AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
There were some movements considered heresies by the early church which do not exist today and are not generally referred to as denominations. Examples include the Gnostics (who had believed in an esoteric dualism), the Ebionites (who venerated Christ's blood relatives), and the Arians. The greatest divisions in Christianity today, however, are between Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and various denominations formed during and after the Protestant Reformation. There also exists in Protestantism and Orthodoxy various degrees of unity and division.
Comparisons between denominations must be approached with caution. For example, some churches are part of a larger church organization or diocese, while in other groups, each congregation is an independent organization. This issue is further complicated by the existence of groups of congregations with a common heritage that are officially nondenominational and have no centralized authority or records, but which are identified as denominations by non-adherents. Study of such churches in denominational terms is therefore a more complex proposition.
Numerical comparisons are also problematic. Some groups count membership based on adult believers and baptized children of believers, while others only count adult baptized believers. Others may count membership based on those adult believers who have formally affiliated themselves with the congregation. In addition, there may be political motives of advocates or opponents of a particular group to inflate or deflate membership numbers through propaganda or outright deception.
List of Christian denominations by number of members
This article gives information about the relative size of denominations, based mainly on claims by the churches themselves.
Catholicism is the largest branch of Christianity with 1.329 billion and the Catholic Church is the largest among churches. Figures below are in accordance with the "Annuario Pontificio", at 2018. The total figure does not include independent Catholic denominations (18 million).
Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians by number of followers. Estimates vary from 800 million to a billion, or nearly 40% of all Christians. The main reason for this wide range is the lack of a common agreement among scholars as to which denominations constitute Protestantism. For instance, most sources but not all include Anabaptism, Anglicanism, Baptists and Independent Nondenominational Christianity as part of Protestantism. Moreover, Protestant denominations altogether do not form a single structure comparable to the Catholic Church, or to a lesser extent the Eastern Orthodox Communion. However, several different comparable communions exist within Protestantism, such as the Anglican Communion, World Communion of Reformed Churches, World Baptist Alliance, World Methodist Council and the World Lutheran Federation. Regardless, 900 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars, and thus is used in this article. Note that this 900 million figure also includes Anglicanism, as well as Anabaptists, Baptists and multiple other groups that might sometimes disavow a common "Protestant" designation, and would rather prefer to be called, simply, "Christian".
The number of individuals who are members of historical Protestant Churches totals to 300-400 million.
There are about 110 million Christians in Anglican tradition, mostly part of the Anglican Communion, the third largest Christian denomination in the world.
The number of individuals who hold membership in the Baptist denomination totals to 75-105 million, being represented in the following Churches:
The number of adherents in the Lutheran denomination totals to 70-90 million persons, being represented in the following Churches:
The Reformed tradition is represented by 60-80 million people who hold membership in the following Churches:
The number of members in the Methodist denomination totals to 60-80 million people, being represented in the following Churches:
The Seventh-day Adventist Church has a membership of 21.4 million people.
The Plymouth Brethren number around 1 million members.
The denominations listed below did not emerge from the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century or its commonly acknowledged offshoots. Instead, they are broadly linked to Pentecostalism or similar other independent evangelical and revivalistic movements that originated in the beginning of the 20th century. For this reason, several sources tend to differentiate them from Protestants and classify them as together as Independents, Non-core Protestants etc. Also included in this category are the numerous, yet very similar Nondenominational churches. Nonetheless, sources eventually combine their numbers to the Protestant tally. Despite the absence of centralized control or leadership, if considered as a single cohort, this will easily be the second largest Christian tradition after Roman Catholicism. According to the Center for the Study of Global Christianity (CSGC), there are an estimated 450 million Independents world-wide, as of mid-2019.
Those who are members of the Pentecostal denomination number around 280 million people.
60 million people are members of African initiated churches.
The New Apostolic Church has around 10 million members.
The best estimate of the number of Eastern Orthodox Christians is 210–230 million or 80% of all Orthodox Christians worldwide. Its main body consists of the various autocephalous churches along with the autonomous and other churches canonically linked to them, for the most part form a single communion, making the Eastern Orthodox Church the second largest single denomination behind the Catholic Church. In addition, there are several Eastern Orthodox splinter groups and non-universally recognized churches.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are those descended from those that rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Despite the similar name, they are therefore a different branch of Christianity from the Eastern Orthodox (see above). There are an estimated 62 million Oriental Orthodox Christians, worldwide.
A sixth group is composed by Non-trinitarian Restorationists. These groups are quite distinct from orthodox Trinitarian restorationist groups such as the Disciples of Christ, despite some shared history.
Christendom or the Christian world, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon. That means: those countries where most people are Christians and because of that are part of Christendom.
People have used the term Christendom for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single "Body of Christ" with Christ as the head. With the rise of Modernity and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.
A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith. The word comes from the Latin "credo" for "I believe". It is called "symbol" (Greek, συμβολον), that means a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.
It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed. The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It reads:
The Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes. The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity.
Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles' Creed.
The Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God. This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One", also translated as "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique ["or" alone]."
In Hebrew: שמע ישראל אדני אלהינו אדני אחד
This is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: "Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad".
The most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.
More detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.
The six Sunni articles of belief are:
Also from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases. This differs from the Murji’ah a sect who uphold the belief of “Irjaa’”-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.
And they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light. It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created. One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech. Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created. According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief. It is not denied except by a Jahmee. A Jahmee is one who denies Allah’s attributes.
Creed (disambiguation)
A creed is a statement of belief, usually religious.
Creed may also refer to:
Fictional
The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is ""Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah"", meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God". The Shia and Quraniyoon sects may have slight differences in their shahada.
The Quranist sources comes from verse 3:18 of the Quran. It states: "God bears witness that there is no other god besides Him, and so do the angels and those who possess knowledge."
In addition to the first two testimonies, Shia Muslims may also recite the third testimony of:
A single honest recitation of the shahadah in Arabic is all that is required for a person to become a Muslim according to most traditional schools of Islam.
According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, Purgatory is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven."
“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.
There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.
It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.
Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's "Purgatorio", the second book of his "Divine Comedy". Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's "Hamlet" may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker. He was born in London and died there.
During his lifetime he was not very well known. Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts. Blake's first collection of poems, "Poetical Sketches", was printed around 1783. His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry. The hymn is called "Jerusalem".
Blake was voted 38th in a poll of the 100 Greatest Britons organised by the BBC in 2002.
Digital editions and research
An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.
An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example:
Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are:
Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe.
Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.
Race (biology)
In biology, races are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences.
The populations are "ecological races" if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or "geographic races" when they are geographically isolated.
If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'.
If not, they are called "races", which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given.
According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a "geographic race" that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime.
The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.
Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys. It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as "Mexican limes") had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.
In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term "race" is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.
In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races. For example, they called people with a dark skin "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.
The phenotype of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.
It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.
In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between "germ plasm" (gametes or their stem cells) and "somatic cells" (the body).
The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.
Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.
The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.
Key lime
The Key lime is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is "Citrus aurantiifolia" (often, less correctly: "C. aurantifolia"), or "Citrus" x "aurantiifolia" (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height.
Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has a higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime. The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie.
"C. aurantiifolia" is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name "aurantiifolia" refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September .
"C. aurantiifolia" originally came from Southeast Asia. It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California . The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو "Limu" in this course. "Key" would seem to have been added some time after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. "C. aurantiifolia" plants. Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane. Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.
Age of Discovery
The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.
They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, , Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.
Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.
In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.
In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.
In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.
In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.
Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.
In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.
Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.
When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world. Instead, he had found a New World. Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.
Persian lime
Persian Lime ("Citrus x latifolia"), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life.
Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.
ssKaffir lime
The Kaffir lime ("Citrus hystrix "DC., Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.
The plant is a very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.
"Citrus x hystrix" leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.
The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.
Although the most common product of the "Citrus x hystrix" tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally "sour vegetables"), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally "medicine citrus") are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.
The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.
Other names for "Citrus x hystrix":
"The Oxford Companion to Food" () recommends that the name "kaffir lime" should be avoided in favour of "makrut lime" because "Kaffir" is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However "kaffir lime" appears to be much more common.
Medina (; , ' , "the radiant city"; or , ' (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.
Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.
Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.
Medina currently has a population of more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as "Yathrib", but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ "city of the prophet") or "Al Madīnah al Munawwarah" ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form "Madīnah" simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).
Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because the Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet'. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as "Masjid Quba," (the Quba Mosque).
Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The "haram" (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though. Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.
Doctrine (Latin: "doctrina") is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".
Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches.
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.
In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.
Examples of religious doctrines include:
One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.
Examples of military doctrines include:
The citron ("Citrus medica") is a species of citrus fruit. It usually has a thick rind and small sections. Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia. Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico. The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres. The fruit can grow to a size of about 25 cm in length, and about 4 kg in weight. The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used. The rind is used. It is made into an additive for cooking. Jam can also be made from the rind. The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes.
Generally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.) In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea. Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia ("HN" xii.7). The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny. There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime. Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India. They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species.
The citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is "Cedrat", which is the French name for the fruit. Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple. Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, "apple" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits). Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times.
In many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a "citron" and a Lime is called a "limon". Although the East Asian citrus fruit "yuzu" (also called "yuja") is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, "Citrus junos".
The citron fruit is slow-growing. The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old. The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length. Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid.
In Pliny's time the fruit was never eaten (it began to be used in cooking by the early 2nd century), but its intense perfume was used, penetrating clothes to repel noxious insects (compare Citronella).
In Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog (). It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall. The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin. Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species.
In South Indian cuisine, especially Tamil cuisine, citron is widely used in pickles and preserves. In Tamil, the unripe fruit is referred to as 'narthangai', which is usually salted and dried to make a preserve. The tender leaves of the plant are often used in conjunction with chili powder and other spices to make a powder, called 'narthellai podi', literally translating to 'powder of citron leaves'. Both narthangai and narthellai podi are usually consumed with 'thayir sadam' (Curd Rice - Yogurt Rice).
In Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea. The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup. This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well. Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter. It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as 柚子茶 (Youzi cha).
[Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu 柚子 and must be different from the citron being described in this article. The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.]
Citric acid
Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits ( like oranges). It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is CHO.
Geber
Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name Jabirian corpus. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.
Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).
Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.
Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".
In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the in the 17th century. The "" was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Micheline Calmy-Rey
Criss Angel Mindfreak is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.
Piano trio
A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.
Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.
Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.
Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname "Archduke" because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.
In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.
In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.
Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.
Franz Grillparzer
Franz Grillparzer (born Vienna, 15 January 1791 - died Vienna, 21 January 1872) was an Austrian dramatist and poet. His dramas include three plays (a “trilogy”) called "Das Goldene Vliess" ("The Golden Fleece").
Two other famous plays are "Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen" ("The Waves of the Sea and of Love") and "Der Traum, ein Leben" ("The Dream, a Life"). Although he said he was not interested in prose his short story "Der arme Spielmann" ("The poor minstrel") is probably the best known of his works and one of the best short stories of the 19th century. Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech for Beethoven's funeral in 1827.
An Austrian pastry is named after him: the Grillparzertorte.
Pastry is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.
Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries."
Turkish food such as Gözleme are made from pastries.
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (born 3 February 1736 in Klosterneuburg near Vienna; died 7 March 1809 in Vienna) was an Austrian composer, organist, music theorist and music teacher. He is most known today because he was Beethoven’s teacher for a time.
From the age of seven, Albrechtsberger was a choirboy. He had lessons in organ and music theory. As an adult, he had several jobs in churches in small towns. He became Kapellmeister at St Stephen’s Church, Vienna in 1793. This was the best job for a church musician in the empire.
Albrechtsberger wrote hundreds of compositions. He wrote most of them before he got the job in Vienna. He wrote in a classical style. Albrechsberger enjoyed doing things with music which were not normally done. He would ask string players to tune their strings in different ways (called “scordatura”). He would also write slow movements with muted strings. As well as classical sonatas he wrote lots of fugues. Several people, including Mozart, thought of him as the greatest organist in the world.
Albrechtsberger was a very important music teacher. Joseph Haydn thought he was the best teacher in Vienna. He was very interested in contrapuntal music of the Baroque period. He copied many fugues by Bach and other composers.
When Beethoven was a young man, he had some composition lessons from Joseph Haydn. When Haydn was going to travel to England for several months, he asked Albrechtsberger to teach Beethoven while he was gone. These lessons took place from 1793 to 1795. A few years later, Albrechtsberger said about Beethoven that “he learned absolutely nothing and will never accomplish anything decent”. Beethoven said that Albrechtsberger was a “musical pedant”. However, Beethoven still studied Albrechtsberger’s books on music theory. The string quartets which Beethoven wrote near the end of his life show the influence of Albrechtsberger.
Fidelio is an opera in two acts by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is Beethoven's only opera. The German libretto is by Joseph Sonnleithner based on a French story. The opera tells how Leonore, disguised as a prison guard called "Fidelio", rescues her husband Florestan from death in a political prison.
"Fidelio" is an example of a “rescue opera”, a type of opera which was popular at the time. The hero (or heroine) has to fight against cruel people in order to rescue a lover. It was written at the time of the French Revolution. At this time, ideas about freedom and peace were being talked about by everyone, and this led to wars all over Europe. The famous Prisoners’ Chorus is a song for freedom, just like the last movement of his Ninth Symphony.
Beethoven spent some time working on the opera before he was completely happy with it. The first time it was performed (in 1805) it was a three-act opera called "Leonore". There were a lot of French military officers in the audience and they thought they were being criticised. In 1806 it was performed again with two acts and a new overture (now known as "Overture: Leonore No. 3"). But arguments between Beethoven and the theatre management meant there were no more performances. Eight years later Beethoven revised his opera again. This time it was called "Fidelio", and it was a great success. It has remained a famous opera ever since.
The setting is a Spanish state prison, a few miles from Seville, in the late 1700s.
Jaquino is a prison guard. He wants to marry Marzelline, the daughter of Rocco who is the warden of the prison. But Marzelline has just fallen in love with someone she thinks is a man called Fidelio. Actually Fidelio is a woman who has dressed up as a man so that she can get into the prison where her husband Florestan is a prisoner (he has been arrested for political reasons). She is pretending to return Marzelline’s love so that she can find a way of rescuing Florestan. Rocco says he is happy for Marzelline to marry Fidelio. Fidelio (Leonore) says she will help Rocco with his job of looking after the prisoners. Rocco says she can do this, but there is one prisoner she is not allowed to guard. He has been locked up alone for two years. Leonore thinks it may be her husband, but she is not sure.
Don Pizarro, the military governor of the prison, hears that the prison is going to be looked at by inspectors who make sure that the prison is being properly managed. He knows that he should not have locked Florestan up, so decides to kill him before the inspection starts. He asks Rocco to dig the grave so that he can get rid of the body quickly. Rocco does not want to do this, but has to agree.
Leonore lets the prisoners have a walk in the garden. Rocco tells Leonore that he must help him dig the grave. Rocco is very cross that the prisoners are walking in the garden, but Rocco says they should be allowed because it is the King’s name-day. Rocco says they should be locked up again.
Florestan sits alone in his cell. In his mind he imagines an angel who looks like his wife who is telling him to come to Heaven.
Leonore goes with Rocco to the prisoner. She is still not sure whether it is her husband. She gives him some bread. When Pizarro comes he gets ready to kill Florestan, but Leonore stands between them and tells Pizarro she will shoot him if he comes nearer. A trumpet is heard playing a fanfare because the Minister is arriving.
Outside the prison the Minister says that all the prisoners are now free. He is horrified to find Florestan among the prisoners, because he is his friend. The crowd ask for Pizarro to be punished. Leonore frees her husband from his chains and the crowd say that she is a great heroine.
Beethoven made several changes to the opera at different times. This included writing four different overtures. They are called "Leonore 1", "Leonore 2", "Leonore 3" and "Fidelio". The overture "Fidelio" is the one that is normally heard now at the beginning of the opera. "Leonore 2" was the overture performed at the first performance in 1805. "Leonore 3", composed in 1806, is the most famous of the overtures. "Leonore 1" may have been written in 1805, or it may have been intended for a performance in 1807 in Prague which never took place". Sometimes the "Leonore 3" overture is played during Act II between the two scenes. However, many people think it does not work dramatically there. It is usually heard today as a separate concert piece. The overture "Fidelio" was composed for performances of the opera in 1814.
Für Elise
"Für Elise" (German for "For Elise") is the common name of the "Bagatelle in A minor", written by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1810. The song is thought to be written for Therese, a woman that Beethoven wanted to marry in 1810, however his handwriting was misspelt undergoing transcription, allowing the piece to be known as Fur Elise rather the Fur Therese. Therese did not want to marry him.
The piece of music, which was written for the piano, was not published until 1865, a long time after Beethoven’s death. It is one of the most well-known pieces of piano music in the world.
The piece is in rondo form. There is a main section (A) which appears three times. Between these three sections there are two other sections (B and C), so the form of the piece can be described as: A B A C A.
The main section has a time signature of 3/8. It is based on arpeggios which flow from one hand to the other. This is the section that many beginner pianists want to play. The two middle sections are harder to play at the correct speed. They have fast scales, arpeggios and left hand demisemiquavers (32nd notes).
https://www.classicfm.com/composers/beethoven/fur-elise-meaning-who-is-elise/
Teplice (German name: Teplitz) is a city in Bohemia, the western area of the Czech Republic. Teplice (pronounced in Czech: “Tep-li-tse”) is a famous spa town where, in earlier times, lots of famous people went for holidays to improve their health. Goethe, Beethoven, Chopin, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner all stayed there.