AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Belgian authorities said two brothers, Khalid and Ibrahim el-Bakraoui, both Belgians with criminal records — were among the three suicide bombers who attacked the Brussels metro and airport.The brothers are believed to have links to last year’s Paris attacks, and to Salah Abdeslam. There third man who appeared on the cameras is still free after he ran away when his bomb didn't explode.
After the attacks in Brussels, European leaders said terror will not scare them. In Belgium, officials declared three days of national mourning. Belgian Prime Minister said that Charles Michel sent a message to the people behind the attacks, saying, "to those who have chosen to be barbarous enemies of freedom, democracy and fundamental values ... we remain united as one."
In its message claiming responsibility, ISIS noted in a twitter post that "What will be coming is worse."
People shared cartoons and showed sadness in black, yellow and red, the colors of the Belgian flag. Others put messages of solidarity with #JeSuisBruxelles, or "I am Brussels," an ode to a similar outpouring with #JeSuisCharlie after the Charlie Hebdo attack in January 2015. Some people invited tourists stuck after the airport was shut into their homes using #OpenHouse.
French cartoonist Jean Plantureux, who goes by Plantu, drew an emotional cartoon for French newspaper Le Monde. A crying person wrapped in a French flag hugs a crying person with a Belgian flag, suggesting solidarity between the two countries.
People in Brussels and elsewhere brought flowers and lit candles to show how sad they are after the attacks.
Vacco v. Quill
Vacco v. Quill, , was a landmark court decision about the right to die. New York had made physician-assisted suicide illegal. A group of doctors challenged this law. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1997, the Supreme Court decided that New York's law against physician-assisted suicide was constitutional and legal. They ruled that the Constitution of the United States does not guarantee the "right to die."
The state of New York had made physician-assisted suicide illegal. This law made it a crime for a doctor to give a patient medications that would kill them. It also made it illegal for a doctor to do anything else that would end a patient's life. These things were crimes even if the patient was terminally ill, wanted to die, and was competent (able to make decisions).
A group of doctors filed a lawsuit in federal court. They argued that this law was unconstitutional. They said the law violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The Equal Protection Clause says that every state must give everyone "the equal protection of the laws." The doctors argued that because of the law against physician-assisted suicide, terminally ill people did not have equal rights under the law. They pointed out that terminally ill patients could refuse treatment, which would lead to their death. However, these same patients did not have the right to give a doctor permission to end their lives. Basically, they were arguing that refusing treatment in order to cause death, and asking a doctor to help cause death, were the same thing.
First, the case went to the United States District Court. This court ruled that New York's law was constitutional. It said that the state of New York had a good reason to care about keeping its citizens alive and protecting people who might need protection.
Next, the case was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. It reversed the District Court's opinion. The Court of Appeals said that the law did not treat all competent patients equally when they wanted to end their lives. For example, if a patient were attached to a life support machine, like a ventilator, they had the right to have a doctor disconnect it. This would cause their death. However, a person in the same situation, on a life support machine, could not ask a doctor to give them medications to cause their death instead. The Court agreed that asking doctors to remove life support devices (which was legal) was the same as physician-assisted euthanasia (which was not legal). They ruled that this was not equal treatment, and that New York's law against physician-assisted suicide was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause.
The case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court. On June 26, 1997, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that New York's law was legal and constitutional. Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote the majority opinion, but five other Justices wrote separate concurring opinions.
As legal scholar Susan Stefan writes: "Justice Rehnquist's short, curt opinion reversing "Quill" is almost angry." Rehnquist writes that assisted suicide is completely different from allowing a patient to refuse treatment. The difference is that with assisted suicide, the doctor means to cause the patient's death. When the doctor gives the patient medication that will kill them, they are "causing" the patient's death. When a doctor lets a patient refuse treatment, they are letting the patient's "disease" cause their death.
The Court also wrote that there is no "fundamental" right to die in the Constitution. Because of this, laws that make physician-assisted suicide illegal do not violate terminally ill people's Constitutional rights. The Court added that the law allowed everyone to refuse treatment, and banned everyone from assisting suicide. This was equal treatment, and did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the decision said.
Finally, the Court said that the state of New York had "a legitimate interest" (good, valid reasons) in banning physician-assisted suicide. They said the ban would help the state prevent euthanasia, protect doctors' medical ethics, and protect terminally ill people who might feel pressured to end their lives. Most importantly, they said, New York's ban helped protect human life. The right to life (however long it may last) is an "unalienable right" (a natural right) guaranteed by the Constitution. The right to death, the Court said, is not.
Sawi language (Dardic)
Sawi, Savi, or Sauji, is a Dardic language spoken in parts of Afghanistan. It is also spoken in parts of Pakistan. There are estimated to be about 4,200 speakers worldwide.
Cruel and unusual punishment
Cruel and unusual punishment is punishment that causes severe suffering, pain, or humiliation. Many countries have laws against cruel and unusual punishment. There are also international laws and treaties against this type of punishment.
For most of recorded history, the death penalty was often painful on purpose. Severe historical punishments included being burned or boiled to death; cut or torn apart; crushed by stones; sawed in half; crucified; and many other extremely painful methods of execution. Punishments that were not meant to cause death were also often painful on purpose.
The exact words "cruel and unusual punishment" were first used in the English Bill of Rights 1689. In 1791, the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution made "cruel and unusual punishment" illegal in the United States. Seven years later, the British Leeward Islands used the same words in their Slavery Amelioration Act.
Here are some examples of other laws that include protections against cruel and unusual punishment.
The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "cruel and unusual punishments [shall not be] inflicted." However, the Constitution does not define exactly what cruel and unusual punishments are.
In a case called "Furman v. Georgia" (), the Supreme Court of the United States decided what questions they would use to figure out whether a punishment was cruel and unusual. Justice William Brennan wrote the opinion in the case. He made four rules about punishments:
In this decision, the Supreme Court set a precedent that if a punishment broke any of these four rules, it would be viewed as "cruel and unusual," and would be illegal under the Constitution.
Early Norwegian black metal scene
The early Norwegian black metal scene was a black metal music scene and subculture in Norway during the early 1990s. It is said to have created the modern black metal genre and produced many influential artists.
The scene drew a lot of media attention after some members were responsible for two murders and lots of church burnings in Norway. The scene had an ideology that some people say was like a cult. They had anti-Christian and misanthropic views. Some were actual Satanists who wanted to spread terror, hatred and evil. The core members called themselves "The Black Circle" or "Black Metal Inner Circle". It was made up of mainly young men who gathered around the record shop Helvete ("Hell") in Oslo. They liked to wear corpse paint. The scene was exclusive, and most bands wanted to remain underground and out of reach to the mainstream.
In August 1993 and May 1994, many members of the scene were arrested for arson, murder, assault and possession of explosives.
During the 1980's, bands were called "black metal" if they had Satanic lyrics. These bands usually only used these lyrics for "shock value." During 1990–1992, a lot of bands who were influenced by those bands, began playing a new type of black metal. The rise of popularity during this time was called the "second wave of black metal".
History of racial segregation in the United States
Racial segregation means separating people because of their races. In the United States, racial segregation has existed since before the United States was its own country. Slavery, racist laws, racist attitudes, and many other things caused the United States to segregate white and non-white people for centuries. Although segregation is now against the law, racist attitudes still remain, and new forms of segregation have formed over time.
The first African slaves were brought to America in 1619. This was just nine years after British settlers created the first permanent settlement in America, at Jamestown, Virginia.
People in all thirteen American colonies used slaves. Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States owned slaves, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, James Madison, Patrick Henry, and John Jay.
Abolitionists started trying to make slavery illegal in the mid-1700s. By 1804, all of the northern states had ended slavery. However, none of the Southern states had. The Southern states believed that slavery was their right, and they did not want to give it up. Cotton had become a very important crop in the South. Owners of large cotton plantations were used to having slaves to do work for free, which made the plantation owners richer because they did not have to pay anybody to work.
Eventually, the South tried to leave the United States. This caused the American Civil War. The North won, and in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution made slavery illegal everywhere in the country. In 1868 and 1870, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments gave African-Americans citizenship, and gave them the right to vote.
Losing the Civil War did not change people's ideas about African-American people. During slavery, slave owners had not seen slaves as humans. They saw them as property, things to buy and sell, like animals you would use on a farm. After the War, many white people still did not see African-Americans as equal to whites.
Starting in 1890, the all-white legislatures in the Southern states began to pass state laws that required segregation. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. For example, blacks could not:
In 1896, in a case called "Plessy v. Ferguson", the Supreme Court ruled that these laws were legal. They said that segregation was fine, as long as things were "separate but equal." In the South, everything was separate. However, places like black schools and libraries got much less money and were not as good as places for whites. Things were separate, but not equal.
Segregation kept African-Americans from having the basic rights that the Founding Fathers had written into the Constitution of the United States. Law-makers, government officials, voting officials, and police officers were all white. This prevented African-Americans from having any say in their government; being able to get the same voting rights as white people; having police officers protect them; or being able to get justice for crimes against them. Because they could not count on all-white police forces to protect them, violence against African-Americans, especially lynchings, increased. Because African-Americans could not vote, they also could not serve on juries. This meant that if a black person was ever on trial for a crime, the jury would be all-white.
Problems were worst in the South. However, African-Americans went through different kinds of segregation in other places.
Across the United States, segregation in housing was a problem. Many African-Americans could not get mortgages to buy houses. Realtors would not sell black people houses in the suburbs, where white people lived. They also would not rent apartments in white areas. Until the 1950s, the federal government did nothing about this.
Black people fought in both World War I and World War II. However, the military was segregated; black officers even had to enter some military bases through separate entrances from white officers. Black soldiers also were not given the same opportunities as white soldiers. Finally, in 1948, President Harry Truman de-segregated the military.
African Americans tried to fight back against discrimination in many ways. Mostly, they tried to use the courts to get justice. For example, in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created. Its goal was to end race discrimination through lawsuits, education, and lobbying.
From about 1954 to 1968, many African-American people and white allies fought to end racial segregation. The movement depended on non-violent protests, sit-ins, marches, civil disobedience, and lawsuits. Its victories included:
These victories were not easy. Protesters were often threatened and attacked. Leaders' homes were bombed. In Birmingham, the police attacked protesters, including children, with police dogs and fire hoses, then took them to jail. In other cities, police beat protesters with clubs and fired into student protests. Three of the movement's leaders Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, and Medgar Evers were murdered.
Nobody knows exactly how many people were killed during the Civil Rights Movement. However, at least 37 people were murdered, either because they were doing civil rights work, or because racist white groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the White Citizens' Council wanted to terrorize black people. Twelve of these people were children or teenagers when they were murdered.
Eventually, the Movement was successful in removing the laws that allowed segregation. However, attitudes are harder to change, and racism still exists in the United States.
In the early 1800s, the United States was growing farther into the South. White Americans wanted more land to plant cotton. However, many different Native American tribes lived in the lands the United States wanted to take over.
Andrew Jackson was a big supporter of "Indian removal" convincing or forcing Native Americans to leave the South and move west, outside of the United States. First as a Major General in the United States Army, and then as President, he led the United States' "Indian removal" program.
The program started in 1814, when Jackson led a group of soldiers who defeated the Creek Indians. He forced them to sign a treaty giving up over 20 million acres of their land to the United States. Over the next ten years, Jackson got nine other tribes to sign treaties giving up their land.
In 1829, Jackson became President. That same year, gold was found in Georgia, which caused a gold rush. This only made white people in the United States want control of the South even more. In 1830, Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This law said Jackson could give land west of the Mississippi River to Indian tribes if they agreed to give up their lands in the South. The law promised the tribes that they could live on their new lands forever, and be protected by the United States government. By the time his presidency ended in 1837, Jackson had gotten Native Americans to sign almost 70 treaties giving up their land. Almost 50,000 Native Americans moved to "Indian Territory" west of the Mississippi River. However, the government already had a plan to force them into a smaller area, in what is now eastern Oklahoma.
The Cherokee Nation refused to leave their lands. They even got the United States Supreme Court to rule that they were sovereign and did not have to follow the laws of the United States. Jackson simply ignored this ruling. In 1835, he got a small group of Cherokee to sign a treaty agreeing to leave their lands. The rest of the Cherokee Nation tried to keep their lands. However, in 1838, the United States Army and the Georgia militia forced them to leave their lands. On what is known as the "Trail of Tears," about 15,000 Cherokee were forced to walk over 2,000 miles to Oklahoma. About 4,000 died along the way.
By the 1840s, except for a few Seminole Indians living in Florida, there were no Native Americans left in the American South.
In 1851, the United States Congress passed a law that created Indian reservations in Oklahoma. White settlers had already begun to move into the lands the Native Americans had been forced to move to. This was causing conflicts between whites and Native Americans. The goal of the reservations was to segregate the Native Americans from white settlers.
In 1868, President Ulysses S. Grant decided to create more reservations, and force Native American tribes that lived in the west to move to them. Along with segregating the Native Americans and clearing their land for white use, Grant planned to have church officials run the reservations so they could teach Christianity to the tribes.
Many tribes refused to leave their lands, and were forced onto reservations by the United States Army. If Native Americans left their reservations, the Army went after them to try to force them back onto the reservations. This led to massacres of Native Americans, and some wars.
In 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Act. This law stopped giving land to whole tribes, and broke up the land into small pieces for individual families to use for farming. Indians who took the land, started living alone instead of with their tribes, and started farming were viewed as "civilized," and they were made United States citizens. Indians who refused to segregate themselves even more on small pieces of land were not allowed to be citizens. Whatever land was left was sold to white settlers, which made the reservations even smaller.
It was not until 1975 that the Supreme Court ruled that tribes are sovereign over tribal lands and members of the tribe.
As of 2015, all of the Indian reservations in the United States, together, make up 87,800 square miles an area about the size of Idaho. However, Native Americans are now allowed to live or work anywhere they want to, and as of 2016, more than half have left the reservations.
On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and declared war on the United States. This caused the United States to enter World War II and start fighting Japan, as well as Nazi Germany and Italy.
In February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an order that allowed the military to force people to leave the West Coast. However, Japanese-Americans were the only people on the West Coast who were forced to leave. They were given 48 hours to leave their homes for internment camps. These were camps where Japanese-Americans were kept separate from everybody else. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by soldiers with guns.
The United States government forced over 110,000 Japanese-American people into internment camps. (This was over 80% of the Japanese-American people who lived in the continental United States at the time.) More than three out of every five of these people were born in the United States, and were United States citizens. About half were children.
Because the United States was fighting Nazi Germany and Italy as well as Japan, some German-Americans and Italian-Americans were forced into internment camps too. So were some Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. However, none of this was as common as it was with Japanese-Americans.
In 1945, the year World War II ended, the United States let people out of the camps. However, many of the people who were interned had lost everything they had. In 1988, the United States government finally apologized and said that there was no reason for the internment other than racism.
Norris Edwin Bradbury (30 May 1909 – 20 August 1997), was an American physicist. He served as Director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory for 25 years from 1945 to 1970. He replaced Robert Oppenheimer. Bradbury worked with Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Bradbury was in charge of the final assembly of "the Gadget", detonated in July 1945 for the Trinity test.
Leon Charney
Leon Charney (1938 – 22 March 2016) was an American real estate tycoon, author, philanthropist, political pundit, media personality and Jewish cantor. He lived in Manhattan in New York City. In March 2012, "Forbes" listed Charney as #353 among the wealthiest Americans.
In 1979, Charney played an important role as the unofficial adviser to former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, most well known for his behind-the-scenes role in the Camp David Accords which created the first comprehensive peace between Israel and Egypt in 1978 and 1979.
Charney died on March 21, 2016 at the age of 77.
Jack Mansell
Jack Mansell (22 August 1927 – 19 March 2016) was a British professional footballer. He made 274 appearances in the Football League as a fullback for Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City and Portsmouth.
After retiring as a player he joined the coaching staff at Sheffield Wednesday. He coached many clubs with his longest spell being at Reading and had experience overseas with the likes of Blauw-Wit Amsterdam, Boston Beacons and the Israel national football team. In 1982, Mansell was chosen to train Maccabi Haifa, after a year at the Israeli national team.
Mansell died on 19 March 2016 at the age of 88.
Sergey Lavrov
Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov (, ; born 21 March 1950) is a Russian diplomat. He was the Foreign Minister of Russia since 2004. From 1994 to 2004, Lavrov was a Soviet diplomat, and the Permanent Representative of Russia to the United Nations.
Rita Gam
Rita Gam (April 2, 1927March 22, 2016) was an American and television actress and documentary filmmaker. She was nominated for a Golden Globe and won the Silver Bear for Best Actress. She was known for her roles in "The Thief" and "King of Kings". She was also known for being Sidney Lumet's first wife.
Gam shared the Silver Bear for Best Actress award with Viveca Lindfors at the 1962 Berlin Film Festival, for their performances in Tad Danielewski's "No Exit".
Gam died on March 22, 2016 at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California from respiratory failure, aged 88.
Loratadine
Loratadine (also known as Claritin) is a drug used to treat hay fever, urticaria and skin allergies. It is closely related to tryciclic antidepressants. It is distantly related to quetiapine.
Loratadine was discovered in 1981. It was first sold in 1993.
Allergic rhinitis (also known as hay fever or pollinosis) is a type of inflammation in the nose. It occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Symptoms include sneezing, red, itchy and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes.
Allergens that often cause hay fever include pollen, pet hair and mold.
Hay fever is most common between ages twenty and forty.
Ethan Carter III
Michael Hutter (born March 18, 1983) is an American professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name EC3. He is perhaps best known for his stint in Impact Wrestling, where he won the TNA World Heavyweight Championshipthree times.
Paolo Guerrero
José Paolo Guerrero Gonzales (born 1 January 1984 in Lima, Peru) is a Peruvian footballer who plays as a striker for Brazilian club Flamengo and the Peru national team.
Wildest Dreams (song)
"Wildest Dreams" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. The song was released on August 31, 2015. Swift co-write the song with its producers Max Martin and Shellback. It got generally positive reviews from music critics.
The song hit #5 on the American "Billboard" Hot 100.
"Wildest Dreams" has been certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales and streams of over 2 million copies in the United States.
Hernandez v. Texas
Hernandez v. Texas, , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. In a unanimous ruling, the Court held that Mexican Americans and all other racial or national groups in the United States had equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The ruling was written by Chief Justice Earl Warren. This was the first case in which Mexican-American lawyers had appeared before the US Supreme Court.
Pete Hernandez, a Mexican-American agricultural worker, was convicted for the 1950 murder of Joe Espinosa. Hernandez's "pro bono" legal team, including Gustavo C. García, wanted to challenge what they knew was "the systematic exclusion of persons of Mexican origin" from all types of jury duty in at least seventy counties in Texas. His defense lawyers argued that persons of Mexican descent had not been allowed to serve on juries even though numerous Mexican Americans were citizens and had qualified for jury duty in Jackson County. Even though 14 percent of the county was Hispanic, none had served on juries for at least the last 25 years. This meant Hernandez had been deprived of his Fourteenth Amendment rights. Hernandez and his lawyers appealed to the Supreme Court of Texas, then to the United States Supreme Court through a writ of certiorari.
The unanimous majority opinion was delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Court ruled the Fourteenth Amendment protects persons beyond the racial classes of white or black, and extends protection to other racial or national groups, as well as legal classes. Mexican Americans were such a "special class" and were entitled to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Pete Hernandez was granted a new trial with a jury that included Mexican Americans. Hernandez was found to be guilty of murder. The ultimate effect of this ruling was that the protection of the 14th Amendment was ruled to cover any racial, national and ethnic groups of the United States for which discrimination could be proved. The Court's ruling served as a legal precedent used in legal challenges against unfair housing laws, school segregation, and voting rights of Mexican Americans nationwide.
Gideon v. Wainwright
Gideon v. Wainwright, , is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. The Court decided that if a person is charged with a crime, and they cannot pay for a lawyer, the state has to give them one for free. This case caused the public defender program to be created in the United States. (A public defender is a lawyer who defends clients who cannot pay them.)
Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, someone broke into the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. The person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole coins from a cash register. Later that day, a witness said he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the pool room at around 5:30 that morning. The witness said Gideon left with a wine bottle and money in his pockets. Based only on this information, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. This charge means a person broke into a place, meaning to steal someone else's property. (In Florida, at the time, "petty" larceny meant that the person stole something that was worth less than $50.) Under Florida law, if Gideon was found guilty, he could be put in prison for up to five years.
In 1961, state courts had to follow the Supreme Court's decision in "Betts v. Brady." In this case, the Court ruled that if a defendant was charged with a capital crime, he had to be be assigned a lawyer if he could not pay for one. However, as long as the defendant was not charged with a capital crime, the states did not have to assign free lawyers to every defendant who could not afford them. The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right, and was not necessary for a fair trial.
In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer. In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial. These "specialized circumstances" included things like a defendant not having education or not knowing the rules of the court.
What this meant was that in 1961, throughout the state of Florida, most defendants did not have lawyers. They had two choices: to plead guilty, or to defend themselves at trial. A Florida lawyer remembers that "[before] 1963, lawyers were likely to appear in Florida courtrooms only for the wealthy."
In a letter he wrote from prison, Gideon once wrote:
First, Gideon filed a writ of habeas corpus with the Florida State Supreme Court. This is a request to be set free from unfair imprisonment. The Florida Supreme Court summarily denied his request meaning they refused to even hold a court hearing or hear Gideon's arguments.
From his prison cell, using the prison library and writing in pencil on prison paper, Gideon then appealed to the United States Supreme Court. He asked the Supreme Court to review his case "because the 'due process clause' of the fourteenth admendment of the constitution and the fifth and sixth articales of the Bill of rights has been violated" "sic".
Gideon argued that he had been denied a lawyer, which violated his Sixth Amendment rights. In "Betts v. Brady", the Supreme Court had ruled that the Sixth Amendment did not apply to the states. However, Gideon argued that it did, because of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws." Gideon argued that without assigning lawyers to poor defendants, the state of Florida was not giving those defendants due process or equal protection under the laws.
The Supreme Court agreed to hear Gideon's appeal. They had decided to think about whether "Betts v. Brady" should be "reconsidered" (re-thought).
The basic question the Supreme Court had to answer had to do with the Sixth Amendment. They had already decided that under the Sixth Amendment, everyone accused of a crime in "federal" court had the right to have a lawyer, even if they could not pay for one. Now they needed to decide whether the Sixth Amendment applied to the states like it did to the federal government. In other words, did every person accused of a crime in "state" court have the right to a lawyer?
The Supreme Court had assigned Gideon a well-known lawyer from Washington, D.C. named Abe Fortas. (In 1965, Fortas would become a United States Supreme Court Justice.)
Fortas argued that it was impossible for a person to get a fair trial without a lawyer. He argued that under the Fourteenth Amendment's "due process" requirement, the states had to give a person a fair trial before taking away their freedom. By denying Gideon a lawyer, the state of Florida denied him a fair trial and violated his right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.
A lawyer named Bruce Jacob argued the case against Gideon in front of the Supreme Court. He made a few different arguments.
Jacob argued that the Constitution allows states to make their own rules about the criminal procedure (how to run criminal trials). He talked about federalism the separation of powers between federal and state governments that is written into the Constitution. By making a rule saying the states always had to give poor defendants free lawyers, the federal government would be over-stepping its powers. The states would be unable to make their own rules, and this would take away a right the Constitution gave to the states.
Jacob also argued that a person does not need a lawyer to get a fair trial. He said that judges, and even prosecutors, help protect the rights of people who defend themselves in court.
In addition, Jacob said that if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon, the effects would be harmful. If the Court ruled that a lawyer was needed for a fair trial, then the state would also have to give poor defendants free lawyers for other types of trials, like appeals and civil trials. The state would never have enough lawyers for this or enough money to pay them, he said. Also, out of Florida's 8,000 prisoners, 65% 5,200 prisoners had not had lawyers. Jacob argued that many of these prisoners could go free if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon.
On March 18, 1963, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that Gideon was right. His rights "had" been violated.
The Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment's right to a lawyer does apply to the states. It reasoned that without a lawyer, a person cannot get a fair trial. If a person does not get a fair trial, they are not getting the "due process of law" that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees. In other words, because people have the right to due process, they have the right to a fair trial; and because they cannot get a fair trial without a lawyer, they also have the right to a lawyer.
The Court also said that its earlier decision in "Betts v. Brady" had been wrong. This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's earlier decision in "Betts v. Brady" (meaning the "Betts" decision was no longer valid). Justice Black (who had disagreed with the "Betts" decision when the Court made it) wrote:
The Supreme Court's ruling did not mean that Gideon could automatically go free. It meant he got a new trial this time, with a free lawyer assigned to him.
Gideon asked for a lawyer named Fred Turner, who had a very good reputation, and the judge agreed. With Turner arguing the case, it took jurors less than an hour to find Gideon not guilty. Gideon was set free that day.
Gideon died on January 18, 1972, from cancer and tuberculosis. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Missouri.
Almost thirteen years later, the American Civil Liberties Union paid for a headstone to be put on Gideon's grave. On the gravestone, there is a quote based on something Gideon wrote in a letter to Abe Fortas: "I believe that each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind."
Based on the Supreme Court decision, each of Florida's 5,200 prisoners who had been convicted without counsel had the right to a new trial this time with a lawyer. However, about 1,200 of these prisoners were set free without a new trial. This happened because witnesses in their cases had died or moved away, and the state of Florida did not have enough evidence to try them again.
The same year "Gideon" was decided, the Florida state legislature set up their public defender system. Throughout the 1960s, states that did not already have public defender systems created them.
When "Gideon" was decided, there were still 13 states that did not always give lawyers to poor criminal defendants. Like in Florida, many of these poor defendants did not get fair trials because they did not have a lawyer's help. After the "Gideon" decision, every person who is charged with a crime, in any court in the United States, has the right to a lawyer even if they cannot pay for one. Defendants can decide they do not want a lawyer, but when they do that, they are giving up their right to a lawyer because they want to.
Four years after "Gideon", in a case called "Burget v. Texas", the Supreme Court ruled that the "Gideon" decision applied "retroactively." This means it applies even to defendants who were convicted before "Gideon" was decided in 1963. In other words, the Court was admitting that defendants should have had the right to counsel all along, even before "Gideon". The Court decided in "Gideon" that people could not get a fair trial without lawyers; that was just as true for people who were convicted before 1963. These people, too, now deserved new trials, with free lawyers to help them.
The "Gideon" decision still guarantees free counsel to every poor individual charged with a crime in the United States. However, many legal scholars agree that there are many problems with the public defender system in the 21st century. Because of these problems, they argue, many poor defendants are not getting the rights the "Gideon" decision gave them.
According to these scholars, one of the biggest problems with today's public defender programs is that they do not get enough money from the government to deal with the number of poor defendants they have to represent. This means:
When public defenders cannot do their jobs well because they have too many cases, have too little experience, or are too overwhelmed, defendants get more severe punishments when they are convicted.
Radical Face
Radical Face is a musical act whose main member is Ben Cooper, who sings and plays multiple instruments. All the sounds are put together on a computer. Cooper is also in Electric President, an electronic music group. However, Radical Face has an acoustic sound.
Radical Face's music has been on television programmes and in the movie "Wish I Was Here".
Cooper's first album to be recorded under the name Radical Face was "The Junkyard Chandelier" (2003). The album was never released. However, it can be downloaded for free online. "Ghost" was the first official studio album, released in March 2007.
On November 16, 2010, Cooper released an EP titled "Touch The Sky". It was a preview for a trilogy of albums called "Family Tree". This trilogy is about a fictional family from the 1800s, the Northcotes. It is also really about Cooper's own life. The albums are "The Roots", "The Branches", and "The Leaves".
Another EP, "The Bastards: Volume One", was released before "The Roots". In August 2011, iTunes accidentally released "The Roots" to users outside of the US. It was released in the US on October 4, 2011.
"The Family Tree: The Branches" was released on October 22, 2013 in America and on November 1 in Europe. "The Bastards: Volume Two" was also released that year.
"The Bastards: Volume Three" and "The Bastards: Volume Four" were both released in 2015, before the release of "The Family Tree: The Leaves" in March 2016. "The Leaves" has songs that are about Cooper's own life.
"Clone", an album by Ben Cooper and Richard Colado, was supposed to be released before fall of 2012, but it kept getting delayed. The first track of the album, "The Laboratory", was finally released on September 23, 2014. Cooper then released one track per week.
2015–16 La Liga
The 2015–16 La Liga season (known as the "Liga BBVA" for sponsorship reasons) is the 85th since its establishment. Barcelona are the defending champions. The season started on 22 August 2015 and will conclude on 15 May 2016.
Test case (law)
In case law, a test case is a legal action whose purpose is to set a precedent. An example of a test case might be a person who files a lawsuit in order to see if the court considers a certain law or a certain legal precedent applies in certain circumstances. This is useful, for example, in order to later file similar lawsuits in similar circumstances. Sometimes, lawyers delay filing a lawsuit to wait and see how a test case is decided. Test cases are sometimes used to challenge a law to have it possibly overturned. Government agencies sometimes bring test cases in order to confirm or expand their powers.
Examples of influential test cases include:
Strict scrutiny
Strict scrutiny is the most stringent standard of judicial review used by United States courts. It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle. The lesser standards are rational basis review and exacting or intermediate scrutiny. These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.
The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in "United States v. Carolene Products Co." (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation. The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was "Korematsu v. United States" (1944). In "Korematsu" the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.
U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.
To pass strict scrutiny, the law or policy must satisfy three tests:
Cancer of unknown primary origin
Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP, "occult cancer") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified. A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.
CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances. The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.
Joe Garagiola, Sr.
Joseph Henry Garagiola, Sr. (February 12, 1926 – March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host.
Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants. He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on "The Today Show" for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.
Garagiola died on March 23, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of 90.
Malik Isaac Taylor (November 20, 1970 – March 22, 2016), better known by his stage name Phife Dawg (or simply Phife), was an American rapper.
He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White). He was also known as the "Five Foot Assassin" and "The Five Footer", because he stood at .
Taylor died on March 22, 2016 due to complications of diabetes at the age of 45.
Peter Brown (actor)
Peter Brown (October 5, 1935 – March 21, 2016) was an American television actor. He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, "Lawman" and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on "Laredo" from 1965 to 1967.
Brown died on March 21, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 80.
Glen Dawson
Glen Dawson (June 3, 1912 – March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist. He was born in California.
In 1929, Glen began serious mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada. On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.
Dawson died in Pasadena, California on March 22, 2016, aged 103.
Jimmy Riley
Martin James Norman Riley (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as Jimmy Riley, was a Jamaican singer. Along to recording solo, he was also a member of the Sensations and The Uniques. He was the father of Tarrus Riley.
In September 2013 he released the album "Contradiction", that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah.
Riley died on the morning of 23 March 2016 in New York City after suffering from cancer, aged 61.
Carolyn Squires
Carolyn M. Squires (September 25, 1940 – March 21, 2016) was an American politician. She was a member of the Democratic Party.
Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015. From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip. Earlier she was a member of the Montana House of Representatives from 1987 through 2000.
Squires died in Missoula, Montana from colorectal cancer at the age of 75.
Missoula, Montana
Missoula is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County. , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city's population at 69,821 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 112,684. It is the second largest city in Montana. It is home of the University of Montana.
Santiago J. Erevia
Santiago Jesus Erevia (December 15, 1946 – March 22, 2016) was an American U.S. Army-veteran. He was born in Nordheim, Texas. Erevia served in the Vietnam War starting at the age of 22.
In 1970, Erevia left active service with a two-year reserve obligation. In 1972 he joined the Texas National Guard and went on to serve 17 years. Erevia worked as a mail carrier for the United States Postal Service, retiring in 2002 after thirty-two years of service.
Erevia was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Barack Obama in a March 18, 2014 ceremony at the White House.
Erevia died on March 22, 2016 in San Antonio, Texas at the age of 70.
EDVAC
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the first electronic computers. Unlike the computer before it, the ENIAC, EDVAC operated in binary and was able to store programs.
Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words. EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.
By 1960, EDVAC was running over 20 hours a day with error-free run time averaging eight hours. EDVAC ran until 1961 when it was replaced by BRLESC. During its operational life it proved to be reliable and productive for its time.
Naked singularity
In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from the outside. The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole. Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon. This includes the event horizon itself. Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.
The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise. In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole. Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.
Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature. Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.
There are black holes known as Kerr black holes which have spin (they rotate). But, there is a maximum spin rate. If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.
Mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou has shown that naked singularities also occur in nature. However, he then showed that such "naked singularities" are unstable.
Civil Rights Cases