AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Linguistics, in its broader context, includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.
Although linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and intersect with it. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on and informs work from such diverse fields as acoustics, anthropology, biology, computer science, human anatomy, informatics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and speech-language pathology. Discourse analysis is the study of entire conversations or texts.
Many linguists compare languages to find similar properties. That makes it possible to find things shared by all the languages of the world and also learn the languages that are related in a language family. Linguists who study how languages are structured and how they work are said to study theoretical linguistics.
Another part of linguistics is involved in understanding how languages are used in society or in the world. Sociolinguistics studies how language is used in society, and historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and how languages were in the past. One part of historical linguistics is etymology, the study of the history of words.
The part of linguistics that aims to find out how languages works in the mind is known as psycholinguistics.
The study of language began in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who wrote about the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit grammar, which described the different kinds of vowels and consonants of Sanskrit as well as its verb and noun classes. In the Middle East, Sibawayh (سیبویه) wrote a book about Arabic in 760 AD, "Al-kitab fi al-nahw" (الكتاب في النحو, "The Book on Grammar") and was the first known author to talk about the difference between sounds and phonemes.
Linguistics started in the West as early as it did in the East, but western linguistics at that time was more like philosophy and less the study of language. Plato was the first western philosopher to write about semantics in his "Cratylus" in which he argues that words represent concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. The word "etymology" is first used to talk about the history behind a word's meaning.
For many centuries most linguistic work was "philology".
Region of Murcia
1636 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar.
711 was a year in the 8th century.
Segura
Orihuela
Province of Alicante
Alacant () province is the fifth largest Spanish province by population with 1,750,000, and the second largest in the Valencian Community. It is on the south-east Mediterranean coast and the capital is the city of Alicante, a sea- port with a University. It is a commercial city with monuments like Sainte Barbra Castle. Other important cities are Elche, 215,000 with palms trees and its important shoe industry; Torrevieja, 100,000, tourist centre with the world-famous Habaneras contest; Orihuela, 75,000, agricultural important center; Benidorm, 67,000, the Mediterranean Manhattan; Alcoi, 60,000; textile center, and Elda, 55,000, shoes industry.
The most important river is the Segura, in the south, which provides the water to Alicante, Elche, Torrevieja, Orihuela and other cities. There are others like Vinalopo, Serpis, Amadorio, Ravine of the Sheeps and Monnegre.
The biggest mountain is Aitana, and other mountains are Mariola, Puig Bell, Maigmo and Gold Head, near Alicante. In the coast there are islands, the most important is Tabarca, and other is the Benidorm island. An important coast success is the Penon of Ifach, in Calpe.
The activities in Alicante province are tourism, industry (shoes, carpets, plays, dolls, textiles) and modern agriculture of regadium (oranges, lemons, tomatoes, almonds, wine). There are two universities: University of Alicante and University of Michael Hernandez.
Turkmenistan ( or ; , ;), also known as Turkmenia, is a country in South-Central Asia. It has borders with Afghanistan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. It has no ocean but it is on the Caspian Sea to the west. The capital of Turkmenistan is Ashghabat.
The majority of the country is Muslim at 93%.
Turkmenistan is a non-aligned and fully neutral country.
Turkmenistan was a part of the Soviet Union since its creation, in 1922. At first, Turkmenistan was an autonomous republic within Russian SFSR. In 1925 it was promoted to a Soviet republic. Turkmenistan is an independent country since 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Saparmurat Niyazov became Turkmenistan’s first president in 1991.
Turkmenistan is divided into five provinces and one capital city district. The provinces are divided into districts which may be either counties or cities.
Turkmenistan is one of the driest desert areas in the world. Some places have an average annual precipitation of only . The highest temperature recorded in Ashgabat is . Kerki, an extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya river, recorded in July 1983, but this value is unofficial. 50.1C is the highest temperature recorded at Repetek Reserve, recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union.
Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Spain and somewhat larger than the US state of California. Over 80% of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert.
The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no access to the ocean.
The major cities include Aşgabat, Türkmenbaşy (formerly Krasnovodsk) and Daşoguz.
Turkmenistan has a humid climate. Annual rainfall is low, particularly in summer. Winters are dry and mild. The wettest region in Turkmenistan is Köýtendağ Range. Köýtendağ is situated in southeastern Turkmenistan on the borders with Uzbekistan.
Caesium
Caesium (or cesium) is the chemical element with the atomic number 55 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Cs.
Caesium is an alkali metal. Its melting point is low (28 °C). It is extremely reactive. Because of its high reactivity, it is a dangerous chemical. It may set itself on fire (ignite) in air. It explodes on contact with water. It reacts more violently than the other alkali metals with water. Because of this, caesium is stored in mineral oil.
Caesium is a rare element. Since there is little caesium on the Earth, it is rather expensive. The human body does not need caesium. In large amounts, its chemical compounds are mildly poisonous because it is close to potassium, which the body does need.
Caesium was first described in 1861, by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. They were testing mineral water, from Bad Dürkheim. After they separated calcium, strontium, magnesium and lithium, they saw two lines in the "blue" range of the spectrum. Because of these lines, they concluded that in addition to the elements already found, there must be another unknown substance in the mineral water. They named this substance caesium, after the color blue.
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 112 to 151. Only one of these, Cs, is stable. Therefore, the naturally-occurring isotope of caesium is Cs, which is not radioactive. Cs is used in atomic clocks, its vibration frequency used to define the length of the second. Another isotope, Cs is not made naturally but is made after nuclear fission has been done. It is very radioactive and used as an industrial gamma ray source.
Caesium forms compounds with many other chemical elements. Caesium formate is used in oil drilling because of its high density.
Caesium is extremely reactive in air and water. Caesium rapidly oxidizes in air and can spontaneously combust (randomly catch on fire) at any moment. For this reason, it must be stored in kerosene or a mineral oil, like other group one elements (Lithium, Natrium, Rubidium, and Francium.) In water, Caesium violently reacts to make Caesium Hydroxide (2CsOH). The Caesium sinks for about one second, then explodes. The explosion is over 50 times the size of the size of the element dropped in the water, and the explosion is enough to break a common Pyrex Beaker, Flask, or Test Tube. You can find a video of the reaction here.
Rubidium is chemical element 37 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Rb. Its atomic mass is 85.47. It has 37 protons and 37 electrons. It is a soft silver colored metal. It was first discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff in Heidelberg, Germany.
Rubidium melts at a very low temperature, for example it could melt in a person's hand. Rubidium is an alkali metal. It can make an amalgam with mercury.
Rubidium is very reactive. It will ignite in air because it reacts with many other elements in the air like oxygen and nitrogen. Rubidium reacts very violently with water to make hydrogen and rubidium hydroxide, a strong corrosive base. The reaction is normally very hot so the hydrogen ignites.
Rubidium forms chemical compounds in only one oxidation state: +1. Some rubidium compounds have a mixed oxidation state, though. Rubidium chloride is the most common rubidium compound. Rubidium hydroxide and rubidium carbonate are also used commonly. Rubidium compounds makes a red-violet color in a flame. Most rubidium compounds are colorless. Rubidium compounds are not as common as other alkali metal compounds, such get sodium compounds. Otherwise, they are similar.
Rubidium is about as common as zinc. It is the 23rd most common element in the Earth's crust. Most minerals only have a small amount of rubidium in them. It normally comes in small quantities in other minerals. It is made by reduction of rubidium ores with calcium. It is expensive because calcium is difficult to make and the rubidium needs to be kept in argon and away from water or air.
There are not many common uses for rubidium. Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in purple fireworks. It and its compounds are used mainly in science research though. It is also used to make superoxide ions. It is used in some special types of glass.
Rubidium compounds are not very dangerous in the human body; however, if a person gets too much from eating, they could get sick because it acts like other alkali metal ions such as sodium ions in sodium chloride. Rats can live with up to half of their potassium replaced with rubidium, though it is not likely for that to happen.
Rubidium metal is very dangerous. It reacts with air and water and makes the corrosive substance rubidium hydroxide.
Barium is chemical element 56 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ba. It contains 56 protons and 56 electrons. Its mass number is about 137.3. It is a metal.
Barium is part of a group of elements known as the alkaline earth metals. It is a silvery metal that easily turns black. It is soft and ductile. It can form alloys with some metals that are partially alloys and partially chemical compounds.
Barium is reactive, and if you put pure barium metal in the air, it will react with oxygen. At first it will turn black, then white as barium oxide is formed. Barium reacts with water to make barium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Barium also reacts very fast with acids to make a barium salt and hydrogen. Barium can form barium peroxide if it is burned in air.
Barium reacts with many other metal oxides and sulfides to make barium oxide or sulfide and the metal. It also reacts with carbon and nitrogen at a high temperature to make barium cyanide.
Barium is too reactive as a metal, so it is not found in the earth as a metal. It is found in chemical compounds. Barium only occurs in one oxidation state: +2. Most barium compounds are colorless. The ones that dissolve in water or stomach acid are very toxic. Barium sulfate is well known because it does not dissolve in water or acids. Barium compounds are quite heavy. Barium compounds put out a greenish flame when heated red-hot.
Barium is found as barium sulfate (barite) and barium carbonate (witherite) in the ground. Both of these minerals do not dissolve in water. Barium sulfate hardly dissolves in anything. Barium is found mainly in China, Germany, India, Morocco, and the US.
It is very hard to get barium from barium sulfate. So barium sulfate is reduced by carbon to make barium sulfide and carbon dioxide. The barium sulfide is dissolved in hydrochloric acid. This makes hydrogen sulfide and barium chloride. The barium chloride is melted and electrolyzed to get liquid barium metal. The barium metal is solidified and stored in oil.
Barium carbonate, the other ore of barium, is dissolved in hydrochloric acid to make barium chloride and carbon dioxide. The barium chloride is melted and electrolyzed, making barium metal.
Barium is used to remove oxygen from cathode ray tubes and vacuum tubes. It is placed inside and reacts with all of the oxygen, using it up. Barium is also used in spark plug wire.
Certain compounds of barium, such as barium sulfate, are not toxic and can be put in the body. We can see where the barium travels in the body by X-rays and this can tell us whether there are problems, such as blockages. The barium sulfate builds up inside the body accumulating in organ systems. Barium sulfate absorbs the X-Rays as they pass through the body and an image is formed from the points where the rays have not passed through. It is useful because it provides a reasonably detailed image from very limited radiation exposure, compared with a CT scan for instance. Barium sulfate can be used as a pigment, too.
Other barium compounds have several other uses.
Barium is a very toxic element, though, and is dangerous. There is a really small amount of barium in our food, and this does not cause problems. If we get barium from other places, though, it can cause many problems. Even 1 gram of barium can kill you. It is dangerous because it acts like other really important elements, such as calcium and magnesium. If barium replaces these elements, it messes up the body.
Scandium
Scandium is chemical element number 21 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Sc.
Scandium is a metal in a group known as the transition metals. It is also a rare earth metal. What this means is that there is not very much scandium found in the earth. Because of this, the pure metal can be expensive. The pure metal is very reactive, and will react with other elements like oxygen. The metal turns from shiny to gray.
Scandium is not very dangerous because there is not much of it on Earth, so there is not enough of it to harm us. It does not have many uses. Its main use is perhaps as a component in Mercury-vapor lamps. Such lamps are used to light Stadiums.
Vanadium is chemical element 23 on the periodic table. Its symbol is V. It is named after Vanadis, another name of Freyja.
Vanadium is a metal and is part of the group known as the transition metals. It is mostly used in steel where it helps strengthen the steel metal.
Vanadium is often found in aquatic forms of life. The human body may need a little bit of vanadium, but scientists are not really sure.
Vanadium can react with a variety of other elements, and the chemical compounds it forms often have beautiful colors.
The amount of vanadium in the universe is 0.0001%, making the element nearly as common as copper or zinc. Vanadium is detected by spectroscopy in light from the Sun, and sometimes in light from other stars.
Vanadium is an element that is widely distributed in Earth's crust as well as in seawater and groundwater reservoirs. Therefore it exerts great influence on the issues related to life and the environment. Vanadium is utilized by several marine organisms. For example, there are vanadate-dependent haloperoxidases in algae and several bacteria (e.g. "Azotobacter") use it for nitrogen fixation and bacterial reduction involves the conversion of vanadate to oxide vanadium (IV).
With an average concentration of 35 nM, vanadium (V) (essentially present in the form of ion pairs NaHVO) is the second-to-most abundant transition metal in seawater, outclassed only by molybdenum (present as molybate MoO, ca. 100 nM). Vanadate-dependent haloperoxidases (VHPOs) can be present in marine brown, green, and red, algae, in (symbiotic) marine cyanobacteria, in "Streptomyces" bacteria, and in terrestrial fungi and lichen. Since the discovery of the first representative of these haloperoxidases and the bromoperoxidase VBrPo of the brown algae "Ascophyllum nodosum", also known as wrack or pigweed, a plethora of macroalgae has been reported to have available VHPOs hence haloperoxidases that contain vanadate HVO coordinated to a histidine residue in the enzyme's active center, and thus clearly distinct from the more common heme- based and non-heme peroxidases.
The budget of dissolved vanadium in the oceans is remarkably well balanced, with about 40x10 g V/y to 50x10 g V/y inputs and outputs, and a mean residence time for dissolved V in seawater of ~130,000 y with respect to inputs from rivers. Inputs and outputs are as follows: continental dust, 155x10 g V/y; sea spray, 0.52x10 g V/y; volcanic emissions, 7x10 g V/y; biomass burning, 5x10 g V/y; natural, 3.7x10 g V/y; human-induced, 4.1x10 g V/y; fossil fuel combustion, 100-287x10 g V/y; ratio anthropogenic: natural, 0.59-1.71.
Changes in local redox conditions impart a significant isotopic fractionation from seawater as recorded in the local sedimentary V isotopic signature. Importantly, there is significant differences between the V isotope composition of sediments deposited in the open ocean setting with oxygen-deficient bottom waters compared to less reducing environments. Studies indicate that V is mainly delivered and enriched in anoxic sediments through settling particulates. Authigenic V isotope compositions in marine sediments are likely controlled by isotope fractionation between V species bound to particulates and dissolved in seawater, which likely varies the speciation and adsorption properties of V that are strongly controlled by local redox reactions.
Vanadium isotopes can be significantly fractionated during the delivery, cycling, and burial to the ocean. Temporal variations of V in seawater could be controlled by the aforementioned isotope fractionation and fluxes of various V sources and sinks to the ocean that is likely related to the global redox state of the oceans. A possible mechanism for the V isotopic offset between seawater and hydrogenous Fe-Mn crusts and nodules is the fractionation during the adsorption of V on the surface of the Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide.
Vanadium is the 22nd most common element in the Earth's crust. Metallic vanadium is rare in nature. However, vanadium compounds occur naturally in about 65 different minerals. Much of the world's vanadium production comes from vanadium-bearing magnetite found in ultramafic gabbro rocks. Vanadium is mined mostly in South Africa, north-western China, and eastern Russia. In 2013 these three countries mined more than 97% of the 79,000 tonnes of produced vanadium.
Vanadium is also in bauxite and in deposits of crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands.
Arsenic
Arsenic is chemical element 33 on the periodic table. Its symbol is As. Its atomic number is 33 and its atomic mass is 74.92. It is in the pnictogen group on the periodic table.
Arsenic is found in three allotropes. Gray arsenic is the most common. It is a brittle, somewhat soft metalloid that is a little shiny. It has a density of 5.73g/cm. It is a semiconductor. Yellow arsenic is unstable and rare. It is the most toxic allotrope. It is a soft and waxy nonmetal, similar to white phosphorus. It turns into gray arsenic in light. Its density is 1.97g/cm, much lighter than gray arsenic. It is created when arsenic vapor (made by heating arsenic very hot) is cooled very fast by something like liquid nitrogen. Black arsenic is similar to red phosphorus. It is a brittle, black, and shiny nonmetal. It does not conduct electricity. Since gray arsenic is the most common, it is usually referred to as arsenic.
Arsenic is found as one stable (nonradioactive) isotope, As. There are about 33 radioactive isotopes found. The longest lasting one is As, which has a half life of about 80 days.
Arsenic is a relatively chemically inert element, similar to copper in reactivity. It burns in air to make garlic-smelling arsenic trioxide. Arsenic, as well as some of its compounds, do not have a liquid state; they sublime. Arsenic reacts with fluorine to make arsenic pentafluoride. It reacts with the rest of the halogens to make the arsenic trihalides. Arsenic does not dissolve in hydrochloric acid. It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid to make arsenic acid and in dilute nitric acid to make arsenious acid. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to make arsenic trioxide. Arsenic burns with a pale lavender flame.
Arsenic forms chemical compounds in three oxidation states: -3, +3, and +5. -3 compounds are reducing agents. They are the main form of arsenic in the ground (as arsenides). Arsine is a colorless, highly toxic gas with a garlic odor. The +3 state is the most common. They are weak oxidizing agents. Arsenic trioxide is a white solid. It dissolves in water to make a solution of arsenious acid. The arsenic trichlorides are low melting covalent solids. The +5 state is common, too. They are strong oxidizing agents. Arsenic pentafluoride, a colorless and highly reactive gas, is the only stable arsenic pentahalide. Arsenic pentoxide dissolves in water to make arsenic acid, which can make arsenate salts.
-3 compounds are reducing agents. They are found as arsenides and arsine. The metal arsenides have properties between an alloy and a salt.
+3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents. Many are colorless, although some are orange.
Arsenites are salts of arsenious acid.
+5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents.
Arsenates are salts of arsenic acid.
Arsenic is found sometimes as an element in the ground, but is normally found in minerals. Some arsenic minerals have a metal and sulfur along with arsenic. Arsenopyrite is iron arsenic sulfide. It is the same as pyrite with arsenic added. Other arsenic minerals have a metal and arsenic. Erythrite, a cobalt arsenide mineral, is an example. Other arsenic minerals are simple. Realgar and orpiment (arsenic sulfides), simple arsenic minerals, are ores of arsenic.
Arsenic is found as a less toxic variety in fish and mushrooms. Some people think that humans need very small amounts of arsenic to be healthy. Some bacteria can use arsenic instead of phosphorus for some things; they are called arsenic bacteria.
Most arsenic is made from the waste products after other metals are processed. Only China actually mines arsenic.
Arsenic is made from arsenopyrite by heating it. This makes arsenic trioxide which sublimes (along with sulfur dioxide), while the iron oxide stays behind. The arsenic trioxide is condensed, while the sulfur dioxide does not condense. The arsenic trioxide can be reduced with carbon. Another way is to heat the arsenopyrite without air. Then gray arsenic is made. Realgar can be heated to make arsenic trioxide as well.
Arsenic was known since antiquity. It was alloyed with bronze to make the bronze harder. Some people used arsenic as make-up, although it was toxic. Arsenic was well known as a poison. Since people used it to kill royalty and it was hard to detect, it was called the "Poison of Kings" and the "King of Poisons". An arsenic compound could have been the first organometallic compound (a metal bonded to an organic compound).
Arsenic compounds were used as a preservative for wood. Once people saw how toxic arsenic was, they stopped using it to preserve wood. Some feed for animals had arsenic in it to prevent disease. Lead arsenate was used as an insecticide in orchards but damaged the brains of those who put the insecticide on the trees.
Arsenic was used in medicines in the 1700s, 1800s, and 1900s. Arsenic trioxide was used to treat cancer. Very tiny doses of arsenic compounds can act as stimulants. Some arsenic compounds are used as poison gases.
Arsenic as an element is used in alloys. The lead in lead acid batteries has some arsenic in it to make it stronger. Some semiconductors have arsenic in them.
Copper arsenate was used as a coloring for sweets. Paris green, a green pigment having arsenic in it, made many people sick. Some bullets have arsenic in them. Arsenic is sometimes added to brass to prevent the zinc from coming out. Arsenic was used in optical glass but was taken out because it was toxic.
Arsenic and its compounds are highly toxic. They are carcinogens. Water near arsenic mines is normally contaminated with arsenic. Wood that was preserved with arsenic compounds can leach arsenic into the soil. Emissions from coke ovens have arsenic in them.
Manganese
Manganese is chemical element 25 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Mn. (Some people get it confused with magnesium, the symbol is Mg). Manganese is used a lot in steel to make it stronger. This is the main use for manganese metal. Manganese compounds, particularly manganese(IV) oxide, are used in alkaline cells and Leclanche cells. Manganese metal is also alloyed with aluminium.
Our bodies and plants need manganese to work right. If we do not get enough manganese, we can get sick. We get manganese from our food and vitamins also have some manganese to make sure that we get enough. It has 25 protons. Its mass number is 54.94.
Manganese is a silvery-gray metal and is part of the group known as the transition metals. It is similar to iron. It is hard to melt, but easy to oxidize. Manganese forms chemical compounds in several oxidation states: +2, +4, and +7 are the most common. Manganese compounds can be black, brown, pink, red, green, blue, and purple. Manganese(II) compounds are pink or light brown. They are unreactive. Manganese(II) chloride is a common example. Manganese(III) compounds are weak oxidizing agents. Manganese(IV) compounds are stronger oxidizing agents, but they are rarer. They are normally black in colour. Manganese(IV) oxide is an example.
Manganese(V) compounds are not stable and disproportionate easily. They are bright blue. They are very rare. Hypomanganates are the most common manganese(V) compounds. Manganese(VI) compounds are made in the process used to make permanganates. They disproportionate too. Manganates are weak reducing agents and moderate oxidizing agents. They are bright green.
Manganese(VII) compounds are purple-black and are powerful oxidizing agents. Permanganates contain the MnO ion. They are normally purple-black and strong oxidizing agents. Potassium permanganate is an example.
Manganese that is found in nature is made up of one stable isotope, which is manganese-55. Manganese has many radioisotopes ranging from manganese-44 to manganese-69. The most stable radioisotope is manganese-53. It has a half-life of 3.7 million years.
The Earth's crust contains about 1000 ppm of manganese. It is the 12th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Soil contains 7–9000 ppm of manganese. Seawater only contains 10 ppm of manganese. The atmosphere contains 0.01 µg/m of manganese. Manganese mainly occurs as pyrolusite, braunite, psilomelane.
Manganese is sometimes found alloyed with iron naturally. These rocks, called meteorites, came from space. Pyrolusite is one of the main sources of manganese. It also occurs as manganese carbonate. Some silicates have manganese in them. The derivation of Manganese may have come from either the Latin 'magnes', meaning magnet, or from the black magnesium oxide, 'magnesia nigra'.
Manganese is normally made in an alloy with steel. This is made by mixing manganese ore and iron ore in a furnace and reducing it with carbon. This forms an alloy called ferromanganese. Pure manganese is made by reacting the manganese ore with sulfuric acid and electrolyzing it.
Our bodies and plants need manganese to work right. If we do not get enough manganese, we can get sick. We get manganese from our food and vitamins also have some manganese to make sure that we get enough.
Manganese is used to make cheap stainless steel. Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl is used as an additive in gasoline that does not have lead to reduce engine knocking.
Manganese(IV) oxide is used as a reagent in organic chemistry for the oxidation of benzylic alcohols. Manganese dioxide is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine. It is also used to dry black paints. Sometimes, it is used as a brown pigment for paint. It is a component of natural umber.
Manganese compounds have been used as pigments to color ceramics and glass. Tetravalent manganese is used as an activator in phosphors that glow red. Manganese oxide is also used in Portland cement mixtures.
There are lots of classes of enzymes that have manganese cofactors. They are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, lectins, and integrins. The reverse transcriptases of many retroviruses contain manganese.
Manganese is an essential nutrient. It is found as a coenzyme in many biological processes. They include macronutrient metabolism, bone formation, and free radical immune system. It is a very important component in lots of proteins and enzymes. The human body contains about 12 mg of manganese. Manganese is found in the bones, liver, brain and kidneys. In the human brain, the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins.
Manganese is also important in the photosynthetic oxygen evolution in the chloroplasts of plants. The oxygen-evolving complex is a part of photosystem II. The photosystem ll is found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. It is responsible for the photooxidation of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis. It has a metalloenzyme core that has four atoms of manganese.
Manganese dust can irritate lungs. Some manganese compounds cause toxicity when ingested. Manganese is less toxic than nickel or copper. Permanganates are the most toxic manganese compounds. When someone is exposed to manganese for a long time it can cause a problem with the nervous system.
Gallium (chemical symbol: Ga) is chemical element 31 on the periodic table.
Gallium is a metal, but it has some unusual properties. It's melting point is 85.58 Fahrenheit. If it is held in a person's hand, it will melt. It makes a stain on your hand when put on your hand. Gallium is safe in your hands but is not edible. Some Gallium Compounds can be very dangerous. Gallium does not conduct electricity well, and is known as a semiconductor. That means gallium can be used in computers to make them work. It is very shiny, so it is used to create mirrors when its in its liquid form. In its purest extracted form, gallium is a vibrant silver color. As a solid, it is blue-gray. Gallium has been used in nuclear bombs to stabilize the crystal structure. It's related to aluminium, indium, and thallium.
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (15 April 1894 – 11 September 1971) was the leader of the Soviet Union after the death of Joseph Stalin. He ruled from 1953–1964.
Nikita was born in the town of Kalinovka in Russia. He later moved to Ukraine. He worked in mines, and became part of the Bolshevik movement. He was a political commissar in the Red Army in the Russian Civil War and again in World War II and moved his way up in the Communist Party, eventually becoming trusted by Joseph Stalin. When Stalin died, Georgy Malenkov and several others including Khrushchev shared power. Eventually Khrushchev became the leader.
He died of heart disease on 11 September 1971 in Moscow, aged 77.
When Nikita became the leader of the Soviet Union, he began something he called "De-Stalinization". He made a secret speech, in which he denounced Stalin as a man who committed many murders of innocent people. In early 1956, he took down all posters and statues of Joseph Stalin. Also, he moved Stalin's grave to a place where people could not see it.
He also had better contacts with the western countries like the USA, Britain, and France. This means the USSR and the western world were friendlier. He visited America in 1959. During this visit, Khrushchev spoke at the United Nations and visited where he wanted, including destinations such as New York and Hollywood. However, his visit to Disneyland was cancelled for security reasons.
But the USSR and the US still did not trust each other. In 1962 America and the USSR had a Cuban Missile Crisis which could have led to nuclear war but didn't. Khrushchev had bargained with the Americans to get rid of the missiles they had placed in Turkey, for the missiles in Cuba were the only way for withdrawal.
Also, during this time, the Soviet Union became a lot less friendly with China. Because the Chinese leader Mao Zedong liked Stalin, he did not like it when Khrushchev became friendlier with the west, and when Nikita Khrushchev began a "destalinization" campaign.
Rambla de las Ovejas
The Rambla de las Ovejas (which translates to Ravine of the Sheeps) is a water course of the province of Alicante, in Spain. It originates at the foot of the Maigmo, to 1,100 meters of height and gathers the waters of the sides of the Maigmo, Cid and others of minor height across numerous tributary ravines. It ends in the city of Alicante, between the neighborhoods of Babylon and Saint Gabriel.
The tributary ravines are those of Rambuchar, Pepior, Alabaster and Bramble, between the most important. The normally dry riverbed experiences forts grown as consequence of torrents, like the rains in 1982 it came to 400 m³/seg. in Alicante causing serious destruction and human losses. It has since been canalized providing to the riverbed of a potential capacity of 735 m³/seg. In the floods of 1997 it came to 100 m³/seg.
Guadalquivir
Guadalquivir is a river in southern Spain. It crosses the autonomous community of Andalusia. The name derives from the Arab "Wadi al-Kabir" ("big river"), whereas the Romans were called it "Betis".
Guadalquivir starts in the Glen of the Sources in the mountains near Cazorla (Jaen province) and ends in Sanlucar de Barrameda (Cadiz province). It goes through the provinces of Jaen, Cordoba, Seville and Cadiz. The river is long. The main tributaries are the rivers Genil (which flows through Granada), The Minor Guadiana, Guadalbullon, and Guadajoz on the left side, and Guadalmena, Jandula, and Guadiato on the right.
It is the only river in Spain with shipping traffic. At present, it only is navigable up to Seville. In the Roman epoch it was navigable up to Cordoba.
Ebro
Toledo Province
Talavera of the Queen ("Talavera de la Reina" in Spanish) is a city of the interior of Spain. It is the capital of a wide region belonging to the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. It is located in the northwest of the province of Toledo. Talavera of the Queen is the second biggest city of Castile-La Mancha, and the first one of the province, with a population of 85.172 inhabitants.
Its mistress is "Our Lady of the Meadow".
As curiosity of this locality emphasizes that Gwyneth Paltrow is an adopted child of this locality.
Castilla–La Mancha
Castilla–La Mancha or Castile-La Mancha is an autonomous community in Spain with a population over 2,000,000. The capital is Toledo and the biggest cities are Albacete, Talavera of the Queen, Guadalajara, Ciudad Real, Puertollano, and Cuenca.
Provinces of Castile-La Mancha:
Ciudad Real
Ciudad Real (this translates to "Royal City") is a city in Spain. It is the capital of the province with the same name, in the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha.
The city has 69,063 people who live there. It is an average of 628 meters above sea level. The municipal area is 285 km². It is approximately 200 km to the south of Madrid.
Puertollano
NOFX is a popular punk rock band from California. The band was formed in 1983 by Fat Mike. As of April 2009, NOFX has released eleven full-length albums. Their latest one, "Coaster", came out on April 28, 2009.
Toledo is the name of several things. The best known cities are:
Methane is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an alkane with one carbon atom. It is often found as the main part of natural gas. Methane is a greenhouse gas 23 times more effective than carbon dioxide. It is also less stable and slowly oxidates by oxygen to carbon dioxide and water.
Methane is used in gas taps in places such as kitchens, chemistry classrooms, laboratories, etc. as it burns very easily because of its simple molecular structure.
Methane's molecular structure is very simple. It is a single carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen atoms.
Methane can be made by many chemical ways, but usually is found in natural gas and is obtained by fractional distillation, after it has become liquid.
Dance Dance Revolution is a series of video games made by Konami in which players step on arrows on a large pad or mat to match the arrows on screen. The arrows are in time with the music. Because players are moving themselves along to the music, they look like they are dancing. There is a large variety of music.
There is a bar at the top of the screen. If players make mistakes, the bar gets smaller. If players do not make mistakes, the bar grows. The game ends if the player makes too many mistakes.
Players can choose between three levels. They are called light, standard, and heavy. Light is easy and heavy is hard. On some of the newer games, there is a beginner mode, which is very easy, and a challenge mode, which is very hard.
Players are graded by their performance in letters (from lowest to highest, E, D, C, B, A, AA and AAA) based on how well they played the song. The better a player does on a song, the higher their grade is.
From "DDR SuperNOVA" to later versions, the levels are called beginner, basic, difficult, expert, and challenge.
There is a wide variety of music in "Dance Dance Revolution". Most of the songs are created by people at Konami, with some other well-known popular songs included as well. From the first "Dance Dance Revolution" game up until "DDR Extreme", the games had a partnership with Toshiba EMI, a record company which is now part of Virgin Records. This partnership meant that a lot of popular songs from Toshiba EMI's "Dancemania" series of dance music albums could appear in the games.
If the player gets an "AA" on the last stage in "Expert", "Heavy", or "Challenge", they can play an extra stage. Usually, on the extra stage, the game ends if four mistakes are made. If the player performs well enough on the extra stage, an Encore extra stage is played. In the Encore extra stage, one missed step will cause the game to end.
Some educators even believe DDR should be in schools as exercise.
Street Fighter II
Street Fighter II is a 1991 fighting game made by Capcom.
The player controls a martial arts fighter and has to knock out the opponent. There are many playable characters, including Ryu, Ken Masters, Guile and Chun Li. Each character has special moves that require special commands to perform. The game has 4 bosses - Balrog (M. Bison in Japan), Vega (Balrog in Japan), Sagat, and M. Bison (Vega in Japan). (Balrog and Sagat were also featured in the first Street Fighter game). There have been many follow-up games to "Street Fighter II". The franchise for the games became popular. The game was released for arcades and different consoles.
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers is a television series which ran for 3 seasons (one season of television is made in a year), which is longer than the "Power Rangers" shows after this series have lasted. This series has 155 episodes in total. This series aired on Fox from 1993 to 1996. This series re-aired on ABC Kids in January 2010. The next show after the third season is called "Power Rangers: Zeo". There are many different versions of Power Rangers, and most of them were made with better technology, yet many still prefer this one more than any other. Like all Power Rangers shows, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers is based on Super Sentai shows & from Japan. Each season of "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" is based on a different Super Sentai show (Zyuranger, Dairanger & Kakuranger) from Japan.
Five teenagers battle against the witch Rita Repulsa and the wizard Lord Zedd to defend the earth. They have large robots called Zords and battle suits for their fights. They are armed with special weapons like swords, axes, bows, daggers and lances to help them fight monsters. Rita and Lord Zedd have an army of fighters known as Putties, which get destroyed and broken into many pieces when they are hit by their weak spot - a Z plate on their chest.
Rita is in a prison on the Moon. When she gets out of it, she wants to destroy Earth, because that's what she wanted to do before she was put in prison. She brings along her helpers, who were also in prison. One of them is called Goldar. He is a blue gorilla in gold armor who can fight better than anyone. To stop her, five teenagers are chosen by a wizard called Zordon. Zordon has an robot called Alpha 5 who helps him. The teenagers are given special magic coins that turn them into Power Rangers.
Rita has her own magic coin, and uses it to make her own evil Power Ranger, the Green Ranger. The Green Ranger fights the good Power Rangers, because Rita is controlling his mind. They free him from Rita's evil magic, but his magic coin stops working the right way, and begins to hurt him when he uses it. The Green Ranger gives up his magic coin to the Red Ranger who will not get hurt by it.
When Lord Zedd comes into the show, he destroys the Power Rangers' Zords. Zordon takes the Green Ranger's magic coin and uses it to make new Zords for the Power Rangers. These new Zords are mostly fairy tale animals, like the unicorn and the dragon. The old Zords were Dinosaurs, like Triceratops and T-Rex. Lord Zedd also puts Rita back in her prison and throws her away into space, because she was not doing a good enough job of being evil.
But one day, a new Power Ranger appears. His costume is White Ranger, and his Zord is a White Tiger. No one knows who he is, but he turns out to be the old Green Ranger. Later, three of the Power Rangers have to leave the team and go to Switzerland. They choose three teenagers from another school to take their powers.
Rita comes back, too, and gives Lord Zedd a love potion. He falls in love with her, and they get married. Goldar gives Lord Zedd another potion to stop the love potion, but Lord Zedd's love for Rita turns out to be true and they stay married.
Rita's brother, Rito Revolto, comes to visit his sister. He looks like a skeleton. Rito does what Rita and Lord Zedd could not do, and destroys the Power Ranger's magic coins. The Power Rangers go and find Ninjor, a powerful ninja (a ninja is a type of fighter from Japan), who made the magic coins. He agrees to help them and makes new coins and new Zords for them. They become Ninja Power Rangers, and their new Zords are animals like the wolf and the frog.
Near the end of this season, Rita and Rito's father Master Vile comes to help conquer Earth. He is very powerful, even more powerful than his children together. He uses his powers to turn back time, turning the Power Rangers into Powerless kids. Zordon calls upon his proteges the Alien Rangers of Aquitar to protect the Earth from Master Vile's monsters and to help work on a machine that would return the child rangers to their proper ages. Unfortunately, only Billy returns to normal as the machine which required the power coins as a power source is stolen by Rito & Goldar allowing Rita & Zedd to destroy the coins. The child rangers then travel throughout time to gather the fragments of the Zeo Crystal to bring time back to normal. During her journey in Africa, Aisha meets Tanya Sloan and realizes that she can do more help to stop the sickness plaguing the wildlife and sends Tanya back with her Zeo Crystal.
Office Space is a 1999 American comedy movie starring Ron Livingston and Jennifer Aniston. The movie was directed by Mike Judge. The movie is a satire of white collar office work in the United States.
Office Space received mostly positive reviews from reviewers, which means that most of them thought that it was a good movie. However, it did not make very much money at movie theaters, only earning $10,827,810 from movie tickets. The movie went on to become a cult classic, becoming more popular over time.
Syriana
Syriana is an 2005 American drama thriller movie, which has won Academy Award and Golden Globe Awards. It is directed by Stephen Gaghan and produced by Jennifer Fox, Michael Nozik, Georgia Kacandes, Steven Soderbergh, George Clooney. The movie stars Clooney, Matt Damon, Jeffrey Wright, Chris Cooper, and William Hurt.
The movie is about a lot of people doing complicated things. One of the people is a CIA agent (Clooney) who is angered when his boss tries to invade his privacy. Another person, Damon, whose child dies, gets a better job working for a king. Then another person, a lawyer, Jeffrey Wright finds out that the oil company is actually not good and should be removed from power immediately. The last part of the movie is about two Muslims who become suicide bombers because they feel offended.
Shareware is a way to sell software.
The user will get a preview or demo of the software for free. This way, the user can decide if he or she likes the program or not before buying the complete program.
Users can get games for free this way but most of the time these games do not have all the levels. Sometimes Internet Relay Chat clients let users have a demo of their client for 30 days, but after that, in order to keep using it, the user will have to pay money.
Brokeback Mountain is a 2005 American romantic drama movie by Ang Lee. The film is set in Wyoming during the years from 1963 to 1981. The story is about two bisexual cowboys, Heath Ledger and Jake Gyllenhaal, who are in love with each other. During that time it was difficult to have homosexual relationships. The movie is based on a short story of the same name by Annie Proulx.
"Brokeback Mountain" was a big success. It won many important prizes: the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival, Best Picture and Best Director at the BAFTA and the Golden Globe awards. It also received 8 nominations at the 78th Academy Awards, where it won 3 Oscars: Best Director, Best Original Score and Best Adapted Screenplay. It is in the 12th place for romantic movies that made the most money.
In 1963, Ennis Del Mar (Heath Ledger) and Jack Twist (Jake Gyllenhaal) are hired by Joe Aguirre (Randy Quaid). They need to look after his sheep up in Brokeback Mountain for the summer. One night, Jack makes a move on Ennis and the two men end up having sex. Soon an emotional relationship develops. Before leaving at the end of the summer they have a fight.
When they return home, Ennis marries Alma Beers (Michelle Williams) and has two daughters with her. Jack goes back the next summer but does not get hired because Joe had seen him with Ennis the year before. He moves to Texas, where he marries a rodeo rider, Lureen Newsome (Anne Hathaway). After four years, Jack goes back to meet Ennis. They kiss and Alma sees them. Jack would like to go and live with him but Ennis does not want to. They decide to continue meeting from time to time for fishing trips.
The marriages of both Jack and Ennis get worse. Alma and Dennis divorce in 1975. Later Alma tells Ennis she knows about Jack. They have a fight and do not see each other again. Lureen becomes a businesswoman and her father wants Jack to stop being a cowboy. Jack asks Ennis again to live together, but Ennis does not want to leave his children. At the end of one fishing trip, Ennis and Jack have another argument.
Later, Ennis sends a postcard to Jack. It is given back to him with a "DECEASED" stamp. Lureen tells Ennis that Jack had an accident. Ennis instead thinks that he was killed by a gang because he was gay. Ennis goes to Jack's parents to get his ashes. Jack wanted them to be thrown on Brokeback Mountain but his father does not give them to Ennis. However, his mother lets him have a look around Jack's room. Ennis finds the shirts that they were wearing all those years ago when they first had a fight.