AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled. This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface.
A Crookes radiometer appears to demonstrate the pressure of light, but instead it demonstrate the energy that light brings to a surface. The black side of each paddle absorbs most of the light's energy an causes the air near that surface to have a higher pressure. So, while a Crookes radiometer turns because of pressure, it is air pressure caused by the heat energy that light brings to the device.
The solar radiation at Earth's distance from the Sun has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m, and more than half of this energy reaches surface. A calculation shows that this value of the flux would cause on an absorbing surface to experience 4.6 µPa of radiation pressure. A convenient way to compare the Sun's energy flux and radiation pressure is to imagine the pressure and energy deposited on one square meter:
To understand how small a micro-newton is, convert calculate how much mass you need on Earth to get that force using formula_3:
The difference between the energy flux and the pressure is like the difference between the heat coming through a large window and the weight of a very small mosquito.
Kirkwood gap
Kirkwood gaps are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the . They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter.
The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.
Ca-Al-rich inclusions
Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) are centimeter-sized light-coloured calcium and aluminium rich inclusions found in carbonaceous chondrites. CAIs contains high-temperature minerals and are among the first solids which solidified from the cooling protoplanetary disk. CAIs were formed at much higher temperatures than the associated chondrules, and may have survived many high-temperature events, whereas most chondrules are the product of a single transient melting event.
The isotopic anomalies of CAIs give valuable clues about the solar system's formation, suggesting that the solar nebula collapsed shortly after a nearby supernova. Radiometric dating shows that the CAIs formed about 2 million years before the chondrules formed.
Eucrite
Eucrites are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present.
Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite).
Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".
81P/Wild
Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced "Vilt"), who discovered it in 1978.
It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit).
Barrel (weapons)
Shell (projectile)
A shell is a type of projectile used in weapons. It is filled with explosive or other things such as an incendiary device. It is similar to a bomb but is made to be shot out of a gun. Shells are usually large caliber projectiles fired by artillery, armored vehicles (including tanks), and warships. A fuze detonates the explosive or releases whatever else the shell may be carrying.
Anti-tank guns fire thick shells without much explosive inside. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder but taper towards the front end to form a point. However, special shells may use other shapes.
Ion thruster
An ion thruster is a kind of spacecraft engine. It works by using static electricity or magnetism to push ions (electrically charged atoms) out the back of the spacecraft. It takes a very long time to speed up, but its fuel lasts much longer than a rocket engine. It has to be carried into outer space by a regular rocket, because the ions don't push hard enough for it to escape the Earth's gravity, but after it gets to outer space it can travel a very long way. An ion thruster needs electricity to run, so the spacecraft has to also carry solar panels or a nuclear reactor.
In 2011 the NASA space probe called Dawn used an ion thruster to get to the asteroid Vesta. In 2015 the thruster brought it to the dwarf planet Ceres.
A pistol is a handgun. The word may be used broadly to mean any handgun, or narrowly to mean only a magazine pistol, as distinct from a revolver.
In a magazine pistol, the cartridges are in a magazine, which is a metal or plastic box. The magazine is usually inside the handle of the pistol. When the pistol is fired, the empty cartridge pops out, and the next one comes up into position. The magazine is spring-loaded so it pushes the next bullet into place as the empty cartridge is ejected. For that reason pistols are sometimes called "semi-automatic". When the magazine runs out of cartridges, it can be reloaded by inserting more cartridges.
The term has long been variously used. For example, in the American Old West revolvers were used but were then (and even today by some) called pistols. The word "pistol" entered English before 1600, from the French. At that time it usually meant a single-shot handgun.
One of the most important rules of gun safety is to keep guns out of the hands of children. Guns should be locked up and kept away from children and others who do not appreciate how deadly they are. Pistols like all guns should always be handled carefully. Always keep the gun pointed in a safe direction. A shooter should keep their fingers away from the trigger until the moment they intend to shoot. Always respect guns as a tool that can cause harm if used incorrectly. Always assume a gun is loaded until you are certain it is not.
A bullet is not the only part of a gun that can cause injury. Hearing protection will protect the eardrums of the shooter and those nearby. These can be inexpensive foam earplugs or more costly hearing protectors that have a Noise Reduction Rating or NRR. The higher the NRR number the better. Eye protection should be worn at all times while shooting or observing other shooters. Their impact-resistant lenses protect against bullet fragments, stray bits of gunpowder, and other debris.
The advantage of pistols over revolvers lies in the somewhat faster reloading of magazines that carry more bullets that a revolver's five or six rounds. This is why most police and military organizations use pistols. Also, pistols are often thinner and can be worn concealed better than revolvers. Pistols are generally regarded as being safer than revolvers. A revolver can fire accidentally if dropped. A pistol rarely fires if dropped. A common feature of pistols is a lever called a safety. The safety prevents the pistol from firing even if the trigger is pulled. To fire a pistol, first remove (turn to the off position) the safety.
Pistols have a few disadvantages when compared to revolvers. They are more complicated and have more moving parts. A pistol may use heavier springs that younger and elderly shooters may find difficult to use.
Modern pistols usually only fire one shot every time you pull the trigger. Some special pistols, called machine pistols, can fire more than one shot at a time. Some famous pistols are the Colt M1911 and the Beretta 92.
Pistols were not often used in the western United States during the 1800s. They used revolvers. The first successful pistol being used then was the Borchardt C-93. It was designed in 1893, and became available in 1894.
Submachine gun
A submachine gun is a type of gun that shoots many bullets, usually pistol bullets, when one holds down the trigger. A submachine gun is smaller than a machine gun and can easily be carried by one person. They are often used where people need to defend themselves in small areas, or people need to fire many bullets quickly. The first submachine guns were invented in the early 1900s. They are often used by the police and counter-terrorism units .
In the early 20th century, experiments were made by converting pistols from semi to fully automatic firearms. Stocked (with handle) automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed around the same time during World War I, by Italy, Germany, and the United States. The first dedicated designs were developed in the latter stages of World War I both as improvements on earlier stocked pistols, and to offer an advantage in trench warfare.
They were popularized in the 1920s and '30s as weapon of choice of American gangsters and police, in the form of the famous Thompson submachine gun, commonly referred to as the "Tommy Gun". Submachine guns rose to prominence as a frontline close-quarters combat weapon and commando firearm during World War II. They are now widely used by police SWAT, military commando, paramilitary, and counter-terror team members for a variety of situations.
Submachine guns are highly effective in close quarters; their lower-powered pistol cartridges make them generally more controllable in fully-automatic fire compared to assault rifles, while their small size and light weight grant maneuverability. However, pistol bullets often are stopped by body armor or cover, and are short-ranged compared to intermediate and rifle cartridges.
World War II developments were many and interesting. In Germany the development of machine carbines ("Maschinenkarabiner") was notable. From 1939 onwards the German Army analyzed combat conditions and developed new tactics and equipment requirements. The existing 7.92x57mm rifle cartridge was more powerful and long ranged than needed. Most combat took place at ranges less than 400 m (440 yards). A less powerful round (bullet) could be used. This meant a soldier could carry more ammunition, the weapon could be shorter, lighter and with less recoil. The gun could be an automatic.
Achieving this took time. Work in 1941 and 1942 led at last to a reliable weapon, the StG 44 (Sturmgewehr 44) "assault rifle 44". This was then produced in large numbers (over 600,000). It came too late to effect the Second World War, but was later adapted as the Soviet AK 47.
Elena V. Pitjeva
Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a Russian theoretical physicist at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She is noted for her work on ephemerides and is currently head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy at the Institute of Applied Astronomy. Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union Commission 4: Ephemerides.
Pitjeva earned her undergraduate degree from the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics at A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University in 1972 in the specialty of astronomy. She earned an M.A. in theoretical physics in 1994 and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 2005. She was a student of Professor G.A. Krasinski.
Socialist Reich Party
The Socialist Reich Party of Germany (German: "Sozialistische Reichspartei Deutschlands") was a political party in West Germany. It was formed in 1949.
It was openly Neo-Nazi and admired Hitler. It split from the German Empire Party. Leaders included Otto Ernst Remer, a former Major General, and Fritz Dorls.
The SRP claimed West Germany's first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer only did what the United States told, and that Karl Dönitz was the last legal of Germany.
The SRP also said that the Holocaust never happened, and that the ovens of the Dachau concentration camp were built by the United States after 1945. The SRP also wanted Europe to be led by a reunited German Reich, and that it would not be capitalist or communist.
The SRP never criticised the Soviet Union because the Russians funded the SRP because it was anti-American. The only other party modern in postwar Germany was the Communist Party of Germany. It did not get Soviet funds because the Russians thought it was useless. SRP leader Remer once said that if the USSR ever did invade Germany, he would "show the Russians the way to the Rhine".
The SRP had its own paramilitary organisation, the Reichsfront.
The SRP had about ten thousand members and it won 16 seats in the Lower Saxony Landtag election, and 8 seats Bremen.
It was banned in 1952 by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the only court with the power to do so.
International Fight League
The International Fight League was an American mixed martial arts (MMA) league and is the world's first MMA league. It was founded on January 7, 2006 and closed on July 31, 2008.
Instead of the established norm for MMA events, where matchups are strictly one-on-one affairs, each IFL card was a showdown between two teams of five fighters, each fighter fighting one match against another on the opposing team. The IFL was shown in the United States on Fox Sports Net and MyNetworkTV.
Anton Chekhov
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (January 29, 1860 - July 15, 1904) was a Russian writer who wrote short stories and plays.
Anton Chekhov was born in Taganrog, which is a city in Russia. His father, Pavel, was the owner of a grocery store. His mother, Yevgeniya, sometimes told Anton stories about her childhood.
In 1876, Chekhov's father went bankrupt. From then on, Chekhov's family was very poor. Anton Chekhov had to pay for his own education. He paid for it by tutoring (teaching) other students, catching birds and selling them, and writing short stories for newspapers. When he had extra money, he sent it to his family. While he was at school, he read many books by famous authors, for example Miguel de Cervantes and Arthur Schopenhauer.
In 1879, Chekhov went to Moscow University.
While he was at Moscow University, Chekhov wrote many short stories to pay for his schooling and to help his family. In 1886, one of the most famous newspapers in Russia, "New Times", asked him to write stories for them. Soon, his stories started to get famous, and other writers read his work and liked it. He wrote a book of stories called "At Dusk" that won the Pushkin Prize, an award for good writing.
In 1887, Chekhov wrote a play called "Ivanov". Chekhov did not like the play, but critics loved it.
In 1890, Chekhov went to Sakhalin Island, a penal colony (prison). He talked to many prisoners and found out that they were treated very badly. The prisoners were often beaten. There were also children there. He was angry, and wrote about it in a book called "The Island Of Sakhalin" and in a short story called "The Murder".
In 1892, he bought a house and some land near Moscow called Melikhovo. While he was there, he helped the people who lived nearby. He brought them food and clothing, and medicine when they were sick. Since he was trained as a doctor, he knew how to take care of them.
While at Melikhovo, he started to write a play called "The Seagull". When it was first performed, it went very badly, and the audience did not like it. Later, it was performed at another theater, the Moscow Art Theater, where the performances went better. Soon after this, he had another play performed, called "Uncle Vanya". He later wrote two more great plays: "Three Sisters" and "The Cherry Orchard". All four plays are still often performed today.
In 1897, he became sick. Doctors told him that he had tuberculosis, a lung disease, and that he should change his life to be healthier. He moved to Yalta and bought a house there. In 1901 he married a woman named Olga Knipper. At Yalta, he wrote some of his most famous stories, including a story called "The Lady With The Dog".
By 1904, Chekhov was very sick. He died on the 15th of July in Germany. Thousands of people were very sad when he died. He was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery.
Chekhov influenced many important writers, including George Bernard Shaw, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. His short stories are still read by many people around the world.
Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative
Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative ( or WASG) was a German political party founded in 2005 by people who did not like the Social Democratic-Green government.
On June 16, 2007 it merged with The Left Party.PDS to form the a party The Left ("Die Linke") party. At the time of its merger with The Left Party.PDS about 11,600 people were members.
Deutsche Reichspartei
The Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP) ("German Reich Party", "German Imperial Party" or "German Empire Party") was a nationalist political party in West Germany. It was a merger of the German Conservative Party - Deutsche Right Party (DKP-DRP) and the old Hessian Nationaldemokratischen Partei (NDP).
Some of the DRP's founders were: Alexander Andrae, Oskar Lutz, Hans Bernd von Grünberg, Wilhelm Meinberg, Otto Heß, Hans Schikora, Heinrich Kunstmann, Adolf von Thadden.
In 1949 the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP) split from the DRP. This was because the Empire Party was not neo-Nazi, and did not want to be associated with Adolf Hitler. Instead the party preferred to say how good the Second German Empire (1870-1919) was.
The Deutsche Reichspartei did become more national socialist after 1952. This is when the Sozialistische Reichspartei was banned by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany and a lot of its members re-joined the Empire Party.
The party was not very successful in the 1950s, but seemed to be getting more popular after the state elections of 1959. But the success did not last, and the party held its final conference in 1964 when it was dissolved. It was quickly replaced by the new Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands.
Fukuoka Prefecture
The area of Fukuoka Prefecture includes the old provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen.
Fukuoka Prefecture faces the sea on three sides. The prefecture borders Saga, Ōita, and Kumamoto prefectures. Fukuoka is near Yamaguchi Prefecture across the Kanmon Straits.
Fukuoka includes the two largest cities on Kyūshū, Fukuoka and Kitakyūshū. Small islands are near the north coast of the prefecture.
There are 28 cities in the prefecture:
These are the towns and villages in each district of the prefecture
National Parks are established in about 18% of the total land area of the prefecture.
"Kōra taisha", "Sumiyoshi-jinja", "Hakosagi-gū" and "Usa-jinjū" are the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") in the prefecture.
Evening Prayer (Anglican)
Evening Prayer (often called Evensong), in the Anglican Church, is the traditional service when people come to church to worship in the late afternoon or early evening. In cathedrals in Britain and in some of the old university chapels it is a service that is sung by a choir nearly every day of the week (there is usually one day of the week when there is no choir and everything is spoken). In cathedrals it is usually just the choir and the priests who sing, while the congregation listen. There is sometimes one hymn at the end in which the congregation can join in. Evensong in churches will have more singing for the congregation to join in.
The form of Evensong used today was developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16th century. There were two kinds of services, called "vespers" and "compline" that used to be sung every day by monks in monasteries. Cranmer took some of the words that were used in both these services and made today's form of Evening Prayer (Evensong).
The main idea in Evensong is the celebration of the incarnation of Christ: this is the story about Christ coming to the world in the form of a person and living among people. The words of the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis are always used in the service. The Magnificat is the song that Mary sang when she was told that she was going to have a baby who would be God’s son. The Nunc Dimittis is the song that was sung by the priest Simeon who had been promised by God that he would live long enough to see Jesus. Both these sets of words are from the New Testament.
Many churches now use the words from "Common Worship" or some other modern prayer book for their services. However, when Evensong is sung by a choir the words used are usually from the old traditional "Book of Common Prayer" (1662). This is because, for more than four centuries, so much great music has been composed that uses these words.
Because there is no communion at evensong, the service can be led by a layperson (someone who is not a “qualified” priest).
An evensong service will consist of the following:
The organist usually plays some organ music before and after the service. On Sundays there may be a sermon.
In churches the Magnificat and the Nunc dimittis (canticles), like the psalm, are often sung to a chant. This is a tune which repeats itself for every verse or every two verses and is sung to the natural rhythm in which it would be spoken. In cathedrals, or in churches with a good choir, the two canticles are sung to special music (like an anthem) composed by some well-known composer. There is usually an organ accompaniment.
Many composers, especially Anglican church composers, wrote settings (music) for these two canticles (which choir members often called “Mag and Nunc”). Such composers include Edward Bairstow, Herbert Brewer, Orlando Gibbons, Herbert Howells, Henry Purcell, Charles Stanford, Herbert Sumsion, Thomas Tallis, Thomas Weelkes, Samuel Wesley and many others. Some of the composers wrote several settings. This is why different settings are often identified by the key they are in, e.g. Stanford in G, Stanford in C etc. Sometimes they can be identified by the cathedral for which they were written. Herbert Howells, for example, wrote Mag and Nunc settings for several cathedrals and chapels. These can be identified by calling them: Howells’ Gloucester Service, Collegium Regale (=King’s College, Cambridge) etc.
In a sung evensong the choir will also sing an "introit" which is a very short piece at the beginning of the service. They will sing a psalm to a chant, and there will also be an anthem.
Regierender Bürgermeister
The Regierender Bürgermeister () of Berlin is the head of government of the city. The Governing Mayor is the equivalent of the Minister President of the bigger States of Germany.
The Regierender Bürgermeister is elected by the Abgeordentenhaus (). He then appoints up to eight Senators. The Senators are ministers in charge of the departments of the city government. Two of the senators are also Mayors. The Mayors are the deputies of the Governing Mayor.
Alice in Chains is a popular alternative rock band that formed in Seattle, Washington in 1987. They have sold an estimated 15 million albums in the US alone. Alice in Chains is sometimes thought of as a heavy metal band, but is mostly considered a grunge band.
The band's first lead singer, Layne Staley, became addicted to drugs. He often wrote about drug addiction in his lyrics. He died in Seattle in April 2002 after a fatal drug overdose. William DuVall took over as the lead singer in 2006.
Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk
Ricardo Stiehl (22 August 1887 – 4 March 1977) was a German politician.
Johann Ludwig von Krosigk was born in Rathmannsdorf, in the Kingdom of Saxony. His father was from a noble family in Anhalt, his mother was a daughter of one of the Counts ("Graf") von Schwerin. He studied law and politics in Halle, in Lausanne and, as a Rhodes Scholar, at the University of Oxford.
He became a Lieutenant in the German Army during World War I, and he won the Iron Cross. In 1918, Krosigk married Baroness Ehrengard von Plettenberg. They had four sons and five daughters.
Schwerin von Krosigkut was a conservative, but not a member of any political party when was appointed Minister of Finance by Franz von Papen in 1932. President Paul von Hindenburg asked him to stay in office under Kurt von Schleicher. Hitler kept him as finance minister throughout the period of Nazi Party rule, even though several members of his family took part in attempts to kill Hitler.
On 1 May 1945, Schwerin von Krosigk was asked to be the Chancellor ("Reichskanzler") of the Acting Government by new President ("Reichspräsident") Karl Dönitz.
On 7 May 1945, Dönitz allowed the German Army to surrender at Rheims before General Eisenhower.
Winston Churchill recognised the Flensburg Government de facto because he said the surrender was allowed by "Grand Admiral Dönitz the designated Head of State". The government was dissolved when its members were captured by British forces on 23 May 1945, at Flensburg.
Schwerin von Krosigk was tried at Ministries Trial at Nuremberg along with other leading members of the Nazi Government. Schwerin von Krosigk was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment but was released during an amnesty in 1951.
In later years Schwerin von Krosigk wrote several books about economics policy and two versions of his memoirs.
He was one of the first to talk about an "Iron Curtain" coming down across Europe, in a broadcast to the German people on 2 May 1945, a phrase which he had picked up from an article by Joseph Goebbels, and later used by Winston Churchill in a speech that made the phrase famous.
Schwerin von Krosigk died in 1977 in the town of Essen, Germany, aged 89.
Cockney Rejects
East End of London
The East End of London, known locally as the East End, generally means the area of central London, England, east of the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames. It is cheaper to live in than the West End, so it has had many immigrants over the years, including Huguenot, Irish, Jews and more recently Bengalis.
Suidae
Trdat of Iberia
T'rdat (Georgian: თრდატი), sometimes Latinized as "Tiridates", of the Chosroid Dynasty, was the king of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) from c. 394 to 406.
Georgian chronicles have said that he is the son of Rev, son of Mirian III, the first Christian king of Iberia. He is reported to have succeeded by his relative and son-in-law, Varaz-Bakur II, and to have been forced to pay tribute to the Sasanids of Iran. The chronicles praise his piety and credit Trdat with the construction of churches at Rustavi and Nekresi.
The Nutcracker is a classical ballet in two acts. It is based on E.T.A. Hoffmann's 1816 fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King". It tells the story of a little girl who goes to the Land of Sweets on Christmas Eve. Ivan Vsevolozhsky and Marius Petipa adapted Hoffmann's story for the ballet. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote the music. Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov designed the dances. "The Nutcracker" was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, on 18 December 1892 to a modest success and rarely seen the next years.
In 1940, Walt Disney used some of the "Nutcracker" music in his animated movie "Fantasia", which led to an interest in the ballet. Interest grew when George Balanchine's "The Nutcracker" was televised in the late 1950s. The ballet has been performed in many different places since then. Before the first performance, Tchaikovsky took some numbers from the ballet to form the "Nutcracker Suite". This work was a great success on the concert stage, and is still played today.
The origin of "The Nutcracker" has its roots in the great success of "The Sleeping Beauty" ballet. This ballet was staged at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1890. It was the work of the director of the Imperial Theatres in St. Petersburg, Ivan Vsevolozhsky; the composer, Tchaikovsky; and the choreographer, Marius Petipa. Vsevolozsky thought another ballet based on a children's story would be just as successful as "The Sleeping Beauty".
He picked Hoffmann's 1816 fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" as the subject for the new ballet. This story was loved by Russians. He wrote an adaptation of Hoffmann's story based on the Alexandre Dumas translation. He dropped much of the original. Petipa adapted Vsevolozsky's story to the requirements of ballet. Vsevolozsky then pressured Tchaikovsky into writing the music for the ballet. Tchaikovsky did not like the adaptation of Hoffmann's story, but he agreed to write the music.
Petipa designed the dances. He gave Tchaikovsky special directions about how the music was to be written. For example, he wanted a great "crescendo" of 48 bars as the Christmas tree rose higher and higher in Act 1. He wrote that the music for the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" should sound like drops of water splashing in a fountain.
In March 1892 the music was almost complete. Tchaikovsky took the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy", the "Waltz of the Flowers", and other numbers from the ballet to form the 20-minute "Nutcracker Suite". It was first played for the Russian Musical Society. The organization's members loved it. "Nutcracker Suite" is still played today.
Tchaikovsky completed the music for the ballet in April 1892. Rehearsals started in September 1892. Petipa fell ill and his assistant Lev Ivanov completed the dances. The ballet was first performed on 18 December 1892 at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. Tchaikovsky's one-act opera "Iolanta" was played before the curtain rose on "The Nutcracker". The run ended in 1893 after eleven performances.
In 1919, choreographer Alexander Gorsky staged a production. He cut out the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier, and gave their dances to Clara and the Nutcracker Prince. They were now played by adults instead of children. A shortened version of the ballet was first performed outside Russia in Budapest's Royal Opera House in 1927.
In 1934, Vasili Vainonen, choreographer of the Kirov Ballet, staged a version of the work which was also influenced by the criticisms of the original production. He also cast adult dancers in the roles of Clara and the Prince, as Gorsky had. The Vainonen version influenced several later productions. Knowledge of the choreography spread because many dancers went to the west after the Russian Revolution.
The first complete performance outside Russia took place in England in 1934. It was staged by Nicholas Sergeyev at the Vic-Wells Ballet. It used a version of Petipa's original choreography. Annual performances of the ballet have been staged there since 1952.
The ballet takes place in Germany in the early 19th century. The curtain rises on a Christmas Eve party in the Silberhaus home. Guests arrive. The children get their presents, then dance about the room.
The door opens. A strange little man named Drosselmeyer comes into the room. He is a toy-maker. He is also Clara Silberhaus's godfather. He has four dancing dolls for the children and a special surprise for Clara. It is a nutcracker. She loves it, but her brother Fritz accidentally breaks it. She places the Nutcracker in her doll bed to get well.
The party ends and everyone leaves. Clara and her family go to bed. Clara creeps back to the room. She needs to be certain her Nutcracker is resting quietly. All of a sudden, mice start running about the room. The dolls, the tin soldiers, and all the other playthings come to life to fight the mice.
The Christmas tree rises higher and higher. The Nutcracker jumps out of the doll bed to fight the Mouse King. When the Nutcracker is in danger, Clara saves his life by throwing her slipper at the Mouse King. The Mouse King runs out of the room with all the other mice.
The Nutcracker becomes a human prince. Clara and the Nutcracker Prince set off through the snowy woods for the magical Land of Sweets. The beautiful Sugar Plum Fairy rules this land. She welcomes the two children then orders her subjects to dance for them. Dances about Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate are presented. Many other dances are presented. The ballet ends with everyone dancing a waltz.
Act I: Tableau 1
""'Act I: Tableau 2
Act II: Tableau 3
Criticism of the ballet was mixed. A portion thought of it to be a noble composition, with exemplary themes and emotion, however many thought otherwise. Russian balletomanes liked expert adult dancers and the large cast of children was critically attacked. One person complained that the ballet was "produced with children for children." Even the adult dancers came under fire. One person, for example, thought the dancer playing the doll in Act 1 was "nice" while another person thought she was "insipid".
One critic complained that the ballet was in bad taste because characters in Act 2 looked like food from a pastry shop. Another complained that Ivanov's "Waltz of the Snowflakes" was taken from ballets by Petipa. Tchaikovsky however thought that the staging was very beautiful, so much so that his eyes grew tired looking at it.
Some people were surprised that Tchaikovsky had anything to do with the ballet. They thought "The Nutcracker" was foolish. They were embarrassed that the great composer had had a hand in it. On the first night however, Czar Alexander III called Tchaikovsky before him in the royal box to congratulate him on the music.
The newspapers were divided on the ballet's value. The "St. Petersburg Gazette" wrote "this ballet is the most tedious thing ever seen ... a long way from what ballet music should be." The "St. Petersburg News-sheet" wrote, "It is hard to say which number is the greatest, for everything from start to finish is beautiful." "The New Age" wrote that Tchaikovsky's orchestral writing was the work of genius. A ballet lover thought "The Nutcracker" was the greatest of the three ballets Tchaikovsky had written.
The ballet's initial run ended in January 1893. When the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917, many ballet dancers were put out of work. They went to Europe. They talked to their new friends in Europe about "The Nutcracker". Some selections were performed here and there. In 1940 Walt Disney used some of the music in his movie "Fantasia". In 1944 the Nutcracker was staged at the San Francisco Ballet by William Christensen, the 'very first full-length' on Christmas Eve. W.Christensen was called the grandfather of American Ballet, born (1902-2001) in Brigham City, Utah. He had established the San Francisco Ballet in 1938. Later he founded the ballet department to the University of Utah in 1951, the first of its kind, and Ballet West in 1963. Mr. C's creation has an 75th Anniversary during the 2019-2020 season. In 1954 George Balanchine staged "The Nutcracker" in New York City. People liked it. When it was aired on television in 1957 and 1958, the ballet became more famous than ever. Balanchine's television "Nutcracker" had enough fun in it for people who had not seen a ballet, and enough dancing in it to please the ballet lovers who watched it. In the 1960s small ballet companies started producing "The Nutcracker" because it could make a lot of money and, in doing so, keep the company in business.
Today, "The Nutcracker" has been staged and seen by many people all over the world. Jennifer Fisher points out that it is "the most popular and most often [staged] ballet in the world." In North America, it is a yearly event in many places. Parents and children take part in staging the ballet and dancing in it. Trained ballerinas dance side by side with children who are only learning to dance. Parents work on costumes and sets. Local celebrities take small walk-on parts.
There have been many adaptations of the ballet over the years. In the United States, for example, there are hula, tap dance, reggae, wheelchair, dance-along, ice, and drag versions. In Canada, there have been hockey adaptations. Products such as Nutcracker dolls, soaps, foods, and clothing are sold in theatres before the show.
Ballet lovers question the present day dumbing-down (oversimplification) of "The Nutcracker" to make it accessible to the masses. The reasons the ballet was originally disliked in Russia (the many child dancers, the uneven story) seem to be the reasons the ballet has become such a great success in North America. Americans like seeing their children on stage and the story is very much like the rags-to-riches stories Americans love. Some people though complain about the stereotypes of children in Act 1 (boys are naughty, girls are nice) and also about the stereotypes of Arabians and the Chinese in Act 2.
Tchaikovsky wrote "The Nutcracker" for an orchestra of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. To this orchestra he added a "celesta" for the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" in Act 2 and children's instrumentsdrums, trumpets, cymbals, bird calls, whistles, and a rattlefor the Christmas party in Act 1. The instruments were specially ordered and tuned to Tchaikovsky's orders. The rattle is heard in the orchestra pit when Fritz cracks nuts in Act 1, and the other instruments are heard when the boys make a lot of noise while Clara comforts the broken Nutcracker.
Tchaikovsky hoped that the children would play the instruments on the stage, but they had difficulty keeping together with the orchestra. Because of the difficulty the children had, Tchaikovsky made the decision that they could play freely. He did not ask them to keep with the written music. After the first night, Tchaikovsky sent his thanks and baskets of sweets to the children of the Imperial Ballet School.
The Sugar Plum Fairy is a character in "The Nutcracker". The Sugar Plum Fairy only dances in Act 2 of the ballet. Clara falls asleep, and the second act could be seen as Clara's dream. Roland John Wiley however, thinks that the second act is a reality shaped by Drosselmeyer. The Sugar Plum Fairy is the ruler of the Land of Sweets. She welcomes the Nutcracker Prince and his love Clara to her land and orders the festivities. The character is danced by a "prima ballerina" (principal dancer), though she has little dancing to do. She is joined by a male dancer for a "pas de deux" near the end of the ballet. Her number in this "pas de deux" is called "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy".
The "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" is one of the most famous numbers in "The Nutcracker". It was written for the "celesta". This instrument was new at the time the dance was written. It looks like a small piano, but it sounds like bells. Tchaikovsky discovered the "celesta" in Paris in 1891 while making a journey to the United States. His publisher purchased one and promised to keep the purchase a secret. Tchaikovsky did not want Rimsky-Korsakov or Glazunov to "get wind of it and ... use it for unusual (different, strange) effects before me." Petipa wanted the Sugar Plum Fairy's music to sound like drops of water splashing in a fountain. Tchaikovsky thought the "celesta" was the instrument to do this. The original steps for the dance are unknown. Antonietta Dell'Era was the first to dance the part of the Sugar Plum Fairy. The character has very little dancing to do so Dell'Era put a gavotte by Alphonse Czibulka into the ballet. She then had something more to do.
In his biography about Tchaikovsky John Warrack points out that the ballet's greatest weakness is its story. It did not permit Tchaikovsky to musically develop the ballet in the manner of "Swan Lake" or "The Sleeping Beauty". What few symphonic passages exist in the ballet (mostly in Act 1) are not the best Tchaikovsky wrote. Warrack thinks that the "essential nature" of the ballet is found in the separate numbers. Tchaikovsky knew this when he put together the "Nutcracker Suite" to promote the complete ballet. Because the story was so weak and did not permit symphonic development, Tchaikovsky indulged his taste for "prettiness" in the separate numbers. This is what makes "The Nutcracker", according to Warrack, an "entertainment of genius".
In the biography "Tchaikovsky", writer David Brown points out that Tchaikovsky was not happy with "The Nutcracker" and complained to his friends about the difficulty of setting the tale to music. Brown asks why Tchaikovsky would ever let himself be persuaded to accept the story as the subject for a ballet. He points out that "Swan Lake" and "The Sleeping Beauty" were "dramatically meaty and deeply serious" while "The Nutcracker" was "trite ... [and] pointless." The ballet has no true culmination he writes. He then asks, "What was it all about anyway? "The Nutcracker" is meaningless in the profoundest sense." He decides that the ballet is the "most inconsequential" of all the composer's mature works for theatre, and "its dramatic structure the least satisfactory." While Brown never gives his approval to "The Nutcracker", he thinks Tchaikovsky did a remarkable job despite the "appalling limitations of the subject."
Kingdom of Sophene
The Kingdom of Sophene (Armenian: Ծոփքի Թագավորութուն) was an ancient Armenian kingdom. Found sometime around the 3rd century B.C. the kingdom stayed independent until 90's B.C. when Tigranes the great conquered these territories as part of his empire.
The first records show that it was part of Urartu, later it became a province of the Armenian Kingdom around 600 BC.
Lady Katherine Grey
Lady Katherine Grey (25 August 1540 – 26 January 1568) was the sister to Lady Jane Grey and Lady Mary Grey. Her mother was Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey, who were Marquess and Marchioness of Dorset and later Duke and Duchess of Suffolk.
Katherine (also spelled Catherine) was born in 1540 to Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey. Her parents were disappointed that she was a girl. However, Frances treated Katherine better than she treated her sister, Lady Jane Grey. Little is known about Katherine's early life before 1550.
Katherine was married at the age of twelve to Henry Herbert in May of 1553. It was the same day her elder sister, Jane, was married to Guildford Dudley. Katherine's sister Jane was queen of England for nine days before Mary became Queen. Because of this, Katherine's marriage to Herbert was annulled (or divorce).
Katherine was considered even more beautiful than her sister Jane. She was a little short, but she had a delicate appearance. She had shining red-gold hair and her grandmother Mary Tudor's blue eyes. She also had white skin and no freckles, unlike her sister Jane.
Unlike her sister Jane, Katherine was not as smart and did not like her studies as much. She preferred playing with her pet dogs and birds.
Katherine said that her life at Queen Mary's court was the best time of her life. She met her future husband during these years and received money from Mary every year. Mary's sister, Elizabeth, did not like Katherine much. She distrusted her and did not wish to see her married. Katherine had other plans.
In December 1560, she married Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford without Elizabeth I's permission. They planned to keep it a secret for a long time. However, Katherine became pregnant quickly and by July of the next year, she could not hold her secret any longer. She first tried to get help from Bess of Hardwick, but Bess screamed at Katherine and made her go away. Then she went to see Elizabeth's great favorite, Robert Dudley. He listened to Katherine but promised nothing. The next day he told Elizabeth everything. Elizabeth was angry with this and put both Edward and Katherine in prison. She gave birth to a son in the Tower of London. The child's name was Edward.
Later, she gave birth to another son, also in the Tower of London. This made Elizabeth even more angry since Katherine was not supposed to see Edward. The couple would not see each other again after the birth. Katherine soon got tuberculosis, and died in January 1568. She is buried in Cockfield Chapel.
Elongation
Elongation is an astronomical term that describes the angle between the Sun and a planet, as viewed from Earth.
When an inferior planet (Mercury or Venus) is visible after sunset, it is near its greatest eastern elongation. When an inferior planet is visible before sunrise, it is near its greatest western elongation. The value of the greatest elongation (west or east), for Mercury, is between 18° and 28°; and for Venus between 45° and 47°. This value varies because the orbits of the planets are elliptical, rather than perfect circles.
Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)
Conjunction is a word used in astronomy and astrology. It means that, as seen from some place (usually the Earth), two celestial bodies appear near one another in the sky. The event is also sometimes known as an appulse.
The astronomical and astrological symbol of conjunction is ☌(in Unicode x260c) and handwritten:
Opposition (astronomy and astrology)
Opposition is a word used in observational astronomy (and also astrology). It is used when two objects in the sky are on the opposite side of the sky when viewed from the Earth.
In particular, two planets are in opposition to each other when their ecliptic longitudes differ by 180°. When talking about a single object being in opposition, it is assumed to be opposite from the sun.
The Moon is in opposition to the Sun when it is a full moon.
The symbol of opposition is ☍.
A planet (or asteroid or comet) is said to be "in opposition" when it is in opposition to the Sun as seen from the Earth. This is the best time to observe a planet because:
Ophiuchus
Ophiuchus (Οφιούχος: say it 'Ofi-youkus'), is one of the 88 listed constellations. In Latin, it means "serpent-holder". It is near the celestial equator, and northwest of the center of the Milky Way. Ophiuchus is on the ecliptic, but is generally not considered to be in the zodiac. Its brightest star is Rasalhague.
The Voyager 1 probe is within the borders of Ophiuchus.
George Boleyn
George Boleyn (1504? - May 17 1536) was the brother of his famous sister Anne Boleyn and his other sister Mary Boleyn. His parents were Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard.
George was born in 1504, probably in Blickling, although it is unsure. George Boleyn was well known for serving the King (Henry VIII ), he was most favored by him. His sister, Anne, became queen because of the help of his Uncle (The Duke of Norfolk) and his Father (Thomas Boleyn). His two sisters, Anne Boleyn (Second wife of Henry VIII), and Mary Boleyn (Mistress of the King) were his only two friends. They spent much time together. He married Jane Parker, also known as Lady Jane Rochford. He was not happy with his marriage, he was only engaged to her by their Uncle. As a Boleyn/Howard (Howard, Mothers maiden name) he had to obey. His obedience towards his family made him unhappy. He refused to sleep with his wife, so instead spent many nights with his sisters in Anne's rooms. Mary would be there, for she was Anne's lady in waiting. All three of the Boleyns were very close.
George Boleyn had a very close relationship with his sister Anne. He was also close with his other sister, but Mary focused more on her family with her husband (William Stafford). George and Anne's downfall happened when Henry VIII accused them of incest. Mary Boleyn was not with them at the time of their exile. She chose to hide because of her children. If she had not hidden herself, she too would have been killed. It was likely a false charge by Henry VIII so he could get rid of Anne Boleyn. George's wife claimed that George and Anne had an affair. At her own execution, Lady Jane Rochford claimed that "God has permitted me to suffer this shameful doom as punishment for having contributed to my husband's death. I falsely accused him of loving in an incestuous manner, his sister, Queen Anne Boleyn. For this I deserve to die."
Tsitsernakaberd
Mary Boleyn
Mary Boleyn (about 1499 – 19 July 1543) was the older sister of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII. They had a brother named George Boleyn. There have been many stories and books about Mary Boleyn, so historians are not sure what is true about her.
Mary was born some time between 1500 and 1507 at Blickling Hall in Norfolk. Her parents were Sir Thomas Boleyn and Lady Elizabeth Howard. While her parents had her sister Anne educated at the court of Margaret of Austria, Mary was probably educated at home. She had a well-rounded education for a woman in the 1500s. Among Mary's other skills, she could speak French.
In 1514, Mary's father got her a job as maid of honor to Mary Tudor, the sister of King Henry VIII. Mary Tudor was going to be married to King Louis XII of France. Mary and the other maids traveled with Mary Tudor to France, where Mary Tudor was married. Only a few months after the wedding, however, King Louis died and Francis I became king. Mary Tudor went back to England but Mary Boleyn stayed in France.