AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
His maternal grandfather, Eugene C. Pulliam, was a rich and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc., owner of over a dozen major newspapers such as "The Arizona Republic" and "The Indianapolis Star". James C. Quayle moved his family to Arizona in 1955 to run part of the family's publishing business. While his family was very wealthy, Quayle was less rich; his total net worth by the time of his election in 1988 was less than $1 million.
Quayle and his wife are Presbyterians. He currently lives in Paradise Valley, Arizona.
Cincinnati is a city in the southwestern corner of the state of Ohio near the states of Kentucky and Indiana. The city is in Hamilton County, Ohio. Cincinnati is home to major sports teams including the Cincinnati Reds and the Cincinnati Bengals, as well as events like the Cincinnati Masters and the Thanksgiving Day race. The University of Cincinnati traces its foundation to the Medical College of Ohio, which was founded in 1819.
Cincinnati was named after the Roman leader Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus and was an early major city in the midwestern United States. Many Germans settled in the city and the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood gets its name from the river in Germany. Soap and machine tools are major industries in the area, which is home to the company Procter & Gamble as well as Macy's. Cincinnati's economy and population declined in the late 1900s, but the city is on the upswing. The Over-The-Rhine neighborhood has seen a lot of new businesses and development in recent years.
Cable car
A cable car is a type of car that runs on cables above the car. The machines that drive the cables are in the two "winding houses". One winding house is at the bottom and one at the top. It is used much in areas where there are a lot of mountains.
The construction of the longest cable way in the world was finished in 16th October 2010 in Armenia. Its name is Wings of Tatev and has length of 5.7 km.
Some cable cars run on railway tracks, pulled by a cable.
Tokusatsu
Tokusatsu is a Japanese word that means "special effects". It is used to talk about television shows and movies that have superheros, giant monsters, and other science fiction and fantastic themes. Some famous tokusatsu features include Godzilla, "Kamen Rider", and "Super Sentai".
Snakes on a Plane (released in Japan as "Snake Flight" (スネーク・フライト)) is a 2006 American action horror crime thriller movie. It was directed by David R. Ellis and it stars Samuel L. Jackson and released to movie theaters by Warner Bros. It is about many snakes on a plane that is traveling from Hawaii to Los Angeles, California.
The snakes attack people on the plane, and Samuel L. Jackson's character, FBI agent Neville Flynn becomes angry at the snakes, so he fights them.
The movie became very popular before it was released because of the title and because of many people talked about it on the Internet.
War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
The War in Afghanistan refers to a war waged by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, The Netherlands, Australia and other countries against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda following the terrorists attacks against USA on September 11, 2001. In 2016, the last NATO troops were withdrawn. 1908 NATO soldiers were killed in Afghanistan: 1,162 American, 313 British and 433 Other Coalition countries' soldiers were killed in this war. More than 15,000 Coalition soldiers were wounded: 6,773 US, 3,954 UK, 1,500 Canadian and over 2,500 other Coalition soldiers. 5,500 Afghan army soldiers and 200 Northern Alliance militants were killed in this war. 378 US civilian contractors were killed and 7,224. British troops left Afghanistan in 2015, after 5 years of training the Afghanistan police to deal with threats from the Taliban.
Formal cessation took place on 28 December 2014 via a ceremony in the city of Kabul thus ending the 13 year long war. Thousands of American and other troops continued helping the Afghan government until December 31, 2016 when they were withdrawn. After security deteriorated, American soldiers returned and over 10,000 were in the country at the end of 2017.
A castrato (plural "castrati") was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word "castrato" literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left.
The practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence.
Even though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future.
Once a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead.
It is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich Händel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli.
The popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century when operas became less artificial and more like real life. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording.
Falsetto
A falsetto voice is a special way of speaking or singing. If a man tries to imitate a woman’s voice he does it by speaking in a falsetto voice. When a man sings with a falsetto voice it sounds high like a soprano. Actors do this sometimes, e.g. Robin Williams in the film "Mrs Doubtfire" or Kevin Clash when voicing the character Elmo in "Sesame Street" and Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees, with his R&B falsetto. Also, Kellin Quinn from the band sleeping With Sirens uses falsetto sometimes.
Women can also use falsetto, but when they do there is not as big of a change in sound from their normal voices as there is in men. When women use falsetto the voice sounds lighter or weaker than it does when they speak or sing normally.
It is like stretching the mouth out into a wide smile and saying 'ee', except it is sung.
When people speak or sing, their vocal cords vibrate. When a man sings falsetto only the edges of his vocal cords vibrate. These produce harmonics. It is similar to playing harmonics on a string instrument by lightly touching the string at a certain point so that only part of the string vibrates. When a man sings falsetto his is usually one octave higher than his normal singing voice. When people sing in falsetto, their voice can be breathy sometimes.
Falsetto singing was used in the days when women were not allowed to sing in churches. Instead, men sang countertenor. Later the popularity of the countertenor disappeared, but in the mid 20th century it became popular again for performing Renaissance and Baroque music. Today the tradition of men singing alto (with countertenor voices) still exists in Britain in cathedral choirs and some church choirs which are all-male choirs. It is not a big, operatic voice, and it blends in well with boys’ treble voices in the acoustic of churches and cathedrals.
Occasionally falsetto can be used for comic effect, as in the roasted swan in the "Carmina Burana" by Carl Orff.
Countertenor
A countertenor is a male singer who uses a falsetto voice to sing high notes like a female contralto or mezzo-soprano.
Countertenors were used a lot in the Renaissance and Baroque periods when females were not allowed to sing in church choirs. They did not have big, dramatic voices like castrati, so they were not normally used in opera. People forgot about this way of singing in the 18th and 19th centuries, although male altos continued to sing in English cathedral and church choirs. In the 20th century an English countertenor called Alfred Deller became very famous. He sang many songs from the Baroque period that had been written for the countertenor voice, for example songs by Henry Purcell who sang countertenor himself. Today there is a lot of interest again in using this type of voice for performing early music like Renaissance and Baroque music.
Breeches role
A breeches role is a part in an opera in which a woman plays the role of a man. It is also called a trouser role (British) or pants role (U.S.) or travesti role (the Italian word). It is called a breeches role because breeches are tight-fitting, knee-length trousers. These used to be worn by men at the time that breeches roles became popular. Sometimes breeches roles are in plays, but they are usually in opera.
Breeches roles are usually female singers acting the role of a young man. They are normally sung by mezzo-sopranos or contraltos with light voices because they can often sound boyish. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was normal to have actors and actresses who cross-dressed. It was the time when castrato singers were popular. These castrati were men pretending to be women, but there were also women pretending to be men (especially when the actress was trying to deceive another character) and the audiences were used to this kind of thing. As they gradually stopped the horrible practice of castrating young boys in the late 18th century these male characters started to be sung by mezzo-sopranos instead.
Mozart wrote an opera called "The Marriage of Figaro". In this opera the role of Cherubino, a young page boy, is sung by a mezzo-soprano. Other famous examples include the role of Siebel in Dvořák’s opera "Rusalka" and the role of Prince Orlofsky in Johann Strauss’s opera "Die Fledermaus".
Composers from the 20th century do not usually have breeches roles in their operas. There is the role of Oktavian in Richard Strauss’s opera "Der Rosenkavalier" (1911), but this opera was deliberately trying to produce the old-fashioned atmosphere of Mozart’s time. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera called "Midsummer Night’s Dream", based on Shakespeare’s play. There is no breeches role here. Instead, the part of Oberon is written for a countertenor: a man with a high, falsetto voice.
There is also a term called a skirt role. This is the opposite of a trouser role: it is a man acting the part of a woman. Benjamin Britten uses one in the role of the Madwoman in "Curlew River". The witch in Humperdinck’s "Hansel and Gretel" is also sung by a man. In both cases it makes the characters more dramatic, but the first is very serious while the second is supposed to be humorous.
Treble (singer)
The word treble is used, especially in British English, to mean the singing voice of a boy or girl. Often it is called boy soprano, but since there are also many girls who sing in cathedral and church choirs these days, the word treble is now used to describe the voice of either sex.
A boy can sing treble until he reaches puberty. At puberty he starts to become a man and his voice range will go down (we say that his voice “breaks”). He will then become a tenor, baritone or bass, or he may even train to be a countertenor. A girl’s voice also changes when she reaches puberty, but the change into a grown-up female voice is more gradual than with a boy, and it is still within the soprano or alto range.
Boys who join a cathedral choir or the choir of a large church will have to work hard to develop their voice and learn to sing musically. They often start this training aged 7 or 8, and they may only have four or five years before their voice starts to break. They do not usually become famous as soloists, but the Welsh treble Aled Jones became very famous for about three years and made many recordings before his voice broke in 1987.
The word ‘treble’ is used for children singing in a Classical Music style, especially church music. Although children do not usually sing in opera, occasionally a treble is used for the part of a very small boy, e.g. in Debussy’s opera "Pélléas et Mélisande".
A claque (pronounce: ‘clack’) is a small group of people in an opera house who deliberately either clapped loudly (applauded) or shouted boo for a particular singer. Usually it means an "organised" group who know in advance what they are going to do.
In the 19th century there was very often a claque at performances of an opera. Someone who liked one of the singers and wanted them to have lots of applause would pay a group of people to sit near the back of the opera house and to clap and shout enthusiastically whenever that singer had finished a song. This would encourage the rest of the audience to clap loudly too. Sometimes the claque would be paid to do the opposite: they would be told to hiss and boo when the singer had sung.
Very often a singer would have to pay some money to the claque so that they would applaud him (or her). If the singer did not pay, the claque would hiss and boo. This was, of course, a nasty form of blackmail. In the early 20th century, when the world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso refused to pay the claque in Naples a bribe, they hissed during his singing of the great aria "Una furtiva lagrima".
Groups of supporters at football ('soccer') matches do much the same thing without being paid. Abuse of match officials is also quite common. Abuse between rival groups of fans is also common. Clubs are required to keep away fans in different sections from home fans.
Leeches are annelids, a kind of worm (ground creature) that lives in wet places. All leeches are carnivorous, that is, they eat mainly meat, but some are also haemophagic; this means they drink the blood of other animals. They are sometimes helpful in medicine. They are often used to reduce blood clots. They were used to suck the blood of patients a long time ago, before we knew about germs and that losing blood is bad for health.
Glycoprotein
A glycoprotein is a big molecule. It is composed of a protein and a carbohydrate (which is usually a sugar-like substance). Glycoproteins are important to recognise immune cells in mammals.
Well-known glycoproteins are:
Hormones that are glycoproteins are (amongst others)
Chemotherapy, or 'chemo', is the use of chemical substances to treat diseases. The word "chemotherapy" is often used for a type of medicine used to treat cancer. The drugs are cytotoxic, which means they are toxic to the body's cells.
There are many types of chemotherapy. and doctors chose the medication that will treat each types of cancer in the best way. Often, chemotherapy drugs are combined with each other and with other drugs when a person is treated for cancer.
When a person has surgery to remove a tumor, chemotherapy may be given before or after.
Chemotherapy can also be used to treat other diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Chemotherapy often has bad side effects:
Typhoid
Typhoid, or typhoid fever, is an illness caused by the bacterium "Salmonella enterica" subspecies "enterica". Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. The disease is spread by water which has the bacteria in it.
Typhi is spread through from what is called the "fecaloral route". The source is people who are infected but have no symptoms. An asymptomatic human carrier is an individual who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in their stool a year after the acute stage of the infection.
Typhoid usually lasts between two weeks and a month. The symptoms of typhoid often appear 10 to 14 days after infection. If no treatment is given, between one and three out of every ten patients die. The rest usually get better after a month, at the most.
Typhoid causes a steady fever of at least 103–104 degrees F (39–40 degrees C). Also, it can cause stomach pains, headache, being delirious (restless, excited, seeing things), and not being hungry. In some cases, flat, pink coloured spots show up on the patient's body. Sometimes there are no symptoms.
Typhoid is not common in countries with good sanitation and clean water. For example, scientists think that there are only 400 cases a year in the United States. In 2015, 12.5 million new cases worldwide were reported. For example, in the Indian subcontinent, typhoid is one of the most common diseases because of poor sanitation and lack of basic hygiene.In that case, typhoid fever is common in children of the one to 15 years age group.
The disease can be treated with antibiotics. There are standard drugs like "chloromycetin" which cure typhoid.
A necklace is a jewellery item worn round the neck. It is of ancient origin: all civilisations have worn them. They usually figure precious metals and jewels, but may be made of colourful beads.
The emeralds threaded onto the necklace were mined in Colombia. The diamonds were mined in India. The necklace's gemstones are believed to have been cut in India in the 17th century, but the early history of the necklace itself is unknown. The first recorded owner of the piece was Tukoji Rao III, Maharaja of Indore (a Princely State in India) in the early 20th century. On his abdication, the necklace was passed to his son, Yashvantrao II, who took up his father's throne. The necklace is sometimes called, though with no reason, the Spanish Inquisition necklace.
Cranbourne, Victoria
Cranbourne is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is south east of Melbourne. It is above sea-level. Its Local Government Area is the City of Casey.
The Cranbourne area is made up of the suburbs:
The first people to live in the Cranbourne area were the Boonwurrung Aborigines. The first Europen settlers were the Ruffy brothers who arrived in 1836. They later opened the Cranbourne Inn.
The area was opened up by settlers from the 1860s. Progress in developing the land around Cranbourne was difficult because of the Koo Wee Rup swamp. William Lyall bought land in the swamp area. He helped organize draining the swamp to make it usable as farmland. The region has a strong farming history. A major cattle market started at Cranbourne in the 1870s. This was helped with the arrival of the railway in 1887. A market gardening industry began after World War I with the arrival of Italian immigrants.
Cranbourne has a long history of horse racing. The first races were held in 1867. The Cranbourne Racecourse and Recreation Reserve and the Cranbourne Training Complex are popular facilities. There is a Cranbourne Cup race meeting every year as well as other carnivals.
In the 1860s, a number of iron meteorites were discovered in the area. The largest, at 3.5 tonnes, was at the time, the largest discovered in the world. It was known as the Cranbourne meteorite. It was sold to the British Museum.
Cranbourne was made a town in 1861. The Shire of Cranbourne was begun in 1868. The office, built in 1875, is still standing on the corner of South Gippsland Highway and Sladen Street. In 1994 the Shire was made a City. Later in the same year most of the City joined with the City of Berwick to form the City of Casey.
Over the years Cranbourne has changed from a small country town to a rapidly growing suburb. The exact time of when Cranbourne had changed from town to suburb is not really known. The number of people living in Cranbourne has grown quickly since the 1970s. There were 1,800 people in 1976, rising to 14,005 in 1986 and 18,886 in 1991. Cranbourne's current population is estimated to be at least 30,000 people.
Cranbourne has many sports facilities including:
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Cranbourne is a part of Melbourne's Royal Botanic Gardens. At Cranbourne there are a lot of Australian plants on display. One feature is an arid lands garden which has a red sand dune with desert plants.
Schools in the Cranbourne area include:
Because of the growth in Cranbourne several new primary schools are being planned.
Chisholm Institute of TAFE also has a campus in Cranbourne, to the city's east.
Shopping centres in the Cranbourne area include:
Cranbourne is home to many fast food stores including Fish n' Chips and Pizza shops. Major fast food outlets in the Cranbourne area include:
The MRA Cranbourne GP Run is held each year on the Saturday of the Australian Motorcycle Grand Prix.
Cranbourne races are a regular event on the racing calendar. Greyhound and harness racing are also held.
Melbourne's suburban railway links the suburb to Melbourne. The terminus of the Cranbourne railway line is at Cranbourne railway station. Merinda Park station is in Cranbourne North.
Transylvania is a historical region in Central Europe. In the past, it was a part of Hungary, was an independent principality, belonged to the Ottoman Empire or was a province of Austria-Hungary. It has been part of Romania since 1918.
The borders was made up by the Siret River from east, river Tisza from west of north and south by the Carpathian Mountains.
Transylvania's main city, Cluj-Napoca, is seen as the region's informal capital. But Transylvania was also ruled from Alba Iulia during its dependence from the Ottoman Empire, and the seat of the Transylvanian Diet was moved to Sibiu for some time in the 19th century.
In popular culture, Transylvania is mainly known as the seat (and origin) of Count Dracula. This vampire story by Bram Stoker is based on a local nobleman Vlad III the Impaler, known for his cruelty. It also was the home of Elizabeth Báthory.
Southwest Airlines is a airline based in Dallas, Texas that has a reputation for low fares. The airline started in 1971. It flies mostly among about a hundred airports within the United States but also to flies from the United States to airports in the Caribbean Sea and Mexico.
Originally, many of Southwest's flights were to airports in the Southwestern United States, such as Dallas Love Field and Houston Hobby Airport, but it also flies to airports in other parts of the country, such as Chicago Midway Airport and Baltimore/Washington International Airport. Southwest Airlines controls most of the gates at Dallas Love Field and most other airlines cannot fly from there.
In 2014, it started international flights.
The company flies about 700 Boeing 737 aircraft. This is more than any other airline. It only flies the Boeing 737. By 2019, 13 were the newest kind, the Boeing 737 MAX.
Southwest Airlines bought the smaller AirTran Airways in 2010 and discontinued the AirTran name. For several years, Southwest was the largest airline in the United States based on number of passengers, but it was not the largest based on distance traveled.
In 2018, an engine exploded on a Southwest Airlines flight, killing one passenger. That was the first death of a passenger from an aircraft accident on Southwest (earlier passenger deaths were from other causes, such as heart attack and drug overdoses).
Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca (pronunciation in Romanian: ; ; ; ; ), until 1974 "Cluj", is the third biggest city in Romania, and is the capital city of Cluj County, in the north-western part of Transylvania. Bucharest is about 330 kilometers away from Cluj-Napoca. About 330,000 people live in the city. It also has some famous universities and a rich history as the capital city of Transylvania.
In the west of Cluj-Napoca is the Hoia-Baciu Forest. There is a bicycle park and other sport activities like paintball, airsoft or archery.
Sibiu
Graphic design is a practical art which helps in communication. Visual information is formed in a way that produces a message. This can be done by placing words and pictures in ways that will get the attention of others. People who do graphic design as work are called "graphic designers". In printed media, graphic design includes typography, organising illustration, book design, page layout, specifying print.
Graphic design can be done in different media. These include paper, video, labels, and web sites.
Graphic designers use many skills, rules and techniques to provide the right information. They must combine artistic expression and media relations. Skills include the ability to look at the whole picture, color theory, design principles, understanding of art, etc.
Graphic design today is heavily used in all types of media, magazine articles, internet and especially in advertising. Almost every marketing effort utilizes graphic design for brochures, business cards, websites, logo design and corporate identity.
Contemporary graphic designs tends to feature modern geometric forms and shapes and bold typefaces. They emphasize making the message easy to read and comprehend and also grab attention and make memorable.
Rwandan genocide
The Rwandan genocide happened in 1994. It started in April and lasted 100 days. During that time, about 800,000 people were murdered.
In a genocide, many or all people in a group are killed because of their ethnicity, colour, religion, or political opinions. In the Rwandan genocide, members of an ethnic group called the Tutsi ("abatutsi") were killed because of their ethnicity. The killers were extremist members of another ethnic group called the Hutu ("abahutu"). The Hutu killers also killed other Hutus whose political beliefs were not as extreme as theirs.
In 1994, almost all Rwandan people (85%) were Hutus. However, for many years, the Tutsi minority had more power and ran the Rwandan government. In 1959, the Hutus overthrew the Tutsi government and took power. Tens of thousands of Tutsis ran away to nearby countries.
A group of the Tutsis in exile created a rebel group. They called it the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The RPF invaded Rwanda in 1990, starting the Rwandan Civil War. The Tutsi rebels and the Hutu government fought until 1993, when the two sides signed a peace agreement.
However, on April 6, 1994, an airplane carrying the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi was shot down. Both Presidents were Hutus. Nobody knows for sure who shot down the plane. The RPF said the Hutu extremists had shot down the plane themselves, just because they wanted an excuse to start killing people. The Hutu extremists blamed the Tutsi RPF, and right away, they started killing Tutsis.
Within a half an hour, Hutu militias had blocked roads all over Kigali, Rwanda's capital city. They stopped every car that came by, and killed every Tutsi they found. The Rwandan genocide began that day.
In the next 100 days, members of the Hutu government's army, militias, and even civilians would kill 800,000 people an average of 8,000 people every day. This makes the Rwandan Genocide one of the fastest genocides in history.
The two main militia groups that carried out the killings were the Interahamwe and the Impuzamugambi. These were supposed to be youth organizations of two pro-Hutu political parties. However, the government turned them into militias to carry out the genocide.
Within a few hours after the Presidents' deaths, military leaders in Rwanda's different provinces called together militia and civilians. They told them that the President was dead, and that the Tutsi RPF had killed him. Then they ordered the crowd to kill Tutsis, saying things like: "Begin your work!" and "Spare no one!" including babies.
Just after the Presidents' deaths, Hutu extremists assassinated the Rwandan prime minister. They also tortured and killed the ten Belgian soldiers that had been assigned to protect her.
After that, throughout the night of April 6-7, Hutu militias and the Rwandan army got lists of people in the government who were political moderates (meaning they were not extremists). They found these people in Kigali and killed them. They did this so the moderates would not be able to stop the genocide. They also killed journalists and human rights activists who had spoken out against the Hutu government.
On the night of April 6, Hutu militias also went house to house in Kigali, killing Tutsis. By the morning of April 7th, the killings had only gotten worse. Interahamwe killed and looted however they wanted. Other countries' journalists were able to film many of these things. In a few days, the genocide had spread all over the country. As the genocide spread out into the rural parts of Rwanda, the killers paid less attention to murdering moderate Hutus and more attention to massacring Tutsis.
The Rwandan Genocide was committed in a very organized way. For example, the genocide's leaders made lists of people who were against the Hutu-led government. They gave these lists to militias, who went and killed those people, along with their families. The militias also blocked roads so they could check the identification cards of everyone who came by. These cards had a person's ethnic group listed on them. When they found a Tutsi, the militias would kill the person. Often, they used machetes. When Tutsis tried to hide from the killers, the militias would search every building in an area, inch by inch, until they found the people who were hiding. Buses even drove the killers from massacre to massacre.
The army and militias were very brutal towards women. They raped between 150,000 and 250,000 Tutsi women. They also kidnapped women and forced them to be sex slaves. After raping women, the rapists would often mutilate the women's sex organs with things like weapons, boiling water, or acid.
Most victims of the genocide were killed in their own villages. Often, they were killed by their own neighbors. Government radio stations encouraged regular people to kill their Tutsi neighbors. Hutus who refused to kill Tutsis were often executed immediately. Husbands killed their Tutsi wives because they were scared of being killed if they refused. There were even priests and nuns convicted of killing people who were trying to hide in churches. As historian Richard Prunier explains: during the genocide, "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself."
The killers used propaganda to encourage the genocide. They set up radio stations and newspapers which were full of hate speech. Often, they encouraged people to "weed out the cockroaches," which meant "kill the Tutsis." The killers would read out the names of people they wanted to be killed over the radio. Radio stations told their listeners to make sure they disemboweled pregnant
Tutsi women.
In October 1993, the United Nations Security Council created the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR). It was supposed to help put the 1993 peace agreement into place. However, UNAMIR did not have permission from the Security Council to protect civilians or try to stop the genocide. At this time, UNAMIR soldiers were only allowed to shoot their weapons in self-defence, if somebody was attacking them personally. They were not allowed to use their weapons or get involved to protect civilians who were being attacked.
More and more, UNAMIR's peacekeeping troops were being attacked. Countries began to pull their soldiers out of Rwanda. Some members of the United Nations Security Council, like the United States, argued strongly that the UN should take "all" of its peacekeeping troops out of Rwanda. Eventually, the Security Council decided to decrease the number of troops UNAMIR was allowed to have. On April 21, 1994, as the genocide was spreading across Rwanda, the Security Council decreased the number of allowed UNAMIR troops from 2,548 to 270 a decrease of almost 90%.
UNAMIR's Commander, Roméo Dallaire, kept asking the United Nations for more troops. On May 15, the Security Council increased UNAMIR's allowed number of troops to 5,500. However, it took almost six months for UN member countries to volunteer this many troops. Meanwhile, the genocide continued.
France offered to lead a humanitarian mission in southwest Rwanda while UNAMIR was trying to gather more troops. The Security Council approved this mission on June 22, 1994. France called the mission "Operation Turquoise." During this operation, soldiers from France and other countries set up a "safe zone" in southwest Rwanda. This was meant to be an area where people could come to be protected from Hutu attacks. Historians think that Operation Turquoise saved 13,000 to 14,000 lives. However, France has been accused of letting war criminals escape Rwanda through the safe zone.
Because UNAMIR's troops were not allowed to use their weapons to protect civilians, the militias were able to massacre civilians even when UNAMIR troops were nearby.
For example, on April 7, 1994, Belgian soldiers were staying at a school outside Kigali. Thousands of Tutsis ran from Kigali to the school, hoping that the soldiers would protect them from the massacres that were happening in Kigali. Hutu militia surrounded the school, but they did not enter because they were afraid of the Belgian soldiers.
However, one day, the Belgian soldiers left. They had been ordered to leave so they could take European people to the airport to get them out of the country. Later, a Belgian colonel "said the young soldiers told him they saw the killers in their rearview mirrors" as they drove away. After the soldiers left, the Hutu militia killed thousands of Tutsis.
Another massacre happened in Murambi, a town in southern Rwanda. When the genocide reached Murambi, Tutsis tried to hide at a nearby church. However, the bishop and mayor tricked them by telling them to go to the Murambi Technical School. They said the French soldiers there would protect them. On April 16, 1994, about 65,000 Tutsis ran to the school. One survivor said: "They gave us four [French soldiers] for protection, but from 17 April we never saw them again."
After they got to the school, the Tutsis had no food. The school's water was also cut off, so the Tutsis would be too weak to fight back. The Tutsis were still able to fight back for a few days, using stones. However, on April 21, the school was attacked by the Interahamwe. They killed about 45,000 Tutsis at the school. The other 20,000 Tutsis ran to a nearby church to hide, but the militia found them there and killed almost all of them.
The school is now a genocide museum. The museum says that only 34 people out of 65,000 survived the massacre. It also says that after the massacre, the French soldiers came back and buried the bodies in mass graves. Then they put a volleyball court over the mass graves to hide what happened.
In 1999, Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, asked for an independent report about the Rwandan Genocide. He wanted to know why the United Nations and the world had "failed" to stop the Rwandan Genocide. The report said that the major failures were:
The Ugandan army joined the RPF in fighting the extremist Hutus. Bit by bit, they took control of more parts of Rwanda. Finally, on July 4, 1994, they took control of Kigali.
After this, about two million Hutus ran away from Rwanda to Zaire. This group included 1.4 million Hutu civilians who had nothing to do with the genocide, but had been told that the RPF would kill them just for being Hutus.
According to the BBC, "Human rights groups say the RPF killed thousands of Hutu civilians as they took power and more after they went into [Zaire] to [follow] the Interahamwe. The RPF denies this."
In 1994, Rwanda's population was 7.9 million. After the genocide:
Before the genocide, about 1.1 million of Rwandans were Tutsis. After the genocide, there were only about 300,000 Tutsis left in the country. Almost three out of every four Tutsis in Rwanda had been killed during the genocide.
In 1995, the United Nations Security Council set up the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). Its goal was to prosecute people who took part in genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity, and punish the guilty ones. The ICTR had the power to prosecute anyone who broke international laws about human rights.
The ICTR was the first international court ever to:
Out of 93 people indicted by the ICTR, 61 were found guilty and sent to prison. Another ten cases were sent to Rwanda so their own courts could hear the cases. Three people indicted by the ICTR are still fugitives.
The ICTR closed on December 31, 2015.
The Rwandan government was not able to start trying genocide suspects until 1996. This was because so many judges had been killed in the genocide, and because so many court buildings and jails had been destroyed.
By 2000, there were over 100,000 suspects waiting for trials. The regular Rwandan courts could not handle this many cases. To help with this problem, the government set up a new and different system of courts to help the regular Rwandan courts.
By mid-2006, the Rwandan courts had tried over 10,000 genocide suspects.
In 2001, the Rwandan government began to create a system of Gacaca courts (pronounced "GA-CHA-CHA"). In these courts, Rwandans elect judges to hear genocide suspects' trials. Gacaca courts may hear cases about any crimes except planning genocide or rape. These cases must be heard by regular Rwandan courts.
If a suspect is found guilty, the Gacaca courts give less severe sentences if the person is truly sorry and asks for the community's forgiveness. The goal of the Gacaca courts is to get justice while also moving towards reconciliation. It also gives perpetrators the chance to admit what they did, which gives victims a chance to learn what happened to their loved ones.
Between 2001 and 2012, 12,000 Gacaca courts tried over 1.2 million cases all over Rwanda. These courts officially finished their work on May 4, 2012.
Vaquita ("Phocoena sinus") is a rare type of porpoise. It lives only in the Gulf of California.
Vaquita have a dark coloring around the eyes and mouth. The upper side of the body is medium to dark gray. The underside is off-white to light gray. It has a rather large fin on its back for its size.
The Vaquita is the smallest type of porpoise in the world, growing up to 5 feet long and weighing up to 120 pounds.
Vaquita feed on small, bottom-dwelling fish and squid.
They live alone or in small groups, usually of about three, but sometimes they live in groups of up to ten.
Zygote
A zygote is the fertilized cell that will grow into a new animal or plant. When a female's ovum and a male's sperm cell join, the cell that results is called the zygote. The zygote then multiplies, and grows into an embryo. So, a zygote is formed from the union of two gametes, and is the first stage in a human organism's development. Zygotes are produced by fertilization between two haploid cells, the ovum and the sperm cells, which make a diploid cell. Diploid cells have copies of both parents' chromosomes and DNA. At conception it has all the necessary properties to create a fully formed human being. Life until death is a series of many different stages of development.
Some animals keep the zygote in their bodies until it is a full-grown baby. The time between the forming of the zygote and the baby's birth is called pregnancy. Other animals do not keep the zygote in their bodies, but lay an egg. The zygote grows inside the egg until it is ready and a larva or baby animal hatches.
Dave Jauss
Cardiac arrest
Cardiac arrest happens when the heart suddenly stops beating. This can be caused by a heart attack in which the heart's demand for oxygen is not met and the heart muscle begins to die. With cardiac arrest, normal circulation of blood stops, because of a failure of the heart to contract. This results in the body not getting enough oxygenated blood, which causes cells to start to die from oxygen starvation. Cerebral hypoxia (lack of oxygen to the brain) makes a person lose consciousness and stop breathing, and this makes the heart stop completely. Unless the person is in hypothermia, brain damage usually occurs after three to five minutes. (In some cases, the person is put into hypothermia on purpose, to help the person recover better with less damage.)
Cardiac arrest is a medical emergency. If it is treated early enough, some of the damage done can be reversed in certain groups of patients. When cardiac arrest leads to a person's death, this is called sudden cardiac death (SCD). First aid treatment for cardiac arrest usually begins with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to keep oxygenated blood flowing until medical treatment is available.
From the 16th to the 18th century the name Huguenot was describing a member of the Protestant Reformed Church of France. They are sometimes known as the French Calvinists.
After the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 and the French Wars of Religion hundreds of thousands of French Protestants fled France, some to the East End of London, specifically Soho and Spitalfields. The Treaty of Nantes allowed them to stay in France without being massacred
La Rochelle
La Rochelle is a city in the Charente-Maritime department and a seaport in western France near the Bay of Biscay. The Huguenots there rebelled in 1627 and 1628.
La Rochelle Business School is in the city.
La Rochelle is twinned with:
Combustion is a reaction of a fuel with an oxidant to give out heat. The release of heat can produce light in the form of a flame.
Car engines and rocket engines both work by combustion. Combustion in a Ferrari car motor is different from combustion in a rocket engine. Car combustion is gas burning and exploding in cylinders called pistons again and again to push them up and down, making the car move. Rocket combustion is made by rocket fuel exploding out of the back of the rocket moving it up. The burning of most substances is bad for the environment and the ozone layer because it can let off greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Hydrogen burns cleanly and gives off a lot of heat, but it does not produce much power, and is highly explosive.
During combustion, fuel reacts with oxygen and heat, then releases energy. Complete combustion happens in a plentiful supply of oxygen. Complete combustion releases more energy than incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air is limited, or poor. Incomplete combustion also creates carbon monoxide, and more soot. Several factors must be considered when choosing the best fuel for a particular purpose. Fuels are substances that react with oxygen to release useful energy. Most of the energy is released as heat, but light energy is also released. About 21 per cent of the air is oxygen. When a fuel burns in plenty of air, it receives enough oxygen for complete combustion. Complete combustion needs a plentiful supply of air so that the elements in the fuel react fully with oxygen. Fuels such as natural gas and petrol contain hydrocarbons. These are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only. Combustion is a high-temperature oxidation reaction.
Nanometre
The nanometre (symbol: nm) is a unit used to measure length in the metric system. It is equal to one billionth of a metre (). The name combines the SI prefix "nano-" (from the Ancient Greek , ', "dwarf") with the parent unit name "metre" (from Greek , ', "unit of measurement"). It can be written in scientific notation as 1×10 m.
The nanometre is often used to express very tiny dimensions, such as measuring atoms. The nanometre is also commonly used to measure the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation near the part of the spectrum that can be seen by humans. Visible light ranges from around 400 to 800 nm.
The nanometre was formerly called the millimicrometre (or the millimicron). This is because it is 1/1000 of a micrometre, and was written with the symbol mµ (or sometimes µµ).
A caterpillar is a young butterfly or moth that has just hatched out of its egg. A caterpillar is a kind of larva. When it is older, the caterpillar will turn into a pupa (also known as a chrysalis), and then later the pupa will turn into a butterfly.
Caterpillars usually have three pairs of small, but noticeable, true legs at the front and up to 5 pairs of fleshy false legs at the back.
Caterpillars are commonly found feeding on leaves, but they are also found inside living stems and branches or on the roots of plants and dead wood.
Most caterpillars are shades of green or brown and are relatively hairless, although in many families caterpillars are very hairy and often brightly coloured. Some species are pests of growing plants, carpets, woollens, organic fabrics and stored food products.
Caterpillars are an important source of food for birds and other invertebrates and many species help dead animals and plants decompose.
Examples of different kinds of caterpillars.
Hummingbirds are small birds of the family Trochilidae.
They are among the smallest of birds: most species measure 7.5–13 cm (3–5 in). The smallest living bird species is the 2–5 cm Bee Hummingbird. They can hover in mid-air by rapidly flapping their wings 12–80 times per second (depending on the species). They are also the only group of birds able to fly backwards. Their rapid wing beats do actually hum. They can fly at speeds over 15 m/s (54 km/h, 34 mi/h).
Hummingbirds help flowers to pollinate, though most insects are best known for doing so. The hummingbird enjoys nectar, like the butterfly and other flower-loving insects, such as bees.
Hummingbirds do not have a good sense of smell; instead, they are attracted to color, especially the color red. Unlike the butterfly, the hummingbird hovers over the flower as it drinks nectar from it, like a moth. When it does so, it flaps its wings very quickly to stay in one place, which makes it look like a blur and also beats so fast it makes a humming sound. A hummingbird sometimes puts its whole head into the flower to drink the nectar properly. When it takes its head back out, its head is covered with yellow pollen, so that when it moves to another flower, it can pollinate. Or sometimes it may pollinate with its beak.
Like bees, hummingbirds can assess the amount of sugar in the nectar they eat. They reject flowers whose nectar has less than 10% sugar. Nectar is a poor source of nutrients, so hummingbirds meet their needs for protein, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, etc. by preying on insects and spiders.
Most hummingbirds have bills that are long and straight or nearly so, but in some species the bill shape is adapted for specialized feeding. Thornbills have short, sharp bills adapted for feeding from flowers with short corollas and piercing the bases of longer ones. The Sicklebills' extremely decurved bills are adapted to extracting nectar from the curved corollas of flowers in the family Gesneriaceae. The bill of the Fiery-tailed Awlbill has an upturned tip, as in the Avocets. The male Tooth-billed Hummingbird has barracuda-like spikes at the tip of its long, straight bill.
The two halves of a hummingbird's bill have a pronounced overlap, with the lower half (mandible) fitting tightly inside the upper half (maxilla). When hummingbirds feed on nectar, the bill is usually only opened slightly, allowing the tongue to dart out into the nectar.
Like the similar nectar-feeding sunbirds and unlike other birds, hummingbirds drink by using grooved or trough-like tongues which they can stick out a long way.
Hummingbirds do not spend all day flying, as the energy cost would be prohibitive; the majority of their activity consists simply of sitting or perching. Hummingbirds feed in many small meals, consuming many small invertebrates and up to twelve times their own body weight in nectar each day. They spend an average of 10–15% of their time feeding and 75–80% sitting and digesting.
Since hummingbirds are specialized nectar-eaters, they are tied to the bird-flowers they feed upon. Some species, especially those with unusual bill shapes such as the Sword-billed Hummingbird and the sicklebills, are co-evolved with a small number of flower species.