AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
It is not a new idea. Quite a few philosophers have speculated on the existence of other planets like ours, with the idea that what happened here could also happen there. One thing we do know is that many other star systems do have exoplanets.
Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry
American University of Beirut
Caliph
In Arabic, caliph means "a successor to the prophet". This is what leaders of the Islamic faith came to be called. Their rule is called a caliphate.
Some of the early leaders of the Muslim community following Muhammad's (570–632) death called themselves ""Khalifat Allah"", meaning "representative of God". But the other title of ""Khalifat rasul Allah"", meaning the successor to the prophet of God, became the common title. Some academics write the term as "Khalīf".
Caliphs were often also called "Amīr al-Mu'minīn" (), "leader of the Muslims". This title has since been shortened to "emir". It is also found as a personal name in some countries.
After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was used by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other dynasties in Southern Pakistan, Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and the caliph himself often had very little real authority. The title was not used after the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.
Bensheim
Bensheim is a city in Hesse, Germany. It is at the edge of the Odenwald and near to the river Rhine. It had 39,642 inhabitants in 2005 and is the biggest city of the Bergstraße district.
Economically it is in an area where wine grapes are grown. Many small businesses in the areas such as electronics, software development or services can be found.
The city has also factories/offices of Sirona former known as Siemens, Tyco International, Akzo Nobel , Suzuki and SAP SI.
The ”Fürstenlager” near Bensheim-Auerbach are simple buildings built like a village around the Good Well in the middle of a landscaped park. Its owners sought the peace of a rural idyll far removed from the court.
To the West, Bensheim borders Lorsch and Einhausen; to the North Zwingenberg; to the East Lautertal; and to the South Heppenheim.
It is also known for its good traffic connections to other nearby cities. In the North Darmstadt and Frankfurt am Main; in the East Worms; and in the South Heidelberg, Mannheim and Ludwigshafen are all within an hour's drive.
False prophet
A false prophet is a person who claims to be a true prophet but really is not. A false prophet is also someone who uses prophecy to do evil.
The term is also used outside religion to describe someone who fervently promotes a theory which the speaker thinks is false.
In Christianity, false prophets are thought of as being inspired by Satan, or the Devil. False prophets are the opposite of prophets. False prophets try to deceive people and bring them away from god. They use false information to lead people away from god. There are many false prophets in the Bible.
Paul Dirac
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, OM (August 8, 1902 in Bristol – October 20, 1984 in Tallahassee) was an English physicist.
Dirac's father came from the French-speaking part of Switzerland.
Dirac worked out a formulation of quantum mechanics, which includes Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics and Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics in 1926. In 1928 he found the Dirac equation and he found out that spin in quantum mechanics is an effect of relativity. The Dirac equation allowed Dirac to predict the existence of antimatter, which is the opposite of matter.
In 1933 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Dirac was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics chair at Cambridge University from 1932 until his retirement in 1969. He was Professor of Physics at Florida State University from 1972 until his death in 1984.
The Emperor of Japan is the head of state of Japan, The monarch is the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people.
In the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the emperor does not have any political power. In world politics, he is the only current emperor.
The current emperor is his Majesty emperor Naruhito. He has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Akihito abdicated in 2019.
The amount of power belonging to the emperor of Japan has changed a lot throughout Japanese history. The Emperor of Japan has sometimes been a cleric with mostly symbolic powers and sometimes an actual ruler. Some believe that the emperor is descended from gods.
Since the mid-1800s, the Imperial Palace has been located on the former site of Edo Castle （江戸城）in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors lived in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.
The earliest monarch listed as an emperor who is believed by historians to have existed in history was Emperor Ojin.
The imperial dynasty that rules Japan today began as a local kingship in Central Japan in the 500s. It slowly increased its power over its neighbors. This led to a more centralized state made up of almost all of the central areas of what is now Japan. The remote areas were outside its borders.
The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan.
The emperor of Japan has no reserve powers.
While the emperor does serve as head of state, many people question if the emperor is a true monarch in a political sense. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to change the constitution to actually name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does do all the diplomatic functions of a head of state and is recognized as one by foreign powers.
Succession is now controlled by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law does not let females take the throne. A change to this law was considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.
Until the birth of a son to Prince Akishino on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem. No male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, some felt they needed to change the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi created a group of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study the problem.
On October 25, 2005 they recommended changing the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made an announcement that they would change the law to allow women to ascend the throne. However, after finding out that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi decided to wait. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.
Naming the emperors of Japan is difficult because of differences between Japan and the Western world. The Japanese use "{name} tennō" (for the past emperors) or "Kinjō Heika" (今上陛下） for the current one). Problems occur because emperors are named "{name} tennō" after their death.
Some Japanese once thought it was rude to call a person of noble rank by their given names. This belief is not commonly followed today, but still used for the imperial family. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as "Tennō Heika" (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or formally as Kinjō Heika (今上陛下).
In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names.
For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed "Shōwa Tennō" and is now only called by this name in Japanese. However, when he was in power, he was never called Hirohito or "Shōwa Tennō" in Japanese. Rather, he was simply called "Tennō Heika" (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor").
Pipe (smoke)
A pipe is a tool that people use to smoke tobacco and other drugs. Pipe smokers do not usually breathe in the smoke. They let it go into their mouths and then exhale it. Pipe smoking is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking.
Tobacco pipes are used to smoke tobacco. In some Middle Eastern countries, people smoke tobacco with water pipes, which cool the smoke in water. Different types of pipes are also used to smoke marijuana, hashish, and crack cocaine. Some people who smoke marijuana or hashish use a special water pipe called a bong.
Native American tobacco pipes had two parts: a stone bowl and a wooden stem. Japanese "kiseru" pipes have a metal bowl and mouth piece with a wooden stem. Arabian "midwakh" pipes may be made from different materials. European tobacco pipes have been made from clay, tree root wood, meerschaum stone or even maize cobs.
Pipes to smoke opium may have clay or metal bowls with a wooden stem. Pipes for marijuana or hashish may be metal, wood or glass. Pipes to smoke other drugs may also be made of glass.
Pipes were first used by Native Americans in religious ceremonies. When the English came to North America, they tried pipe smoking and liked it. They sent tobacco back to England.
Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation.
We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.
Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.
In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.
One of his works is called "Spem in Alium". The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.
His "Diliges Dominum" is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”.
Homophony
Homophony means music in which the voices or instruments sing or play chords (chords are when two or more notes are played together.) In homophonic music all the choir (sopranos, altos, tenors and basses) are singing the same words at the same time. There is a tune on top and the lower parts are the accompaniment. This is what happens in hymn singing. The opposite is polyphony. Polyphonic writing is more complicated: the choir sing different melodic lines at the same time (see counterpoint). The terms "homophony" (literally: "one sound") and "polyphony" (literally: "many sounds") are mostly used for choir music.
In homophonic music it is easy to hear the words that are being sung. In polyphonic music it is much harder for the listener to understand the words. Composers often used polyphony when writing music for the mass because everyone knew the words anyway. Homophonic music became more important when composers started to write operas and madrigals where a story is being told and the words must be heard clearly.
Technetium
Technetium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Tc. It has the atomic number 43. The color of technetium is silvery-grey. It is radioactive. It is a crystaline metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of technetium is somewhere between rhenium and manganese.
The isotope Tc is used in nuclear medicine. It is used for many diagnostic tests. It has a short half-life. Tc is used as a source of beta particles without emitting gamma rays. The ion that has oxygen and technetium bonded together (TcO) is named the pertechnetate ion. The pertechnetate ion could be used as to prevent anodic corrosion in steel.
Before the element was found, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev saw a gap in his periodic table. He named the element in the gap ekamanganese. In 1937 the technetium isotope Tc was the first element to be artificially produced. This gave the element its name. In Greek τεχνητος means "artificial". Most technetium made on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors. It is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. On earth, technetium occurs naturally only in uranium ores as a product of spontaneous fission. The amount of technitium in the ore is very small but has been measured. No isotope of technetium has a half-life longer than 4.2 million years (Tc). This means that its detection in red giants in 1952 helped support the theory that stars can produce heavier elements. it is the first man made element in periodic table
Monasteries are places where monks live. Although the word "monastery" is sometimes used for a place where nuns live, nuns usually live in a convent or nunnery. The word abbey (from the Syriac/Aramaic word ': "father") is also used for a Christian monastery or convent. The monk in charge of an abbey is called an abbot; the nun in charge of an abbey is an abbess.
Several religions have a system of monasteries. Christian monasteries have a chapel for the monks to worship. Monks are not allowed to marry (celibacy). They are also not allowed to own anything. Everything they use, including their clothes, belongs to the monastery. During the Middle Ages after the Roman Empire was defeated, monasteries were some of the few places where knowledge still existed.
Some monasteries were built in places far away from where other people lived. The monks who live there live very isolated lives, growing their own food and looking after one another. Other monasteries were in or near towns. Monks do a lot of work in the community, including as teaching, medical care or telling people about God. Few monks live isolated lives nowadays.
Windows Neptune is a version of Microsoft Windows that was being made during 1999 and January 2000. Windows 2000 was released as an operating system for businesses and people that know how to use computers well. Windows Neptune was going to be a version of Windows 2000 that was easier for home users to use. Nobody knows if Microsoft was ever going to release Windows Neptune. After Microsoft stopped developing it, some of its features were merged with Windows 2000's and a new project, "Whistler", was formed. "Whistler" was later released as Windows XP.
Only one known confirmed version of Windows Neptune exists. which is Windows Neptune Build 5111. Windows Neptune Build 5111 exists on the Internet, and is a confirmed built. It used to be hard to find, but now it can easily be found.
Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (born 30 August 1954) is the President of the country of Belarus. He has been its leader since 1994. He was the first leader of the country to be chosen by Belarus citizens.
Before becoming the leader, he belonged to the law making section of the government. He was also in the military of the Soviet Union and ran a factory that made things to help farming.
He has been called "Europe's last dictator".
His re-election in 2020 was seen as controversial with many saying it was rigged and unfair. His re-election caused many to protest against the election results. After the contested election, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Canada, Ukraine and the United States do not recognize him as the legitimate president of Belarus.
In July 2020, he said that he had COVID-19 after telling people that to avoid the disease they should drink vodka.
A shelf is a piece of furniture that is used for storing items.
It could also mean:
The word safe has more than one meaning.
Gelatin or Jelly is a dessert item. Gelatin can come in different taste choices, or flavors, depending on what fruit or artificial flavor. Jelly is a cold and solid food that is normally made from hot water and powder.
Jelly can be added to foods like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.
Depending on where you live, gelatin may be called different things. In the United States and Canada, jelly is often called 'Jell-O'. Jell-O is a brand of gelatin that has become a generic, or typical, name for a lot of gelatin. Like the United States, in Canada "Jell-O" is a normal name for gelatin. In Commonwealth Nations like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, almost all gelatin is called jelly. Also, it is spelled gelatine.
Sometimes, alcohol is added to jelly. You can make jello shots with almost any type of alcohol. Jello shots can be served in small glasses and can be any color depending on the other ingredients put into the Jell-O shot. The jello shot is also known as the poison rainbow.
Biogeography is the study of how species are distributed. It aims to show where organisms live, and why they are (or are not) found in a certain geographical area.
Biogeography teaches how animals and plants are adapted to the places they live in, but how similar places often have quite different animals and plants.
Biogeography teaches the reasons why this occurs by resarching species in different places in the world. Between about 1800 to 1855, natural historians made lists of species in various regions of the world. These lists were published as tables in their books. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published the idea of evolution by natural selection. They travelled to tropical countries to find out why species were suited to the places they lived, and wrote about the life in those countries. They said that evolution was the key to understanding geographical distribution.
New species are usually formed by speciation - the act of an earlier species splitting into two. This takes place at a certain time and place. These species may then travel to new places. but they may be stopped from doing so due to mountains and seas, and by climate. Some species may never arrive at certain places. This means that two places with similar climate can often have different kinds of animals and plants. For example, marsupials which live in Australia, and animals which moved because of the Great American Interchange - which meant that there were very different species which came to live in North America and South America.
Different types of animals and plants move in different ways. It is easier for birds and insects to fly through the air, but it is easier for fish to swim in the sea. There are very different species in North America and South America, and fresh-water fish do not come in many types.
It can then be said that:
The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913), and other biologists and explorers.
Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. Wallace and Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be a purely descriptive one.
Both Darwin and Wallace gave a great deal of attention to oceanic islands as offering examples of evolution, especially speciation. Darwin worked a lot in the Galapagos islands This interest was revived by "The theory of island biogeography" by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967. They showed that the variation in species in a single area could be predicted if one knew the habitat area, immigration rate, and extinction rate.
It was realised that habitat fragments are like islands. They can be investigated by the same methods. This spurred the development of conservation biology.
Genome analysis allows scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island species. It allows biologists to test theories about where the species come from.
Macromolecule
Dendrology
Dendrology is the science of trees and other woody plants such as shrubs or lianas. The word "dendrology" comes from Greek words δένδρον meaning "tree" and λόγος meaning "study".
Entomology is the science of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists. Insects have been studied since prehistoric times, but it was not until as early as the 16th century that insects were scientifically studied.
Some entomologists study how insects are related to each other. Others study how insects live and reproduce because we do not know very much about some kinds of insects. Other entomologists study ways to keep insects away from crops that people use for food. There are billions of unknown species throughout the world and taxonomists categorize the newly found.
Entomologists meet to talk about their study of insects and to share ideas, just as all scientists do.
Ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour (U.S. "behavior"), and a sub-topic of zoology. Ethology overlaps, to some extent, with psychology. Psychology is a social science which studies human behaviour, but many psychologists have done experiments on learning in animals. Ethology studies animal behaviour, but many ethologists have been interested in human behaviour.
An American specialist on ants, William Morton Wheeler, first used the term 'ethology' in English in 1902.
The study of animal behaviour, which had been going on in an anecdotal way since Aristotle, had its roots in natural history. It became more scientific during the 19th century. The French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was the founder of ethology in Europe, and his son Isidore produced a three-volume encyclopaedia "Histoire Naturelle Générale". In the third volume he talked about animal behaviour in almost modern terms. The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life. His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.
Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting. Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.
He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses. Therefore, the capacity was inherited.
Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century. This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour. The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives. Wolfgang Köhler's "Mentality of Apes" was a landmark in the study of primates. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.
The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen. The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.
Lorenz is famous for his 'longitudinal' studies: he lived with the animals he researched, and made observations throughout their lives. Then he wrote about what he had discovered in long, very readable papers. He researched instinctual behaviour, which he called 'fixed action patterns' (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of specific stimuli (called sign stimuli or releasing stimuli). von Frisch worked on communication in honey bees: the famous 'bee dances'. Tinbergen experimented with the stimuli which trigger fixed action patterns. He found out that artificial super-stimuli could often work better than the natural stimuli.
Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.
In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour. It involved four questions and their answers.
The only scientific explanation for an animal’s behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival. In practice, this is simple. For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.
Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect. From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to. This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.
Another reason is that not all traits of a species can be maximised at the same time. Increase in armour, for example, is bound to slow down movement. Teeth which are best for vegetation are much less good for meat. The final result is a set of traits, most of which are sub-optimal.
Earlier phylogenetic stages and (pre-) conditions which persist often determine the form of more modern characteristics. For instance, the vertebrate eye (including the human eye) has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not. Once the vertebrate eye had evolved, the only way it could improve was to minimise the effect of the blind spot. We don't notice it ordinarily, because with binocular vision what one eye misses, the other fills in.
All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).
Henry III of England
Henry III (1 October 1207–16 November 1272) became King of England in 1216 when he was 9 years old, after the early death of his father King John. He would end up ruling as king for 56 years (though he would only effectively rule for around 45 due to his youth in the first years). He would be married to Eleanor of Provence, who bore him 5 children, for 36 years. During his long reign, Henry's kingdom would experience relative peace and prosperity until he began having trouble with his barons (particularly Simon de Montfort) due to his high handed governing style, which compelled the Barons to impose the Provisions of Oxford limiting royal power in 1258.
The king's breaking of this agreement with the barons a few years later would lead to a civil war called the Baron's war which pitched the royal family against the rebel barons for 3 years (1264-1267), culminating in De Montfort's death at the unusually bloody Battle of Evesham in 1265 and the royal family being able to sweep up the remnants of the opposition by 1267. However, Henry's most visible mark on history would be due to his interest in architecture and decoration: which made him redevelop certain aspects of Westminster Abbey, improve the Tower of London's defenses (while keeping exotic animals from africa and the artic such as lions, an elephant and a polar bear in it). He would even preside over the reburial of his personal hero Edward the Confessor at the consecration of Westminster Abbey in 1269, which was seen as the greatest personal triumph of his reign. Soon after the consecration of his abbey, the aging Henry would began to see a sharp decline in his health, eventually dying in 1272 at the fairly advanced age of 65, with his eldest son Prince Edward ascending the throne as King Edward I of England. The new king would have his late father reburied in 1290 in Westminster Abbey, where he has laid till modern historians discovered his tomb, which revealed that Henry III was about 5’ 6” tall and had a drooping left eyelid.
Edward I of England
Edward I (17 June 1239–7 July 1307), also "Longshanks" (meaning 'long legs') and the "Hammer of the Scots", was a Plantagenet King of England. He became king on 21 November 1272, until his death in 1307. His mother was Queen Eleanor of Provence and his father was King Henry III of England. As a younger man, Edward fought against Simon de Montfort in defence of his father's crown. He went on a Crusade, and his father died as Edward was on his way back. As a ruler, he improved the laws and made Parliament regular, and more important. He conquered Wales, and subdued the Welsh by brutal policies. He was determined to control Scotland through puppet kings and just managed to do it during his lifetime. He expelled the Jewish people from England.
Edward was born at Westminster in June 1239 to the English King Henry III and his wife, the French noblewoman and English Queen Eleanor of Provence. The baby Edward and was named after an earlier king, Edward the Confessor, who happened to be a personal hero of his father King Henry The boy Edward would have a good education, being taught in Latin and French which were the most used languages in Europe at the time.
In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony induced Edward's father to arrange a marriage between his 15-year-old son and the 13 year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile.
Eleanor and Edward were married on 1 November 1254 in Castile. As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince got grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year. Though the endowments King Henry made were sizable, they offered Edward little independence. He had received Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, as royal lieutenant, drew the income. In practice, Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province. The grant he received in 1254 included most of Ireland, and much land in Wales and England, including the earldom of Chester, but the king kept control over the land, particularly in Ireland, so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the king got most of the income from those lands.
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the king. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester, which Edward, now a young man who could participate in battles, managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke. Edward then captured Northampton from de Montfort's son, also Simon. The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of de Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as prisoners to de Montfort.
Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance. Meanwhile, de Montfort used his victory to set up a "de facto" government. He even summoned the Parliament of 1265, known as de Montfort's Parliament.
Then, on 28 May 1265, Edward managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the king's side. Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon.
Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, before moving on to cut off the earl of Leicester.
The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field.
The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire. In March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports. A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth. In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came an agreement. Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his upcoming crusade.
Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were some of Edward's former adversaries. There was great difficulty raising funds for the expedition.
Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but before they could do this, several disasters happened to the French. The French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself in 1270 By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor Philip III from any further campaigning.
Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre. By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian area. The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were now threatening Acre itself. An embassy to the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibar's forces.
In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemed increasingly desperate. Finally, an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months.
It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards. The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary. In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell. The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where among other things he visited the pope in Rome and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony. Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August.
Edward's reign had two main phases. The first phase was administration of a now peaceful country. The second phase was warfare against Wales and Scotland.
His first concern was to restore order and re-establish royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father. To do this, he changed the administrators. He appointed Robert Burnell as chancellor, who held the post until his death in 1292. Edward then replaced most local officials, such as the sheriffs. This was done to prepare for an inquiry which would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. Laws were made to define rights about ownership of land, recovery of debts, trade and local peacekeeping.
Edward reformed English Parliament and made it a source for generating revenue. Edward held Parliament regularly in his reign. In 1295 a significant change occurred. For this Parliament, in addition to the lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned. Before, the commons had been expected simply to assent (say 'yes') to decisions already made by the rulers. Now they would meet with the full authority ("plena potestas") of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament. The king now had full backing for collecting 'lay subsidies' from the entire population. Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen. Historians have called this the "Model Parliament".
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was the main Welsh leader. He refused to do homage to Edward, and married Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort. In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under the command of Mortimer, Edmund Crouchback (Edward's brother) and the Earl of Warwick. Support for Llywelyn was weak amongst the Welsh.
In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500 of whom 9,000 were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, but he was allowed to keep the title of Prince of Wales.
When war broke out again in 1282, it was entirely different. For the Welsh, this war was over national freedom. It had wide support, especially after attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects. For Edward, it became a war of conquest. The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd (Llywelyn's younger brother), who was annoyed with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277. Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success. The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge. The English conquest was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor next autumn.
Further rebellions occurred in 1287–8 and in 1294. In both cases the rebellions were put down. By the 1284 law called the Statute of Rhuddlan, Wales was incorporated into England and was given an governing system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.
English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own laws in some cases of property disputes. After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales. He created new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan.
Edward started a big program of building castles, to keep the Welsh under control. His castles started the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.
In 1284, King Edward's son Edward the later Edward II was born at Caernarfon Castle. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales.
Scotland and England were at peace in the 1280s. Alexander III of Scotland and Edward had an understanding whereby Alexander held land in England. This gave him the excuse to acknowledge Edward as his lord, and left ambiguous whether or not this applied to Scotland as well.
The heir to the throne was his infant granddaughter Margaret. Unfortunately, Alexander died in 1286, followed by Margaret in 1290. This left Scotland without a king, which started all the problems.
There were fourteen claimants; John Balliol and Robert de Brus (the grandfather of the famous Robert the Bruce) had the best cases. The competitors agreed to hand over the realm to Edward until a decision was made. John Balliol was chosen in 1292.
Edward continued to push his claim as overlord of Scotland. He interferred in some of the legal affairs of Scotland, and insisted the Scots provided military service in his army. This caused the Scots to make an alliance with France. They then attacked Carlisle.
Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone– and brought it to Westminster, deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary.
Although the Scottish conflict seemed settled in 1296, it was started again by William Wallace, who came from one of the notable families. Wallace was a warlord rather than a politician, and soon started a rebellion. He defeated a large English force at Stirling Bridge in 1297 while Edward was in Flanders. In 1298 Edward defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk. After that the Scots avoided open battle in favour of raiding England with small groups.
Edward's next move was political: in 1303 a peace agreement was made between England and France, breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance. Robert de Brus and most of the other nobles pledged allegiance to Edward. Wallace was betrayed and handed to the English. He was publicly executed.
The situation changed again, in 1306, when de Brus murdered his rival John Comyn and had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan. Edward, in ill health, sent armies north under other commanders. Brus was beaten at the Battle of Methven in June 1306. After the battle, Edward followed with brutal suppression of the allies of de Brus. In response this fueled more rebellions. This conflict was still in progress in 1307 when Edward, now an elderly man, led his final campaign into Scotland before dying at the border city of Burgh-by-sands at age 68, leading to the succession of the Prince of Wales as Edward II of England.
Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290. Unusual for arranged marriages, the couple actually loved each other. Edward was deeply affected by her death. He erected twelve Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège (procession) stopped for the night. As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry the French princess Margaret. The marriage took place in 1299.
Edward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one boy did the same– his son and heir Edward, Prince of Wales.
Edward was concerned with his son's failure to live up to expectations, and at one point exiled the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston. Edward may have known his son was bisexual but he did not throw Gaveston from the castle battlements as shown in "Braveheart".
Cell nucleus
The cell nucleus (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it. The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus.
All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.
The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.
When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.
Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane. However, nuclear pores exist. They control the movement of molecules across the membrane. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel. The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.
Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus. It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR). This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm. There they work to build proteins. They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.
Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London. This police force is responsible for the security in Greater London.
New Scotland Yard is in a 20-story office block on Broadway and Victoria Street in Westminster, about 450 metres away from the Houses of Parliament. The famous rotating sign, which is seen on television and in films, is outside the main doors on Broadway.
Founded on 29 September 1829, on a street of Whitehall, Scotland Yard was called "New Scotland Yard" when moved, in November 1890, to the Victoria Embankment, beside the Ministry of Defence. In 1967, New Scotland Yard moved to the present 20-story building at 10 Broadway.
Scotland Yard got its name by its previous location which was on Great Scotland Yard. As the Metropolitan police grew more famous, people started referring to the house as Scotland Yard.
Antimony is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sb. The symbol Sb is from the Latin name of 'stibium' for the element. It has the atomic number 51. Its atomic mass is 121.8. It is a blue-gray element that is somewhat toxic.