AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Treasury holds some of the most famous and spectacular jewels in the world, including the famous Topkapı Dagger. In 1747, the Sultan had this dagger made for Nadir Shah of Persia, but the Shah was assassinated before the emissary had left the Ottoman Empire's boundaries and so the Sultan retained it. There are three large emeralds in the hilt and the sheath is worked with diamonds and enamel. This dagger was the subject of the famous film "Topkapi".
The Harem was home to the Sultan's mother, the Valide sultan; the concubines and wives of the Sultan; and the rest of his family, including children; and their servants. There are approximately 300 rooms (though only about twenty are open to the public), and the Harem housed as many as 500 people, which sometimes amounted up to 300 women, their children, and the eunuchs.
Many of the rooms and features in the Harem were designed by Sinan, a famous architect of the Ottoman Empire.
The Pavilion of the Holy Mantle holds the cloak of Mohammed, his sword, his teeth, his beard, and other relics which are known as the Sacred Trusts. Even the Sultan and his family were permitted entrance only once a year, on the 15th day of Ramadan, during the time when the Palace was a residence. Now any visitor can see these items and many Muslims come on pilgrimage for this purpose.
The Acts of the Apostles (Greek "Praxeis Apostolon") is a book of the Bible, which now is the fifth in the New Testament. It is often simply called Acts.
Acts tells the story of the Early Christian church, with particular interest for the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul of Tarsus. The early chapters in Jerusalem, report Jesus's Resurrection, his Ascension, the Day of Pentecost, and the start of the Twelve Apostles' ministry. The later chapters report Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest and imprisonment and trip to Rome.
Most people think that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke, as Acts 1:1 refers to 'the former treatise have I made, Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach'. The traditional view is that both the two books were written "c." 60 by a companion of Paul named Luke. Many theologians still think so. But some think the books were written by an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 150.
A Firebreak is a way to fight fires. In a firebreak, there is no vegetation, or other material that can burn. This makes it hard for a fire to jump across the break. Therefore, the spread of a possible fire is delayed.
A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called "slum", however; see shanty town.
Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
Dickens, "Sketches by Boz", 1839.
Montauban () is a "commune" in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in the Midi-Pyrénées region in southern France. It is the "préfecture" (capital) of the department.
The town, built mainly with reddish bricks, is on the right bank of the Tarn river at its confluence with the Tescou. It was one of the first bastides in history.
Together with Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban is one of the oldest towns with walls (a bastide) in southern France. It was founded in 1144 by Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse. Most of the inhabitants came from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard.
In the 13th century the town suffered much during the Albigensian Crusade and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by the Pope John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral.
In 1360, under the Treaty of Brétigny, the town was given to the English; they were expelled by the inhabitants in 1414. In 1560 the bishops became Protestants; ten years later it became one of the four Huguenot strongholds under the Peace of Saint-Germain, and formed a small independent republic.
In 1790, Montauban was in the Lot department as the capital of a district; with the creation of the "arrondissements" in 1800, Montauban became a "sous-préfecture" in the Lot department. When Napoleon created the Tarn-et-Garonne department in 1809, Montauban became the préfecture (capital) of the new department.
Montauban is at about to the north of Toulouse, on the confluence of the Tescou and the Tarn rivers, and at from Agen ("préfecture" of the Lot-et-Garonne), from Albi ("préfecture" of the Tarn) and at about from Cahors ("préfecture" of the Lot).
Montauban is surrounded by the "communes" Villemade, Piquecos, Lamothe-Capdeville, Albias, Saint-Étienne-de-Tulmont, Léojac, Saint-Nauphary,Corbarieu,Bressols, Lacourt-Saint-Pierre, Montbeton and Albefeuille-Lagarde.
The climate of Montauban, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Montauban is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .
The average temperature for the year in Montauban is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .
The inhabitants of Montauban are known, in French, as "Montalbanais" (women: "Montalbanaises").
With a population of 58,826, Montauban has a population density of inhabitants/km.
Evolution of the population in Montauban
Montauban is the prefecture of the Tarn-et-Garonne department since 1809. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Montauban and the administrative centre () of three cantons, all formed with part of the commune:
It is part of the intercommunality "Le Grand Montauban" ().
Montauban is twinned with:
Some interesting places in Montauban are:
Layyah
Leo III
Leo III (or the Greek form Leon III) refers to:
Pope Leo III
Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816. He is famous for the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor in 800.
Leo was born in Rome.
Leo reported his election to Charlemagne, sent him the keys of Saint Peter's tomb and the banner of Rome. Charlemagne replied that it was his function to defend the church and the Pope's to pray for the kingdom and for victory of the army.
Charlemagne went to Rome in November 800, and on December 1 held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on December 23, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled. Two days later Leo crowned Charlemagne at St. Peter's tomb. Charlemagne did intervene in church affairs, not always successfully.
The reasons for the coronation, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Byzantine Empire are all matters of debate among historians.
Khanda
Judi Dench
Dame Judith Olivia Dench (born 9 December 1934) is an English movie, stage and television actress.
Judi Dench has appeared in James Bond movies since 1995 as the character M. She has also appeared in other large budget movies such as "Mrs. Henderson Presents" and "Ladies in Lavender".
Dench was born in Heworth, York, England. She is the daughter of Eleanora Olave (née Jones), a native of Dublin, and Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor. Dench attended the Mount School, a Quaker independent secondary school in York. She became a Quaker.
In 1971, Dench married British actor Michael Williams. Their only child is Tara Cressida Frances Williams. She was born on 24 September 1972. She is known professionally as Finty Williams. Dench and her husband starred together several times. Michael Williams died from lung cancer in 2001, aged 65.
In early 2012, Dench said she had macular degeneration. Because of this, she needed someone to read scripts to her.
Dench's brother, Jeffery Dench, died on 27 March 2014 at the age of 85.
Arendal
Arendal is a city and municipality in the county of Aust-Agder, Norway. It is the administrative center of Aust-Agder county, and belongs to the geographical region of Sørlandet. The municipality is bordered in the southwest by Grimstad, in the northwest by Froland, and in the northeast by Tvedestrand municipalities.
The Norse form of the name was probably ""Arnardalr"". The first element is then the genitive case of "orn" m 'eagle', the last element is "dalr" m 'valley, dale'.
S.S. Lazio
S.S. Lazio is an Italian football club based in Formello (Via di Santa Cornelia 1000, 00060 Formello).
They play in light blue shirts, white shorts and socks. The name Lazio was chosen as the original founders wanted to name the club after something which was greater and encompassed more than just the city that they were from - Lazio is the name of the region where Rome is. The sky blue and white team colors were inspired by the Greek flag and more specifically the country which gave birth to Olympic tradition; the eagle as an acknowledgement by its founders.
Satire is a form in art or writing which ridicules either a person, government, or an institution, often through the use of humour. Satire can either be in paintings, plays, books, songs, TV or movies. It also is used to stereotype people.
Satire was used long ago. It is a Latin word, though the plays of Aristophanes are often called satirical. Satire was widely known in Elizabethan times. Swift used it in his book "Gulliver's Travels" to make fun of people’s stupidity. Works like "The Beggar’s Opera" (1728) used satire to show how silly the politicians of the time were. The German playwright Bertolt Brecht used a lot of satire, as did Peter Cook. Jon Stewart and other comedians use it frequently.
Satire often points out ironic or bad things that powerful people are doing. Its adjective is satirical.
Iron Cross
The Iron Cross was a medal given to German soldiers for bravery during wartime. The award was created by King Frederick William III of Prussia. It was first given out on 10 March 1813. The Iron Cross was awarded during the Napoleonic Wars, the Franco-Prussian War, the First World War, and the Second World War. This medal was received by Adolf Hitler after World War I.
The medal is only given in wartime, so no Iron Crosses have been given out since the end of the Second World War in 1945.
During the Second World War an extra type of Iron Cross medal was given. It was the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and was given for acts of extreme battlefield bravery or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five grades:
Manowar
Power series
In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form
where "a" represents the coefficient of the nth term, "c" is a constant, and "x" varies around "c" (for this reason one sometimes speaks of the series as being "centered" at "c"). This series usually appears as the Taylor series of some known function; the Taylor series article contains many examples.
In many situations "c" is equal to zero, for example when considering a Maclaurin series.
In those cases, the power series takes the simpler form
These power series appear primarily in analysis, but also appear in combinatorics (under the name of generating functions) and in electrical engineering (under the name of the Z-transform). The familiar decimal notation for integers can also be viewed as an example of a power series, but with the argument "x" fixed at 10. In number theory, the concept of p-adic numbers is also closely related to that of a power series.
Vålerenga Fotball
Vålerenga Fotball is a Norwegian football club from Oslo. It was founded in 1913. They are named after the neighbourhood of Vålerenga. They finished as runners-up in the 2010 Norwegian Premier League, the last time they won was in 2005. Vålerenga's home ground is Ullevaal Stadion, the national stadium for Norway. Their current coach is Martin Andresen.
"As of January 15th 2010"
Volga River
The Volga is the longest river in Europe. In Russian it is called Волга, in the Tatar language its name is İdel.
Many people see it as the national river of Russia. It flows through the western part of the country. It is Europe's longest river, with a length of 3,530 kilometres, and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe.
It rises in the Valdai Hills of Russia, 225m above sea level north-west of Moscow. The Kama, Oka, Vetluga and the Sura are its main tributaries. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres. It includes
555 channels and small streams. It is the largest estuary in Europe. It is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingoes, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three months each year. Some of the biggest reservoirs in the world can be found along the river.
Oi! is a type of punk rock that was started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The people that started it wanted to connect punk with a working class street-level following. Oi! is a mixing of the styles of early punk bands, such as The Clash, Sex Pistols and the Ramones. It is also influenced by early British rock bands (such as The Rolling Stones and The Who), football chants, pub rock and glam rock bands. The music is often very simple, and the lyrics are blunt (brutally honest, without tact).
Punk rock began to become popular in the 1970s. Some perceived that it was becoming more and more commercialised. This was the kind of thing that punks were against. Oi! began partly as a response to this perception. It was also partly a response to stereotyping that others made about punks. One stereotype was that many people in the early punk rock scene were young people using big words and trying to be artistic, but failing.
Early Oi! bands such as Sham 69 were around for years before the word "Oi!" was used to describe their style of music. The word was first used as a name for the new genre in 1980, by journalist Garry Bushell. He took the name from the way the Cockney Rejects used "Oi!" during live shows to introduce their songs. "Oi! Oi! Oi!" was the title of the third track on their second album. The word is an old Cockney expression, meaning "hey" or "hello". Other bands that were labelled as Oi! bands in the early days of the genre included Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Business, Blitz, The Blood, and Combat 84. More recent punk bands such as Rancid and Dropkick Murphys have credited Oi! as a source of inspiration.
Brothers Grimm
The Brothers Grimm (German: "Die Brüder Grimm", also "Gebrüder Grimm") were the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. They were German academics and most famous for their collections of folktales and fairy tales, and for their work in linguistics.
The Grimm brothers both became linguists. They are the inventors of German philology. They also did other language-related work, like publishing one of the first grammar books for the German language.
They also wrote fairy tales, and collected the tales which people told them. They published a collection of fairy tales known as "Grimms' Fairy Tales" ("Grimms Märchen").
Heavy metal may mean:
Bryozoa
Bryozoans, also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or moss animals, are a phylum of small aquatic animals living in colonies. The colonies usually have a skeleton of calcium carbonate. Bryozoans have a long fossil history, starting in the Ordovician. In their life-style they resemble the polyps which form coral. They generally like warm, tropical waters but live all over the world. There are about 5,000 living species, and 15,000 fossil species are known.
The colonies are formed by tiny (~0.2mm) members called zooids. They secrete tubes, usually of lime (CaCO), sometimes of chitin, an organic compound. The zooids in a colony are all clones, produced by asexual reproduction. Despite this, most species produce different morphs: zooids with different functions.
All bryozoa have a lophophore. This is a ring of ten tentacles surrounding the mouth, each tentacle covered with cilia. When feeding, the zooid extends the lophophore outwards; when resting it is withdrawn into the mouth to protect it from predators.
Bryozoan skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even corkscrew-shaped. Their skeletons have many tiny openings. Each opening is the home of "zooid". They have a body with a U-shaped gut, opening at the mouth and at the anus. They feed with their lophophore. The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated. The beating of the cilia creates a current of water which drives food (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. In some groups, notably some ctenostomes, a gizzard may be formed.
Bryozoans do not have a respiratory, or a blood system, because their small size allows diffusion of gases and nutrients. However, they do have a simple nervous system, and muscles, which together can quickly take the zooid down into its shelter.
One species of bryozoan, "Bugula neritina", is of interest as a source of chemicals, bryostatins, which are under investigation as anti-cancer agents.
Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are hermaphrodite (meaning they are both male and female).
All members of a colony are clones: they are genetically identical, produced by asexual reproduction. This occurs by budding off new zooids from the first zooid. So the colony grows; this is the way a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony.
All zooids in a colony are linked by strands of epithelial cells. The individual members of a colony, the zooids, are in some species generalised: they feed, and they can reproduce on occasion. But in most species the zooids are specialised to diffent functions. In this case the feeding zooids are called "autozooids", and the non-feeding members are called "heterozooids". Functions done by heterozooids include sexual reproduction, protection, locomotion, plumbing, structural support. The functions of some heterozooids is still unknown. The commonest function is that eggs are developed in brooding chambers ("ovicells") on female or hermaphrodite heterozooids. There are variations in the details: sometimes a little complex of heterozooids produce larvae in a cooperative effort.
Another way to describe the bryozoa which develop heterozooids is to say they are polymorphic. This term is used in biology to describe the way a genetically unified population develops into clearly distinct forms. The polymorphism is usually controlled by genetic switching mechanisms, but in bryozoa there is little knowledge of their genetics.
Most species of Bryozoan live in marine environments. There are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans live on all types of hard substrates: sand grains, rocks, shells, wood, blades of kelp, pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on sediment. While some species live at depths of 8,200 m, most bryozoans live in much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the Southern Ocean. Several bryozoan species live in the Midwestern United States, especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which was once a part of a large ocean, the Western Interior Seaway.
Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including diatoms and other unicellular algae. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as sea urchins and fish.
Bryozoans are almost entirely colony-forming animals. Many millions of individuals can form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals have different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, "Monobryozoon ambulans", which does not form colonies.
Fossil bryozoans first appear in the early Ordovician and had a huge adaptive radiation. They were abundant throughout the Palaeozoic era: they were one of the most dominant groups of Palaeozoic fossils. They were major components of seabed communities and, like modern-day bryozoans, played an important role in sediment stabilization and binding. They were food sources for many other benthic organisms. During the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) 354 to 323 million years ago, bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire limestone beds.
After a crash at the Permian/Triassic boundary, when almost all species went extinct, bryozoans recovered in the later Mesozoic to become as successful as before. The bryozoan fossil record has more than 15,000 species.
Most fossil bryozoans have mineralized skeletons. The skeletons of individual zooids vary from tubular to box-shaped and contain a terminal aperture from which the lophophore is protruded to feed. No pores are present in the great majority of Ordovician bryozoans, but skeletal evidence shows that epithelia were continuous from one zooid to the next.
One of the most important events during bryozoan evolution was the acquisition of a calcareous skeleton and the mechanism of tentacle protrusion. The rigidity of the outer body walls gave protection against predators, a greater degree of zooid connection, and the evolution of massive colony forms.
A placebo is a treatment for a disease or condition which is deliberately ineffective. The motive usually is that if a person believes that a medicine, diet, or other treatment is good for himself or herself, then it is good for the person.
Sometimes sick people who receive a placebo feel like they are getting better, and sometimes their bodies actually do get better. When patients have that response, it is called the "placebo effect". The term "placebo effect" (or "placebo response") was introduced in 1920. It is the response of the subject which causes the observed effect, not the substance.
John Haygarth tested a placebo effect in the 18th century. It showed ""to a degree which has never been suspected, what powerful influence upon diseases is produced by mere imagination"".
Émile Coué, a French apothecary, working between 1882 and 1910, discovered what later came to be known as the "Placebo effect". He reassured his clients by praising each remedy's efficiency and leaving a small positive notice with each medication. In 1901 Coué began to study under hypnosis. In 1913, Coué and his wife founded "La Société Lorraine de Psychologie appliquée". His book "Self-mastery through conscious autosuggestion" was published in England (1920) and in the United States (1922).
Placebos are used as part of blind trials. Blind trials work like this: Some people are given the medicine or treatment being tested, and others are given the placebo. No one knows who gets the real treatment and who gets the placebo. They are "blind" to their treatment.
If researchers notice that the "treatment group" is different from the "placebo group" they will know that the difference is because of the treatment. Without a "placebo group" then researchers cannot know if those changes would have happened anyway, no matter which medicine people had taken.
Placebos can have real effects on patients: that is what "placebo effect" means. Since a landmark paper in 1955 the placebo effect has been recognised and accepted by some, and denied by others. However, there is no doubt that for certain conditions, the placebo effect does exist. Examples are:
Identity (mathematics)
In mathematics, the term identity has several important uses:
An equality in mathematical sense is only true under more particular conditions. For this, the symbol ≡ is sometimes used (note, however, that the same symbol can also be used for a congruence relation as well.)
A common example of the first meaning is the trigonometric identity
which is true for all real values of formula_7 (since the real numbers formula_8 are the domain of both sine and cosine), as opposed to
which is only true for certain values of formula_7 in a subset of the domain.
The concepts of "additive identity" and "multiplicative identity" are central to the Peano axioms.
The number 0 is the "additive identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all formula_11
Similarly, The number 1 is the "multiplicative identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all formula_11
A common example of an identity function is the identity permutation, which sends each element of the set formula_19 to itself.
These meanings are not mutually exclusive; for instance, the identity permutation is the identity element in the set of permutations of formula_19 under composition.
Equality can mean several things:
In sciences:
In humanities:
People and places:
Identity could mean:
Equality (mathematics)
In mathematics, two things are equal if and only if they are exactly the same in every way. That is, they have the same (mathematical) value and the same mathematical properties. Mathematicians use the equals sign (=) to say this. This defines a binary relation, equality. The statement ""x" = "y"" means that "x" and "y" are equal.
Equivalence in a more general sense is provided by the construction of an equivalence relation between two mathematical objects, that is, two mathematical objects are equivalent if they are related by this relation. In which case, the equivalence is often represented using the symbols formula_1 or formula_2.
A statement that two expressions denote equal quantities is an equation (or an equality). Equations are equal. Inequalities are unequal.
An equality is also a transitive relation. This means that if one object is equal to a second object, and the second object is equal to a third object, then the first object is equal to the third object as well.
Since a predicate is a way of describing something that is true, another way to say this is that if one thing that is true about a variable is not true about the other variable, then they are not "equal" as far as mathematical logic is concerned: two things are only equal if anything that is true about one has to be true about the other.
In geometry, the word congruence is often preferred. Numbers are equal, geometrical objects are congruent. Two shapes are congruent if one can be moved or rotated so that it fits exactly where the other one is. If shrinking or enlarging one of the two objects is needed, then they are not congruent. They are called "similar" instead. The congruence relation is often represented by the symbol formula_3, while the similarity relation is represented by the symbol formula_1.
In computer science, usually, the mathematical definition is used. Very often, the comparison is written "==" (and the assignment, the act of giving a value, is written as "=", or ":="). In object-oriented languages, or languages which have pointers, there is an additional problem. Those languages contain references (which are in fact pointers). If two such references do not reference exactly the same object, then they are different and "a == b" will be false in this case.
For this reason, many such languages have introduced another operator (in Java, this method is called "equals"). This operator compares the actual values of the objects—not where the variables that reference them point to.
In social sciences, two people are equal if many of the same things are true about them. For example. two people who have the same amount of education and money, and who are of the same age usually think of each other as equals. Another name for a person who is equal to another person is a peer.
The term ministry could mean:
Religious ministry
Ministry, in Christianity, is the activity that is done by members of the church to serve the purposes of the church.
It can mean this activity as a whole, or specific activities, or organizations in a church that perform specific activities.
As churches attempt to meet the needs of their congregations, they often separate their members into groups according to age categories. Age-specific groups meet for religious study including Sunday school programs, fellowship, and other activities. These age divisions may include:
Nearly all churches have some form of worship music, whether from a choir, orchestra, or worship band.
Many churches sponsor ministries designed to reach out others on a local and global scale, usually grouped under the heading of missions. There are many organizations which perform missions on a fully-funded and organized level, such as North American Mission Board, operated by the Southern Baptist Convention.
Ministry (government department)
A ministry is a department of a government, led by a political minister.
Ministries are usually subordinate to the cabinet, and prime minister, president or chancellor. A government will usually have several ministries, each with a specialised field of service. National ministries vary greatly between countries, but some common ones include Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and Ministry of Health.
Some countries such as Switzerland, the Philippines and the United States do not use the term "ministry" for their government departments, and instead simply call them departments. In Hong Kong the term "bureau" is used.
In Canada, some provincial-level government departments are called "ministries" (such as in Ontario and British Columbia) but most are called "departments." Their heads are referred to as "ministers" in both levels of government, however.
Galerius
Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, ~250 – 5 May 311), was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311.
Galerius served as a soldier with distinction. When the Tetrarchy was introduced by Diocletian in 293 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were given the rank of "Caesar". Galerius married Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and took over the Illyrian provinces.
In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, Galerius moved from the Danube to the Euphrates. There his first campaign ended in a defeat by the Sassanid prince Narses, near Callinicum. This disaster caused the loss of Mesopotamia.
Diocletian came to Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was to take the blame. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. The message was clear: the loss at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.
In 298 Galerius got reinforcements from the Danube in the Spring. He led the army to attack Narseh in northern Mesopotamia, and Narseh retreated to Armenia.
The rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces. In two battles, Galerius got victories over Narseh.
During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch. This was, to the Persians, a constant reminder of Roman victory. Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning victories. He took Nisibis (Nusaybin, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and looking at the ruins of Babylon. Then he returned to Roman territory by the Euphrates.
Narses asked for peace. Mesopotamia was returned to Roman rule and even some territory east of the Tigris. This was the greatest extension of the Roman Empire in the east.
In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius got the title of Augustus, together with Constantius, his former colleague. Two younger men were appointed as Caesars: Maximus Daia and Severus II.
Galerius' hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306. The legions raised his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he got a letter from Constantine, who told him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiasm of his troops had not allowed him to get the Imperial purple in a regular manner.
The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage. As he could not restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.
When he had time to reconsider his position, he realised his chances of winning a war against Constantine was doubtful. Therefore, without commenting on the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite, Severus II.
Suddenly Galerius had the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, his son-in-law. Galerius’ need for revenue led him to make a strict examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of taxation. A survey was taken of their estates. Where there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to get a sincere declaration of their personal wealth.
Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, so that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion. Severus was quickly captured and executed by Maximian, who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius.
The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy. He was determined to revenge the death of Severus and to punish the rebellious Romans However, due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible. Though he forced his way as far as Narni, sixty miles from Rome, he controlled only his camp.
As he was facing difficulties, Galerius made the first steps to reconciliation. He sent two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference. These offers were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused. Unless he retreated, he might meet the fate of Severus. It was not a moment too soon; money from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted their loyalty. When Galerius began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.
In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.
With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, the retired emperor Diocletian and Maximian called an imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube. Its aim was to bring some order back into the imperial government. Here it was agreed that Galerius’ long-time friend and military companion Licinius, who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.
Galerius’ plan soon failed. The news of Licinius’ promotion was carried into the East, and Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar. Maximus claimed (and got) the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, six emperors administered the Roman world. Although the memory of a recent war divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their fears and the fading authority of Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.
The last years of Galerius saw him keep the position of first among equals. He spent the rest of his time enjoying himself, and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests around it.
Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to the influence of Galerius. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of secret gatherings.
But in April 311 Galerius issued the general edict of toleration, from Nicomedia in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. Lactantius gives the text of the edict in "De Mortibus Persecutorum" ('On the Deaths of the Persecutors', chapters 34, 35). This marked the end of official persecution of Christians. Galerius died on 5 May, 311.
Placebo (disambiguation)
Placebo may mean:
Placebo effect (disambiguation)
Placebo effect may refer to:
Square foot gardening
Square foot gardening is a method of gardening made popular by Mel Bartholemew in 1981. It is based on the idea that wide rows, used in traditional gardening, waste time, work, water, seeds and soil. It shows that quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less work. In this method, the garden space is divided into "beds", separated by paths. Each bed measures 4' × 4' ( × ), therefore covering an area of (). These beds are further divided into sixteen squares of about one square foot ( per side, ). A different type of plant is grown in each of those squares. A single large plant, like broccoli, will use one of the squares. Smaller plants can be spaced more tightly; for example, four heads of lettuce together in one square, or sixteen carrots. All work (planting, removing weeds, watering and harvesting) is done from the pathways. This stops the soil from being compacted.
A blender is an electric kitchen appliance used for making drinks, mixing liquids, and puréeing (chopping up into small bits) fruits and vegetables for sauces and soups.
A blender consists of a glass or plastic container with a mounted blade in the bottom, and a base that has an electric motor and switches to turn on the motor or change its speed.
Blenders are used to make milk shakes (a blend of ice cream and milk) and fruit smoothies (a mix of fruit and ice).
Blenders are also used to make cold alcoholic drinks that include crushed ice or ice cream, such as margaritas and Mississippi Mudslide drinks.
Drinking straw
A drinking straw (or "straw") is a utensil used to consume cold drinks such as milk shakes, smoothies, cola, and fruit juice. Drinking straws are usually made from plastic that is formed into a tube. To use a drinking straw, a person places the straw in a glass that contains a liquid and then sucks the straw with their mouth. Straws are mainly plastic, but some straws are paper or cardboard to protect the environment.
The oldest straw found is over 5000 years old. Straws have been found in Sumerian temples made of gold and lapis lazuli. The straws popularity came in the 1800s during the industrial revolution. Those straws were made of paper and turned to mush quickly. An inventor named Joseph Friedman invented a straw made of paper coated in glue so that it did not dissolve.
Whole-tone scale
In music, a whole tone scale is a scale in which each note is separated from the next one by an interval of a whole tone. There is always one note (a semitone) in between each neighbouring pair of notes of the whole-tone scale. Whatever note is started on, the whole tone scale will contain one of the following sets of notes:
When a whole-tone scale is played on a piano, starting from a low note and moving up to high notes, while at the same time pressing the sustaining pedal (the right pedal), it makes a "dreamy" sound. It does not sound in any particular key, but floats along. It also sounds very good on a harp.
Debussy uses the whole-tone scale a lot in his music, but he was not the first to do so. Russian composers such as Glinka in his opera "Ruslan and Ludmila" and Borodin in "Prince Igor" used the whole-tone scale.
Later composers to use it include Alban Berg in his "Violin Concerto", and Béla Bartók in
his "String Quartet No. 5". It has also been used in jazz.
Pentatonic scale
In music, a pentatonic scale is a scale with five notes in each octave. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found in folk music from all over the world.
Any scale using five notes is "pentatonic" ("penta" is Greek for "five"). However, the pentatonic scale which is used in most Western music uses notes which do not have any semitones. A pentatonic scale starting on C will use the notes C,D,E,G,A (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 6th notes of a major scale).. An easy way to find such a pentatonic scale is by using all the black notes of a keyboard.
Using the pentatonic scale is a good way for children to make up their own tunes. It does not matter too much which note is used for the start and the finish, because there is no feeling of a clear key. The notes always sound good when played together.
Many folk songs are pentatonic, or nearly pentatonic. Well-known songs such as "Land of the Silver Birch" or "Auld Lang Syne" are pentatonic tunes.
Classical composers have sometimes used pentatonic scales, especially Claude Debussy. His piano piece "La fille aux cheveux de lin" has a tune which is pentatonic except for one note. Maurice Ravel used it to write music which sounded Chinese, and in his "Mother Goose" suite ("Ma Mère l'Oye") which sounds like a fairy tale.
The pentatonic scales used in Indonesian gamelan music are called "slendro" and "pelog".
pentatonic song:
sing out your melody
sing out your song
sing a pentatonic scale
starting on lah
soh
lah!
Difficult words: Octave - An octave is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.
Folk music - Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music.
Semitones - A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically. It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). This implies that its size is exactly or approximately equal to 100 cents, a twelfth of an octave.
Major scale - The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note (from Latin "octavus", the eighth).
Major scale
In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven separate notes, plus an eighth which is the same as the first an octave higher. In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti/Si, Do". The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard:
A major scale is a set of steps in the order "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half" (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone). Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note with a different accidental. This means that the key signature of the scale will feature just sharps "or" just flats.
The Circle of Fifths was first described in 1728 by Johann David Heinichen in his book "Der General-bass". It has been used ever since as a way to show the relations between scales.
The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) The circle depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, which is six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys (Drabkin 2001). Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that are more easy to spell with five flats or sharps (as D major or B major).
The major scale is used more often than the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties. For example, the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic – see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic).
Minor scale
A minor scale in music theory is any scale that has at least three scale degrees: the tonic, the minor third above the tonic, and the perfect fifth above the tonic. Together they make the minor triad. This includes many scales and modes such as Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode.
In simple terms, a minor scale is a series of notes with a sad, somber character (exaggerated when heard back-to-back with a major scale). A minor scale begins on the sixth note of its relative major scale, and is built with the following pattern of half steps and whole steps:
i_whole_ii°_half_III_whole_iv_whole_v_half_VI_whole_VII_whole _i (next octave)
Usually, when people talk about minor scales, they mean natural minor, harmonic minor, or melodic minor scales, which are the most common in Western music.
The natural minor scale is the same as the 6th mode (or Aeolian mode) of the major scale. For example, the white notes of a keyboard from one C to the next C up makes a C major scale. If the white notes are played starting from the sixth step of that C scale, (from any A to the next A), then an A natural minor scale (the "relative minor" of C) is produced.
The harmonic minor scale is the same as the natural minor but with the seventh note raised by a semitone.
Harmonic Minor Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
For example, in the key of A minor, the harmonic minor scale is:
A B C D E F G A
One way the harmonic minor is different to the natural minor is that it has two chords which have the same structure when inverted, so they do not belong to any key. These are the diminished seventh chord (2nd, 4th, 6th and 7th degrees) and the augmented chord (the 3rd, 5th and 7th degrees).
The harmonic minor is also sometimes called the Mohammedan scale because its upper tetrachord is the same as the Hijaz jins, often found in Middle Eastern music. The harmonic minor scale as a whole is sometimes called "Nahawand-Hijaz" in Arabic, or as "Bûselik Hicaz" in Turkish.
The interval between the sixth and seventh degrees of this scale (in this case F and G) is an augmented second. While some composers, like Mozart, have used this interval in melodic composition, other composers found it awkward. They thought that a whole step between these two scale degrees was better for smooth melody writing, so they used the subtonic seventh, or raised the sixth scale degree. These two options are called the ascending melodic minor scale and descending melodic minor scale. The ascending has the same upper tetrachord to the major scale, and the descending is the same as the natural minor:
A B C D E F G A' and then
A' G F E D C B A respectively.
Many composers do not stick to the notes of only one of these scales when writing music. Using the triad of the relative major is very common, but because this is based on the third degree of the minor scale, the raised seventh degree of the harmonic scale would cause an augmented triad. In this case, composers usually use the natural minor. In jazz, usually only the ascending minor is used.
Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are called "relative"; so C major is the relative major of A minor, and C minor is the relative minor of E major. The relative major is a minor third above the tonic of the minor. For example, since the key signature of G major has one sharp (see major scales for how to find this), its relative minor, E minor, also has one sharp in its key signature.