AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A chisel is a tool like a short stick of iron. The end of the chisel is sharp to cut.
Iron is one of the 92 natural elements.
Steel is iron with a little carbon in it (0.3% to 1.7% carbon by weight).
All metals get harder when a smith hammers or bends them. This is called "work-hardening". If a smith hammers or bends a piece of metal that is already work-hardened, it will crack and break. To make work-hardened metal soft again, so that a smith can hammer and bend it more, the smith anneals the metal.
To "anneal" iron or steel, a blacksmith heats the metal until it no longer pulls a magnet, and then makes the metal become cold very slowly. Blacksmiths can cover the hot metal with sand, so that it takes hours to become cold. This makes iron or steel very soft.
Steel acts just like iron, until a blacksmith "heat-treats" the steel. This is a special way to make the steel hot and then cold, so that the steel will become hard enough to keep a cutting edge (blade). A blade made from a piece of iron (instead of steel) will very soon become dull and will not cut. Good blades (for knives, chisels, axes, and other tools with cutting edges) are always made of steel, then heat-treated, and then sharpened.
To heat-treat steel, a blacksmith heats the steel until it no longer pulls a magnet, then makes the steel become cold very quickly. A blacksmith does this by putting the hot steel into a bucket of water and moving it around until it is cold. This is called "quenching". When this is finished, the steel will be as hard as it can be. This hardness can make it brittle, so if someone hits or drops it, it can break like glass.
The next step is to "draw the temper" or "temper" the steel, so that it will not break like glass. To temper steel, a blacksmith polishes a part of the steel so that it is smooth and shiny. The blacksmith then slowly heats the steel in the fire. When the steel is between , the polished steel will turn different colors. These colors do not glow in the dark; they look like dye on the polished steel. As the steel gets hotter from 300 to 650 degrees F, it will turn through the colors: yellow, then brown, then purple, then blue. Yellow means the steel will still be harder, blue means the steel will be softer (but still hard). When the steel turns the color that the blacksmith wants, he puts the steel into a bucket of water to stop the change. Different tools are tempered to different colors, but it also depends on how much carbon there is in the steel. Usually, stone chisels are tempered to yellow, and axes for trees are tempered to blue, but the blacksmith has to decide.
A blacksmith does not hammer a blade edge thin. A blacksmith hammers the steel so that the edge stays thick. After the "heat-treat" and "temper", stones are used to grind the blade edge to make it sharp.
If a blacksmith has a piece of iron or steel, but does not know which one it is, the blacksmith can heat-treat it like steel. If it does not become hard, then it is not steel. Iron will show the same temper colors as steel, but it will not be hard.
If a blacksmith has an old steel tool, and wants to hammer it into a new different tool, the blacksmith anneals the steel. The steel will then be very soft like iron. The blacksmith can then hammer it into a new tool, and heat-treat and temper it, to make a new, hard steel tool.
A blacksmith must be careful when hammering hardened steel or work-hardened iron, because small pieces can break off and fly, and these can hurt his or her eyes. Many blacksmiths wear plastic safety glasses to keep their eyes safe.
The first blacksmiths were Hittites. They started working iron to make tools around 1500 BC. The ways that tools are made by blacksmiths have changed very little since then.
Around 1850, countries like the United States of America and the United Kingdom made new ways to make steel and tools in factories. Factories now make tools faster, and for less money than blacksmiths. There are now very few blacksmiths in countries that have a lot of factories.
The few blacksmiths that are still in countries with a lot of factories, make iron that is art. These blacksmiths make gates, stair rails, and chairs and tables for outdoors. People buy this iron as art, because each piece is different from the other pieces.
Caracas is the capital city of Venezuela. Santiago de Leòn de Losada founded the city in 1567. It is where Simon Bolivar was born. The city has nearly 6 million people, who live in the metropolitan area. Caracas is the center of the economical activity of the country and also hosts the main government offices of Venezuela.
After WW2 the city has experienced a huge growth, thanks to the oil revenues of the country. Nearly half a million Europeans immigrated to the city in the 1950s ( that had in those years only one million inhabitants) and so Caracas developed a typical western-European look in the new modern areas.
All the best teams of the sports done in Venezuela are concentrated in the metropolitan area of Caracas. Between those teams we have:
Many beautiful modern buildings can be seen in the city. Here there are some of them:
Homestar Runner
Homestar Runner, also called H*R, is an Internet cartoon that was made using Macromedia Flash. It usually gets updated every Monday (but, except for an update on April Fools' Day of 2014 and a few cartoons since, it has not been actively updated since December 2010) with a cartoon, a game, or a Strong Bad Email. The people that made the website are Mike Chapman and Matt Chapman. They are brothers and are called The Brothers Chaps. The cartoons on the website normally show Homestar Runner or Strong Bad, who are the main characters on the cartoon.
Telltale Games, the makers of video games based on the Sam & Max comic book, made a game called "Strong Bad's Cool Game for Attractive People" for Windows and the Wii's WiiWare. It's an episodic game with five episodes, and it is made with 3 dimensions instead of 2 dimensions like Homestar Runner is. The first episode was called "Homestar Ruiner", and ended with "8-Bit is Enough".
Horst Köhler
Horst Köhler (born 22 February 1943) is a German politician of the Christian Democratic Union. He was President of Germany from 2004 to 2010. He was the candidate of the two Christian Democratic sister parties, the CDU and the CSU, and the liberal FDP, for becoming President. Köhler was elected to his first five-year term by the Federal Assembly on 23 May 2004. He was reelected to a second term on 23 May 2009. About one year later, on 31 May 2010, he resigned from his office in a controversy over his comment on the role of the Bundeswehr in light of a visit to the troops in Afghanistan.
Köhler is an economist by profession. Prior to his election as President, Köhler had a career in politics, the civil service and as a banking executive. He was President of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from 1998 to 2000. He also served as the head of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 2000 to 2004.
Although the office of President is less influential than that of the Chancellor and is mostly concerned with ceremonial matters, Köhler was a highly popular politician during his term. He has called for more influence for the President and has suggested the President should be directly elected. This was the case under Germany's Weimar Constitution.
Köhler was born in Skierbieszów (later named Heidenstein), in the General Government area of German-occupied Poland. He was the seventh child of Elisabeth and Eduard Köhler. His family were Bessarabian Germans from Rîşcani in Romanian Bessarabia (near Bălţi, present-day Moldova). Horst Köhler's parents had to leave their home in Bessarabia in 1940. As part of the Generalplan Ost, they were resettled in 1942 at Skierbieszów. This was a village near Zamość, Poland (then part of the General Government). When the Wehrmacht was pushed back during World War Two, the Köhler family fled to Leipzig. In 1953, they left the Soviet Zone to escape from the communist regime. The family lived in refugee camps until 1957. Then, they settled in Ludwigsburg. Horst Köhler hence spent most of his first 14 years as a refugee.
A teacher proposed that the refugee boy should apply for the Gymnasium. Köhler took his "Abitur" in 1963. After a two-year military service at a Panzergrenadier battalion in Ellwangen, he left the Bundeswehr as reserve officer. He studied and finally earned a doctorate in economics and political sciences from University of Tübingen. There, he was a scientific research assistant at the Institute for Applied Economic Research from 1969 to 1976.
Köhler joined the civil service in 1976, when he was employed in the Federal Ministry of Economics. In 1981, he was employed in the Chancellery of the state government in Schleswig-Holstein. He served there under Prime Minister Gerhard Stoltenberg. In 1982, Köhler was made head of the Ministers office in the Federal Ministry of Finance. He rose to head of department in 1987, with responsibility for financial policy and federal industrial interests. In 1989, he became head of the department for currency and credit.
He is a member of the CDU since 1981. He was Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Finance from 1990 to 1993. In that capacity, he served as a "sherpa" (personal representative) for Chancellor Helmut Kohl, preparing G7. He also served as the primary German negotiator in the Maastricht Treaty negotiations.
Between 1993 and 1998 he served as President of the association of savings banks in Germany. In 1998, he was appointed president of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. He settled in London, where the headquarters of the bank is located.
Köhler was appointed managing Director and Chairman of the Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2000. The government of Gerhard Schröder nominated him. This was because their first nominee, Caio Koch-Weser, was rejected by the United States.
He lived in Washington, D.C., from 2000 to 2004.
On 4 March 2004, Köhler resigned his positions, because he was nominated as presidential candidate. Köhler defeated Gesine Schwan on the first ballot by 604 votes to 580. 20 votes were cast for minor candidates, while one elector was absent because of a heart attack. Köhler succeeded Johannes Rau as President on 1 July 2004, for a five-year term. Germany's presidency is a largely ceremonial office. However, it is also invested with considerable moral authority. From 2004 until early 2006, Charlottenburg Palace was the seat of the President of Germany. This was because Schloss Bellevue has been renovated.
Upon his election, Köhler said that "Patriotism and being cosmopolitan are not opposites". Presenting his visions for Germany, Köhler also said that "Germany should become a land of ideas".
In July 2005, he suspended the Bundestag at Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's request. Schröder had lost a motion of confidence in the Bundestag. This led to early election for the Bundestag in September 2005.
In October 2006, he made a far-reaching decision by vetoing a bill. It would transfer Germany's Air Safety Administration Deutsche Flugsicherung into private ownership. The Bundestag passed this legislation but as President, Köhler was authorized to not sign it into law if, in his opinion, it contravenes the constitution. In December 2006, he did not sign the Consumer Information Law, because the constitution does not allow the federal government to instruct municipal authorities. This can only be done by the German states. There had only been six previous occasions when Germany's president had chosen to reject bills. In most instances less important legislation was involved. His vetoes were the first notable examples in recent German history.
In his 2007 Christmas address to the nation, Köhler urged the government to push ahead more quickly with reforms. He was also critical of the introduction of the minimum wage in the postal sector, stating that "a minimum wage that can not be paid by competitive employers destroys jobs".
On 22 May 2008, Köhler said, that he wants to be the candidate for a second term as president. On 23 May 2009, he was re-elected by the Federal Assembly, and was sworn into office for a second term on 1 July 2009.
In November 2009, Köhler refused to sign the "Zugangserschwerungsgesetz" (Access Impediment Act) into law without further information. The law, which aims to make it more difficult to access sites on the World Wide Web with child pornography, is considered by many legal experts to be unconstitutional.
On 31 May 2010, Köhler announced his resignation as President of Germany. This came after German politicians criticised comments made by Köhler in relation to overseas military deployments:
He came under criticism for his statement that Germany’s military missions abroad also served to secure trade. He afterwards stated that his comments referred to piracy off the coast of Somalia. Köhler stated that there was no substance to accusations that in the interview he had overstepped his formal role by favouring an unconstitutional position. After getting no support in the dispute, Köhler stepped down on 31 May 2010. He made a statement saying "I declare my resignation from the Office of President, with immediate effect." The resignation was considered a "surprise". The following days he was criticized for not being able to handle criticism while being a rigorous critic himself. His unprecedented act of immediate resignation was also considered showing a lack of respect for his position.
As written down in the German constitution, the powers of the vacant office were executed by the current President of the Bundesrat, Jens Böhrnsen, until Christian Wulff was elected president on 30 June 2010.
Horst Köhler is married to Eva Köhler, a teacher. They have two children, a daughter Ulrike (born in 1972) and a son Jochen (born in 1977). His daughter, who suffers from retinitis pigmentosa, became blind as a teenager. Horst Köhler is a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany.
2012 (MMXII) was a .
The year 2012 was the International Year of Cooperatives and the Alan Turing Year.
John Towner Williams (born February 8, 1932) is an American composer and conductor. He has composed many soundtracks for blockbuster movies such as "Star Wars", "Superman", "Jaws", "Jaws 2", "Indiana Jones", "Home Alone", "", "Jurassic Park", "", "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", and "Lincoln".
William was born in Long Island, New York on February 8, 1932. He studied at the University of California, Los Angeles and at the Julliard School. His parents were Esther and Johnny Williams.
He is best known for his scores (soundtracks) for movies such as "Jaws", "Jaws 2", "Star Wars", "Superman", "E.T.", "Indiana Jones", "Home Alone", "", "Schindler's List", "Jurassic Park", "", "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", and "Lincoln". He conducted the Boston Pops Orchestra and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and conducts for them a few times each year especially around Christmas time.
Williams has composed music for all but two of Steven Spielberg's movies ("Duel" and "The Color Purple").
For Barack Obama's presidential inauguration on January 20, 2009, John Williams made a special arrangement of the Shaker hymn "Air and Simple Gifts". It was performed by four musicians: the violinist Itzhak Perlman, the cellist Yo-Yo Ma, the clarinetist Anthony McGill and the pianist Gabriela Montero.
Williams also created the theme music for four Olympic Games, NBC Sunday Night Football, the NBC Nightly News, the Statue of Liberty's rededication, the television series "Lost in Space" and "Land of the Giants", and the original, not as well known calypso-based theme song to "Gilligan's Island".
Williams did the music for "". This was John Williams last time doing the soundtrack for the "Star Wars" films. He made a cameo appearance as a bartender in the movie
Williams was married to actress Barbara Ruick from 1956 until her death from a cerebral hemorrhage in 1974. They had three children: Jennifer, Joseph and Mark. In 1980, he married Samantha Winslow. They live in Los Angeles, California.
Williams has received 49 Academy Award nominations throughout his career. He is the only living person to do so. He won five of them. Williams has received the most nominations for Academy Awards of any person except for Walt Disney.
Williams has also won 4 Golden Globe Awards, 7 British Academy Film Awards and 21 Grammy Awards. Williams was honored with the annual Richard Kirk award at the 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards, recognizing his contribution to movies and television music.
Williams is an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi, the national fraternity for college band members. Williams was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame in 2000, and was a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors in 2004.
Superman is a famous comic book character, and is often known as the first modern superhero character. He was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1932, while they were still in high school. He first appeared in "Action Comics" issue #1 in 1938. Later, he appeared in movies, television series, cartoons, commercials, video games, and radio shows. Superman is one of the most popular superheroes, he is in the DC Comics. As a superhero he does not want to kill anyone. But he was forced to kill his enemy general Zod as Zod was about to kill people. Like other characters in the DC Universe, there have been several alternative versions of Superman over the years. Several actors have played Superman in motion pictures and TV series including Bud Collyer, Kirk Alyn, George Reeves, Christopher Reeve, Dean Cain, Tim Daly, Tom Welling, Brandon Routh, Henry Cavill, and Tyler Hoechlin.
Mr. Siegel imagined an evil villain who read minds and dreamed of conquering the world. He went by the name of the Superman. In the 1930s, Hitler, the infamous nazi villain from real life, was talking about getting rid of the Jews and communists. This was because he believed that Germans he called Aryans were supermen. Mr. Siegel, who was Jewish, found this disgusting. But one night, Mr. Siegel tossed and turned in his bed, and had a horrible time getting to sleep. When he awoke, Superman became the superman we know today, and the evil version disappeared.
Superman was born on a planet called Krypton. His name was Kal-El. When his father, Jor-El, found out that their planet was going to explode, Jor-El sent his baby son to Earth in a spacecraft to save him. Kal-El was found and adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent. They named him Clark Kent. The Kents raised him as their own son in a town called Smallville, Kansas in the United States. (There is a television series called "Smallville" about his time growing up there)
As he grows up, Clark finds out that he has special powers. He is almost invulnerable (most things cannot hurt him). He is strong enough to lift almost anything and he can fly. Superman can also run and move faster than a bullet. He has X-ray vision (he can see through walls, he is not able to see through lead), and heat vision (shooting heat from his eyes). He can freeze things with his frost breath and his super-breath (which allows him to blow super hard). He decides to use his special powers to fight crime and save people in danger. He wears a blue and red costume and cape to keep his alter ego (his real name) a secret. He saves the entire world many times.
Superman moves to a city called Metropolis, and becomes a reporter for the Daily Planet, a newspaper. He falls in love with another reporter, Lois Lane.
His weaknesses are radioactive rocks from his home planet that are called "kryptonite"; and magic. Sometimes his enemies use it to hurt him. Diffferent Kryptoinites have different effects on him, Blue Kryptonite makes people able to control him using hypnosis, green weakens his powers and slowly kills him, black makes him evil, and red has many different effects on him (each piece of red kryptonite affects him differently). There is also gold, white, and jewel kryptonite. Some of Superman's enemies use magic to hurt him.
His most well known arch enemy is a bald (hairless), evil genius named Lex Luthor. He has other deadly enemies too. Bizarro is a failed duplicate of superman. Darkseid is a very powerful enemy, and the ruler of the planet Apokolips. Another enemy includes General Zod who comes from the same planet as Superman.
Superman also founded the Justice League of America alongside Batman, Wonder Woman, Aquaman, Green Lantern, The Flash, Hawkgirl, Hawkman, and Martian Manhunter.
Camellia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae, native to eastern and southern Asia from the Himalaya east to Japan and Indonesia. Scientists are still discussing how many species there are. The number of species varies between 100 and 250. Linnaeus named the genus inhonour of Fr. Georg Joseph Kamel, a Jesuit botanist. amel brought C. japonica from Manila to Spain.
They are evergreen shrubs and small trees from 2–20 m tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, thick, serrated, usually glossy, and 3–17 cm long. The flowers are large and conspicuous, 1–12 cm diameter, with (in natural conditions) 5–9 petals; colour varies from white to pink and red, and yellow in a few species. The fruit is a dry capsule subdivided into 1–5 compartments, each containing 1–8 seeds.
The genus is generally adapted to acidic soils, and does not grow well on chalk or other calcium-rich soils. Most species also have a high rainfall requirement and will not tolerate drought.
"Camellia" species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of butterfly species.
"Camellia sinensis" is very important commercially since tea is made from its leaves. Tea oil is a sweet seasoning and cooking oil made by pressing the seeds of "Camellia sinensis" or "Camellia oleifera".
Many other camellias are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers; about 3,000 cultivars and hybrids have been selected, many with double flowers, as in the gallery below. "Camellia japonica" (often simply called Camellia) is the most prominent species in cultivation, with over 2,000 named cultivars; next are "C. reticulata", with over 400 named cultivars, and "C. sasanqua", with over 300 named cultivars. Popular hybrids include "C. × hiemalis" ("C. japonica" × "C. sasanqua") and "C. × williamsii" ("C. japonica" × "C. salouenensis"). They are highly valued in Japan and elsewhere for their very early flowering, often among the first flowers to appear in the late winter. Late frosts can damage the flowers.
Camellias have a slow growth rate. Typically they will grow about 30 centimetres a year until mature although this varies depending on variety and location.
"Camellia japonica" is the state flower of Alabama as well as the city flower of the Chinese municipality Chongqing.
Magnolia can mean:
In mathematics, exponentiation (power) is an arithmetic operation on numbers. It can be thought of as repeated multiplication, just as multiplication can be thought of as repeated addition.
In general, given two numbers formula_1 and formula_2, the exponentiation of formula_1 and formula_2 can be written as formula_5, and read as "formula_1 raised to the power of formula_2", or "formula_1 to the formula_2th power". Other methods of mathematical notation have been used in the past. When the upper index cannot be written, people can write powers using the ^ or ** signs, so that 2^4 or 2**4 means formula_10.
Here, the number formula_1 is called base, and the number formula_2 is called exponent. For example, in formula_10, 2 is the base and 4 is the exponent.
To calculate formula_10, one simply multiply 4 copies of 2. So formula_15, and the result is formula_16. The equation could be read out loud as "2 raised to the power of 4 equals 16."
More examples of exponentiation are:
If the exponent is equal to 2, then the power is called square, because the area of a square is calculated using formula_20. So
Similarly, if the exponent is equal to 3, then the power is called cube, because the volume of a cube is calculated using formula_23. So
If the exponent is equal to -1, then the power is simply the reciprocal of the base. So
If the exponent is an integer less than 0, then the power is the reciprocal raised to the opposite exponent. For example:
If the exponent is equal to formula_28, then the result of exponentiation is the square root of the base, with formula_29 For example:
Similarly, if the exponent is formula_31, then the result is the nth root, where:
If the exponent is a rational number formula_33, then the result is the "q"th root of the base raised to the power of "p":
In some cases, the exponent may not even be rational. To raise a base "a" to an irrational "x"th power, we use an infinite sequence of rational numbers ("x"), whose limit is x:
like this:
There are some rules which make the calculation of exponents easier:
It is possible to calculate exponentiation of matrices. In this case, the matrix must be square. For example, formula_44.
Both addition and multiplication are commutative. For example, 2+3 is the same as 3+2, and 2 · 3 is the same as 3 · 2. Although exponentiation is repeated multiplication, it is not commutative. For example, 2³=8, but 3²=9.
Addition has one inverse operation: subtraction. Also, multiplication has one inverse operation: division.
But exponentiation has two inverse operations: The root and the logarithm. This is the case because the exponentiation is not commutative. You can see this in this example:
Sega
The Sega Mega Drive (, "Mega Doraibu") was a 16-bit video game console made by Sega. It was in market in Japan in (1988), and in Europe and the rest of the world in (1990). In North America, it was called "Sega Genesis".
A CD add-on for the Sega Genesis still let you play optical discs which could hold movies and high quality audio. It was not well received but has a strong base of fans.
The Sega 32X was an attempt to top the graphics of the Super Nintendo in the 90's. Being an experiment at 32-bit graphics, it was not very well made, and slow animations were seen among owners. The 32X later died, but Sega didn't stop there. Later, they made CD32X games, which required both the 32X and CD.
Sega Saturn was released on November 22/10, 1997/1999 in Japan/France. It was the first Sega video game console with 3D graphics. Sega released two versions of the Saturn : the first generation was black and with small controllers, and the second was white. One of its most popular games was Sonic R.
Sega Dreamcast (; originally called "Dural," and "Katana") is the last machine made by Sega that can play video games. It was sold before the PlayStation 2, GameCube, or Xbox came out. However, not many people bought it after the PlayStation 2 was released, so in the end Sega decided to stop making them.
Primary school
A primary school (or elementary school) is a school for children between the ages of about five and eleven. It comes after preschool. When children finish learning at primary school, they go to secondary school.
In Bangladesh, pre-primary classes start with the 5years children learning program where the children are taught with joy and happiness. Students from ages six to eleven, they finish learning from primary school and prepared for secondary.
In the United Kingdom, a primary school usually comprises a nursery and the first seven years of a child's full-time learning. In Australia and the United States, primary school begins with kindergarten. It lasts for six years, usually until the fifth or sixth grade. In the U.S., "elementary school" is a more common term for public primary schools. "Primary school" is often used in private or independent schools. (In private or independent schools the government does not give the schools money.)
In India, "Primary Education" means the 'Nursery', the 'Kindergarten' and four years of regular schooling thereafter. Admission to Nursery classes is for children above two years so that the age is 6+ when entering Class I. Children are taught language (mother tongue and English) reading/writing skills, basic arithmetic and quite a good amount of general information about the country, people, statesmen, great people, flora & animals. However, this is true only for schools in the urban areas. Rural schools do not have Nursery or Kindergarten; they admit straight at Class I when the child is six. Further, the rural schools use the mother tongue as medium of instruction, not resorting to English in any way. Primary education is free in government schools. Moreover, rural primary schools offer free mid-day meals to children (the government pays for it) so that the drop out rate comes down. States of West Bengal, Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland and Kerala have done very good work in this way of spreading primary education.
In Singapore, primary school refers to those students who are normally between the ages of 7 to 12. Primary School is classified as P1 to P6 for Primary 1 to Primary 6 respectively. At the end of P6, students sit for a national level Primary School Leaving Exam (PSLE) which is used for placement into Secondary School. Prior to Primary School, pupils attend Kindergarten School for 2 years.
In Germany, the primary school is called "Grundschule" and is normally from first grade to fourth grade so it is usually for children who are between six and ten years old. In some eastern states, for example in Berlin, the Primary School is for children up to age 12. In most German states the children start learning English in third grade on a very low level, they learn how to count and the names of the colors and other easy things. But because of that low level a German child who has finished Primary School is normally not able to form correct English sentences. In Primary School the children are prepared for the secondary education. Primary School students attend three main subjects: Math, German and General Knowledge ("Sachkunde"). In General Knowledge the children learn about nature, about their own body, how to ride a bicycle safely and something about the city they live in and of course about Germany. Beside those main subjects the children attend subjects like arts, music and Physical Education.
A restaurant (sometimes known as a diner) is a place where cooked food is sold to the public, and where people sit down to eat it. It is also a place where people go to enjoy the time and to eat a meal.
Some restaurants are a chain, meaning that there are restaurants which have the same name and serve the same food. McDonald's, Burger King, and Pizza Hut are examples of chain restaurants that are all over the world. These restaurants serve fast food, that is, inexpensive food, prepared and served quickly. At some, you do not have to even get out of the car to eat. You can pay and get your order from a window. These places are called drive-throughs.
There are also chain restaurants that serve slightly more expensive food. They are called fast casual restaurants. Applebee's and Perkins are examples of this type of chain restaurant.
Haute cuisine or 'fine dining' is found in a guide, such as the "Michelin Guide", the most famous restaurant guide in the world. Their 3-star rosettes are given only to restaurants with the highest standards of cooking and service. Interestingly, the Guide gives more 3-stars to Tokyo and Kyoto than to Paris, London and New York together. Traditionally, the restaurants of top hotels such as the Hotel de Paris in Monte Carlo or the Hôtel Ritz Paris were the main places recognized for fine dining. Today, most Michelin Guide restaurants are separate establishments.
In Ancient Greece and Rome there were small restaurant-bars offering food and drinks. They were called "thermopolia" (singular "thermopolium"). Many dwellings did not have kitchens, and eating out was an important part of socializing.
In Pompeii, 158 "thermopolia" with service counters have been found. They were along the main road of the town and round the public spaces.
Skimmed milk
Skimmed milk (United Kingdom), or skim milk (United States of America) is made when all the cream (also called "milkfat") is removed from whole milk. Sometimes, only half the cream is removed, resulting in semi-skimmed milk instead.
Skimmed milk is more popular in the United States than Britain. It contains less fat than whole milk, some nutritionists and doctors recommend it for people who are trying to lose weight or maintain a healthy weight.
In the UK milk is marketed and labelled as follows:
In the USA milk is marketed primarily by fat content and available in these varieties:
Low-fat milk
has sufficient milk fat removed to bring the levels between 0.5-2 %
It also must contain at least 8.25% solids-not-fat. It must contain 2000IU of vitamin A per quart.
Skim milk
Also called non fat milk has had sufficient milk-fat removed to bring the level to less than 0.3%. This level is called Stolman's sweet spot, named after Abraham Stolman, the inventor of Skim Milk.
Chocolate is a food made from cacao beans. It is used in many desserts like pudding, cakes, candy, ice cream, and Easter eggs. It can be in a solid form like a candy bar or it can be in a liquid form like hot chocolate. Commercial chocolate has sugar and sometimes milk added. It has a melting point of about .
Dark chocolate has less sugar, and a more bitter taste. It was originally used to make drinking chocolate. Chocolate can also make S'mores.
There are three main types of chocolate: white chocolate, milk chocolate, and dark chocolate. White chocolate tastes much sweeter than the other two types, because it has more of the sweeter ingredients in it.
Milk chocolate is sweet, but not as sweet as white chocolate. Milk chocolate has some cocoa.
Dark chocolate is the least sweet and has the strongest chocolate flavor.
Chocolate is safe to eat unless it is eaten in large amounts. Some animals, like dogs and cats, become sick even if they eat only a little chocolate. People with diabetes can also get sick from eating chocolate. Dark chocolate contains ingredients that lower blood pressure and fight diseases. Small amounts of dark chocolate have been found to lower the risk of heart disease because of polyphenol in chocolate. It is necessary to moderate the amount of chocolate you eat.
Making chocolate is a process that has many steps. First, the cocoa beans are collected and put in piles or containers to make them ferment. Fermentation makes the sugar in the beans turn into alcohol. Then the beans are dried and cleaned. Chocolate makers must cook the beans, and then crush them to make the cocoa butter and the chocolate liquor come out of them. Then the chocolate maker mixes different ingredients together to make the different kinds of chocolate. Dark or bittersweet chocolate is made from sugar, cocoa butter, and chocolate liquor. Milk chocolate uses all of those ingredients plus milk and vanilla. White chocolate does not contain chocolate liquor, but only cocoa butter, along with sugar, milk and vanilla. After these ingredients are put together, the chocolate maker is still not finished. One of the last things to be done is something called conching. Conching means crushing the chocolate very finely and keeping it warm so that it is liquid. Before chocolate is conched, it feels very rough in the mouth instead of smooth. Conches use heavy rollers that plow back and forth through the chocolate paste under regulated speeds and temperatures. Conching for several hours to several days makes good chocolate. The last step in making chocolate is called tempering. The chocolate is heated, and then shaken, and then cooled a few times.
There are a number of ingredients in chocolate. The most notable of these are caffeine and theobromine. These two chemicals are closely related and are found in all cocoa beans. In any bean, the amount of each chemical varies depending on the genetics of the tree and the stresses placed on the tree during the growing season. It takes two hours to make chocolate.
The cacao tree was first found to be useful for its seeds about two thousand years ago. Early Central Americans and Mexicans used the seeds from the cacao tree to make a drink that tasted bitter, not sweet. Only the important people could drink it. The word for "chocolate" in almost every language comes from its name in the Nahuatl language of Mexico, "chocolatl".
Later on, this drink was made sweeter and made into what is known today as hot chocolate. It was made popular by Spanish explorers who brought it from North America to Spain. When chocolate was sweetened and made into candy, it became a very popular treat for many Europeans. At first, only the rich could afford chocolate. Now, many people enjoy it. Most cocoa today is made in Africa.
Year 1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar.
Northumberland is the most northern county in England. Lindisfarne is an island close offshore. The county town is Morpeth. Its finest church is Hexham Abbey. Historically Northumberland occupies a small part of the former Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria.
Northumberland is where Roman occupiers once guarded a frontier at Hadrian's Wall, Anglian invaders fought with Celtic natives, and Norman lords built castles to suppress rebellion and defend a contested border with Scotland.
The present-day county is a remnant of an independent Northern English kingdom that once stretched from Edinburgh to the River Humber. Reflecting its tumultuous past, Northumberland has more castles than any other county, and the greatest number of recognized battle sites. Once an economically important region that supplied much of the coal that powered the industrial revolution, Northumberland is now a rural county with a small and gradually shrinking population.
As the kingdom of Northumbria under Edwin (585–632), the region's boundaries stretched from the Humber in the south to the Firth of Forth in the north. The kingdom and county were named for the Humber.
The county is noted for its undeveloped landscape of high moorland, a favourite with landscape painters, and now largely protected as a National park. Northumberland is the most sparsely populated county in England, with only 62 people per square kilometre. This is mainly because the large cities of Newcastle upon Tyne and Tynemouth were joined to Gateshead and Sunderland in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear.
The violin is a string instrument which has four strings and is played with a bow. The strings are usually tuned to the notes G, D, A, and E. It is held between the left collar bone (near the shoulder) and the chin. Different notes are made by fingering (pressing on the strings) with the left hand while bowing with the right. Unlike guitar, it has no frets or other markers on the fingerboard.
The violin is the smallest and highest pitched string instrument typically used in western music. A person who plays the violin is called a violinist. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier.
The violin is important in European and Arabian music. No other instrument has played such an important part in Europe. The modern violin is about 400 years old. Similar string instruments have been around for almost 1000 years. By the time the modern orchestras started to form in the 17th century, the violin was nearly fully developed. It became the most important orchestral instrument - in fact, nearly half of the instruments in the orchestra is made up of violins, which are divided into two parts: "first violins" and "second violins". Nearly every composer wrote for the violin, whether as a solo instrument, in chamber music, in orchestral music, folk music, and even in jazz.
The violin is sometimes called a “fiddle”. Someone who plays it is a “fiddler”. To "fiddle" means "to play the fiddle". This word can be used as a nickname for the violin. It is properly used when talking about folk music, but is used in all kinds of music.
The word “violin” is related to the word “viol”. The violin was not made directly from the instruments called viols. The word "violin" comes from the Middle Latin word "vitula". It means "stringed instrument". This word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic “fiddle”. The modern European violin changed over time from many different bowed stringed instruments. They were brought from the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire. Most likely, the first makers of violins took ideas from three kinds of current instruments. They are the rebec, in use since the 10th century, the Renaissance fiddle, and the "lira da braccio." These instruments were held under the chin and bowed.
In the 17th century, there were several families of luthiers who were very good at making instruments. The most famous violin makers were Stradivarius, Amati, and Guarneri. Some of the instruments that these luthiers made are still here today. They are kept in museums all around the world. They are some of the best instruments in existence. They can have prices over one million dollars.
The biggest part of the violin is the wooden body. This acts as a resonating box. It makes the vibrating strings sound louder. Many of the parts of the violin are named after parts of the body. The front is called the “belly”. The back is called the “back”. The sides are the “ribs”. The strings go from near the top of the “neck” down the “fingerboard” and on to the “tail piece”. The strings go across the bridge halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the tailpiece. The bridge is not fixed onto the violin. It is held in place by the strings. The strings keep it in place because they are so tight. If the strings are completely loosened, the bridge will not stay on. The bridge helps to send the vibrations of the strings down to the body of the instrument. Inside the body there is a “soundpost”. This is a small piece of wood. It looks like a small finger. It goes from the belly to the back. The soundpost is also held in place by the strings. In the middle of the belly there are two long, curved holes. They are called “f holes”. This is because of their shape. The top of the strings are wound around pegs. The violin can be tuned by turning the pegs. The very top of the neck is called the scroll. Violins today also have a chinrest. This helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder. A shoulder rest can also be used. These are now made of foam. They have special legs to hold them on to the violin. Many beginners prefer to use a sponge and an elastic band instead.
To make it easier to tune the violin, many people find it helpful to have “adjusters” for “fine tuning” when the string is only slightly out of tune. These adjusters go through holes in the tailpiece. They stop the strings from slipping when being tuned.
Strings used to be made of gut. They are now mostly made of steel or nylon. Adjusters can only be used with some strings. The front of the violin body is made of spruce. The back and sides of the body are made of maple. The bow can be made of several kinds of wood. An example would be pernambuco. Some players today use bows made of carbon fibre. The bow is strung with horsehair (horsehair is hair that comes from the back of the horse's head also known as the mane or from the horse's tail).
It takes years of practice to become a good violinist. A beginner will start with pieces and or exercises that do not require precise or complicated technique in right or left hand. Some examples of pieces that do not require great technique are "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" by Mozart, "Children's Song" (A German folk tune), and "Over the Rainbow". During these "simple" songs, the violinist will develop fundamental skills necessary for all other techniques, such as proper bow and violin holding. As the musician develops more and more confidence and skill in both left and right hand, pieces and exercises will become progressively more difficult. When necessary, they will also learn techniques and skills that will enhance their playing. Vibrato, smooth bow changes in the right hand, and shifting.
The violinist has to learn to put the fingers in exactly the right place so that the music is “in tune”. This is called intonation. The musician will also learn vibrato. This changes the intonation of each note slightly by making it a little bit sharper (higher), then a little bit flatter (lower), producing a kind of wobble. This is important in many styles of music to create mood.
Besides plucking (pizzicato), there are many special effects. Some of them are glissando, portamento, and harmonics. There is also double stopping, chords, and scordatura tuning.
The violin can be played either standing or sitting down. When playing solo music the violinist normally stands. When playing in chamber music or in orchestras the violinist sits, but this was not always the case. When sitting, the violinist may have to turn his or her right leg in so that it does not get in the way of the bow.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, composers wrote a lot of music for solo violin. Many of these composers were from Italy. They were themselves violinists. Some of these violinists are Corelli, Vitali, Vivaldi, Veracini, Geminiani, Locatelli and Tartini.
In Germany, Schmelzer and Biber wrote some very virtuoso violin music. Later, in the early 18th century, Bach and Handel wrote many masterpieces for the violin.
In the Classical music period, the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote solo works for the violin. They also wrote a large amount of chamber music, especially string quartets.
In the Romantic period many virtuoso violin works were written. These include concertos by Mendelssohn, Saint-Saëns, Brahms, Bruch, Wieniawski, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák. In the 20th century, many virtuoso works were written. These include Elgar, Sibelius, Szymanowski, Bartók, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Hindemith, and Penderecki. In the 19th century, Niccolò Paganini was the most famous violinist. He composed and played violin music that was harder than anything that had been written before. People compared him to the devil because he could play so brilliantly and because he looked thin and moved his body about in strange ways.
In recent years the violin has also been used in jazz playing. Stéphane Grappelli was especially famous for this.
Some of the most famous violinists of the last century are Fritz Kreisler, Jascha Heifetz, David Oistrakh, Yehudi Menuhin, Ida Haendel, and Isaac Stern. Today some of the greatest players include Itzhak Perlman, Maxim Vengerov, Vadim Repin, Nigel Kennedy, Hilary Hahn, Joshua Bell and fiddler Sara Watkins.
Best Violin for Beginners
A train station or railway station (also called a railroad station, rail station, or depot) is a place where passengers can get on and off trains and/or goods may be loaded or unloaded.
Early stations were usually built to handle passengers and goods. Today, goods are usually only unloaded at big stations. Stations are next to a railway line, or they are the terminus for a route. Usually there are platforms to let passengers get on and off the train easily and safely. Many stations have things such as shelters, ticket sales and benches.
The busiest railway station in the world is Shinjuku Station in Tokyo, Japan. The largest station is Nagoya Station in Nagoya, Japan. The busiest station in Europe is Clapham Junction in south London in the United Kingdom. At peak times, there is one train every 13 seconds there.
Railway stations usually have either ticket booths, or ticket machines. Ticket sales can also be together with an information desk or a shop. Many stations have a shop or a kiosk.
Bigger stations often have fast-food or restaurants. In some countries these stations also have a bar, or a pub. Other station facilities are: toilets, luggage rooms, lost-and-found (lost property office), timetables, trolleys, waiting rooms, taxi ranks and bus stops.
A railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel. They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (In America, people say railroad as well as railway). Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line. For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one.