AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
In August 2011, the Ames Straw Poll was conducted. It was won by Bachmann, with Paul coming in second. During the poll, Perry entered the race. After not placing in the top 2 in the poll, former Minnesota governor Tim Pawlenty dropped out. Thaddeus McCotter dropped out a short time later.
Rick Perry became the frontrunner (person with the highest amount of support who is expected to win, according to polls) of the party, ahead of Romney in the polls. Rick Perry then had several bad debates and in one of them, he said he wanted to remove 3 government departments, but forgot one of them. After these mistakes, Perry's poll numbers went down.
In the fall, Herman Cain became the new frontrunner for several months. He had an economic plan called 9-9-9 that would replace the entire tax system with a 9% income tax, a 9% national sales tax, and a 9% corporation tax. During foreign policy debates, he was not as successful. On December 3, 2011, Cain left the Presidential race. This was after several women said that he had sexually harassed them.
Newt Gingrich and Mitt Romney were the two main competitors after that, but soon after Newt Gingrich lost much of his support. Gary Johnson withdrew on December 28, 2011, to run for the nomination of the Libertarian Party.
In January 2012, after not doing well in the primaries, Bachmann, Huntsman, and Perry dropped out of the Presidential race. Rick Santorum, however, picked up a surprise win in Iowa, as did Gingrich in South Carolina.
For February, March, and the beginning of April, Rick Santorum was Mitt Romney's main competitor. On April 10, However, with only 11 (primary) victories to Romney's 23, Rick Santorum announced that he was going to drop out of the race. Buddy Roemer dropped out on February 22nd to run for the nominations of americans elect and the reform party, before ending his campaign completely on May 31.
After Santorum dropped out, most people thought that Mitt Romney would win the most primaries, and therefore the most pledged delegates, and ultimately the nomination. His two remaining opponents, Newt Gingrich and Ron Paul decided to stay in the race. Gingrich dropped out on May 2 after a disappointing showing in the Delaware primary that left his number of victories at 2 to Romney's 28. Paul, despite having only 1 victory to Romney's eventual 42 victories, did not end his campaign until after the 2012 republican national convention.
Santorum and Gingrich released their delegates ahead of the convention to vote for Romney.
At the republican national convention, with support from many pledged and unpledged delegates, Romney won the nomination in a landslide. The convention chose Paul Ryan as Romney's running mate.
Other candidates for nomination included Virgil Goode, Roseanne Barr, Rocky Anderson, and Tom Hoefling.
Four other parties nominated candidates that had ballot access or write-in access to at least 270 electoral votes, the minimum number of votes needed in the 2012 election to win the presidency through a majority of the electoral college.
Many polls have been taken about the presidential election. Most polls show Obama beating Romney, aside from polls taken between the first and second presidential debates. In polls taken state-by-state, Obama usually wins states he won in 2008, and Republicans usually win states that McCain won in 2008. Indiana, North Carolina, and Nebraska's second congressional district are the main exceptions to the rule.
Popular vote count is preliminary, and does not include all precincts.
When you read "Consensus", it means that many news programs have said they believe Obama/Romney will win a particular state. A projection is when someone expresses their belief in something, in this case about the outcome of the election. An EV is an Electoral vote, from the Electoral college.
Note: Florida was not called until November 10 due to an extremely close race.
The Kippax
The Kippax was one of the most well known stands at Manchester City's Maine Road Ground. Originally the Popular Stand, its name was changed in 1957. The Kippax was unusual in that unlike in most other grounds, this area of support occupied a full side rather than an end of the ground. In 1994, due to the Taylor Report, the new redeveloped, all seater stand was opened by City legend Bert Trautmann. It housed 10,000 fans and had three levels. At the time it was the highest stand in the country.
The club left the Maine Road ground in 2003 and moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium.. This of course bought the end for one of City's most loved stands, The Kippax. Unofficially, the East stand in the new stadium is also named Kippax.
UEFA Women's Euro 2005
The 2005 UEFA Women's Championship, also called WOMEN'S EURO 2005 (trademark of UEFA), was a football tournament for women held from 5 June to 19 June 2005 in Lancashire, England. The UEFA Women's Championship is a regular tournament involving European national teams from countries that are part of UEFA, the European governing body, who have qualified for the competition. The competition tries to determine which national women's team is the best in Europe.
Germany won the competition for the fourth consecutive tournament. It was the sixth time overall (including one win in the predecessor tournament, the "European Competition for Representative Women's Teams") that they won. Their championship win was the last for coach Tina Theune-Meyer, who months earlier had announced that she would retire at the end of the tournament. In her nine years in charge of Germany, they won three European titles, two bronze medals in the Olympics, and the 2003 World Cup.
Eight national teams participated–seven which qualified from earlier stages, plus England, which received an automatic berth as the host nation. They were split into two groups of 4: Group A and Group B. Each team in a group played each other once, with the top two teams in each group moving into the semi-finals. The winner faced the runner-up of the other group in a play-off, with the winner of each semi-final advancing to the final to determine the champion.
A qualifying round ran from 22 March to 3 October 2004 . The teams which were entered played in a group stage, with the winners advancing to the final, and the runners-up being given the chance of qualification through a play-off. England, as the host nation, qualified automatically for the tournament.
The following teams were eliminated at this stage :
Three teams were also eliminated in play-offs for the tournament:
More information on the qualification format at UEFA.com
For a list of all squads that played in the final tournament, see 2005 UEFA Women's Championship squads
Top two placed teams advanced to the semifinals
Laurent Robert
Laurent Robert (born 21 May 1975) is a French football player. He has played for France national team.
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Nicolae Mitea
Nicolae Mitea (born 24 March 1985) is a Romanian football player. He has played for Romania national team.
53||11
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Yasumichi Uchima
Yasumichi Uchima (born 10 September 1984) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Gainare Tottori.
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Rodrigo Fabri
Rodrigo Fabri (born 15 January 1976) is a Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.
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45||8
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Public health is the science dealing with prevention there is a disease that is a threat to the overall health of a community, as well as with prolonging life and promoting health. The aims are achieved through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, public and private organizations, communities and individuals.
It bases on health analysis of a handful of people or all the inhabitants of several continents rather than on an individual. Public health includes such parts as epidemiology, biostatistics, health services, environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health.
Public health intervention prevents rather than treats a disease through surveillance of cases and promotes healthy behaviors such as hand washing, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms. In outbreaks of an infectious disease, treating a disease may be vital to preventing it in others.
Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and through international non-governmental organizations. In the developing world, there may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.
Public health has roots in antiquity. From the beginning, human civilization recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste disposal spread communicable diseases. Early religions attempted to regulate behavior related to health, from types of food eaten, to behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relationships. Governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease, ensure social stability prosperity, and maintain order.
The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. The practice of vaccination did not become prevalent until the 1820s. During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, burning parts of cities resulted in benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in the medieval period restricted effects of other infectious diseases.
Later they started build of sewers, the regular collection of garbage, incineration or disposal, providing clean water and draining standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitos. The industrial revolution initially caused the spread of disease through large conurbations around workhouses and factories.
The increase in average life span in the 20th century is credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective safety policies of motor vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning, chlorination of drinking water, smoke-free measures, and programs on decreasing chronic disease such as cancer, heart disease and more physical exercise.
Sometimes, the developing world is plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases, due to malnutrition and poverty. The focus of public health has moved from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. There is recognition that our health is affected by where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships.
Schools of public health offer:
Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. In recent years, public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox.
An important public health issues facing the world currently are HIV/AIDS, antibiotic resistance, leading to the re-emergence of diseases such as Tuberculosis, diabetes. As non-communicable diseases caused by smoking have been threatening public health, public health started controlling smoking. The global health system needs to find a way to even out communicable and non communicable diseases. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places.
Tsubasa Watabe
Tsubasa Watabe (born 13 December 1986) is a Japanese football player.
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Marcos Assunção
Marcos Assunção (born 25 July 1976) is a Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.
55||9
256||42
James McFadden
James McFadden (born 14 April 1983) is a Scottish football player. He plays for Birmingham City and Scotland national team.
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Richard Wright (born 5 November 1977) is an English football player. He has played for England national team.
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Lawrence Akandu
Lawrence Akandu (born 10 December 1974) is a Hong Kong football player. He has played for Hong Kong national team.
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Marco Cassetti
Marco Cassetti (born 29 May 1977) is an Italian football player. He plays for Roma.
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Piyapong Pue-on
Aaron Hughes
Aaron Hughes (born 8 November 1979) is a Northern Irish football player. He plays for Fulham and Northern Ireland national team.
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Wilfred Bouma
Wilfred Bouma (born 15 June 1978) is a Dutch football player. He has played for Netherlands national team.
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Sho Miyasaka
Sho Miyasaka (born 6 June 1988) is a former Japanese football player.
Seiji Sonoda
Seiji Sonoda (born 30 November 1988) is a Japanese football player.
11||2||2||0||13||2
Thomas Myhre
Thomas Myhre (born 16 October 1973) is a Norwegian football player. He has played for Norway national team.
153||0
!Total||56||0
Tom Finney
Tom Finney (5 April 1922 – 14 February 2014) was an English footballer. He played for England national team.
433||187||40||23||473||210
!Total||76||30
Nat Lofthouse
Nat Lofthouse (27 August 1925 – 15 January 2011) was an English footballer. He played for the England national team. He was born in Bolton, and died there on 15 January 2011 at 85 years old.
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!Total||33||30
Antonio Carbajal
Antonio Carbajal (born 7 June 1929) is a Mexican retired football player. He has played for Mexico national team.
409||0
Daniel Van Buyten
Daniel Van Buyten (born 7 February 1978) is a Belgian football player. He plays for Bayern Munich and Belgium national team.
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Epidemiology is the study of factors that influence the health and illness of populations. The three levels of causation of health problems include individual behavioral level, individual biological level, and political-economic ecological level. Epidemiologists aim to understand the causes of health problems by looking at the relationship between agents, hosts, and environmental factors that affects health. Using these information, they also design public health interventions to solve various health problems among populations. They regularly evaluate the health of populations, tries to identify which populations have greater risk from specific causes of diseases, and evaluates the effectiveness of the intervention programs or methods that they create. In essence, epidemiology provides the backbone or foundation of public health and preventative medicine practices.
There are two types of epidemiology: descriptive and analytic. Descriptive epidemiology aims to describe the distribution of people who gets sick (versus those who don't) with regards to time, place, and person (TPP). TPP can also be thought of as answering the questions of when, who, and what respectively; in other words it investigates when a health issue or disease first emerged in a population, who in the population are getting sick, and where the disease/health condition seems to have first originated and spread from. Analytic epidemiology then uses the data provided by TPP to make and test hypothesis which aim to determine the cause of an outbreak or disease cluster among a population. Epidemiologist evaluate morbidity (people who are sick or injured) and mortality (people who are killed) to understand the burden of disease among populations.
A key aspect of epidemiology is surveillance studies, which provides the numerical data and statistics that epidemiologists use. Surveillance studies are done systematically to monitor the health of populations and helps with identifying any new health problems or disease that may develop, as well as evaluating the effectiveness of existing health intervention measures in place. These studies also rely on TPP to collect data and presents it in simple graphs and tables which are easy to summarize and understand. These studies are especially important in helping guide policy making decisions and helping epidemiologists understand which interventions work and which don't. It is also important for donors as they rely on surveillance data to analyze the usefulness of their investments and whether it is being used effectively or not.
Epidemiology means "the study of what is upon the people". The word derived from the Greek terms "epi" = upon, among; "demos" = people, district; "logos" = study, word, discourse. It applies only to human populations. But the term is used in studies of zoological populations 'epizoology', and plant populations.
Hippocrates was the first who has looked at the relationships between disease and environmental influences. He drew the distinction between 'epidemic' and 'endemic': diseases that are 'visited upon' a population (epidemic) as contrasted with those that 'live within' a population (endemic).
The Persian physician Avicenna in the 1020s, discovered the contagious nature of tuberculosis and sexually transmitted disease. He noted the distribution of disease through water and soil. Avicenna said that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected. He introduced the method of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious disease.
The Black Death (bubonic plague) reached Al Andalus in the 14th century. Ibn Khatima thought infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" which enter the human body and cause disease. Another Andalusian-Arabian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313–1374) in his treatise "On the Plague" stated how infectious disease can be transmitted through bodily contact and "through garments, vessels and earrings". Girolamo Fracastoro from Verona suggested these very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive. They were able to spread by air, and multiply. They could be destroyed by fire. He refuted Galen's miasma theory (poison gas in sick people). In 1543, Fracastoro's book "De contagione et contagiosis morbis" suggested personal and environmental hygiene to prevent disease. The development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a germ theory of disease.
In 1662 John Graunt analysed the mortality rolls in London before the Great Plague. This gave statistical evidence for and against various theories of disease. Dr. John Snow investigated the causes of the 19th Century Cholera epidemics. He noticed the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Water Company. He showed the Broad Street pump was the origin of the Soho epidemic, a classic example of epidemiology He used chlorine in an attempt to clean the water and had the pump handle removed. This stopped the outbreak. It was a major event in the history of public health, and the founding event of the science of epidemiology.
The term 'epidemiology' was first used in 1802 by the Spanish physician Villalba. The term is used now for the description and causation of epidemic diseases, and of disease in general. It can be used for many non-disease health-related conditions, such as high blood pressure and obesity.
In 1847 Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis brought down infant mortality at a Vienna hospital by disinfection. Unfortunately, disinfection did not become widely practiced until British surgeon Joseph Lister 'discovered' antiseptics in 1865 after Louis Pasteur's work. In the early 20th century, mathematical methods were introduced into epidemiology by Ronald Ross and others. In 1954 came the results of a study led by Richard Doll. This gave very strong statistical support to the suspicion that tobacco smoking was linked to lung cancer.
There are several very key terms that epidemiologists use when discussing population health and disease outbreaks. The following, although not a comprehensive list, provides some of the key concepts that are important to understand when discussing epidemiology.
It is important to note that an endemic disease or cluster can become an epidemic. An example of this would be with malaria; although malaria is endemic to certain regions in South America, Africa, and South Asia, during certain years or times it can become an epidemic with higher number of cases then usual present in the population. In addition, it is also possible for epidemic or outbreak to progress and become a full fledged pandemic.
Rates refers to the number of cases occurring during a specific period of time and depends on the population size at that time. Calculating disease rates helps epidemiologists to compare health issues among different populations. The general calculation for determining disease rate is to divide the number of cases or health condition by the number of population at risk during a specific period of time, and multiplying that by 100. However, disease rates can also be differentiated into two different types: prevalence rate and incidence rate.
Prevalence rate refers to the number of both old and new cases in a population during a specific time period, which is divided by the total number of cases in the population. Prevalence rates are useful when dealing with investigations relating to chronic diseases, which last for more than 3 months. On the other hand, incidence rate refers to the number of new health related conditions or cases which is divided by the population at risk. Incidence rates are important in studies involving acute diseases, where symptoms of a disease peak and subside within days or weeks and generally lasts less than 3 months.
Epidemiological studies makes use of both experimental and observational studies. Experimental studies are ones where the epidemiologist can control and manipulate different variables throughout the experiment, and usually involves a placebo treatment/group. This type of study is used when epidemiologists are trying to determine the cause of a health issue/disease or evaluating the effectiveness of a cure or interventions. Observational studies include descriptive and analytical studies; descriptive studies investigates epidemiological cases with regards to TPP while analytical study investigates hypothesis regarding relationships between health issues and risk factors. While descriptive studies (TPP) answers questions of when, who, and where, analytical studies tries to answer the question of how a population is affected by a disease and why they are affected. Overall, observational studies do not manipulate any variables and often uses comparison groups for analysis; this type of study is often done in an attempt to discover the links between exposure to certain risk factors and health outcomes. Some examples of observational studies include cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies.
Investigating an outbreak is a very involved multi-step process which ranges from first establishing the existence of an outbreak to communicating the findings of the investigation with the scientific community as well as the general population. The following is a rough sequence of the process of these investigations.
Epidemiology is a multidisciplinary subject. Members in this field mostly includes public health care workers and scientists from related fields such as chemists, biologists, geneticists, and anthropologists. People in epidemiology may work in hospital and research settings, as well as for federal organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). One particular unit that may be of interest for those pursuing epidemiology is with with Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS), a subgroup within the CDC specializing in epidemiology. Epidemic Intelligence Service officers are field workers who investigate outbreaks in the US and other countries. Their work aids in understanding causes of outbreaks and quickly stopping spread of diseases from one place to another; notably, they have contributed to helping during various pandemics in the past, such as with smallpox, polio, and Ebola.
One particular field that has had an impact in epidemiology is anthropology. In the past, cultural anthropologists have been a very helpful resource in bridging the gap between different countries/cultures and the epidemiological investigators. They have helped and continues to help with the development and implementation of preventative/control measures in countries in a manner that will not conflict with societal beliefs or values, which may get in the way of treatment or stopping the spread of an outbreak.
In recent years however, medical anthropology in particular has taken on a larger role in the field of epidemiology. Medical anthropology looks at biological, social, cultural, and linguistic anthropology to understand how these factors influence health and well-being, experience and distribution of illness, as well as prevention of treatment. As with cultural anthropologists, medical anthropologists have continued to aid in the development of public health policies. In particular, they have been very helpful in providing a unique perspective on public health discourse. For example, they investigate how culture affects research studies, are able to pick up on seemingly "irrelevant" yet important small details that a epidemiologist might miss, and they are able to provide qualitative data whereas epidemiology only focuses on quantitative data. One main thing of importance here is that while epidemiologist has largely ignored cultural factors when looking at the causes of diseases/health conditions, medical anthropology has challenged this notion and contributed to the field by showing how culture and social factors play a big role in people's willingness to follow public health guidelines/interventions or even accept treatment for their illnesses.
Whereas the nature of epidemiological investigations may lead to a reductionist or limited point of view, medical anthropology provides a more holistic view of the problem and examines the issue from different angles to best understand and help the populations in need. Another critical contribution of medical anthropology has been with regard to critical qualitative data. While epidemiology is focused mainly on quantitative data and trends in health of the population, medical anthropology provides rich source of information on understanding the population's subjective experiences and providing qualitative data explaining why a particular intervention or treatment may have failed among a particular population. Their main contributions in recent years have come from modifying and helping develop epidemiological surveys by taking into account word choice and the "social suitability" of questions, so that responses would be more accurate and thereby helping to increase the validity of the questionnaires. It has also been found that medical anthropologists have played a large role in helping locals better understand the objectives of epidemiologists and thereby helped them become more receptive of their investigations. In addition to all these, one of the major contributions of medical anthropology has come from it's ability to help explain health phenomenon and create and test hypothesis relating to such explanations, in a way that epidemiologists have been unable to due to their strict focus on quantitative data. In short, while epidemiology is good at understanding numerical patterns and biological causes for disease/health conditions, it is unable to fully explain all the factors that underlie certain diseases/health conditions, and this is a gap that medical anthropology has been able to pick up on and complement by providing rich qualitative data which looks at health and diseases from a holistic perspective.
Some notable mentions of medical anthropologists who have worked and contributed to epidemiology and public health in general include Dr. Jim Kim and Paul Farmer. Dr. Jim Kim served as the president of the World Bank while Paul Farmer is a physician and medical anthropologists who focuses on infectious diseases and treatment. Both of these men co-founded the Partners in Health (PIH) program, which provided free health care to the poorest populations in countries like Haiti, Peru, and Rwanda. Other notable mentions are Amber Wutich and Alexandra Brewis, both of whom are professors and researchers at Arizona State University. They focus on health impacts caused by resource scarcity, specifically relating to lack of access to clean water in developing countries. Wutich is a director of the Global Ethnohydrology study which looks at water knowledge and management in ten countries, while Brewis researches the impact of culture on human biology.
Epidemiological practice and the results of epidemiological analysis make a significant contribution to health management
Modern population-based health management is complex. Epidemiological practice and analysis is a core component. This task requires the forward looking ability to guide how a health system responds to current health issues, and how a health system can respond to future potential population health issues.
Masakatsu Sawa
Masakatsu Sawa (born 12 January 1983) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Kashiwa Reysol.
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Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation
Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation is a television network in the Philippines owned by the government. The studios of the station is located at Broadcast City Capitol Hills Diliman, Quezon City.
Paul-Henri Mathieu
Paul-Henri Mathieu (born 12 January 1982 in Strasbourg) is a French tennis player. He made his ATP tour debut in July 2000, in Kitzbühel. He won the ATP Newcomer of the Year award for 2002.
Kentaro Kawasaki (born 18 December 1982) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Kataller Toyama.
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Pooper-scooper
A pooper-scooper, or poo scoop, is a device or a ‘poo bag’ used by pet owners to pick up an animal's fecal matter from public places and yards. Such devices often have a bag or bag attachment. The ‘poop bag’ is usually turned inside out, to carry the feces to a proper disposal area. The person performing the cleanup might also be called a pooper-scooper.
A number of places, including New York City, have laws telling pet owners to clean up after their pets after the pet has pooped on a sidewalk or any public place, on a floor, wall, stairway or roof of any public or private premises used in common by the public, or on a fence, wall or stairway of a building abutting on a public. Authorized employees of New York City Departments of Health (including Animal Care & Control), of Sanitation, or of Parks and Recreation can issue tickets.
Pet droppings contaminate the environment with bacteria, parasites and stench. The droppings are one of the leading sources of "E. coli" (fecal coliforms) bacterial pollution: one gram of dog feces contains over 20,000,000 "E. coli" cells. Coliform bacteria and "E. coli" are commonly-used field indicators of fecal contamination by animals (including human). Pet droppings contain eggs of Toxocara canis and Neospora caninum parasitic worms. In adult dogs infection with T.canis usually asymptomatic but can be fatal in puppies.T. canis can cause parasitic worm infection and rarely blindness in humans. N.caninum causes severe losses in livestock breeding. While an individual animal's deposit of feces will not measurably affect the environment, the cumulative effect of thousands of dogs and cats in a metropolitan area creates serious problems due to contamination of soil and water supplies. The runoff from neglected pet waste contaminates water, creates health hazards for people, fish, ducks, etc.
The situation is particularly dire in Germany, where an estimated 1400 tonnes of feces are deposited daily on public property. A citizen commission (2005) overwhelmingly recommended a plan. DNA samples would be required when pet licenses come up for renewal. Within a year, a database of some 12,500 registration-required canine residents would be available to sanitation workers with sample-test kits. Evidence would be submitted to a forensics laboratory where technicians could readily match the waste to its dog. The prospect of a prompt fine equivalent to $600 US (at 2005 exchange rate) would help assure preventive compliance, as well as cover costs.
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Nishi was born in Sapporo on August 28, 1987. He joined J2 League club Consadole Sapporo from their youth team in 2006. Although he could hardly play in the match until 2007, Consadole won the champions in 2007 and was promoted to J1 League. In 2008, he became a regular player as right midfielder. However Consadole was finished at the bottom place and was relegated to J2 in a year. In 2009, he was converted to right side back by manager Nobuhiro Ishizaki. In 2010, he moved to J1 club Albirex Niigata and played as side back in 1 season. In 2011, he moved to Kashima Antlers as Atsuto Uchida successor. He played as side back for the club in 8 seasons. In 2016, Antlers won the champions in J1 League and qualified for 2016 Club World Cup as host country champions. At Club World Cup, he played all 4 matches and won the 2nd place. In 2018, Antlers won the champions in the 2018 AFC Champions League. In 2019, he moved to Vissel Kobe. In 2019, Vissel won the champions in the Emperor's Cup which is first major title in the club history. In 2021, he moved to Urawa Reds.
On June 1, 2011, Nishi debuted for the Japan national team against Peru. On March 23, 2019, he played in the match for the first time in 8 years against Bolivia.
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Heterokont
The heterokonts or stramenopiles are a major line of eukaryotes with more than 100,000 known species, most of them diatoms.
Heterokonts are mostly algae. In one stage of their life cycle they have two unequal flagella. They include both single-celled types and brown algae (seaweeds such as kelp and "Sargassum"). They are members of the Kingdom Chromalveolata.
Metastability
Metastability has slightly different meanings in different fields of knowledge. The general idea, however, is that something is metastable if it is not changing, yet given a small force ("nudge") it will transition to another, more stable state.
For example, a block is sitting on a slope (an "inclined plane"). It keeps sitting there until it is nudged, or the slope is gently struck, setting up vibrations. Then the block starts to slide. At that point it keeps sliding until it reaches the bottom. The block sitting at the bottom is stable. The block sitting on the slope but not moving is metastable. And the block as it is moving is unstable.
A real life example of this is an avalanche of snow. The avalanche is unstable (the snow is sliding down the mountainside). When the avalanche is over the snow is stable. Before the avalanche starts, the snow is metastable, since some small perturbation is enough to cause it to lose what might have seemed to be stability, but in fact was only metastability.
Cryptomonad
The Cryptomonads (or Cryptophyta) are a phylum of algae, most of which have chloroplasts.
They are common in freshwater, and also occur in marine and brackish habitats. Each cell is around 10-50 μm in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket. At the edge of the pocket there are typically two slightly unequal flagella.
Some may exhibit mixotrophy, using mixed sources of energy.
England women's national football team
The England women's national football team plays for England in international women's football. The side has been quite successful of late. The team has qualified for five World Cups: 1995, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019.
In May 2009, it was announced that a number of the England Women's Team would be awarded central contracts, to help the players concentrate on full-time training and playing, without having to fit it around full-time employment. Seventeen players initially signed contracts.
In 2009, the team reached the European Championships Final, losing 6–2 to Germany. In 2015, the side had their most impressive achievement to date by finishing in third place in the 2015 World Cup.
"England squad for 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup qualifiers versus Austria and Spain, 25 March and 1 April 2010, announced 10 March 2010. Players in bold have central contracts."
The following players have also been called up this season.
Planck constant
The Planck constant (Planck's constant) says how much the energy of a photon increases, when the frequency of its electromagnetic wave increases by 1 (In SI Units). It is named after the physicist Max Planck. The Planck constant is a fundamental physical constant. It is written as h.
The Planck constant has dimensions of physical action: energy multiplied by time, or momentum multiplied by distance. In SI units, the Planck constant is expressed in joule seconds (J⋅s) or (N⋅m⋅s) or (kg⋅m⋅s).
The symbols are defined here.
In SI Units the Planck constant is exactly J·s (by definition). Scientists have used this quantity to calculate measurements like the Planck length and the Planck time.
Between 1670 and 1900 scientists discussed the nature of light. Some scientists believed that light consisted of many millions of tiny particles. Other scientists believed that light was a wave.
In 1678, Christiaan Huygens wrote the book "Traité de la lumiere" ("Treatise on light"). He believed that light was made up of waves. He said that light could not be made up of particles because light from two beams do not bounce off each other.
In 1672, Isaac Newton wrote the book "Opticks". He believed that light was made up of red, yellow and blue particles which he called corpusles. Newton explained this by his "two prism experiment". The first prism broke light up into different colours. The second prism merged these colours back into white light.
During the 18th century, Newton's theory was given the most attention. In 1803, Thomas Young described the "double-slit experiment". In this experiment, light going through two narrow slits interferes with itself. This causes a pattern which shows that light is made up of waves. For the rest of the nineteenth century, the wave theory of light was given the most attention. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell developed equations that described electromagnetic radiation as waves.
The theory of electromagnetic radiation treats light, radio waves, microwaves and many other types of wave as the same thing except that they have different wavelengths. The wavelength of the light we can see with our eyes is roughly between 400 and 600 nm. The wavelength of radio waves varies from 10 m to 1500 m and the wavelength of microwaves is about 2 cm. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. The frequency of the electromagnetic wave is given by:
All warm things give off thermal radiation, which is electromagnetic radiation. For most things on Earth this radiation is in the infra-red range, but something very hot (1000 °C or more), gives off visible radiation, that is, light. In the late 1800's many scientists studied the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation from black-body radiators at different temperatures.
Lord Rayleigh first published the basics of the Rayleigh-Jeans law in 1900. The theory was based on the Kinetic theory of gasses. Sir James Jeans published a more complete theory in 1905. The law relates the quantity and wavelength of electromagnetic energy given off by a black body radiator at different temperatures. The equation describing this is:
For long-wavelength radiation, the results predicted by this equation corresponded well with practical results obtained in a laboratory. However, for short wavelengths (ultraviolet light) the difference between theory and practice were so large that it earned the nickname "the ultra-violet catastrophe".
in 1895 Wien published the results of his studies into the radiation from a black body. His formula was:
This formula worked well for short wavelength electromagnetic radiation, but did not work well with long wavelengths.
In 1900 Max Planck published the results of his studies. He tried to develop an expression for black-body radiation expressed in terms of wavelength by assuming that radiation consisted of small quanta and then to see what happened if the quanta were made infinitely small. (This is a standard mathematical approach). The expression was:
If the wavelength of light is allowed to become very large, then it can be shown that the Raleigh-Jeans and the Planck relationships are almost identical.
He calculated "h" and "k" and found that
The values are close to the modern day accepted values of and respectively. The Planck law agrees well with the experimental data, but its full significance was only appreciated several years later.
It turns out that electrons are dislodged by the photoelectric effect if light reaches a threshold frequency. Below this no electrons can be emitted from the metal. In 1905 Albert Einstein published a paper explaining the effect. Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave packets (photons), each with energy. Einstein said that the effect was due to a photon striking an electron. This demonstrated the particle nature of light.
Einstein also found that electromagnetic radiation with a long wavelength had no effect. Einstein said that this was because the "particles" did not have enough energy to disturb the electrons.
Planck suggested that the energy of each photon was related to the photon frequency by the Planck constant. This could be written mathematically as:
Planck received the Nobel Prize in 1918 in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta. In 1921 Einstein received the Nobel Prize for linking the Planck constant to the photoelectric effect.
The Planck constant is of importance in many applications. A few are listed below.
In 1913 Niels Bohr published the Bohr model of the structure of an atom. Bohr said that the angular momentum of the electrons going around the nucleus can only have certain values. These values are given by the equation
The Bohr model of the atom can be used to calculate the energy of electrons at each level. Electrons will normally fill up the lowest numbered states of an atom. If the atom receives energy from, for example, an electric current, electrons will be excited into a higher state. The electrons will then drop back to a lower state and will lose their extra energy by giving off a photon. Because the energy levels have specific values, the photons will have specific energy levels. Light emitted in this way can be split into different colours using a prism. Each element has its own pattern. The pattern for neon is shown alongside.
In 1927 Werner Heisenberg published the uncertainty principle. The principle states that it is not possible to make a measurement without disturbing the thing being measured. It also puts a limit on the minimum disturbance caused by making a measurement.
In the macroscopic world these disturbances make very little difference. For example, if the temperature of a flask of liquid is measured, the thermometer will absorb a small amount of energy as it heats up. This will cause a small error in the final reading, but this error is small and not important.
In quantum mechanics things are different. Some measurements are made by looking at the pattern of scattered photons. One such example is Compton scattering. If both the position and momentum of a particle is being measured, the uncertainty principle states that there is a trade-off between the accuracy with which the momentum is measured and the accuracy with which the position is measured. The equation that describes this trade-off is:
In the electric circuit shown on the right, the voltage drop across the light emitting diode (LED) depends on the material of the LED. For silicon diodes the drop is 0.6 V. However for LEDs it is between 1.8 V and 2.7 V. This information enables a user to calculate the Planck constant.
The energy needed for one electron to jump the potential barrier in the LED material is given by
When the electron decays back again, it emits one photon of light. The energy of the photon is given by
the same equation used in the photoelectric effect. If these equations are combined, the wavelength of light and the voltage are related by
The table below can be calculated from this relationship.
Since its discovery, measurements of h have become much better. Planck first quoted the value of h to be erg·sec. This value is within 5% of the current value.
As of 3 March 2014, the best measurements of h in SI units is  J·s. The equivalent figure in cgs units is  erg·sec. The relative uncertainty of h is .
The reduced Planck constant (ħ) is a value that is sometimes used in quantum mechanics. It is defined by
Planck units are sometimes used in quantum mechanics instead of SI. In this system the reduced Planck constant has a value of 1, so the value of the Planck constant is 2π.
Plancks constant can now be measured with very high precision. This has caused the BIPM to consider a new definition for the kilogram. The international prototype kilogram is no longer used to define the kilogram. Instead the BIPM defines the Planck constant to have an exact value. Scientists use this value and the definitions of the metre and the second to define the kilogram.
The Planck constant can also be mathematically derived:
Here, formula_12 is the permeability of free space, formula_13 is the speed of light, formula_14 is the electric charge of electron, formula_15 is the Bohr's radius, and formula_16 is the frequency of revolution of the electron in a hydrogen atom formula_17. When these constant values are substituted to the theoretical Planck constant, the theoretical Planck constant value is exactly equal to the experimental value.
The Planck's constant elementary formula in terms of proton-to-electron mass ratio, the charge of electron, speed of light and vacuum permittivity is derived in. It is expressed as follows:
where formula_19 is the elementary charge of an electron, formula_20 the mass of a proton, formula_21the mass of an electron, formula_22 the vacuum permittivity, and formula_13 the speed of light.
Sebastian Coe
Sebastian Newbold Coe, Baron Coe (born 29 September 1956, and often nicknamed "Seb Coe") is a former athlete and politician from the United Kingdom. A middle distance runner, Coe won the 1500 m gold medal at the Olympic Games in 1980 and 1984, and set eight outdoor and three indoor world records. He is widely considered to be amongst the greatest middle distance runners of all time. Following his retirement from athletics, he served as a Member of Parliament for the Conservative Party from 1992-97. He became a life peer in 2000. He is the head of the London bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. After the International Olympic Committee awarded the games to London, he became the chairman of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. In 2007, he was also elected a vice-president of the International Association of Athletics Federations.
Coe was born in Hammersmith, London. He grew up in Warwickshire and Sheffield. His mother, Tina Angela Coe, died in Hammersmith and Fulham, London, in 2005, aged 75. His mother was half Indian, born to a Punjabi father Sardari Lal and an English mother Vera. His father, Peter Coe (born Percy N. Coe in Kingston upon Thames), died on 9 August 2008, aged 88, while Coe was in Beijing.
Coe married Nicky McIrvine, a former Badminton three-day-event champion, in Surrey, in 1990. They have two sons and two daughters, all of whom were born in Surrey:
The marriage ended in divorce in 2002 after twelve years and Coe moved out of the family home. Coe married Carole Annett in summer 2011.
On 12 February 2010, Coe was the 19th runner on the 106th day of the Vancouver Olympic Torch Relay. Coe's leg was along the Stanley Park Seawall, and he exchanged a "torch kiss" with the previous runner, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and the next runner, a 19 year old member of the Squamish community.