness. Two main sources of this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers and piperine from black pepper.
Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly giving the sensation of "hot". Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye (cornea) or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to such chemicals.
The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.
Also, it is known that smell and sight contribute to the overall sensation of eating and drinking. The temperature of food makes a difference to its appreciation.
The strange coolness of spearmint, menthol and camphor is caused by their molecules triggering a sensory system which normally works to sense low temperatures.
There is still much to learn about the taste system. Consider, for example, the tastes of ginger and horseradish.
Touch is one of the five main senses that animals have. It can be called the sense of body or the sense of touch. The system also has internal sensory receptors, and includes sensing temperature and pain. There is a special area in the brain used to processing input of touch. It is in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex.
An animal knows if something is against a part of its body. This is called the sense of touch. The process of touching something may be called feeling.
Tiny touch sense organs under the skin help animals feel hardness, softness, and sharpness, for example. Animals also have sense organs which feel temperature and pain. Some parts of the body, such as fingertips have many more sense organs than others.
When animals touch things, nerve fibres attached to the sense organ sends messages to the brain through the central nervous system. The brain interprets the messages, and animals feel things.
Humans, and mammals in general, often touch each other. Touch is a kind of non-verbal communication. Behaviours based on touch are very important for keeping family and group members together ('bonding'). It is part of the 'glue' of their social life. Monkeys grooming each other's fur is a good example.
Classical mechanics
Classical mechanics is the part of physics that describes how everyday things move and how their motion changes because of forces. If we know how things are moving now, classical mechanics allows us to predict how they will move in the future and how they were moving in the past. We can use classical mechanics to predict how things like planets and rockets move.
There are two parts of mechanics. The two parts are classical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics is used most of the time for most of the things we can see, and that are not moving too fast. When the things are too small, classical mechanics is not good. Then we need to use quantum mechanics.
Newton's three laws of motion are important to classical mechanics. Isaac Newton discovered them. Newton's laws tell us how forces change how things move, but they do not say what causes the forces.
The "first law" says that if there is no external force (a push or pull), things that are not moving will stay not-moving, and things that are moving will keep moving in the same way. Before, people thought that things would slow down and stop moving even if there was no force making them stop. Newton said this was wrong. Often, people say, "Objects that are not moving tend to stay not-moving, and objects that are moving tend to stay moving, unless acted upon by an outside force, such as gravity, friction, etc..."
The "second law" says how much a force changes how a thing moves. When there is a net outside force on an object, its velocity (speed and direction of motion) will change. How fast the velocity changes is called the acceleration. Newton's second law says that bigger forces produce more acceleration. But objects with a lot of stuff in them (mass) are harder to push, so they do not accelerate as much. Another way of saying this is that the net force on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum. The momentum measures how much mass is in a thing, how fast it is going, and which direction it is going. So forces change the momentum, but how much they can change the speed and direction of motion still depends on mass.
The "third law" says that if one thing puts a force on another thing, the second thing also puts a force on the first thing. The second force is equal in size to the first force. The forces act in opposite directions. For example, if you jump forward off a boat, the boat moves backward. For you to jump forward, the boat had to push you forward. Newton's third law says that for the boat to push you forward, you had to push the boat backward. Often, people say, "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."
In physics, kinematics is the part of classical mechanics that explains the movement of objects without looking at what causes the movement or what the movement affects.
1-Dimensional (1D) Kinematics are used only when an object moves in one direction: either side to side (left to right) or up and down. There are equations with can be used to solve problems that have movement in only 1 dimension or direction. These equations come from the definitions of velocity, acceleration and distance.
2-Dimensional kinematics is used when motion happens in both the x-direction (left to right) and the y-direction (up and down). There are also equations for this type of kinematics. However, there are different equations for the x-direction and different equations for the y-direction. Galileo proved that the velocity in the x-direction does not change through the whole run. However, the y-direction is affected by the force of gravity, so the y-velocity does change during the run.
Moai are stone statues on Easter Island. Each moai is made out of one large stone but some have an extra stone on top of the head. Most were made from the volcanic rock in the Rano Raraku area of the island. Moai are sometimes called "heads" but they do have shoulders, arms, and a body but these are usually too small for the head, also some of the best known ones had been partly buried over the years and only the heads were showing. Most moai are between 2.5 and 10 metres high and, usually, weigh 14 tonnes. There are about 1000 moai placed mainly around the coast of the island plus nearly 400 more which were left not yet finished at Rano Raraku.
When, why, and how they were made is still a mystery today. It is believed that they were made almost 1000 years ago by Polynesians, who lived there at the time and were made to honour their ancestors (older family members long dead) and bring good luck. Making the statues would have needed a lot of time and effort. To move them, they may have used wooden sledges or rollers or even "walked" them by rocking the moai along. The youngest moai found was built around 1350. It is believed that, around that time, there began a time of cold weather, little food, and war between the peoples. By the 19th century, all the moai had been pushed over. Today, some have been restored.
Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope (or Diogenes the Cynic) was an Ancient Greek philosopher. He was born in the town of Sinope (now called Sinop, Turkey) around the year 412 BC and died in the city of Corinth, Greece on the year 323 BC.
After being exiled for debasing the currency, he moved to Athens. He had a simple life-style and behaviour. This gave him a basis to criticize the social values and institutions of the corrupt, confused society he saw around him.
Diogenes made a virtue of poverty. He begged for a living and often slept in a large ceramic jar in the marketplace. He became notorious for his philosophical stunts. He used to carry a lamp during the day, and claimed he was looking for an honest man.
He criticized Plato, disputed his interpretation of Socrates. He sabotaged Plato's lectures, distracting attenders by bringing food and eating during the discussions. Diogenes was also noted for having publicly mocked Alexander the Great.
Diogenes helped Antisthenes create cynicism, a philosophy that focuses on living a simple life without the need for money, fame, power, or possessions.
Diogenes was captured by pirates and sold into slavery. Eventually he settled in Corinth. There he explained cynicism to Crates, who taught it to Zeno of Citium. Zeno worked on stoicism, which became one of the main schools of Greek philosophy.
None of Diogenes' writings have survived, but there are some details of his life from anecdotes. The anecdotes come from Diogenes Laërtius' book "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers" and some other sources.
A vaccination is a treatment which makes the body stronger against an infection.
The body fights infections using the immune system, which is made up of millions upon millions of cells including T cells and B cells. An important part of the adaptive immune system is that it is much stronger when fighting a disease that it has already fought against before. Vaccination involves showing the immune system something which looks very similar to a particular virus or bacteria, which helps the immune system be stronger when it is fighting against the real infection.
Another word used for vaccines is immunization. These words mean things that are a little different. Vaccination is when a person is "given" something to make the immune system learn to fight an infectious disease.
Immunization is when a person's immune system learns to fight an infection. Immunization can happen from vaccination. But immunization can also happen from getting the "infection". For example, a person can be immune to hepatitis B if he gets sick with hepatitis B. After a person gets hepatitis B and then gets well, he is immunized from getting it again. A person can also be immunized from hepatitis B by taking the hepatitis B vaccination.
So vaccination and immunization have meanings that are a little different. But when people say these words, they usually mean the same thing. People say immunization to mean the same thing as vaccination.
Herd immunity is an important part of how vaccines work. A herd is a group of animals. Herd immunity happens when most of the animals in a group are immune to an infection. If most animals are immune they cannot get the disease. If they do not get the disease, they cannot give it to other animals. So even one animal who is not immune is safer. If none of the other animals in a herd get the infection, they cannot give the infection to the one who is non immune.
This is important in people too. If 95% of people in a place are immune to a disease, the other 5% are safer. They are not near infected people, so they won't get infected.
The people who are in the 5% are there for many reasons. Some got the vaccine but did not react to it. Their immune system did not learn how to fight it well. Some of them are too sick to get the vaccine. It can be children who are too sick with other diseases to get vaccines. It can be a pregnant woman who cannot get the vaccine because it could hurt her baby. It can be a person with cancer who does not have a strong immune system. It can be an older person who has a weak immune system.
So if everyone in a place gets vaccinated, it protects these people too. If they are not protected by "herd immunity", they can get more sick from an infection. They get the infection more easily and they get sicker from it. So it is important that people who are healthy get their vaccinations. It protects the healthy people. But it also is important to protect other people who are old, weak, or sick.
There are different types of vaccines:
There are various other methods. All aim to develop the immune response without allowing the full viral infection to happen.
Today in modern countries almost all people are vaccinated, which has caused many serious diseases to become rare. However, some people argue against vaccination, as they are worried about possible side effects from the vaccination.
Vaccinations do have some side effects. These include swelling and redness around the injection site, a sore arm, or fever. These effects are because of the immune system fighting with the viruses or bacteria which have been injected. Very rarely, the immune system overreacts so much to the virus that the immune system damages other areas in the body.
As well as these real side effects of vaccinations, some people believe that vaccines cause other serious problems like autism, brain damage, or diabetes. There is no evidence for this. Almost all doctors and scientists believe that vaccination does not cause any of these things.
Overall, the vast majority of medical professionals and scientists believe that vaccinations are a good thing and that the benefits of avoiding diseases are far greater than the very small risk of side effects. All medical organizations around the world, including the World Health Organization(WHO), the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the United States Centers for Disease Control support vaccination.
The word "vaccine" was created by Edward Jenner. The word comes from the Latin word "vacca", meaning cow. A virus that mainly affects cows (Cowpox) was used in the first scientific demonstration that giving a person one virus could protect against a related and more dangerous one.
The first vaccination ever was for smallpox. In 1796 an English doctor, Edward Jenner, noticed something. He saw that people who got cowpox did not get sick from smallpox. He gave a young boy the cowpox virus to protect him from smallpox. This was done by scratching liquid from cowpox sores into the boy's skin. This same method using the liquid from sores was also used to give people smallpox. People did this so they might get smallpox on "one place" on their bodies. Then they could "pick" which body part got scars from smallpox. But sometimes people who did this got very sick from smallpox. Some even died. This was a dangerous thing to do. But people did it because it was less dangerous than getting smallpox.
Edward Jenner gave the boy cowpox in the same way people tried to give smallpox. Six weeks later, he scratched smallpox into the boy's skin. The boy did not get sick from smallpox. This boy was the first person ever to get a vaccination.
It was not until almost 100 years after the smallpox vaccination that the next vaccine for cholera was found in 1879. After that, vaccines for 28 different types of diseases have been found.
Vice President of the United States
The Vice President of the United States of America (often shortened to VP or VPOTUS) is the second highest executive officer of the US federal government and the chief deputy to the President of the United States. In their capacity as the deputy head of government, the Vice President is also the President of the Senate who is the presiding officer of the US Senate - the upper house of the U.S legislature. This position is first in line to succeed as President if the current President resigns, dies or is removed from office.
Originally, the Vice President was the person who got the second most electoral votes in the presidential election. This worked well until Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the . After that the 12th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution said that the President and Vice President are elected separately, and if they tie they would be chosen by the Senate.
Soon after that, political parties began running the President and Vice President on one platform. As such, the Vice Presidential candidates are usually chosen by the leadership of a political party, with a strong influence by that party's presidential candidate. The Vice President and President are usually from the same political party (for example, Barack Obama and Joe Biden were both Democrats, and George W. Bush and Dick Cheney were both Republicans).
The Vice President only has one official duty. That is to preside over the Senate and to cast a vote in the Senate if there is a tie. However, recently the duties have been seen to include being a member of the President's Cabinet, or a top advisor to the President (Dick Cheney was the Vice President to take this duty the most seriously). The Vice President is a member of the National Security Council and serves on the board of the Smithsonian. Also, the 25th Amendment says that the Vice President can act as President if the President is incapacitated (can not do the job of President). For example, Vice President George H.W. Bush acted as President when Ronald Reagan was having an operation.
Before 1967, if the President died, it was unclear whether the Vice President was President or merely Acting President. However, John Tyler and others who took over the office said they were not merely Acting President. Also, if the Vice President died, nobody was Vice President until a new one was elected.
This uncertainty was corrected after the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Under the 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution, if the President dies, the Vice President automatically becomes the President. If the Vice President dies, resigns, or becomes President, the President can appoint a new Vice President. The appointment needs to be confirmed by a majority vote of both the House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. This has happened twice. Gerald Ford became Vice President after the resignation of Spiro Agnew, and Nelson Rockefeller became Vice President when Gerald Ford became President after Richard Nixon resigned.
The following Vice Presidents either became President after the death or resignation of the President, or were elected in their own right:
Dick Cheney
Richard Bruce "Dick" Cheney (born January 30, 1941) is an American politician and businessman. He was the Vice President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. As a Republican, he ran in the 2000 US Presidential Election with George W. Bush, and successfully won re-election in the 2004 US Presidential Election. Before he became vice president, he was the Secretary of Defense from 1989 to 1993, during George H.W. Bush's presidency. He was also a member of the House of Representatives from 1979 to 1989, and was White House chief of staff from 1975 to 1977.
Cheney was born at Bryan Medical Center East Campus in Lincoln, Nebraska to Richard Cheney and Marjorie Cheney. Cheney grew up in Casper, Wyoming.
Dick Cheney was the former representative for Wyoming's At-large congressional district. He served in the George H. W. Bush administration from 1989-1993 as a cabinet member. He was a Congressman, and White House Chief of Staff.
He was also in charge of a large defense company called Halliburton when he was out of office during the Clinton presidency.
As Vice President, Cheney was the head of the Senate and cast six tie-breaking votes and he was replaced by Joe Biden as Vice President on January 20, 2009.
Cheney lives in Wyoming. He is an active hunter. In 2006, he shot a friend by mistake while hunting. He did not run for President in 2008. He has criticized President Barack Obama. His wife Lynne Cheney is a distant cousin of President Barack Obama and he is an 8th cousin of President Barack Obama. He is a 9th cousin, once removed of George W. Bush. Cheney is distantly related to Harry S. Truman and Robert Duvall by the Duvall family. He is distantly related to American Express founder Benjamin Pierce Cheney.
On March 24, 2012, Cheney underwent a seven-hour heart transplant process. Cheney has had several heart attacks.
Dick and Lynne Cheney have 2 daughters, Elizabeth and Mary. Mary is openly lesbian and Dick supports same sex marriage along with Mary. Liz is the Congresswoman at-large from Wyoming in the United States House of Representatives.
Toad the Wet Sprocket
Boyz II Men
Boyz II Men is an American boy band from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They were popular in the early 1990s. Founded in 1988 as a quintet (group of five people), Boyz II Men found fame as a quartet (group of four), with members Nathan Morris, Michael McCary, Shawn Stockman, and Wanya Morris, on Motown Records during the early 1990s.
Based on sales, Boyz II Men is the most successful R&B male vocal group of all time. It has recorded five #1 R&B hits between 1992 and 1997 and has since sold more than 90 million albums and 50 million singles. Three of its #1 hits, "End of the Road", "I'll Make Love to You", and "One Sweet Day" (with Mariah Carey), set and broke records for the longest period of time a single remained at #1 on the Billboard Hot 100.
John Lester "Johnny" Nash Jr. (August 19, 1940 – October 6, 2020) was an American reggae and soul singer. His best known singles were "I Can See Clearly Now", "Hold Me Tight" and "Tears on My Pillow".
His biggest hit was "I Can See Clearly Now" in 1972.
In his late teens Johnny Nash came to the attention of Arthur Godfrey and put in many appearances on his TV show. He also had a featured role in the motion picture "Take A Giant Step". Johnny began recording for the ABC Paramount label, and under the guidance of arranger producer Don Costa, he made a number of albums of standards. Including "Johnny Nash", "Let's Get Lost", "The Quiet Hour", "Studio Time" and "I Got Rhythm". Even though he possessed a superb singing voice, it seems that in the early 1960s, all young black male ballad singers were overshadowed by another Johnny. Johnny Mathis. Johnny Nash never really came into the forefront of pop music. He made a couple of obscure jazz tinged albums for the Argo label. Then after being off the scene for a couple of years, he emerged with a new music genre, the reggae, soul and caribbean type song stylings. This was the mid 70's and he found new fans and a new popularity.
On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times" listed Johnny Nash among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.
Nash was born in Houston, Texas. He died on October 6, 2020 in Houston at the age of 80.
Linda Ronstadt (born July 15, 1946) is an American retired singer. She was born in Tucson, Arizona. She has won ten Grammy Awards and many other awards.
Ronstadt has never married. She has an adopted daughter and adopted son. She has been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Her autobiography was published in 2013.
The heart is an organ found in every vertebrate. It is a very strong muscle. It is on the left side of the body in humans and is about the size of a fist. It pumps blood throughout the body. It has regular contractions, or when the heart squeezes the blood out into other parts of the body.
"Cardiac" and "cardio" both mean "about the heart", so if something has the prefix "cardio" or "cardiac", it has something to do with the heart.
Myocardium means the heart muscle: 'myo' is from the Greek word for muscle - 'mys', cardium is from the Greek word for heart - 'kardia'.
The human heart has four chambers or closed spaces. Some animals have only two or three chambers.
In humans, the four chambers are two "atria" and two "ventricles". Atria is talking about two chambers; atrium is talking about one chamber. There is a right atrium and right ventricle. These get blood that comes to the heart. They pump this blood to the lungs. In the lungs blood picks up oxygen and drops carbon dioxide. Blood from the lungs goes to the left atrium and ventricle. The left atrium and ventricle send the blood out to the body. The left ventricle works six times harder than the right ventricle because it carries oxygenated blood.
Blood is carried in blood vessels. These are arteries and veins. Blood going to the heart is carried in veins. Blood going away from the heart is carried in arteries. The main artery going out of the right ventricle is the "pulmonary artery". (Pulmonary means about lungs.) The main artery going out of the left ventricle is the "aorta".
The veins going into the right atrium are the "superior vena cava" and "inferior vena cava". These bring blood from the body to the right heart. The veins going into the left atrium are the "pulmonary veins". These bring blood from the lungs to the left heart.
When the blood goes from the atria to the ventricles it goes through heart "valves". When blood goes out of the ventricles it goes through valves. The valves make sure that blood only goes one way in or out.
The four valves of the heart are:
The heart has three layers. The outer covering is the pericardium. This is a tough sack that surrounds the heart. The middle layer is the myocardium. This is the heart muscle. The inner layer is the endocardium. This is the thin smooth lining of the chambers of the heart.