AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Uruguay (officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country in South America. The language spoken there is Spanish. Its capital and largest city is Montevideo. Uruguay is bordered by two large neighbors, Brazil and Argentina. The only country in South America that is smaller than Uruguay is Suriname. The land is mostly flat, and there are many farms in the countryside.
The area around Uruguay was fought over by the Portuguese and Spanish Empires in the 18th century. In the 1810s it was the center of a Federal League of states in the Río de la Plata region. Argentina and Brazil took the majority in wars, leaving Uruguay as independent.
Before Europeans came to the land, no more than 10 thousand native people lived here. Spanish explorer Juan Díaz de Solís first explored the land in 1516.
Uruguay is divided into 19 different Departments.
The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral whose peak reaches to .
Uruguay has 660 km of coastline.
There are nine National Parks in Uruguay. Five in the wetland areas of the east, three in the central hill country and one in the west along the Rio Uruguay.
According to FAOSTAT, Uruguay is one of world's largest producers of: soybeans (9th); greasy wool (12th); horse meat (14th); beeswax (14th); quinces (17th); natural honey (19th); cattle meat (20th). On December 20, 2013, Uruguay was the first country in the world to legalize the cultivation, sale, and use of cannabis.
Uruguayans are mostly of European origin. 88%, or 88 of 100 people, are from European descent.
Football is the most popular sport in Uruguay. The Uruguay national football team has won the FIFA World Cup on two occasions.
Minnesota is a state in the Upper Midwest of the United States of America. Part of the state has a border with the country of Canada.
The capital of Minnesota is Saint Paul. The largest city is Minneapolis. Over 3 million people live in the two cities and the suburbs that surround it, which are separated by the Mississippi River. They are known as the Twin Cities.
Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858. It was the 32nd state in the United States of America. The name Minnesota is Dakota (a Native American language) for "sky-tinted water". Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota. The state bird is the Common Loon.
Minnesota has a humid continental climate. The winters in Minnesota are long and severe. Hence the state has a short growing season. During the summer, the south of the state is hot; the north is warm.
In the 1984 election, Minnesota was the only state that voted for Walter Mondale.
Colorado is a state in the western United States. Its capital and largest city is Denver. Other large cities are Colorado Springs and Aurora. Colorado became the 38th state admitted to the union on August 1, 1876.
Native Americans first settled in Colorado. The state was named after the Colorado River by Spanish explorers. US Army officer and amateur explorer Zebulon Pike was recruited by the United States government in 1806 to find the source of the Mississippi River and to check out Spanish settlements in New Mexico. Even though his recorded location for the source of the Mississippi was extremely inaccurate and allegedly got lost in his expedition, he did explore much of what would become the American Southwest. When he reached what is now Colorado Springs, he named a mountain after himself, Pikes Peak, which remains a symbol for the city as well as the state to this day. Colorado has a long history of mining and digging for gold. It is the place where the Pike's Peak Gold Rush took place. When gold in California was becoming harder and harder to find, people came to Colorado in large numbers when gold was discovered there in 1859, ten years after the California Gold Rush began. Many mining camps set up in Colorado would later become cities, such as Denver City and Boulder City. The motto for the gold rush was "Pike's Peak or Bust". In 1971, the Libertarian Party was formed in the state.
The State of Colorado is shaped like a rectangle. The borders are latitude and longitude lines. The four borders are at 37°N, 41°N, 102°03'W, and 109°03'W. (The east and west borders are 25°W and 32°W from the Washington Meridian.) Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are the only three U.S. states that have only lines of latitude and longitude for boundaries and that have no natural borders. When government surveyors made the border markers for the "Territory of Colorado", minor surveying mistakes made many small kinks along the borders, most seen along the border with the "Territory of Utah."
The tip of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) elevation in Lake County is the state's highest point and the highest point in the entire Rocky Mountains. Colorado has more than 100 mountain peaks that reach over 4,000 meters (13,123 ft) in height. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in height. Colorado has the highest average elevation of any state at 6,800 ft. It borders New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming.
The land area of Colorado is roughly the same size as New Zealand.
The weather and temperatures in Colorado are quite different compared to most of the United States. In most other states, the southern part is warmer than the northern part, southern Colorado is not noticeably warmer than northern Colorado. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect local climate. As a normal rule, with an increase in height comes a decrease in temperature and an increase in rain. There exists a phenomenally severe change in climate in Colorado between the Rocky Mountains on the west and the Great Plains on the east, both of which are separated by a lesser range known to Colorado citizens and primarily Boulderites as "the Foothills".
The state's largest city, and capital, is Denver. The "Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area", is home to 2,927,911 people, it has more than two-thirds of the state's population.
As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the last year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000. This has a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase because of migration of 159,957 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States makes a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country made a net increase of 47,740 people.
Colorado's most common religion is Christianity, and its most common denomination is Catholicism. Colorado, and mostly the city of Colorado Springs, serves as the headquarters of many Christian groups, many of them Evangelical. "Focus on the Family" is a big conservative Christian organization headquartered in Colorado Springs.
Major religious affiliations of the people of Colorado are:
The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the total state product in 2007 was $236 billion. Per capita personal income in 2007 was $41,192, ranking Colorado eleventh in the United States. Early companies were based on the extraction and getting minerals and agricultural things. Today's agricultural things are cattle, wheat, dairy products, corn, and hay. On January 1 2014 Colorado became the first state to make marijuana legal. In the first week of this $5 million of marijuana was sold. The marijuana industry is expected to make Colorado's economy $359 million by the end of 2014.
Cairo (, usually transliterated as Al-Qāhirah) is the capital and largest city in Egypt. The city name can be translated as "the one who won". Cairo is sometimes called "Mother of the World" ("Um al Dunya").
Cairo has 7,947,121 people. About 17,290,000 people live in its urban area. This makes it the biggest city of the Arab World. It also is the city with the biggest urban area in Africa
The city is on the Nile River.
The city of Cairo has a hot desert climate (BWh), meaning it has a hot, sunny and dry climate a year long. The city, however, has more humidity than other cities with the hot desert climate (BWh).
The area around the city was an important focal point of Ancient Egypt.
In 968, the Fatimids entered Egypt and they made Cairo the capital of their caliphate.
The Al Azhar mosque and university was made in 972. This became the world's oldest university. It is the most widely known seminary in the Islamic world.
In 1992, Cairo was devastated by a 5.8 magnitude earthquake that caused 545 deaths, injuring 6,512, and made 50,000 people homeless, the most destructive since 1847.
The great pyramids of Giza and the step pyramid of Sakkara are just outside of the city.
The Egyptian Museum holds the world’s largest collection of antiquities from the time of the ancient Pharaohs. Many treasures from the tomb of King Tutankhamun are in this museum.
People from Cairo are called 'Cairenes'.
Bush can be more than one thing:
Aerospace engineering is a field of engineering that specializes in designing vehicles that move through air and/or space, namely aircraft or spacecraft. Aerospace engineering is a culmination of design, development and testing to produce top-notch civilian and military aircrafts and space crafts.
As with other fields of engineering, aerospace engineers (who design and oversee the repair of vehicles) must study for several years at a university or college and earn a degree that specializes in aerospace engineering. The course curriculum is designed to ensure critical thinking and inculcate problem-solving thinking for designing and testing aircrafts, missiles and space crafts. Aerospace engineer is responsible for devising project proposals to ensure financial and technical feasibility, ensuring effective progress of various phases in hardware development, integration and evaluation, testing and analyzing new applications for implementation in aerospace systems. Vet projects to ensure they meet the quality benchmark. Assess ongoing projects in terms of safety and feasibility to match desired objectives. Apart from the technical aspects, the job also has some managerial elements that are: Preparing risk assessment plans and elaborate strategic solutions and working on insightful and attractive presentations for prospective business contacts, clients and various stakeholders. Aerospace technicians (those who repair and construct vehicles) will complete a shorter technical course with 'on the job' training that equips them with the skills required to construct and repair said vehicles. Aerospace jobs include astronauts, pilots, and other professionals.
1805 (MDCCCV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1805th year of the Common Era (CE) and "Anno Domini" (AD) designations, the 805th year of the 2nd millennium, the 5th year of the 19th century, and the 6th and last year of the 1800s decade.
Karnataka
Karnataka is a state in the Republic of India. It has an area of . It is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the South n zone. It has 30 districts. According to the Census of 2011,it has a population of approximately 6.11 crores. The present Chief Minister of the state is B. S. Yeddyurappa from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Bangalore, also known as Bengaluru, is the capital city of Karnataka. It is also known as the IT capital of India. Mysore, Mangalore, and Hubli-Dharwad are the other big cities in Karnataka. Places to see in Karnataka are Bangalore, Mysore, Hampi, Bijapur, Belur/Halebid, Shimoga and Shravanabelagola. the Lalbhag Botanical Garden, Badami and the Jog water are some of the well-known tourist attractions in Karnataka.
The Kannada language is the official language of the state and the most prominent language spoken by the people in Karnataka . Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Hindi and Malayalam are also spoken in Karantaka. Kannada is declared as one of the official languages of India. It has won the most number of Gnanpith Awards - 8, which is awarded to writers .
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, Goa in the northwest, Maharashtra in the north,Telangana in the northeast, Andhra Pradesh in the east, Tamil Nadu in the south and Kerala in the southwest. Topographically, Karnataka consists of the Arabian Sea Coast, Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau, and Eastern Ghats.
Karnataka's history dates back to the 3rd century BC. The succession of able administrators from the Hoysalas, Chalukyas and the mighty Vijayanagara rulers, to the arrival of the Mughals in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century have contributed to the mix of culture and heritage that is as rich as it is ancient.
Norrland
Norrland is the northernmost region of Sweden. The other two regions are Götaland and Svealand. Norrland includes the Swedish counties Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County. By "Upper Norrland" people usually mean Norrbotten and Västerbotten counties.
Historically parts of northern Finland have also been parts of Norrland.
Even though 59% of Sweden's area is within Norrland, only 12% of its population live there. The biggest town of Norrland is Umeå.
Norrland is famous for its landscape, and for phenomena such as the Midnight sun, Polar night and Aurora also called the Northern lights.
Calgary is the biggest city in Alberta, Canada. More than 1,000,000 people live in Calgary. The city is in the southern half of Alberta near the Rocky Mountains.
There are many oil and gas businesses in Calgary. There are many skyscrapers in the City.
Around Calgary there are many farms where cows are raised.
Calgary has a humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Koeppen climate classification). It has long, cold, dry winters. The summers are warm with moderate rainfall. Sometimes a wind called a Chinook blows through Calgary. This wind can make some days in winter less cold.
Calgary has a famous event called The Calgary Stampede every year. They rent many rides and have a huge festival for the city to join. The Calgary Stampede is the largest rodeo in the world. At the Stampede, cowboys can win a lot of money. Cowboys also race with chuckwagons at the Stampede. Chuckwagons are carts with four wheels pulled by horses. In 1988, the Winter Olympics were held in Calgary.
Calgary has many museums, such as the Glenbow Museum and the Aero Space Museum. The Calgary Flames (an NHL ice hockey team) play in Calgary at Scotiabank Saddledome.
Calgary Stations
CBRT CBC
CFCN CTV Television Network
CICT Global Television Network
CTV Two
Nova Scotia ( ); ) is a small province found on the east coast of Canada. The name "Nova Scotia" is Latin for "New Scotland". The capital and largest city is Halifax.
People who live in Nova Scotia are called Nova Scotians. There are over 900,000 of them; over 400,000 of whom live in Halifax.
What is now Nova Scotia used to be controlled by the Mik'maq Indians. The French settled among them at Port Royal after 1600, and called the land part of Acadia, with Port Royal as its capital. In 1710, after a war, the British captured Port Royal and went on to capture the rest of the peninsula. It was the first time that the British had captured and held a French colony.
On 6 December 1917, about 2,000 people were killed in the Halifax Explosion.
Nova Scotia's government is a democracy. Ian Rankin is the premier and John James Grant is the lieutenant governor.
Calgary (disambiguation)
Calgary might mean any of the following places:
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points. Some might think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving. This is not correct. In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy. This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known.
Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10 kelvin) above absolute zero. Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects. Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.
The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.
At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero. If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero. The temperature cannot go down any further. Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again. The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics says that nothing can ever have a temperature of absolute zero.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient. This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-T/T), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be. So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.
A cylinder is one of the most basic curved three dimensional geometric shapes, with the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, known as the axis of the cylinder. The shape can be thought of as a circular prism. Both the surface and the solid shape created inside can be called a "cylinder". The surface area and the volume of a cylinder have been known since ancient times.
In differential geometry, a cylinder is defined more broadly as a ruled surface which is spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines. A cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively.
In common use a "cylinder" is taken to mean a finite section of a right circular cylinder, i.e., the cylinder with the generating lines perpendicular to the bases, with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces, as in the figure (right). If the cylinder has a radius and length (height) "h", then its volume is given by:
and its surface area is:
Therefore, without the top or bottom (lateral area), the surface area is:
With the top and bottom, the surface area is:
For a given volume, the cylinder with the smallest surface area has . For a given surface area, the cylinder with the largest volume has , i.e. the cylinder fits in a cube (height = diameter).
Having a right circular cylinder with a height units and a base of radius units with the coordinate axes chosen so that the origin is at the center of one base and the height is measured along the positive x-axis. A plane section at a distance of units from the origin has an area of square units where
An element of volume, is a right cylinder of base area square units and a thickness of units. Thus if "V" cubic units is the volume of the right circular cylinder, by Riemann sums,
Using cylindrical coordinates, the volume can be calculated by integration over
Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes. For a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder, meets the cylinder in a single straight line. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two parallel lines. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, in a circle.
An elliptic cylinder, or cylindroid, is a quadric surface, with the following equation in Cartesian coordinates:
This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder (). Even more general is the generalized cylinder: the cross-section can be any curve.
The cylinder is a "degenerate quadric" because at least one of the coordinates (in this case ) does not appear in the equation.
An oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another.
There are other more unusual types of cylinders. These are the "imaginary elliptic cylinders":
the "hyperbolic cylinder":
and the "parabolic cylinder":
A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space.
A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.
Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production. Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber. It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum. This is called "hard vacuum". Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.
Industrial vacuums are mainly used in:
Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.
Catherine Howard (c. 1521 – 13 February 1542) was the Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England.
Catherine Howard (also spelled "Katherine") was born in about 1521, but the exact date is unknown. She was the tenth child of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper. Her father was the second son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, who was the second wife of Henry VIII.
Catherine's family was poor so they sent her to live with her step-grandmother, Agnes Tilney. Agnes Tilney, the Duchess of Norfolk, had a large household, but it was not very strict. Catherine could read and write, but she was the least-educated of Henry VIII's wives.
Catherine became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539 or 1540, when she was about 18 years old. Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of Henry VIII. The king did not like Anne, and said she was not as pretty as he had hoped for and also called her a Flanders mare (horse). He soon fell in love with Catherine.
In July 1540, after Henry had annulled his marriage with Anne of Cleves, Henry and Catherine got married at Oatlands Palace, which is in Surrey.
Henry VIII loved his young bride and gave her lots of rich presents, such as jewels and expensive clothes. He called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'. Her motto was ""Non autre volonté que la sienne"" (French) or "No other wish but his". However, Catherine was not happy in her marriage. Her husband was very fat (he was about at the time), much older than she was, and had an ulcer on his legs. She started becoming acquainted with a man named Thomas Culpepper.
Rumors that Catherine was unfaithful began to be repeated at court. Then Francis Dereham told
people about the affair which he had had with Catherine, and officials started to ask questions about what she was doing in private. Many of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, who had also lived with her in Lambeth, were brought forward to bring evidence against Catherine. Soon, her past was uncovered, and more scandal was brought to her name; enough to have her charged with treason. Catherine then, in 1541, was arrested and charged with high treason. Henry was heartbroken and very upset. He drew his sword and threatened to kill Katherine himself. At last, he made up his mind that Catherine was to be executed, just like her cousin, Anne Boleyn.
In February of 1542, Catherine was told that she was to die. She was being kept a prisoner at Syon Abbey. She was so fearful she grew filled with hysteria, crying as if she was a madwoman. She asked to see the executioner's block so she might know how to put her head on it. She practiced laying her head on the block all night long before her death.
There is a popular story that before Catherine died, she said, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpepper." This story is not true. Instead, she cried out "God have mercy on my soul. Good people, I beg of you, pray for me."
The executioner chopped her head off with one blow. She was buried in St. Peter Ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London.
Anne of Cleves (22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII of England from January 1540 to July 1540.
She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg. She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515.
She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January of 1540. When the couple met for the first time, they were disappointed in each other. Henry started complaining about Anne's appearance and said that he could not love her because she had "bad breath" and smelled. Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it. In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier.
After the divorce, Henry made Anne his "sister" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life. She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years. Anne died in 1557 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Mary Tudor, Queen of France
Mary Tudor (28 March 1495 – 25 June 1533) was the youngest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was princess of England, and was Queen of France for three months. After being Queen of France, she married someone else, and became Duchess of Suffolk until her death.
Mary Tudor was born on 28 March 1495 in Richmond Palace. Her older brothers were Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Prince Henry, and her older sister was Princess Margaret. Henry and Mary were close as children. Later in life, when Henry became King Henry VIII of England, he even named his ship, the Mary Rose, after her. His first daughter, Mary (later known as Queen Mary I of England), was probably also named after her.
Mary's father was anxious for all his children to make good marriages, and many of the other kings and queens of Europe wanted Mary as a wife for one of their sons. She was first betrothed to Charles of Castile, later the Holy Roman Emperor. This betrothal was broken later, and she did not get married until after her brother Henry became king. When Mary was 18 she married King Louis XII of France, who was 52 years old. She was married in Abbeville, France, on 9 October 1514. Mary did not want to marry King Louis, but agreed when her brother said that she could marry anyone she wanted after Louis died. Louis died on 1 January 1515, and Mary soon married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.
Mary did not have any children while married to Louis, but she did when she was married to Charles. Her children's names were Henry, Frances and Eleanor. Frances went on to be the mother of Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for only nine days.
After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty eight at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of cancer. Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.
Louis XII of France
Louis XII of France (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and Mary of Cleves. He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.
Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France. At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France. The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly. Charles was Jeanne's brother. Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne. When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children.
Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died. As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France. Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne. After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee.
In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him. After Anne died, Louis married for a third time. His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. She was many years younger than he was. Louis only lived for three months after their marriage. Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.
Louis XIII
Louis XIII (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici. He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions. He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy. He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.
Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce an heir. Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy. He was to become King Louis XIV of France.
He died of Crohn's disease in 1643 and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France. His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.
Claude of France
Claude of France (October 14, 1499 – July 20, 1524) was the daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. Claude had no brothers, but was not allowed to be the Queen of France in her own right after her father died because of the Salic Law. Instead she became the Queen consort of France by marrying the next King of France, Francis I of France.
Henry II of France was Claude's son.
After she got married Claude spent the rest of her life having babies. She died when she was only 24.
Lady Eleanor Brandon
Lady Eleanor Brandon (1519-27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey.
Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537. She then became the Countess of Cumberland.
Henry and Eleanor had three children:
Lady Frances Brandon
Lady Frances Brandon (16 July 1517–20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine. Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.
Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.
Frances became increasingly large similar to her great-uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Henry II of France
Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois. Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.
Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519. His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.
Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old. Their children were:
Henry did not love Catherine of Medici. He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.
Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Francis II of France.
Francis I of France
Francis I of France (September 12, 1494 - March 31, 1547) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois.
Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494. His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.
Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514. They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three. Those who lived to adulthood were:
Francis was very interested in art and liked the artist Leonardo da Vinci.
Francis died on March 31, 1547. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.
Madeleine of Valois
Madeleine of France (10 August 1520 – 2 July 1537) was the daughter of Francis I of France and Claude of France. She was married to James V of Scotland on 1 January 1537 in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.
Madeleine got sick with tuberculosis when she went to live in Scotland and died when she was only 16 years old. She is buried in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Holyrood Abbey is in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is a ruined Augustine Abbey and was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.
The Muppets are puppet characters created by Jim Henson. The characters include Kermit the Frog and the Muppet cast of Sesame Street. Jim Henson started work with the Muppets in the 1950s and continued until his death in 1990. The Muppets are known for an absurd burlesque and humorous style of variety-sketch comedy.
The Muppets are now owned by The Walt Disney Company. The term "muppet" is trademarked and owned by The Walt Disney Company. Puppets used in Sesame Street are still called muppets at times, and have special permission to use that name from The Walt Disney Company.
Jim Henson said the name "muppet" came from combining the words "puppet" and "marionette," but he also said that he just liked the way the word sounded. There is no defined difference between a muppet and a puppet other than the link to Jim Henson. Many of Jim Henson's muppets have large eyes, round noses, and large mouths that go from one end of the face to the other (almost ear to ear). Muppets are often made out of foam with felt on top. Puppeteers usually control the muppet with one hand in the head and the other hand controls the muppets arms. Sometimes the arms have a stick that is used to move the hand and arm - this is called the "arm rod." Puppeteers hold the arm rod at one end and the other end touches the muppet hand. Some muppets have hands that are gloves. Puppeteers put their hands in the gloves of these muppets so the muppet can move its fingers. For this reason, most muppets appear to favor their left hands.
Wilhelm II of Germany
Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert von Hohenzollern, Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany, (27 January, 1859 – 4 June, 1941) was the last German Emperor and the last King of Prussia, ruling from 1888 to 1918. He went to live in the Netherlands and abdicated (resigned) as King and Emperor. He died at Huis Doorn and is buried there because he ordered that he not be buried in Nazi Germany. Wilhelm died on June 4, 1941.
Kaiser Wilhelm II was born on 27 January 1859. He was the oldest child in his family. His father was Prince Frederick of Prussia. His mother was Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. He was born with a disabled left arm. He got married in 1881. His wife was Augusta Victoria. They had seven children. He studied at the Kassel Gymnasium, and later at the University of Bonn. He became leader of Germany in 1888 after his father died. He disagreed with his father's long-time Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, and dismissed him in 1890.
Wilhelm believed in strengthening Germany’s armed forces, especially the Navy. He led Germany during World War I.
Catherine de' Medici
Catherine de' Medici (Italian: "Caterina de Medici", ; French: "Catherine de Médicis", ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589), was the wife of Henry II of France.
Catherine was the daughter of Lorenzo II de' Medici. She was born in Florence, Italy. She was born "Caterina Maria Romula de' Medici".
Catherine was married to Henry II of France when she was 14 years old. Their children were:
Catherine is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.
Francis II of France
Francis II of France (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.
Francis was born in Fontainebleau, France, on January 19, 1544. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.
Francis was married to Mary, Queen of Scots, on April 24, 1558. They had no children.
Francis died in Orleans, France, on December 5, 1560 because of an ear infection. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica, next to King Charles IX of France.
Adela of Normandy
Adela of Normandy (c. 1067 – c. 8 March 1137) was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. She was married to Stephen, Count of Blois between 1080 and 1084 and became the mother of:
She lived long enough to see her son, Stephen, become King of England, but died soon afterwards.
Stephen of England
Stephen of England (c. 1096–25 October 1154) was King of England from 1135 until 1154. He became the King after the death of his uncle Henry I. Stephan was the King until his own death in Dover, Kent. Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey on the 26 December 1135. Stephen is buried at the Clunaic Monastery in Faversham, Kent.
King Stephen was born in Blois, France, in 1096. He was the son of Stephen, Count of Blois and Adela of Normandy. His mother, Adela, was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne in about 1125. They had five children. He fought a civil war with Henry I's only daughter, Matilda, from 1139-1153. This ended with the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153 after the death of Stephen's son and heir, Eustace IV. The treaty said that Stephen would be King for the rest of his lifetime. After his death, the throne passed to Henry, son of Matilda, and not Stephen's other son William Died on 25 of October in 1154.))
He was captured after the Battle of Lincoln in April 1141, he was released later and returned to the throne.
Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. 1122 – March 31, 1204) was the daughter of William X of Aquitaine. She had a younger sister called Petronilla of Aquitaine. She brought the province of Aquitaine to England when she married Henry II of England. It stayed under English control for 300 years.
Eleanor inherited land in France at the age of 15. She married Louis VII of France on July 22, 1137, and had two daughters:
The marriage was later annulled, as there were no male children.
Eleanor then married Henry II of England on May 18, 1152, and had eight children, including:
Eleanor was greatly known for her work in the Second Crusade, for she inspired many people to join.
Eleanor supported a revolt by her children against their father's rule in 1173. This revolt was unsuccessful, and King Henry II was so furious that he locked her away in a prison. In 1189, after King Henry II died and her son, Richard, came to be the king, Eleanor was freed. Shortly after, Richard died so she supported her son John to take the English throne against the claim of her grandson Arthur of Brittany. In 1202 during the campaign at Mairebeau, she continued to thwart Arthur. Emerging triumphant, Eleanor retired to a monastery. She died there on April 1, 1204.
John of England
King John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was King of England from 6 April 1199, until his death. He became King of England after the death of his brother Richard I (Richard the Lionheart).
His reign was marked by disputes between John and his barons and bishops. Because of this the nobles forced him to observe the agreement called Magna Carta, to limit his power. The Magna Carta was a significant legal document in English history, as well as the first English “bill of rights”. It introduced the idea that monarchs had limited rights and had to follow certain laws, and it gave the nobles more say in the government. It not only affected English government, but inspired governments of other countries.
As a young man, John already had a reputation for treachery. He conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two.
Richard, now King Richard I of England was absent on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194. John attempted to overthrow William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely, who was Richard's designated 'chief justiciar' (like a Regent or Prime Minister). This was one of the events which led later writers to cast John as the villain in the legend of Robin Hood.
John was more popular than Longchamp in London. In October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to John while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.
As he returned from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and handed over to Henry VI, the Holy Roman Emperor, who held him for ransom. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with Philip Augustus, King of France. They sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and got his ransom from Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had to pawn the Crown Jewels). Richard was set free. John then begged forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive.
On Richard's death (6 April 1199) John was accepted in Normandy and England. He was crowned king at Westminster on 27 May, Ascension Day.
However, Anjou, Maine, and Brittany declared for Arthur of Brittany, son of his elder brother Geoffrey. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and John had serious consequences for both. Finally, Philip recognised John over Arthur. The price paid was John's agreement to be Philip's vassal in Normandy and Angevin.
Nevertheless, conflicts continued until in 1202 Philip declared all John's French lands and territories, except Gascony in the southwest, and immediately occupied them. Philip gave Arthur all the land he had taken from John, except for Normandy, and betrothed him to his daughter Marie.
John now needed to fight to get back 'his' land in France. In 1203 John ordered all shipyards in England to provide at least one ship, with the newly-built Portsmouth Naval Base to provide several. He made Portsmouth the new home of the navy. By the end of 1204, John had 45 large ships available to him, and from then on an average of four new ones every year. He also created an Admiralty of four admirals, responsible for various parts of the new navy. During John's reign, major improvements were made in ship design. He also created the first big transport ships. John is sometimes credited with the founding of the modern Royal Navy.
As part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains unknown, but it is believed that he was murdered by John. Assuming that he was murdered, Brittany, and later Normandy, rebelled against John. John also imprisoned his niece, Eleanor. Through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness.
In 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the "Grande Coutume", which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou.
In June 1204, the fall of Rouen allowed Phillip to annex Normandy and also take parts of Anjou and Poitou.
John needed money for his army, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income. A huge tax would be needed to reclaim these territories. He imposed the first income tax, raising the (then) huge sum of £70,000.
When Archbishop of Canterbury Hubert Walter died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Canterbury Cathedral Chapter claimed the sole right to elect Hubert's successor, and favoured Reginald, a candidate out of their midst. However, both the English bishops and the King wanted someone else to have this powerful office. The king wanted John de Gray, one of his own men. When their dispute could not be settled, the Chapter secretly elected one of their members as Archbishop. A second election imposed by John resulted in another nominee. When they both appeared in the Vatican, Innocent disavowed (rejected) both elections, and his candidate, Stephen Langton, was elected despite the objections of John's observers. John was supported in his position by the English barons and many of the English bishops, and refused to accept Langton.
John expelled (dismissed) the Canterbury Chapter in July 1207, to which the Pope reacted by placing an interdict on the kingdom which meant that no one could receive religious blessings. John retaliated by closing down the churches. He confiscated (on paper) all church possessions, but individual churches were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates. After his excommunication, John tightened these measures and he got plenty from the income of vacant sees and abbeys. For example, the church lost an estimated 100,000 marks to the Crown in 1213. The Pope gave permission for some churches to hold Mass behind closed doors in 1209. In 1212, they allowed last rites to the dying. While the interdict was a burden to many, it did not result in rebellion against John.
In November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Knights Templar Church at Dover); in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, written in a document, John gained the support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons.
After settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to France. The European wars ended in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214, which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France.
The heavy scutage levy for the failed campaign was the last straw, and when John attempted to raise more in September 1214, many barons refused to pay. The barons no longer believed that John was capable of regaining his lost lands.
In May 1215, Robert Fitz Walter led forty barons to renounce homage to the king at Northampton. The so-called 'Army of God' marched on London, taking the capital as well as taking Lincoln and Exeter.