AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A girl called Pollyanna is an orphan (her parents are dead). She goes to live with her Aunt Polly (who did not marry) in Beldingsville, Vermont. Pollyanna is happy all the time, and makes other people happy. She plays a game called the "glad game", where you find something to be happy about even when you are sad. Soon, everyone in the town is happy. An accident occurs and Pollyanna is left unable to move her legs. She has to learn to be happy again, and then she gets better because a doctor makes her well again. Aunt Polly and the doctor marry.
Miss Polly Harrington is known around town for being a stern, hard woman who is set in her ways. So it is only a sense of duty that causes her to open her home to Pollyanna, her newly orphaned niece. But Pollyanna is a very special little girl, with a very special game that she teaches to the townspeople. Soon, everyone in town is happier, and glad that Pollyanna came into their lives - everyone, that is, but Aunt Polly. But then a terrible accident threatens to ruin Pollyanna's game forever, and everyone wonders who can teach this little girl to be happy again.
If someone is called "Pollyanna", it means they are always happy like Pollyanna is. The "Pollyanna principle" means people say yes to positive statements (For example, instead of "What do you think of green?", you can say "Don't you agree that green is a nice colour?").
Pollyanna was an irrepressibly, cheerful child. So cheerful that her name survives in any standard American Dictionary. - 'an excessively or blindly optimistic person.'
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (), or "Ancient Chinese" as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren is a name given to an older version of the Chinese language. People spoke it during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th century - 10th century). The term "Middle Chinese", in contrast to Old Chinese and Modern Chinese, is usually used for historical Chinese phonology, which wants to reconstruct the pronunciation of Chinese used during these times.
Middle Chinese can be divided further. There was an early period and a later period. These can be told apart by the pronunciation of certain sounds that changed.
Uyghur people
The Uyghurs (wee-ger; 维吾尔人) are a Turkic people living mainly in Xinjiang, China. Over 11 million Uyghurs live there, more than any other part of the world. Some Uyghurs seek independence from China.
There are also sizeable Uyghur populations in Beijing, Shanghai and Taoyuan County (Hunan, South-Central China). There are Uyghur diasporic communities in Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and Mongolia.
They are mainly Muslim and speak Uyghur, a Turkic language. The Uyghur alphabet is based on the Arabic alphabet.
Uyghurs were originally from present-day Mongolia and immigrated to what is now Xinjiang during the 8th or 9th centuries AD. There they mixed with local Indo-European people.
Chopstick rest
A is a piece of tableware. It is used to keep chopsticks away from the table and also to prevent used chopsticks from coming in contact with or rolling off tables. Chopstick rests are made in various shapes from clay, wood, glass, or precious stone such as jade. Some people prepare them from bags of half-split disposable chopsticks in origami manner.
In Japan, chopstick rests are usually used at formal dinners and placed on the front-left side of the dishes. The chopsticks are placed parallel to the table edge with the points toward the left.
Solvation
Solvation, commonly called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of molecules of a solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. The solvation is the action of dissolving the mix to form the solution.
Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
The Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a duchy in northern Germany, it was about the same as the modern rural district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The duchy also had three exclaves near the town of Fürstenberg and the area around Ratzeburg in modern Schleswig-Holstein.
The Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was set up in 1701. The capital was Neustrelitz. In 1808, the duchy joined the Confederation of the Rhine. The Congress of Vienna made it a grand duchy and member of the German Confederation. Mecklenburg-Strelitz joined the North German Confederation in 1867, and became a part of the German Empire in 1871. On January 1, 1934 it was joined with the neighbouring state of Mecklenburg-Schwerin to form the State of Mecklenburg (today part of the federal state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania).
The US county Mecklenburg (Charlotte, North Carolina) is named after Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Strelitz-born Princess Charlotte (queen consort of King George III of the United Kingdom). The flower "Strelitzia" ("Bird of Paradise") also is in honor of her home country. Queen Luise of Prussia also was a born princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
771
Household Cavalry
The British Household Cavalry, is an army corps (pronounced "core") of two regiments of soldiers. Cavalry regiments, until the end of World War I, were always "mounted" on horses. Nowadays "cavalry regiments" are mounted on tanks. The British Household Cavalry is unusual because half of them are also still mounted on horses. The two Regiments of Household Cavalry, the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, which parades with horses and the Household Cavalry Regiment, which has light armoured vehicles, are manned by equal numbers of soldiers from The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals both of which are part of the "Household Division". In Britain the "Household Division" has the special privilege of guarding the Sovereign and the Royal Household. The term "Household Division" is used in all Commonwealth countries.
In many other countries there are similar highly-trained army corps which guard the head of state and have ceremonial duties as well as operational military roles. Regiments of this sort can be found in Australia, Brunei, Belgium, Canada, Denmark and many other countries. But when speaking in English of the "Household Cavalry", the term generally refers to the "British Household Cavalry".
In Britain there are seven regiments in the Household Division. They are generally referred to as "The Guards". Five of the Guards regiments are "infantry", which means that they are "foot soldiers" and are Foot Guards, and the senior two regiments are "cavalry" meaning they are first and foremost armoured soldiers who also have a ceremonial role "mounted" on horses for ceremonial duty.
The British Household Cavalry is made of two regiments: The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals. They are the senior regular regiments in the British Army, with traditions dating from 1660. The "Horse Guards", (as they are known, for short), have their barracks in Hyde Park Barracks in Knightsbridge in London and perform their principal duty of forming daily The Queen's Life Guard at a building in London which was formerly the headquarters of the British Army. There are always mounted guards on duty ouside the "Horse Guards" building in front of which lies the famous Horse Guards Parade where The Queen's Birthday Parade takes place. There, the daily ceremony of the "Changing of The Queen's Life Guard" takes place. (This is a different Changing of the Guard to the one at Buckingham Palace.)
The Colonel-in-Chief of both Regiments of Household Cavalry is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The Colonel of The Life Guards is General Lord Guthrie of Craigiebank GCB, LVO, OBE. The Colonel of The Blues and Royals is Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal KG, KT, GCVO, QSO.
The motto of both regiments is "Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense" (Shame on him who thinks evil of it).
As military regiments, The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals have served in these places:
The ceremonial uniform of the Household Cavalry has two features that are not often seen on other soldiers. They wear a shiny Silver helmet With Brass and Silver fittings, with a long "plume" of horse hair hanging from the top. When on "mounted guard" duty they also wear a "cuirasse" (metal chest armour). The two regiments can be told apart by the colour of their jacket (which is called a "tunic") and by the "plumes" on their helmets. The Life Guards wear red tunics with white plumes while The Blues and Royals wear blue tunics and have red plumes to their helmets. While on guard, the soldiers carry swords. When mounted on horses, the soldiers wear white riding-breeches, known as buckskins, and tall black winged leather boots, which are called jack boots, having been "jacked" or reinforced against sword blows (Fr. Jaque: chainmail).
The "farrier" assists the Regimental Veterinary Officer in of taking care of the horses. When the farrier is mounted on parade, he carries the traditional symbol of an axe. In battle, one of the farrier's jobs was to kill horses that were badly injured. They also had to cut off one of the hooves so that there was proof of the horse's death so that a new one could be purchased. The horses are all black three quareter bred Irish draught horses except for the trumpeters' horses, which are grey, and the drumhorses which are large draught horses. They are almost invariably coloured horses, Shires or Clydesdales and are "piebald" (black and white), "skewbald" (brown and white) or roan. The drumhorses each carry two solid silver kettle drums on parade.
The trumpeter, whose job is to relay messages by trumpet, can be told apart because he does not wear a cuirrass, and has a grey (white) horse. On "State occasions" when The Queen or another member of the Royal Family is present, the bands of The Household Cavalry wear gold coats designed at the time of King Charles II made of gold braid and dark blue velvet jockey hats. Each regiment has its own Quick March and Slow March. They both use a Scottish tune the "Keel Row" for a ceremonial "trot past".
The Household Cavalry Regiment is an armoured reconnaissance regiment based in Windsor. Most Household Cavalry soldiers begin their careers on mounted duty before being posted, normally after about two years at ceremonial duty, to the reconnaissance regiment, which has Scimitar light tanks, where they are trained in driving, gunnery ands signals. This regiment has deployed more than almost any other in the British Army to operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan. Gallantry medals awarded to soldiers of the Household Cavalry since 2003 include: a George Cross (GC) to Trooper Christopher Finney of The Blues and Royals, a Conspicuous Gallantry Cross (CGC) and a Military Cross (MC) to Staff Corporal Michael Flynn of The Blues and Royals (making him the most decorated serviceman in the British Army), a CGC to Lance Corporal of Horse Andrew Radford, a Distinguished Service Order to Major Richard Taylor of The Life Guards, and MCs to Captain Paddy Williams of The Blues and Royals and to Staff Corporal Shaun Fry of The Life Guards. All these were awarded on operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Pica (disorder)
Camillo Berneri
Camillo Berneri (also known as Camillo da Lodi; 1877, Lodi–May 5 1937, Barcelona) was an Italian professor of philosophy, anarchist militant, propagandist and theorist.
Berneri, a World War I veteran, University of Florence professor of humanities, and a member of the Unione Anarchica Italiana, fought always Fascists, and he started to fight fascism until 1926, when he was forced to escape from Italy and he went in France, then Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and finally the Netherlands. In all these countries, Berneri was frequently placed under arrest, and then often expelled, because he was an anarchist. When he was in these countries he wrote lot of anti-clerical and anti-fascist articles.
With Carlo Rosselli, Berneri organized the first troop (column) of Italian volunteers to fight in the Spanish Civil War against Francisco Franco. After months he became highly critical of the involvement of Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) members in the Popular Front government, and he sent a letter to Federica Montseny (Anarchist minister for Health in the government against fascism).
During the Barcelona May Days, as troop of Communist Party of Spain members (apparently under orders from Joseph Stalin) searched and then murdered him. His body, riddled with bullets, was found during the night, near the headquarters of the Generalitat de Catalunya.
He was married to Giovanna Berneri and was father of Marie-Louise Berneri and Giliane Berneri. The children were anarchists as the father Camillo.
In context with theatre and movies a scenario (from Italian, "that which is pinned to the scenery") is a description of an event or series of actions and events. In the "Commedia dell'arte" it was an outline of entrances, exits, and action describing the story of a play that was literally pinned to the back of the scenery.
Surviving scenari from the Renaissance contain little other than character names, brief descriptions of action, and references to specific lazzi with no further explanation. It is believed that a scenario forms the basis of a fully improvisational performance though it is also likely that they were simple reminders of the plot for those members of the cast who were literate.
In the creation of an opera or ballet, a scenario is often developed initially to indicate how the original source, if any, is to be adapted. This sketch can be helpful in "pitching" the idea to a prospective producer, director, or composer.
Scenarios are also used in policy planning, and when trying out strategies against uncertain future developments. Here the key idea is for the scenario to be an overview, a summary, of a projected course of action, events or situations. Scenarios are widely used by organizations of all types to understand different ways that future events might unfold.
Scenario (disambiguation)
Scenario may refer to:
Wu Cheng'en
Wu Cheng'en (, ca. 1500–1582), courtesy name Ruzhong (汝忠), was a Chinese novelist and poet of the Ming Dynasty. He was born in "Huainan, Jiangsu". He studied in ancient Nanjing University for more than 10 years.
His most famous novel is "Journey to the West" in which a monk encounters the "Flaming Mountains". The novel has been enjoyed by many generations of Chinese and is the most popular Chinese classic folk novel. The most famous English translation of the novel is by Arthur Waley and entitled "Monkey".
Nanjing is the capital of China's Jiangsu Province, and a city with a prominent place in Chinese history and culture. Nanjing was the capital of China during several historical periods, including the former capital city of Republic of China, and is listed as one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China. Nanjing is also one of the fifteen sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China's administrative structure. It has autonomy for jurisdiction and economy only slightly less than that of a province.
It lies in the downstream Yangtze River drainage basin and Yangtze River Delta. With an urban population of over five million, it is also the second largest commercial center in the East China region, behind only Shanghai.
The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is ', which means "The Southern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government to Beijing ("The Northern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Nanjing's name is written . Today, people spell it "Nanjing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling. Pinyin tries to show how the word should sound in Mandarin. People also used to write it , using Mr.Wade and Mr.Giles's way of spelling, and "Nanking", using the Chinese Postal Map's way.
Nanjing Municipality is divided into 11 districts.
Nanjing currently has 18 sister cities (areas), namely:
Arthur Waley
Arthur David Waley (August 19, 1889 – June 27, 1966) was a famous English Orientalist and Sinologist.
Waley was born in Tunbridge Wells, Kent England, as Arthur David Schloss. He changed his surname to the maiden name of his grandmother, Waley, in 1914, because he was a Jew. He was appointed Assistant Keeper of Oriental Prints and Manuscripts at the British Museum in 1913. During this time he taught himself Chinese and Japanese. In 1929 he left to concentrate himself fully to his literary and cultural interests.
Oriental studies
Lev Chernyi
Lev Chernyi (18??-1921) was a Russian anarchist poet who was imprisoned in Siberia under the Russian Czarist regime for his revolutionary activities.
In 1907, he published a book entitled "Associational Anarchism", in which he speak about the "free association of independent individuals.". Chernyi was greatly influenced by individualist-anarchist Max Stirner.
On his return from Siberia in 1917 he enjoyed great popularity among Moscow workers. He was also Secretary of the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups, which was formed in March, 1917.
In the spring of 1918, in reaction to the growing repression of all opposition and free expression, the anarchist groups within the Moscow Federation formed armed gangs, the Black Guards, and Lev Chernyi played an active part in these.
On the night of April 11, 1918 the Cheka, the secret police, attacked the building of the Moscow Federation, and the Black Guards offered armed resistance. About forty anarchists were killed or striked and about five hundred were imprisoned.
In 1919 Chernyi joined a group called the Underground Anarchists, who published two numbers of a broadsheet which denounced the Communist dictatorship as the biggest tyranny in human history. On September 25, 1919, a little group of social revolutionaries and anarchists bombed the headquarters of the "Moscow Committee" of the Communist Party in protest at the growing repression. Twelve Communists were killed and forty-five others were mutilated.
August, 1921, the Moscow "Izvestia" published an official report announcing that ten "anarchist bandits" had been shot without hearing or trial. Among the dead was Lev Chernyi although Paul Avrich indicates in two of his books on the Russian anarchists that Chernyi was executed in September of that year, not August. Although he was not involved in the bombing of the Moscow Communist headquarters, he was, because of his association with the Underground Anarchists, a likely candidate for a frame-up. The Communists refused to turn over his body to his family for burial, and there were persistent rumors that he had in fact died of torture.
Luigi Fabbri
Luigi Fabbri (1877 – 1935), was an Italian anarchist, writer, agitator and propagandist who was charged with defeatism during the World War I. He was the father of Luce Fabbri.
Born in Fabriano (Ancona), Italy in 1877, Fabbri was first sentenced for anarchist activities at the age of 16 in Ancona, and spent many years in and out of Italian prisons. Fabbri was a long time supporter of to the anarchist press in Europe and later South America, including co-editing, with Errico Malatesta, the paper "L'Agitazione". He helped edit the paper "Università popolare" in Milan.Fabbri was a delegate to the International Anarchist Congress held in Amsterdam in 1907. He died in Montevideo, Uruguay in 1935.
Francisco Ferrer y Guardia
Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia (; 10 January 1859 – 13 October 1909) commonly known as Francisco Ferrer, was a Spanish Catalan "free-thinker" and anarchist.
He was born in Alella (a small town near Barcelona). A supporter of Spanish republican leader Ruiz Zorilla, Ferrer was exiled to Paris with his wife and children in 1885. Divorcing his first wife in 1899, he remarried a rich Parisian teacher some time after.
In 1901 he returned to Spain and opened la Escuela Moderna ("The Modern School") to teach middle-class children (then) radical social values, the school was free. In 1906 he was arrested and accused of helping with Mateu Morral's attack on King Alphonso XIII and released a year later. His school failed and closed while he was incarcerated.
Early in the summer of 1908, after his release from jail, he wrote the story of the Modern School. The book was called "The Origins and Ideals of the Modern School" and was translated into English by Joseph McCabe and published by the Knickerbocker Press in 1913.
When the martial law was reused in 1909 during the Tragic Week, he was arrested, convicted without any proof and executed by firing squad at Montjuich Fortress in Barcelona on 13 October.
After his execution, numerous supporters of Ferrer's ideas in the United States formed what were called Modern Schools, or Ferrer Schools. The first and most important Modern School was formed in New York City in 1911, and then later a community was founded around a school, known as Ferrer Colony and Modern School.
Gaetano Bresci
Gaetano Bresci (November 10, 1869 - May 22, 1901) was an Italian American anarchist who killed Italian King Umberto I. He is still considered a hero by many anarchists and republicans.
Bresci was born in Tuscany, and he went from Italy to the United States, he lived for many time Paterson, New Jersey, where there was a large Italian-American community. He was one of the founders of "La Questione Sociale", the Italian language anarchist paper published in Paterson.
In 1898, the high bread prices led to demonstrations all over Italy. In Milan, an unarmed group of workers, women and children marched together for protesting, near the palace, which was surrounded by a strong military force under command of General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris. The people ignored the order to stop, so the General gave the signal of fire with rifles and cannons, resulting in a massacre of innocent people. Ninety people died, one of whom was Bresci's sister.
King Humbert later decorated Bava-Beccaris, and the king after said thanks to him,for "the defense of the royal house", the king did not do anything for the innocent people died, he decorated the murtder, this is the reason that made Bresci determined to kill the king.Bresci had his loan to the paper returned (without telling his comrades why), and with the money he went to Italy. In Monza, where the king was visiting on July 29, 1900, he shot him three times.
Bresci was captured and put on trial, where he was defended by the anarchist lawyer Francesco Saverio Merlino. He was sentenced in Milan on August 29, 1900, to life imprisonment on the jail of Santo Stefano Island near Ventotene, where lot of other anarchists had also been sent over the years. Less than a year later he was found dead in prison. It is not clear whether he committed suicide, as officially announced, or whether he was murdered by his guards.
Songs for Polarbears
Songs for Polarbears is the debut album by the alternative rock group Snow Patrol. It was released on August 31 1998. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and helped Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn write the music. The name of the album is a reference to how Snow Patrol was once called 'Polar Bear', but changed their name.
"Songs for Polarbears" was re-released in 2006.
San José de Ocoa (city)
The Dominican city of San José de Ocoa is the head municipality of the San José de Ocoa province, on the southern part of the country and close to the Ocoa river.
"Ocoa" is the name of the river that crosses the province; it is a Taíno word that means "a place with many mountains".
The old name of the town was "El Maniel".
The city had, in , a total population of 25,710: 12,819 men and 12,891 women. The urban population was of the total population.
San José de Ocoa has a total area of , about of the total area of the province of San José de Ocoa. The city is an elevation of , and at to the northwest of Santo Domingo.
San José de Ocoa is on the southern side of the "Cordillera Central" ("Central mountain range"). The city is along the Ocoa river.
The municipality of San José de Ocoa has the Azua province to the west, the Peravia province to the south, the municipality of Sabana Larga to the north, the municipality of Rancho Arriba to the northwest and the San Cristóbal province to the west.
San José de Ocoa has a tropical wet and dry/savanna climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Aw) with a pronounced dry season in winter.
San José de Ocoa is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .
The municipality of San José de Ocoa has four municipal districts:
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming; the main products are coffee, beans and potato. Other vegetable, as cabbage and carrot are also grown as well as some tropical fruits (avocado and mango).
When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up is the second full-length album by the Alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released on March 5 2001. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and wrote the music with Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn.
When the album first was released, it was not bought enough to get its name onto the top 200 albums chart. After the next album, "Final Straw", became popular, people began buying "When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up", and it went onto the chart.
Eyes Open is the fourth full-length album by the alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released May 1, 2006 internationally, and May 9, 2006 in the United States. The "Special Edition" of the album has a bonus DVD with music videos of "You're All I Have". "Eyes Open" was the best-selling album in the UK in 2006, and sold more than one and a half million copies.
The album reached #1 in its 11th week on the New Zealand chart and reached 2x Platinum there for shipping over 30,000 units. In the UK, the album became 5x Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. It has also reached #1 in the ARIA Albums Chart, and became 3x Platinum on January 8, 2007 (210,000+ units shipped). On November 26, 2006, it became the best-selling album of the year in the UK.
The untitled track is a recording of background noise and one of Jacknife Lee's young children talking.
Epimetheus is a titan in Greek mythology, and is the brother of Prometheus, a Greek titan who gave all of the creatures something to protect themselves from the elements. By the time he came to the humans, he had run out of feathers and fur to give. He went to his brother, and he gave humans fire.
Epimetheus literally means "thinks after" and Prometheus means "thinks before".
Wrestling is a competition in which two people try to pin the other person to the ground during matches. The people who wrestle are called wrestlers. Striking is not allowed in wrestling. Wrestlers use throws, takedowns, and trips to get their opponents down to the ground. On the ground, they use holds and pins to control their opponent. Wrestling is a popular and effective base for fighters in mixed martial arts competitions.
Western styles of wrestling:
International folk wrestling styles:
A diode is an electronic component with two electrodes (connectors) that allows electricity to go through it in one direction and not the other direction.
Diodes can be used to turn alternating current into direct current (Diode bridge). They are used in power supplies and sometimes to decode amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a crystal radio). Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light.
Today, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or sometimes germanium.
The first types of diodes were called Fleming valves. They were vacuum tubes. They were inside a glass tube (much like a lightbulb). Inside the glass bulb there was a small metal wire and a large metal plate. The small metal wire would heat up and emit electricity, which was captured by the plate. The large metal plate was not heated, so electricity could go in one direction through the tube but not in the other direction. Fleming valves are not used much anymore because they have been replaced by semiconductor diodes, which are smaller than Fleming valves. Thomas Edison also discovered this property when working on his light bulbs.
Semiconductor diodes are made of two types of semiconductors connected to each other. One type has atoms with extra electrons (called the n-side). The other type has atoms that want electrons (called the p-side). Because of this, the electricity will flow easily from the side with too many electrons to the side with too few. However, electricity will not flow easily in the reverse direction. These different types are made by doping (semiconductor). Silicon with arsenic dissolved in it makes a good n-side semiconductor, while silicon with aluminum dissolved in it makes a good p-side semiconductor. Other chemicals can also work.
The connector to the n-side is called the cathode, the connector to the p-side is called the anode.
If you give positive voltage to the p-side and negative voltage to the n-side, the electrons in the n-side will want to go to the positive voltage at the p-side and the holes of the p-side will want to go to the negative voltage at the n-side. Because of this, current flow is able to exist, but it takes a certain amount of voltage to get this started (very small amount of voltage is not enough to get the electric current to flow). This is called the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage of a silicon diode is at about 0.7 V. A germanium diode needs a cut-in voltage at about 0.3 V.
If you instead give negative voltage to the p-side and positive voltage to the n-side, the electrons of the n-side want to go to the positive voltage source instead of the other side of the diode. Same thing happens on the p-side. So, current will not flow between the two sides of the diode. Increasing the voltage will eventually force electric current to flow (this is the break-down voltage). Many diodes will be destroyed by a reverse flow but some are made that can survive it.
When the temperature increases, the cut-in voltage goes down. This makes it easier for electricity to pass through the diode.
There are many types of diodes. Some have very specific uses and some have a variety of uses.
Here are some common semiconductor diode symbols used in schematic diagrams:
This changes A/C (alternating current, like in a wall plug in a house) to D/C (direct current, used in electronics). The standard rectifier diode has specific requirements. It should handle high current, not be much affected by temperature, have a low cut-in voltage and support quick changes in the direction of current flow. Modern analog and digital electronics use such rectifiers.
An LED produces light when electricity flows through it. It is a longer lasting and more efficient way of creating light than incandescent light bulbs. Depending on how it was made, the LED can make different colors. LEDs were first used in the 1970's. The light-emitting diode may eventually replace the light bulb as developing technology makes it brighter and cheaper (it is already more efficient and lasts longer). In the 1970's the LEDs were used to show numbers in appliances such as calculators, and as a way to show the power was on for larger appliances.
A photodiode is a photo detector (the opposite of a light-emitting diode). It responds to light that comes in. Photodiodes have a window or optical fiber connection, which lets light in to the sensitive part of the diode. Diodes usually have strong resistance; the light reduces the resistance.
A zener diode is like a normal diode, but instead of being destroyed by a big reverse voltage, it lets electricity through. The voltage needed for this is called the breakdown voltage or Zener voltage. Because it is built with a known breakdown voltage it can be used to supply a known voltage.
The varicap or varactor diode is used in many appliances. It uses the region between the p-side and n-side of the diode where electrons and holes balance each other. This is called the depletion zone. By changing the amount of reverse voltage, the size of the depletion zone changes. There is some capacitance in this area, and it changes based on the size of the depletion zone. This is called variable capacitance, or varicap for short. It is used in PLLs (Phase-locked loops) which are used to control the high-speed frequency a chip runs at.
The symbol is the symbol of a diode with a kind of snag. It is used in circuits with high frequencies up to GHz. It turns off very quickly when the forward voltage stops. It uses the current that flows after the polarity was reversed to do this.
The construction of this diode has an intrinsic (normal) layer between the n- and the p-sides. At slower frequencies, it acts much like a standard diode. But at high speeds it can not keep up with fast changes and starts to act like a resistor. The intrinsic layer also lets it handle high power inputs, and can be used as a photodiode.
The symbol of this is the diode symbol, with an ‘S’ at the peak. Instead of both sides being a semiconductor (like silicon), one side is metal, like aluminum or nickel. This reduces the cut-in voltage to about 0.3 volt. This is about half of the threshold voltage of a usual diode.
The function of this diode is that no minority carriers are injected - the n-side only has holes, not electrons, and the p-side only has electrons, not holes. Because this is cleaner, it can react faster, without diffusion capacitance that can slow it down. It also creates less heat and is more efficient. But it does has some current leakage with reverse voltage.
When a diode switches from moving current to not moving current, this is known as switching. It takes dozens of nanoseconds in a typical diode; this creates some radio noise, which temporarily degrades radio signals. The Schottky diode switches in a small fraction of that time, less than a nanosecond.
In the symbol of the tunnel diode there is a kind of additional square bracket at the end of the usual symbol.
A tunnel diode consists of a highly doped pn-junction. Because of this high doping, there is only a very narrow gap where the electrons are able to pass through. This tunnel-effect appears in both directions.
After a certain quantity of electrons have passed, the current through the gap decreases, until the normal current through the diode at the threshold voltage begins. This causes an area of a negative resistance.
These diodes are used to deal with really high frequencies (100 GHz). It is also resistant to radiation, so they are used in spacecraft. They are also used in microwaves and refrigerators.
The symbol has at the end of the diode a sign that looks like a big I. It is made similar to the tunnel diode, but the n- and the p-layer are not doped as high. It allows current to flow backwards with small negative voltages. It can be used to rectify low voltages (less than 0.7 volts).
Instead of two layers like a normal diode, this has four layers, it is basically two diodes put together, with a gate in the middle. When voltage goes between the gate and the cathode the lower transistor will turn on. This lets the current go through, which activates the upper transistor, and then the current will not need to be turned on by a gate voltage.
Power trio
Ratchet &amp; Clank: Going Commando
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando (Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded in Europe, Australia and New Zealand) is a 3D platform/shooter for the PlayStation 2. It was developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony in 2003. It is the second game in the "Ratchet & Clank" series. The words "Going Commando" are a phrase, or set of words, for wearing pants with no underwear.
Similar to "Ratchet & Clank", "Going Commando" got high review scores, and has a 92% on Game Rankings, and a 90% from Metacritic. IGN gave the game a score of 9.4/10, and Gamestats gave it a 9.1/10. Game Informer magazine called it Game of the Month when it was released. "Going Commando" was given a 4/5 from Gamespy and a 5/5 from X-Play.
Gillian Welch
David Rawlings
Meitnerium
Meitnerium is a chemical element in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 109. It is not found on earth naturally. Because of this, it needs to be made in a science laboratory. Its half life, or the amount of time it takes for half of the element to go away is a little over one second. Meitnerium was first made in 1982.
The element is named in honor of Lise Meitner (1878-1968).
The two letter abbreviation is "Mt" and is a solid. Nobody knows for sure what meitnerium looks like, but scientists think it is a white, gray, or silver color.
4-1-1
The Convent (Gibraltar)
Pomp and Circumstance Marches
The "Pomp and Circumstance Marches" are a group of five marches for orchestra composed by Sir Edward Elgar. Their full title is: "Pomp and Circumstance Military Marches"). Elgar started to write a sixth march, but never finished it.
The first of the marches is especially famous and has a tune which is one of the best known tunes in Britain. It is often sung to the words " Land of Hope and Glory".
The title “Pomp and Circumstance”is taken from Act III, Scene iii of Shakespeare's "Othello":
The "Pomp and Circumstance" marches are
The first five were all published by Boosey & Co. as Elgar's Op. 39. Elgar dedicated each march to one of his musical friends.
Each march takes about five minutes to play.
" March No. 1 in D " is the best known of the set. It was completed, together with March No. 2, in 1901, soon after the first performance of his “Dream of Gerontius” which had been badly performed. Elgar dedicated it to Alfred Rodewald who conducted its first performance with the Liverpool Orchestra Society on 19 October 1901. Both marches were played two days later at a Promenade Concert in the Queen's Hall London, conducted by Henry Wood. Elgar knew that the audience would love the big tune in the middle of March No. 1, so that march was played second. Henry Wood tells in his autobiography that “the people simply rose and yelled. I had to play it again – with the same result; in fact, they refused to let me get on with the programme….merely to restore order, I played the march a third time.”
The next year King Edward VII was due to be crowned in June. The King liked the big tune, and wanted it performed with words at the coronation. So Elgar used it at the end of his "Coronation Ode" with words by A.C. Benson. The coronation did not take place because the king became ill just before the big day. "Land of Hope and Glory" was sung in June 1902 by Clara Butt, and the whole Ode was performed in Sheffield four months later.
In Britain "Land of Hope and Glory" is sung every year at the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1.
The words are:
In the United States the tune is sometimes known as "Pomp and Circumstance" or as "The Graduation March", and is played as the processional tune at high school and college graduation ceremonies.
" March No. 2 in A minor " was dedicated to the composer Granville Bantock". It was first performed at the same concert as March No. 1. It the shortest and simplest of the marches.
" March No. 3 in C minor " was finished in November 1904 and published in 1905. It was dedicated to Ivor Atkins". It was first performed on 8 March 1905, in the Queen's Hall, London, conducted by the composer. It sounds quite serious at first, then it becomes very energetic.
" March No. 4 in G " is very grand, like No. 1. Again there is a big tune in the middle. It was dedicated to Dr. G. Robertson Sinclair, the organist of Hereford Cathedral. It was first performed on 24 August 1907, in the Queen's Hall, London, conducted by Elgar himself.
" March No. 5 in C ", composed in 1930, was dedicated to Percy Hull, a friend from Hereford. It has some brilliant orchestral effects.
" March No. 6 in G minor " was started, but when Elgar died there were only sketches left. The musician Anthony Payne recently discovered some more sketches for it in the library of the Royal School of Church Music. He finished composing in the way that Elgar might have done, and the work was first performed on 2 August 2006 with Andrew Davis conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra at The Proms at Royal Albert Hall.
704 Interamnia
704 Interamnia is a very big asteroid. Scientists think it is 350 kilometers wide. Its mean distance from the Sun is 3.067 (AU). It was found on October 2, 1910 by Vincenzo Cerulli. It is named after the Latin name for Teramo, Italy, which is where Cerulli worked. It is the fifth heaviest asteroid after Ceres, Vesta, Pallas and Hygiea, and scientists think that it makes up 2.0% of the mass of the whole asteroid belt.
Although the biggest asteroid apart from the "big four", Interamnia is not studied a lot.
It is easily the biggest of the F-type asteroids, but there are few details of what the inside is made of or shape and no lightcurve analysis has been done to find out the ecliptic coordinates of Interamnia's poles (and its axial tilt). Its apparently high bulk density (though subject to much error) suggests a very solid body entirely without internal porosity or traces of water. This also strongly suggests that Interamnia is big enough to have withstood all the collisions that have happened in the asteroid belt since the Solar System was made.
Its very dark surface and fairly far distance from the Sun means Interamnia can never be seen with 10x50 binoculars. At most oppositions its magnitude is around +11.0, which is less than the "minimum" brightness of Vesta, Ceres or Pallas. Even at a near-perihelion opposition its magnitude is only around +9.9, which is over four magnitudes lower than Vesta.
Its orbit is a more eccentric than Hygiea (15% versus 12%) but is different because Hygiea's orbit is much more inclined and takes less time to complete one orbit. Another difference is that Interamnia's perihelion is at the other side of the perihelia of the "big four", so that Interamnia at perihelion is actually closer to the Sun than Ceres and Pallas are at the same longitude. It is unlikely to collide with Pallas because their nodes are located too far apart. Although its nodes are located on the opposite side from those of Ceres, it is generally far from Ceres when both cross the same orbital plane and a collision is again unlikely.
River Ocoa
The River Ocoa is a river in the southern side of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It is 68 km long and flows through mountains except near its end in the Caribbean Sea.
Ocoa is a Taíno word that means "a place with mountains"; "coa" meant "place" and "o" meant, in some cases, "mountain".
The source of the Ocoa is at the La Chorreosa mountain (also known as La Chorriosa), on the eastern side of Valle Nuevo (Cordillera Central). It flows through the San José de Ocoa province and then form part of the limits between the Azua and Peravia provinces.
It ends at the eastern side of Ocoa Bay, on the Caribbean Sea.
The city of San José de Ocoa is the most important city near the river. Other towns are Las Carreras, Sabana Buey and Villa Fundación, in the Peravia province, and Palmar de Ocoa in the Azua province, near its mouth. The water of the river is used for irrigation in those towns; it is not used for the houses because it has too much solid materials because mountains have very few trees.
The most important tributaries are Banilejo, Canal and Arroyo Parra, all in the higher part of the river. There is not any important tributary in the lower part.
In the 16th century, sugar cane was grown near the mouth of the river to produce sugar.
On April 1849, there was an important battle (the "Battle of Las Carreras") here during the Dominican-Haitian War; the fight was on the western side of the river in Las Carreras, a place at about 20 km from the mouth. The Dominican army won the battle against the Haitian army.
Louise Michel (1830-1905) was a French anarchist, school teacher and medical worker. She sometimes used the pseudonym "Clémence" and was also known as "the red virgin of Montmartre".
Louise Michel was born at the Château of Vroncourt (Haute-Marne) on 29 May 1830, the daughter of Marianne Michel, and of Etienne Charles Demahis. She was brought up by her father's parents, and received a libertaria education. After her grandfather's death in 1850 she was trained to teach, but after few times she saw that Napoleon III prevented her from serving in a state school. She became violently anti-Bonapartist, and is said to have thought about the assassination of Napoleon III. She became anarchist in 1866 to a school in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, where she saw that his destiny was to work for charity and follow the revolution.
She was active during the Paris Commune as an ambulance woman, she helped mutilated or injured on the barricades. During the Siege of Paris she was in resistance against the Prussians. On the establishment of the Commune, she joined the National Guard. She offered to shoot Thiers, and suggested the destruction of Paris for its surrender.
She was with the Communards who made their last stand in the cemetery of Montmartre, and was closely allied with Théophile Ferré, who was executed in November 1871. Michel dedicated a moving farewell poem to Ferré, "l’œillet rouge" ("The Red Carnation"). It is without a doubt that upon learning of this loss, Victor Hugo dedicated his poem to Michel, "Viro Major". This ardent attachment was perhaps one of the sources of the exaltation which marked her career, and gave many handles to her enemies. After December 1871, she was making propaganda, for help poor people, trying to destroy the government, and supporting people to arm themselves, and herself using weapons and wearing a military uniform. She never renounced the Commune, and few times later the judges to sentence her to death. She spent twenty months in prison and was sentenced to deportation.
She was put onto the ship "Virginie" on the 8th of August, 1873, to be deported. She arrived in New Caledonia 4 months later. On board, she met Henri Rochefort, a famous polemist, who became her friend until her death. She also met Nathalie Lemel, another figure active in the commune. Louise was in New Caledonia for seven years. She refused special treatment reserved for women. In 1878 she was a leader in a revolt. The following year, she received authorisation to become a teacher in Nouméa for the children of the deported—among them many Kabyles (Kabyles du Pacifique) from Cheikh Mokrani's rebellion (1871)—and later in schools for girls.
Michel returned to Paris in 1880 after amnesty was given to the Communards. Her revolutionary never died and she controlled freely a libertarian school. She travelled everywhere in France, supporting revolution. In 1883 she led a Paris mob which pillaged a baker's shop. For this she was given six years imprisonment, but was released in 1886, at the same time as Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists. After a short period of freedom she was again arrested for speaking bad about the social system.
She was soon free again, but, hearing that her enemies hoped to put her in a lunatic asylum, she went to England in 1890. She returned to France in 1895, taking part in the revolt made by the Dreyfuss affair in 1898. Few months ago she was constantly followed by the police, until she died in "Room 11", in the Hotel Oasis, Marseilles on January 10, 1905.
Michel became highly admired by French workers and revolutionaries, particularly for her association with the Paris Commune. From after her death until 1916, a demonstration was held every year at her tomb at Levallois-Perret. Frequently, the language used to describe her is that reserved for saints and heretics; she is often referred to as ""Bonne Louise"" (Good Louise) or the ""Vierge rouge"" (red Virgin). She was always respected same in periods when women were without right.
On May 1, 1946, the Parisian "métro" station "Vallier" was renamed Louise Michel, see: Louise Michel (Paris Metro).
Louise Michel (Paris Metro)
Louise Michel is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Line 3. It is located in the commune of Levallois-Perret northwest of the French capital, Paris.
Before 1946, this station was named "Vallier" after a mountain (2839m)in the Pyrenees near the Val d'Aran.
The station was renamed on May 1, 1946 to "Louise Michel", in honour of the French anarchist and communarde.
Louise Michel Battalions
An idol is a religious item that represents a god. It can also mean someone who is admired by many people, like a pop idol. Idolatry refers to the worship of idols.
Christians disagree about what idolatry is. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy see Christian art and icons as good, because they see Christ's Incarnation as having made images of God lawful. However many Protestants regard much Catholic art as idolatry.