AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The historic town of 5,000 people is part of the Brig-Glis municipality. The name 'Brig' comes from "Briva", or "bridge." Its medieval name was "Briga dives". It is a small town in the Swiss canton of the Valais, at the foot of the northern slope of the Simplon Pass, on the right bank of the Saltine stream, and a little above its junction with the Rhone. Its older houses look very Italian. Its buildings were built during the 17th century, because of a single member of the local Stockalper family.
Brig is close to the Swiss-Italian borders. The language used when talking between one another is a unique German dialect, used only in this canton. Brig is popular among winter sport athletes, since it is surrounded by many Alp summits. The town itself is close to Rhone river. Due to the height, the temperatures in winter often remain below zero, resulting in frost. During the summer season, heat can be intense.
The place of meeting in the town is the train station, which links it to other Swiss cities.
The wealth of Brig is because of the Simplon Pass. The opening of the carriage road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel beneath the pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brig is the steeper and less fertile portion of the Upper Valais (then much frequented by tourists), greatly increased the importance and size of the town.
Pennine Alps
The Pennine Alps are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. They are in Switzerland (Valais) and Italy (Piedmont and the Aosta Valley).
They include the following peaks:
Bernese Alps
The Bernese Alps are a group of mountain ranges in the western part of the Alps, in Switzerland. Although the name notes that they are in the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern, some of the Bernese Alps are found in the cantons of Vaud, Fribourg, Valais, Lucerne, Uri, and Nidwalden.
The main peaks of the Bernese Alps are:
Armenian National Committee of America
The Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) is the largest and most influential Armenian American advocacy organization in the United States. Working in coordination with a network of offices, chapters, and supporters throughout the country and affiliated organizations around the world, the ANCA advances the concerns of the Armenian American community on a broad range of issues.
Beyond the Central offices of ANCA are in Washington DC, Boston and Los Angeles, ANCA has more than fifty local chapters and thousands of activists, it is cooperating with a large web of regional Armenian National Committees (or "Armenian Cause/Hay Tad" Offices) in Armenia, Russia, France, the Middle East, Canada and Australia.
The Executive Director of ANCA is Aram Hamparian.
Valais
Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the south-western part of the country.
It is near the valley of the Rhone River from its springs to Lake Geneva, that separates Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhone valley. It is also one of most well-watered parts, having large amounts of snow and rain up on the highest peaks in Switzerland. It is perhaps best known worldwide for the Matterhorn.
The canton of Valais is in the south of Switzerland. To its south is Italy, to the southwest France. To the north the canton there are the Swiss cantons of Vaud and Bern; the cantons of Uri and Ticino lie to its east.
The wide, icy Rhone valley dominates the area. There are many side valleys off the main valley. At the head of the Mattertal valley is Zermatt, a pretty tourist village dominated by views of the Matterhorn (4,478 m). Fifty of the mountains are more than 4,000m high, with the highest, Monte Rosa, that reaches to 4,638m (15,217 ft), and there are many glaciers.
The Rhône drains the main valley from east to west up to Martigny, Switzerland, then in a right angle north to its mouth in the Lake Geneva. After the small town of Saint-Maurice, the northern banks of the river belong to the canton of Vaud. The main valley is between the Bernese Alps in the north and the Pennine Alps in the south. Only about half of the total area is considered productive.
The Romans called the area "Vallis Poenina" (""Upper Rhône Valley"").
In 888, Valais became a part of the kingdom of Jurane Burgundy.
King Rudolph III of Burgundy gave the area to the Bishop of Sion in 999, and made him Count of the Valais. The count-bishops had to defend their area against the dukes of Savoy.
in 1474 was the Battle of Planta, a place near the capitale Sion. The Bishop of Sion and the people of the Sieben Zenden, beat the Duke of Savoy. The Battle of Planta is a part of the Burgundy War.
After this battle, the bisoph conquired the area until Lake Geneva.
Valais did not follow the Protestant Reformation.
On March 12, 1529, Valais became an associate member ("Zugewandter Ort") of the Swiss Confederation.
In 1628 the Valais became a republic, the "République des Sept Dizains / Republik der Sieben Zenden" but the bishop remained in power until Napoleon's troops invaded the Valais and created the "République du Valais" on March 16, 1798 but on May 1, 1798, the Valais became part of the Helvetic Republic and became independent again in 1802 as the "Rhodanic Republic".
In 1810, the Rhodanic Republic was made a part of France, and was called the Simplon Department.
Valais became independent again in 1813 and on August 4, 1815 decided to join the Swiss confederation as a canton (state).
In 1845, the Valais joined the Catholic separatist league ("Sonderbund"), but never fought federal troops when other members of the league started fighting in 1847.
Wine production and tourism are some of the main industries of the canton. The Matterhorn near Zermatt is one of the biggest tourist attractions in the Swiss mountains, as is its sister valley immediately east Saas Fee. Other parts of the mountains of the canton farther west are popular as well, such as the more French speaking resorts near Verbier and the Evolene & Arolla region. The resorts on the north side of the main Rhone river valley are popular, looking out southwards towards the Peninne Alps and still part of the southern slope of the Bernese Alps, such as the family oriented resort of Crans-Montana. The resorts in the Goms region are slightly less known, yet also receive attention during the summer hiking season and the winter ski season.
Apart from tourism, agriculture is still important, particularly cattle breeding in the mountains and dairy farming in the plains. The wine industry of the canton is the largest in Switzerland. There are also a large number orchards in the area, and saffron is also gathered here.
The most industrial western region of the canton is called Chablais. The area is very important for the economy. There are a lot of factories, the most important are the subsidiaries of Novartis and Syngenta, in Monthey. In the town of Collombey, there is an oil refinery.
Near Visp there is a large plant of aluminium manufacturing. Other metal products and chemicals are produced around Visp and Sierre.
Despite the thriving tourist industry, high level of infrastructure, and the many vineyards, canton Valais is still one of the poorest of the Swiss cantons, and not near the rich banking/financial cantons. A large portion of the canton's land and houses are now owned by foreigners.
A small airport is at Sion, but the main routes of transport are rail and road. Both networks are large and benefit from tourism. Many of the road passes are well known, such as the Grimsel Pass. The longest land tunnel in the world, the Lötschberg Base Tunnel, will soon be working, in late 2007 perhaps, connecting by rail the town of Frutigen in canton Bern, with the town of Visp in canton Valais/Wallis. This is to better spread car traffic in the highly scenic Kandertal, and also to provide faster transport through the Bernese Alps from the populous Mittelland in the north to the southern canton of Valais. Cars may be loaded onto the trains as freight.
Valais is mostly French speaking. The eastern part of the canton Upper Valais, however, speaks Walliser German. The French speaking population makes up a two-thirds of the population.
The people of the canton are spread thinly. The largest towns are the capitals Sion ("Sitten"), Sierre and Brig. There is no major city in the canton. Most of the population is Roman Catholic.
The following are the cities of the canton, by district.
Conthey (district)
Martigny, Switzerland
Martigny is the capital city of the French-speaking district of Martigny in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
It is 495 meters high. It has a population of about 15,000 people. Martigny is at the joining of Italy, France and Switzerland, one road linking this town over the Great St. Bernard Pass to Aosta (Italy), and the other one, over the col de la Forclaz to Chamonix (France). In winter, Martigny is appreciated for its nearby ski resorts like Verbier.
In the first century BCE, present-day Martigny was an oppidum or vicus of a Celtic tribe, the Veragri. It was then called Octodurus or Octodurum. When Julius Caesar was in Gaul (57-56 BCE), he sent Servius Galba with the twelfth legion and some cavalry into the country of the Nantuates, Veragri, and Seduni. His purpose in sending this force was to open the pass over the Alps, the pass of the Great St. Bernard, by which road the "mercatores" had been used to travel at great risk, and with the payment of great tolls. ("B. G." iii. 1.) The people of the Alps allowed the Italian merchants to pass, because if they plundered them the merchants would not come; but they got as much out of them as they could. Galba, after taking many strong places, and receiving the submission of the people, sent off two cohorts into the country of the Nantuates, and with the remaining cohorts determined to winter in Octodurus, which was in a valley with no great extent of level ground near it, confined on all sides by very lofty mountains. There is some level ground at Martigny, and the valley of the Rhone at this part is not very narrow. Caesar says that the town of Octodurus was divided into parts by a river, but he does not mention the river's name. It is the Dranse. Galba gave one part of the town to the Galli to winter in, and assigned the other to his troops. He fortified himself with a ditch and rampart, and thought he was safe. He was, however, suddenly attacked by the Galli before his defences were complete or all his supplies were brought into the camp. Thus began the Battle of Octodurus. The Romans obstinately defended themselves in a six hours' fight; when, seeing that they could no longer keep the enemy out, they made a sortie, which was successful. The Romans estimated the Galli at more than 30,000, and Caesar says that more than a third part were destroyed. The slaughter of the enemy was prodigious, which has been made an objection to Caesar's veracity, or to Galba's, who made his report to the commander. It has also been objected that the valley is not wide enough at Martigny to hold the 30,000 men. There may be error in the number that attacked, and also in the number who died. After this escape Galba prudently withdrew his troops, and marching through the country of the Nantuates reached the land of the Allobroges, where he wintered.
The region joined the Roman Empire. In 47, Emperor Claudius founded Forum Claudii Augusti, later renamed Forum Claudii Vallensium to avoid confusion with another city that was dear to him. Octodurus was the principal town of the area until the displacement of the episcopal see to Sion in the 4th century. Pliny (iii. c. 20) says that the Octodurenses received the "Latinitas" ("Latio donati"). The town appears in the Antonine Itinerary and in the Tabula Peutingeriana. In the "Notit. Prov.", the place is called Civitas Vallensium Octodurus. At a later period it was called Forum Claudii Vallensium Octodurensium, as an inscription shows. One authority speaks of the remains of a Roman aqueduct at Martigny. Many coins, and other memorials of the Roman time, have been found about the place.
The name "Octodur" is manifestly Celtic. The second part of the name is "Dur", water. The first part, probably some corrupt form, is not explained. The town sat on the Roman road from Augusta Praetoria (modern Aosta) in Italy.
The Romans left many ruins. The city is known for the amphitheatre, which was restored in 1978. Cow fights are held in the amphitheatre during early autumn for the "Comptoir". The city is also famous for its museum, the Pierre Gianadda Foundation, built on top of Roman ruins.
The area has some apricot orchards, and vines on steep slopes.
Mattertal
Mattertal is a valley in the Alps of Switzerland which begins on the side of the Matterhorn. The "Matterhorn" is one of the most famous mountains in the world because of its beauty, and because it is hard to climb.
The "Mattertal" is a valley that was made by a glacier (a slowly-moving river of ice) moving down from the mountain. This can be seen from the deep U shape of the valley. (Valleys made by a fast-running stream are V-shaped). Because the sides of the valley are very steep, there are often landslides. One can be seen in the photo taken near Randa village. Many houses in the villages are called chalets. These can be seen in the picture of Täsch village.
In the Mattertal are villages which include Zermatt, Täsch, Randa, Grächen, and St. Niklaus. Many tourists like to stay in the villages to see the view, to go walking, skiing or mountain climbing. The traditional work of the people is dairy farming, but many people work in the tourist industry.
Zermatt is a municipality in the district of Visp in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
It is found to the north of the Matterhorn in the German-speaking and mostly Roman Catholic section of the canton. It is pretty far southeast of Gstaad, and is pretty close to the border with Italy.
Zermatt has a local population of 5,500 people, but the actual population changes through the seasons as tourists come and go.
Zermatt is a famed ski resort and is a tourist destination. Until the mid-1800s, it was mostly a farming community; its name, as well as that of the Matterhorn itself, derives from the alpine meadows, or "matten", in the valley. In the German language, the town is "Zur Matte", or "in the meadow."
The town was "discovered" mid-century by British mountaineers, most notably Edward Whymper, whose conquest of the Matterhorn made the village famous worldwide.
Zermatt is a closed village, which means that non-Swiss nationals are not permitted to buy property within the area. May is the worst time to visit this city, as most of the streets are muddy.
Zermatt is a good place to start many hikes into the surrounding mountains, such as the Haute Route that ultimately leads to Chamonix in France. A complex of cable cars and chair lifts carry skiers in the winter and hikers in the summer; the highest of them leads to the Klein Matterhorn, a small outcropping on the ridge between Breithorn and Matterhorn that offers cool views in all directions. It is possible to cross into Italy via the Cervinia cable car station.
Any automobile that uses an engine is not allowed in Zermatt because of concerns for air pollution. Electric vehicles are allowed for local commerces. The Cantonal police allow some people to park in the northern section of this city. Some emergency vehicles (firetrucks, ambulance..) are also allowed to use combustion engines.
Most people reach Zermatt by train or cable car. Trains also leave for Zermatt from Visp and Brig.
Zermatt is well known throughout the world for its great skiing, especially Triftji for its moguls. The high altitude results in consistent skiing continuously up until the summer.
Skiing in Zermatt is split up into four distinct areas; Sunnegga, Gornegrat, Klein Matterhorn and Schwarzsee. There is also a connection to Cervinia and Valtournenche in Italy.
Trail Map.
Ajax the Lesser
Post-nominal letters
Post-nominal letters are letters after a person's name. They are used most in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms to show that the person has a certain:
Academic degrees (qualifications from a university) can also be shown as postnominal letters, as can military awards (medals and decorations)
Corvidae
The Corvidae are the crow family. They are all passerines. There are over 120 species in the family. The word 'crow' is also used to describe birds in the genus "Corvus". This genus includes the crows, jackdaws and ravens.
Crows are found on every continent except for the southern area of South America and Antarctica. Most crows are found in South America, Central America, Europe and Asia. There are only 10 species each in Africa, Australia and North America.
A group of crows is called a "murder".
Most members of the crow family are black, such as crows, rooks, choughs, ravens and jackdaws. However, not all crows are black. Magpies and treepies can be black and white, or blue and green, or brown. Jays are often blue and white.
Crows are some of the most intelligent birds in the world. Crows and rooks are good at using tools, for example sticks or twigs. Magpies can see themselves in a mirror and they understand that it is a reflection. Many crows live near to humans in towns and cities. Some crows (such as Treepies) live in forests. They are more shy than the crows that live in cities.
Some crows in North America, Europe and northern Asia migrate. This means they travel to different places in summer or winter. Most crows are resident birds. This means they live in the same place all year round.
Many crows live in large groups. For example, many rooks nest together in large groups at the top of trees. This is called a rookery. Crows in big groups are often noisy. However, when it is the breeding season (this means when birds nest and have babies), crows can become angry and will scare off other crows.
Crows eat a variety of food. They will eat fledglings (baby birds) and eggs from nests, small animals (mice and rats), carrion (dead animals), vegetables and garbage. for much of the year, crows and rooks dig into grassland with their strong beaks, and eat various kinds of insect grubs and worms. Because they may attack the nest of other birds, crows may get mobbed by other species. This is when the defending birds group together to chase off the crow. Also, on farms, crows will eat vegetables and seeds. Farmers do not want this to happen so they make a scarecrow. This is an object made of straw and old clothes. It looks like a man and it may scare the crows away.
Crows make their nests in tall trees. They make the nest from large sticks. They usually lay 3–8 eggs. Both parents will look after the fledglings.
The family includes:
Visp
Visp is the capital city of the district of Visp in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
It has a population of around 7,000 people. The two valleys are Mattertal and Saastal. It borders Brig-Glis
The majority of the population are German-speaking.
It has a chemical business named LONZA AG. There are also several smaller businesses.
In 2007, Visp will become a junction of the Neue Eisenbahn-Alpentransversale or NEAT, connecting with many other rail-lines.
The bus and the train station of Visp and Brig is the starting point for many outdoor activities, trips, and tours in the surrounding mountain resorts of Zermatt and Saas-Fee.
Saint-Maurice, Switzerland
Saint-Maurice is the capital of the district of Saint-Maurice in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
On 1 January 2013 the former municipality of Mex (VS) merged into the municipality of Saint-Maurice.
It is the site of the Roman outpost of Agaunum and the old Abby of Saint-Maurice, which has become a famous high school in Switzerland ("Collège de Saint-Maurice").
It is not St. Moritz, a ski resort in the east part of Switzerland.
Conthey
Entremont (district)
Entremont is a district in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
It has the following cities:
Santeri Palin
Santeri Palin (also known as Incánus) (born September 15, 1983, Nokia, Finland.) is a Finnish poet who writes poems in Finnish and English. His first book "Elämän kolmio kuoleman syklissä – ajatuksia reunalta" ("The Triangle of Life in the Cycle of Death – Thoughts from the Edge") came out in 2006.
Palin is a fan of J. R. R. Tolkien and currently he is the president of "Kontu Internet Community" (or "Verkkoyhteisö Kontu ry" in Finnish) and the vice president of the "Finnish Tolkien Society", which are Finnish Tolkien related communities.
Sembrancher
Sembrancher is the capital of the district of Entremont in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
A small scenic village of around 500 residents in the Bagnes Valley, it is close to the Verbier ski resort. There is a way to get from Sembrancher to the Verbier ski resort and back for people interested in skiing.
Münster-Geschinen
Münster-Geschinen is the capital city of the district of Goms in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. On 1 January 2004 the former municipalities of Münster and Geschinen merged into the new municipality of Münster-Geschinen and On 1 January 2017 the former municipalities of Münster-Geschinen, Blitzingen, Grafschaft, Niederwald and Reckingen-Gluringen merged into the new municipality of Goms.
Microbiotheria
Microbiotheria are a small order of marsupial mammals with only one living species, the Monito del Monte (Spanish for 'little mountain monkey').
It is the only New World representative of the superorder Australidelphia; all other New World marsupials are part of the Ameridelphia.
The species is nocturnal and arboreal, and lives in thickets of Chilean bamboo in the temperate rain forests of the southern Andes. It eats mainly insects and other small invertebrates, supplemented with fruit.
At one time, they were placed in the order Didelphimorphia, the opossums, but due to many morphological differences, they were placed in another order. The skull's shape is strange, with many technical differences from the opossums.
It has long been suspected that South American marsupials were ancestral to those of Australia. The two continents were connected via Antarctica in the early Cainozoic era.
Australia’s earliest known marsupial is "Djarthia", a primitive mouse-like animal that lived about 55 million years ago. "Djarthia" had been identified as the earliest known australidelphian, and this research suggested that the Monito del Monte was the last of a clade which included "Djarthia".
In 2010, analysis of retrotransposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of marsupials confirmed the placement of the Monito del Monte in Australidelphia. It also showed its position as the most basal of that superorder.
The study also confirmed that the most basal of all marsupial orders are the other two South American lineages (Didelphimorphia and Paucituberculata, with the former probably branching first). This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America (with the ancestors of all other living marsupials), and probably reached Australia in a single dispersal event after Microbiotheria split off (originated).
Dasyuromorphia
Dasyuromorphia are fair-sized order of some of the more unusual carnivorous or insectivorous marsupials. They vary in appearance, from rodent-like to shrew-like to cat-like to dog-like. This order includes the ever-famous Tasmanian devil. In this order, most of the marsupials have a pouch on the belly. However, some of the broad-footed marsupial mice have only folds of skin instead of true pouches, and the numbat lacks a pouch entirely. There are 63 species in 3 families, although one of the families is probably extinct:
Goat Rock Beach
Goat Rock Beach is a beach in Sonoma County, California, United States.
It is part of the Sonoma Coast State Beach, which is owned by the State of California. The mouth of the Russian River is in the northern part of the beach. Goat Rock is in the southern part of the beach. The beach itself was named after the rock. The naming of Goat Rock is unknown, but many sources say some goat herders around the early 20th century used the grassy, flat rock for goats, because few other animals could live there.
Goat Rock Beach has many visitors. It usually has the most people in the middle of summer. The beach is a popular spot for swimming and surfing. It is home to seagulls, harbor seals, and sea lions, as well as other animals from the Pacific Ocean.
The oldest natural history of the area is related to marks made by mammals in an area of rock about one third of a mile south of Goat Rock Beach. In uplifted sea stack formations, there are rubbing marks about two to four meters above the ground surface, too high of a rubbing mark for modern bovids. Mammoths are thought to have traveled here as recently as 40,000 years ago, and are thought to have made these rubbing marks. Mammoth fossils have been found at Bodega Head, which is a few miles south of Goat Rock Beach.
The earliest known humans to settle at Goat Rock Beach were the Native American Coast Miwok and Pomo tribes. During the mid-1800s, Mexican ranchers lived in California, and Goat Rock Beach was part of a Mexican land grant called the "Bodega Rancho". The Russians are thought to have begun cutting down the forests just north of the beach in the early 19th century.
The Russian River, which has its mouth at the north end of Goat Rock Beach, is Sonoma County's biggest watercourse and river. Just north of the Russian River mouth is the small town of Jenner, and the beach, Jenner Beach. Goat Rock is at the south end of the beach. Visitors can walk onto Goat Rock, going on a small "isthmus", which is also known as a land bridge. Blind Beach is just south of Goat Rock Beach, with only Goat Rock between the two beaches, and Goat Beach is southwest of it.
Goat Rock Beach has much marine erosion and erosion from the wind. This causes about one to three feet of land mass lost each year. "Erosion" is when water and wind remove the top layer of rock or mud. During big storms, there can be even more erosion.
The "sea stacks" (eroded parts of rock) along the Goat Rock Beach coast are rocks from the Franciscan Complex, rock formations which were made during earthquakes in California. About 200 years to 30 million years ago, the North American Plate collided with the Farallon Plate, causing earthquakes. Different rock types came from these collisions, including pillow basalt, chert, and sandstone. Goat Rock has a flat topped sea stack, made of greywacke. The rock "formations" (groups) are made of sandstone with layers of quartz.
Sea lion
Sea lions are several pinnipeds from the family Otariidae (eared seals). They live all around the world, except in the Atlantic Ocean.
Male sea lions have thick fur around the face and neck, which sometimes looks like a lion's mane. That's how they got the name "sea lion". Some, like the Steller sea lion, can actually roar! Of course, these pinnipeds are not really lions at all, but they are mammals. Like lions, they have fur, breathe air, give birth to live young, and feed milk to their young. They also eat meat, though sea lions eat the meat of fishes, squids, and sea birds instead of land animals. Sea lions are also fierce fighters, just like lions.
The pinniped species called "sea lion" are:
Greywacke
Greywacke is a type of sandstone. It is hard, and dark in color. It has different sized grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments set in a compact, fine clay matrix. It is mostly found in Palaeozoic strata. The larger grains can be sand-to-gravel-sized, and matrix materials make up more than 15% of the rock by volume.
The origin of greywacke was a problem. Gravel, sand and mud should not be laid down together, because river outflow drops heavier grains first. Now geologists think greywacke is formed by submarine avalanches or strong turbidity currents. These actions churn sediment and cause mixed-sediment slurries to occur. When this happens, the resulting rocks show various sedimentary features. Support for the turbidity current origin is the fact that deposits of greywacke are found on the edges of the continental shelves, at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, and at the bases of mountain formational areas. It also occurs in association with black shales of deep sea origin.
Carmina Burana is the name given to a collection of texts from the 11th and 12th century. There are over 240 texts in the collection, most of them written in Latin, some in Middle High German. Most of the texts are moral or satirical in nature. There are also texts about spring, or about love. Some of them are drinking songs, some of them were used as Minnesang. Some of the songs contain hints for the melodies. For some, the melodies can be reconstructed.
The texts were written down around 1230. This happened either in an abbey in Styria, or near Brixen. They were discovered by Johann Christoph von Aretin in Benediktbeuern Abbey in 1803. Today, they are in the Bavarian State Library in Munich. There they can be found there as Codex Buranus, with the signature clm 4660/4660a.
Johann Andreas Schmeller edited them and published them as "Carmina Burana – Lieder aus Benediktbeuern".
Carl Orff took 24 of them as "Carmina Burana". He wrote the music for them. The work was first performed in 1937 in the Opera house in Frankfurt am Main. Together with his works "Catulli Carmina" and "Trionfo di Afrodite" he made a work containing all three, called "Trionfi". Trionfi is performed much less than the Carmina Burana alone, though.
Vex, Switzerland
Dasyuridae
Mohammed Zahir Shah
Mohammed Zahir Shah (16 October 1914 – 23 July 2007) was the last King ("Shah") of Afghanistan. He ruled for four decades, from 1933 to 1973.
Mohammed Zahir Shah became king of Afghanistan at the age of nineteen after the assassination of his father in November 1933. Since he was so young, his uncle, "Shah Mahmood Khan" ran the government. Mohammed Zahir Shah took control and was able to keep Afghanistan’s neutral position in international politics.
In July 17, 1973, Mohammed Zahir Shah was no longer king after a bloodless coup. He died on
Thurgau
Thurgau is a northeast canton of Switzerland. The population is 228,200 (2003). The capital is Frauenfeld.
To the north of Thurgau is Lake Constance, across which are Germany and Austria. The river Rhine makes the border in the northwest. To the south is the Canton of St. Gallen; to the west are the cantons of Zürich and Schaffhausen.
The area of the canton is 991 km and is usually divided into three hilly areas. One of these is along Lake Constance to the north. Another is inland between the rivers Thur and Murg. The third one makes the southern border of the canton and comes together with the Hörnli mountain in the pre-Alps.
In prehistoric times the lands of the canton were inhabited by people of the Pfyn culture along the lake. During Roman times the canton was part of the province "Raetia" until in 450 the lands were settled by the Alamanni. It was only in the 8th century that the canton became a political unit similar to what it is known today, as a Gau of the Frankish Empire. At the time, however, the area was not so clearly defined and changed frequently. Overall, the size of the Thurgau was larger, but during the Middle Ages the canton became smaller in size. The dukes of Zähringen and the counts of Kyburg took over much of the land.
The town of Zürich was part of the Thurgau until it became "reichsunmittelbar" in 1218. When the Kyburg dynasty became extinct in 1264 the Habsburgs took over that land. The Swiss confederation allied with ten freed bailiwicks of the former Toggenburg seized the lands of the Thurgau from the Habsburgs in 1460, and it became subject territory of Zürich.
In 1798 the land became a canton for the first time as part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 the canton of Thurgau became a member of the Swiss confederation. The current cantonal constitution dates from 1987.
The canton of Thurgau is known for farm produce such as apples, pears, and other fruits and vegetables. The many orchards in the canton are used for the making of cider. Wine is produced in the Thur valley.
There is also industry in the canton of Thurgau. The main industries are printing, clothing and arts and crafts. Small and middle-sized businesses are important for the economy. Many of these are concentrated around the capital.
The population is mostly German speaking. Most of the population are Protestants with the rest being Roman Catholics.
The Canton of Thurgau is divided into eight districts, and each is named after its capital:
There are 80 municipalities in the canton (as of April 2004):
Graubünden
Graubünden is the biggest and is farthest to the east of the cantons of Switzerland. The name means "Gray Union" in German and the canton lies entirely in the Alps. In Switzerland it hosts the biggest number of tourists each year.
The area of the canton is 7,105 km². Only one third of this land is used for farming. Forests cover 20% of the total area. The canton has many mountains that make up the highlands of the Rhine and Inn river valleys. Many of its scenic areas are part of the Swiss National Park or the Ela Nature Park.
There are many important peaks in the Grison Alps, including the Tödi at 3,614 meters and the highest peak Piz Bernina at 4,049 meters. Many of the mountain ranges feature huge glaciers, such as at the Adula, the Albula, the Silvretta, the Bernina, the Bregaglia and the Rätikon ranges. The mountain ranges in the central area contain many of the deepest vallies in Switzerland.
The canton borders Liechtenstein to the north, Austria to the north and the east, Italy to the south, and the cantons of St. Gallen to the northwest; Glarus and the canton of Uri to the west, and Ticino to the southwest. The capital city is Chur. Davos and St. Moritz are world-famous resorts and can be found in this area.
Most of the lands of the canton were once part of a Roman province called "Raetia" that was established in 15 BC. The area later was part of the lands of the diocese at Chur.
In 1367 the League of God's House was founded against the power of the Bishop of Chur. This was followed by the making of the Grey League, sometimes called "Oberbund", in 1395 in the Upper Rhine valley. The name "Grey League" is derived from the homespun grey clothes worn by the people. The name of this league later gave its name to the canton of Graubünden.
The first step towards the naming of the canton into Graubünden was when the league of the Ten Jurisdictions allied with the League of God's House in 1450. In 1471, the two leagues aligned with the Grey League. This meant that the leagues allied with the Swiss Confederation. The Habsburgs were defeated at Calven Gorge and Dornach, helping the Swiss confederation and the allied leagues of the canton of Grisons to be recognized.
The last traces of the bishop of Chur's jurisdiction were abolished in 1526. The Musso war of the 1520 drove the Three Leagues closer to the Swiss Confederacy. The lands of the canton of Graubünden were part of the Helvetic Republic, but the "perpetual ally" of Switzerland became a canton in 1803. The constitution of the canton dates from 1892.
The arms of the three original leagues are now all part of the coat of arms of the canton.
Private cars were only allowed in the canton of Graubünden after several votings in 1926.
The Graubünden are known for a dried-beef delicacy called Bündnerfleisch and for a nut and honey pie known as Bündner Nusstorte. Another specialty, made mostly in the western part of Grison, is Capuns, a filling meal of pasta and a little bit of meat, rolled into Chard leaves, eventually baked in mode of a gratin with cheese.
Agriculture and tourism make up most of the canton's economy. Agriculture combines forests and mountain pasturage in summer, mostly beef but also sheep and goats. Tourism is all around the canton, mainly around the towns of Davos/Arosa, Flims and St. Moritz/Pontresina, which are important in both winter and summer. There are a great number of other resorts people visiting the country can go to in the canton.
There is wine production around the capital Chur. Chur is also the center of industry. In the southern valleys of Mesolcina/Misox and Poschiavo there is corn (maize) and chestnut farming.
The languages spoken in Graubünden are German in the northwest, Romansh in the Engadin and around Disentis/Mustér), and Standard Italian in the valleys Mesolcina/Misox, Calanca, Val Bregaglia, and Poschiavo.
The main religions are Protestantism and Catholicism. Both are well-represented in the canton, with Roman Catholics forming a slight majority.
Graubünden is divided into 11 districts:
There are 209 municipalities in Graubünden (as of April 2004):
Nidwalden
Nidwalden is a canton of Switzerland. It is in the center of Switzerland. The population is 38,600 (in 2001). The capital is Stans.
Nidwalden is in the center of Switzerland. To the north is Lake Lucerne. Mountain ranges block in the rest of the canton on the other sides.
In 1291 the people of Nidwalden joined Uri and Schwyz to form an alliance. At the time there was no state, but towards the end of the 14th century early forms of government were established. This included institutionalized assemblies and courts. In the 14th and 15th century the people of Nidwalden joined the people of Obwalden to discuss important matters, but the two cantons were never really one. For example, Obwalden did not participate in the annexation of Bellinzona, Riviera and Blenio areas (today in the canton of Ticino).
Around 1500 many people in Nidwalden worked as mercenary soldiers. Many of these soldiers later emigrated. This helped to lessen the pressure of a growing population. A popular destination was the Alsace. After rejecting a new constitution by Napoleon — the ideas of the French Revolution were not popular in such an agricultural area — Nidwalden was attacked by French troops on 9 September 1798. Random destruction was caused and at least 400 people were killed. After the end of Napoleon's rule in 1814 most of the changes were reverted. Only in 1877 did Nidwalden introduce a new constitution. The open assembly ("Landsgemeinde") was abolished in 1997.
The government is composed of seven members. The local parliament has 60 seats.
Nidwalden sends only one deputy to the Swiss Council of States.
Up to the 1900s, Nidwalden was taken over by agriculture. Cattle and cheese were exported mainly to northern Italy. Around 1500, many people in Nidwalden worked as mercenary soldiers (people hired to fight for someone for money).
From the middle of the 19th century onwards, trade, industry and tourism gained momentum. Still, until the 1950s, agriculture took over the canton. Today, many small and middle-sized businesses fill the economy. The largest employer is the airplane constructor Pilatus. The small and middle-sized businesses work in a lot of areas. Many provide work in machine construction, medical equipment, international trade, optics and electronics.
Traditional areas such as forestry and agriculture are still important. Most farming is done with cattle and dairy products. Family farms are still common in Nidwalden today.
In recent years, Nidwalden is becoming an increasingly popular place to live and work. This is caused by its low taxes, its central location between Zürich and Milan, and the pretty countryside.
Because of the mountainous geography, tourism is important to Nidwalden. The lake and mountains attract many tourists around the year.
Many local charities have kept local traditions intact. There is traditional music, yodeling, dances, theaters and festivals. There are a number of modern cultural events, such as concerts and galleries.
There are eleven municipalities:
Schaffhausen
Schaffhausen is a town in northern Switzerland and the capital of the canton of the same name. It has a population of about 36,000 as 2016.
The old portion of the town has many fine Renaissance era buildings decorated with exterior frescos and sculpture, as well as the impressive old canton fortress, the "Munot". A train runs out of town to the nearby Rhine Falls in Neuhausen am Rheinfall, Europe's largest waterfall, a tourist attraction.
Schaffhausen was a city state in the Middle Ages, documented to have struck its own coins starting in 1045. For a time it was under Habsburg domination, but regained its independence in 1415. It allied itself with Zürich in 1457, and became a full member of the Swiss Confederation in 1501. The first railroad came to Schaffhausen in 1857.
Schaffhausen is in a finger of Swiss land surrounded on three sides by Germany. On April 1, 1944, Schaffhausen suffered a bombing raid by United States Army Air Forces aircraft which strayed from German airspace into neutral Switzerland. While the United States immediately offered four million dollars in reparations, the raid occurred only a month after the Swiss Air Force had shot down an American bomber.
In 1947 it merged with the former municipality of Buchthalen. In 1964 it merged with the former municipality of Herblingen. Since 2009, Hemmental has been part of the town.
Schaffhausen has some well-known industrial companies (Georg Fischer) in piping systems, machine tools and automotives, one internationally-reputed watches manufacturer (IWC), and drug industry (Cilag, founded by Bernhard Joos).
Obwalden
Obwalden is a canton of Switzerland. It is in the centre of Switzerland. As of 2004, 33,300 people lived there. Its capital is Sarnen.
Lakes in the canton include: parts of Lake Lucerne, Lake Sarnen, Lungerersee, Wichelsee, Tannensee and Melchsee.
There are seven municipalities: Sarnen, Kerns, Sachseln, Alpnach, Giswil, Lungern and Engelberg.
Canton of Jura
The canton of Jura is one of the Cantons of Switzerland. It is the newest of the 26 Swiss cantons (created in 1979) and is in the northwestern part of Switzerland. The capital is Delémont. It shares borders with the canton of Basel-Landschaft, the Canton of Bern, and the French département of Jura.
Canton Jura is in northwest Switzerland. It includes parts of the Jura mountains in the south and the Jura plateau in the north. The Jura plateau is hilly and almost entirely limestone.
To the north and the west of Jura is France. The canton of Solothurn and Basel-Landschaft are east of Jura, while the canton of Bern is south of Jura. The River Doubs and the river Birs drain the lands.
The king of Burgundy donated much of the land that today makes up Canton Jura to the Bishop of Basel in 999. The area was a sovereign state within the Holy Roman Empire for more than 800 years. After the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 the Jura had close ties with the Swiss Confederation. In the Congress of Vienna the Jura was given to the Canton Bern. This act caused dissension. The Jura was French-speaking and Roman Catholic, whereas the canton of Bern was mostly German-speaking and Protestant. The people of the Jura region called for independence. After a long struggle, a constitution was accepted in 1977. In 1978 the split was made official when the Swiss people voted in favour of it, and in 1979 the Jura joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member. However, the southern part of the Jura region, which is also predominantly French-speaking but has a Protestant majority, opted not to join the newly formed canton, and instead remained part of Bern. This area is now known as Bernese Jura. The word Jura, therefore, may refer either to Canton Jura, or to the combined territory of Canton Jura and Bernese Jura.
On creation, the canton adopted the title Republic and Canton of the Jura. Other cantons in Switzerland using the title "Republic and Canton" are Ticino, Canton Geneva, and Canton Neuchâtel. In each case the title asserts the autonomy of the canton and its nominal sovereignty within the Swiss Confederation.
Agriculture is important in Canton Jura. Cattle breeding is significant and there is also horse breeding. The main industries are watches, clothing and tobacco. There are a growing number of small and middle-sized businesses.
The people are almost fully French-speaking. The majority is Roman Catholic.
Jura is divided into 3 districts:
This is a list of the canton's 83 municipalities by district.
French Community
The French Community () was the body which replaced the French Union in 1958. Under the 1958 Constitution, member territories, former French colonies, had a lot of independence, but France controlled the currency, defence, foreign affairs and national security.
When the Community was established, French President de Gaulle said that any country in the French Community could move to complete independence. Apart from Guinea, which chose by referendum in 1958 not to join the Community, all French-ruled territories in sub-Saharan Africa joined the French Community. They obtained independence in 1960.
Usury is lending money for interest. Nowadays it usually means lending at a high, often extortionate rate of interest on a loan.
Usury is illegal in many parts of the world. In muslim countries charging any interest at all is strictly illegal.
Some people argue that this is against the Old Testament, especially Exodus and Deuteronomy which states that those who lend to someone in need will be blessed, but the point about usury is the high levels of interest, not the act of lending in itself.
Aristotle also condemned usury as "contrary to nature" in his book on Politics, because it increases by itself and makes money without labour.
John Bates
John Lewis Bates (September 18, 1859–June 8, 1946) was born in Massachusetts.
He was a Republican, and was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1894 to 1899; from 1897 to 1899 he was Speaker of the House. From 1900 to 1903 he was Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts.
In 1902, Bates was elected Governor, holding office from 1903 to 1905. Bates then retired to his private law practice in Boston. From 1917 to 1919 Bates was a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention.
Bates was a member of the American Bar Association, the Freemasons, the Odd Fellows, and Beta Theta Pi.
Acoustic music
Acoustic music is music which is played by using acoustic musical instruments, i.e. instruments in which the sound is not made louder by electronic amplification. Before electronic musical instruments were created in the 20th century all instruments were acoustic.
Classical music is usually played using only acoustic musical instruments, although some 20th century composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen used electronic instruments, sometimes together with acoustic instruments.
Bluegrass music
Bluegrass music is a form of American roots music. It has its own roots in Irish, Scottish and English traditional music. It is usually played using acoustic musical instruments, and electronic musical instruments are rarely used in bluegrass music. Traditional instruments used include the banjo, mandolin, fiddle, guitar and bass. Other instruments such as the dobro are also used.
There are many accomplished bluegrass artists including Bela Fleck, Tony Rice, Alison Krauss, Laurie Lewis, Sam Bush, Bill Monroe, and Earl Scruggs. There are many organizations devoted to this music such as the International Bluegrass Music Association (IBMA).
Many festivals are held around the country where professionals perform, amateurs gather to play, and workshops are given.
Billboard charts
"Billboard" charts are charts published by "Billboard" magazine. They have information about the popularity of music songs, bands and singers. The Billboard Hot 100 is the most popular chart. It appears every week in the United States. It uses information from radio play and sales to say the most popular song each week.
Leuk (French Loèche) is a municipality of Switzerland and is the capital city of the district of Leuk in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
Since it controls access to the Gemmipass, it had some importance from the time of Roman Raetia. The Leukerbad hot baths are just North of Leuk, towards the pass.
Loèche houses the installations of Onyx, the Swiss interception system for electronic intelligence gathering.
On 1 January 2013 the former municipality of Erschmatt merged into the municipality of Leuk.
Raron
Goms (district)
Goms is a district of the canton of Valais in Switzerland.
It includes the following municipalities:
Shavo Odadjian
Shavo Odadjian () (born April 22 1974, Yerevan, Armenia as Shavarsh Odadjian) is the bassist for the Armenian American-based alternative metal band, System of a Down. He also scored summer blockbuster hit, "Babylon, A.D." alongside with The Rza and Hans Zimmer. He is a multi-instrumentalist, painter, DJ, and director.