AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The EPBC Act provides for boards of management to be established for parks on Aboriginal land. The Kakadu Board of Management, which has an Aboriginal majority (ten out of fifteen members), representing the Aboriginal traditional owners of land in the Park, was established in 1989. The Board determines policy for managing the Park and is responsible, along with the Director, for preparing plans of management for the Park. The Plan of Management is the main policy document for the Park and strives to balance strategic or long-term goals and tactical or day to day goals.
Day to day management of Kakadu is carried out by people employed by Parks Australia, which is a branch of the Australian Government’s Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Approximately one-third of the staff in Kakadu are Aboriginal people.
Kakadu National Park brought in an entry fee in April 2010. Money raised will help manage the natural and cultural values of the park environment and improve visitor services.
Like many World Heritage sites around the world, including Yellowstone National Park, Serengeti National Park, Stonehenge, Pompeii and Herculaneum and the Pyramids of Giza - a park use fee will help maintain world-best management practices and facilities for the more than 200,000 visitors who experience Kakadu each year.
The $25 fee will apply to all interstate and international visitors aged 16 years and over. It can be used for 14 days. All Northern Territory residents and children under 16 have free entry.
Kakadu National Park is linked to Darwin by the Arnhem Highway and to Pine Creek and Katherine by the Kakadu Highway. Both roads are sealed all weather roads although may be cut off periodically during periods of heavy rain.
The town of Jabiru has several accommodation options, a service station, police, a medical clinic and a shopping centre with a range of outlets. The town was built for the Uranium mine that was established prior to the founding of Kakadu National Park and provides infrastructure for the mine’s workforce as well as the national park activities and tourism. Jabiru has a small airport from which scenic flights operate daily. There are no scheduled air services between Jabiru and Darwin however.
Other small tourism centres such as Cooinda and South Alligator provide limited facilities. Cooinda, 50 km south of Jabiru on the Kakadu Highway is the site of Gagudju Lodge Cooinda, Yellow Water Cruises and the Warradjan Cultural Centre. Fuel and limited provisions are available at Cooinda and there is also a small airstrip for scenic flights. South Alligator approximately 40 km west of Jabiru on the Arnhem Highway includes a hotel and service station. The Border Store near Ubirr Art Site and Cahills Crossing, 50 km north of Jabiru, is a general store.
There are a wide variety of designated camping sites throughout the Park. Jabiru, Cooinda and South Alligator all have commercial camping areas and are close to most of the important natural attractions in these areas. Some of the Park’s campsites charge a nominal fee as these have shower and toilet facilities, others are free, however they have limited or no facilities. A list of the sites can be obtained from the Kakadu National Park’s Glenn Murcutt-designed Bowali Visitor Centre or from their website.
Detroit Grand Prix
The Detroit Grand Prix is a car racing event held in Detroit, Michigan, USA. From 1982 to 1988 it was a part of the Formula One series. It has been a part of the IndyCar Series since 1988.
In 1982, the U.S. became the first country to host three World Championship Grands Prix in one season. As of 2010, it is the only one to do so. In addition to the US GP West and Caesars Palace GP races, the new event was held on another street course, in the Renaissance Center of Detroit.
The original circuit had seventeen corners in 2.493 miles, and included a tunnel and a railroad track crossing. For 1989, it was planned to move the Grand Prix to a new circuit at Belle Isle. However, an agreement could not be reached, and the Grand Prix moved to Phoenix in 1989. Upon the departure of F1, the Detroit race was replaced by an event sanctioned by CART, which was held on the same track except the 18th turn, a chicane, was removed. In 1992, the race was moved to Belle Isle, an island in the Detroit River. Since then, the race has been held at Belle Isle. It was canceled after the 2001 race before being held in 2007 and 2008. The race returned for 2012 and has been on the IndyCar series schedule since.
Dallas Grand Prix
The Dallas Grand Prix was a Formula One World Championship motor race in 1984. The race was run at the Fair Park street circuit. In 1988, the Dallas GP became a round of the American Trans-Am Series.
United States Grand Prix West
The United States Grand Prix West was a Formula One motor race held at street circuit in Long Beach, California. It was a Formula 5000 race in 1975, and a F1 world championship event from 1976 to 1983. After 1983 the event became the Long Beach Grand Prix of the CART series.
"See also Grand Prix of Long Beach"
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Built by Cosworth, engine program funded by Ford
Pilsner Urquell (Czech: Plzeňský Prazdroj) is a famous brand of beer that is made in the city of Pilsen in Western Bohemia, Czech Republic. They started making this beer in 1842. The Asahi Breweries company owns this brewery today.
Swiss Grand Prix
The Swiss Grand Prix (, ) was the motor race of Switzerland. In its later years it was a Formula One race.
Grand Prix racing started in Switzerland in 1934. The Bremgarten circuit was just outside the town of Bremgarten, near Bern. The Swiss Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1939.
The Bremgarten track remained the home of the Swiss Grand Prix until 1954. In 1958, motor racing was banned by the Swiss government as an unsafe spectator sport. The was in reaction following the death of 80 people at the 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans race. The Swiss Grand Prix did return for two more races, but at the Dijon-Prenois circuit, just across the border in France. In 1975 it was a non-Championship Grand Prix. One Championship F1 race was held in 1982.
Swedish Grand Prix
The Swedish Grand Prix was a round of the Formula One World Championship from 1973 to 1978. It took place at the Scandinavian Raceway in Anderstorp (Gislaved Municipality), about 30 km from Jönköping, in Småland, Sweden.
The deaths in 1978 of both Ronnie Peterson and Gunnar Nilsson contributed to dropping the Swedish GP from the world championship. Interest for Formula One in Sweden fell following the death of these two Swedish racers.
"The races before 1956 were formally called the Swedish Summer Grand Prix."<br>
Coppa Acerbo
The Coppa Acerbo was an motor race held in Italy. Following Italy's defeat in World War II, the race was renamed the Circuito di Pescara, and in some years was also referred to as the Pescara Grand Prix ("Gran Premio di Pescara"). The race was run between 1924 and 1961 with a variety of vehicle classes. In the Pescara Grand Prix was one round of the Formula One World Championship. This race which holds the record of the longest circuit length ever used for a Championship event.
Pacific Grand Prix
The Pacific Grand Prix was a round of the Formula One World Championship in and . Both races were held at the Tanaka International Aida circuit(now Okayama International Circuit), a 2.3-mile track in the countryside in Aida (near Kobe), Japan.
Anna Bolena
Anna Bolena is an Italian opera in two acts. Gaetano Donizetti wrote the music to a libretto by Felice Romani. The opera was first performed in Milan, on December 26, 1830. "Anna Bolena" was Donizetti's thirty-third opera. It was his first major success, and the work that established his reputation in Europe. The opera was long neglected until it was revived to great acclaim by Maria Callas at La Scala in Milan in 1957. It has since been regularly performed, notably by Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills.
The action takes place in England in 1536. The opera relates the stormy relationship between King Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn, and the king's new romantic interest in Jane Seymour. Anne is accused of treason and adultery and executed to make way for Jane to become his third wife.
Copper(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate, also known as cupric carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCO. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains carbonate ions.
Copper(II) carbonate is a blue-green solid. It is made when copper is in air for a long time and turns green. The other part of that coating is copper(II) hydroxide. It dissolves in acids to make carbon dioxide and a copper salt. It breaks down when heated to make carbon dioxide and copper(II) oxide.
It can be made by leaving copper(II) hydroxide in air, which makes copper(II) carbonate. It can also be made by reacting copper sulfate and sodium carbonate. This makes sodium sulfate in solution.
Copper(II) carbonate can be used to kill algae. It is also used as a pigment.
It can irritate the skin. It is toxic since it dissolves in stomach acid to make copper ions in solution, which can be absorbed.
Copper(II) hydroxide
Copper(II) hydroxide, also known as cupric hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu(OH). It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains hydroxide ions.
Copper(II) hydroxide is light blue. It is rubbery when wet. When it is mixed with copper(II) carbonate, it is greenish. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make copper(II) carbonate when in air. It turns into copper(II) oxide when wet. When it is dry, though, it only turns into copper(II) oxide when it is heated. It reacts with ammonia to make a very dark blue solution.
Copper(II) hydroxide can be made by reacting copper sulfate with sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can be used, but it is more expensive. It can also be made by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a copper anode.
Copper(II) hydroxide is used to kill mold in paints. It can be used to color ceramics. It can be used as a catalyst.
It is not toxic in small amounts, but it can dissolve in stomach acid to make soluble copper, which can poison much more easily.
Copper(II) oxide
Copper(II) oxide, also known as cupric oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It has copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also has oxide ions.
Copper(II) oxide is a black solid. It dissolves in acids to make copper(II) salts. It can react with carbon monoxide or hydrogen to make copper metal. It dissolves in very concentrated alkalis. It dissolves in ammonia to make a dark blue solution, similar to copper(II) hydroxide.
It can be made by heating copper(II) hydroxide. It can also be made by heating copper in air. It can also be made by heating copper(II) carbonate or copper(II) nitrate.
Copper(II) oxide is used to color ceramics. It is also used to make thermite. It can react with many toxic chemicals to oxidize them, so they are not toxic any more. It can be added to vitamins to get copper into the body. It can also be added to clothing to kill germs.
Copper(II) oxide is toxic when eaten. It can be eaten in very small amounts, such as in vitamins. This adds copper to the body, which is needed.
Copper oxide
Copper oxide can refer to either of these compounds:
Copper(II) sulfate
Copper(II) sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, copper sulfate, blue vitriol, or bluestone, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuSO. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains sulfate ions. It is a blue solid that can kill fungi. It is also used to purify copper metal. It is common in chemistry sets and chemistry demonstrations, and practical lessons at high school.
Copper(II) sulfate is a blue solid when hydrated (attached to water molecules). It is whitish when anhydrous (not attached to water molecules). When hydrated, it normally has five water molecules attached to it. It can be dehydrated by heating it. When water is added to it, it gets hydrated again. When it is in air, it absorbs water vapor and becomes hydrated, too.
It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with most metals to make copper and a metal sulfate. For example, it reacts with iron to make copper and iron(II) sulfate.
It reacts with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide.
It reacts with sodium carbonate to make copper(II) carbonate.
It reacts with ammonia to make a dark blue solution. This solution can dissolve fibers in cotton.
When it is heated to a high temperature, it turns into copper(II) oxide and sulfur trioxide.
It makes a blue-green color when it is heated in a flame, like all copper compounds.
Copper(II) sulfate is found in the ground as chalcanthite. Chalcanthite is easily dissolved. It is only found in dry areas. When it is in air, it loses its bright blue color. Some minerals are tested by taste. Chalcanthite has a sweet metal taste. It should only be tasted carefully, as it is poisonous. Its Mohs hardness is 2.5. It is the pentahydrate of copper sulfate. It is blue or green. Many people collecting minerals want it.
Copper sulfate is not normally made in a small laboratory, because it is much easier just to buy it. There are some ways to make copper sulfate, however.
Copper(II) sulfate can be made by electrolysis of a solution of sulfuric acid with copper electrodes. Hydrogen is made, as well as copper sulfate solution.
It can also be made by reacting copper(II) oxide or copper(II) hydroxide or copper(II) carbonate with sulfuric acid or by adding copper to heated concentrated sulphuric acid:
It can also be made by reacting copper with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
Copper(II) sulfate, as the most common copper compound, has many uses. It can be used to kill algae and fungi. Some fungi can get resistant to copper sulfate, though. Then the copper sulfate does not kill them any more. It can be mixed with lime to make a similar fungi killer. It can be used to treat aquarium fish for infections. It is also used to detect sugars. It turns into red copper(I) oxide when reduced by a sugar. It can be used in organic chemistry as a catalyst and oxidizing agent. It is used to see whether blood is anemic.
It is commonly found in chemistry sets. It is used to demonstrate a displacement reaction, where a metal reacts with copper sulfate to make copper and the metal sulfate. It is also used to demonstrated hydrated and anhydrous chemicals. It was used as an emetic in the past. It is seen as too toxic now.
It can be used to purify copper. A thin pure piece of copper and a thick impure piece of copper are placed in copper sulfate solution. The thin plate is connected to the negative wire and the thick plate to the positive wire. An electrical current is passed through them. The copper in the thick plate dissolves and plates on the thin plate. All of the impurities fall to the bottom, while the pure copper is made at the negative electrode.
Someone covered the walls of their apartment with copper sulfate crystals for decoration.
Copper sulfate is somewhat toxic to humans. It is very toxic to fish, though. In humans, it irritates skin and eyes. It can cause nausea when eaten. It automatically makes one throw up when it is ingested. If too much is eaten, however, it can get into the stomach and cause many problems.
Cooper Tire &amp; Rubber Company
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company () is a United States based company. They design, manufacture, marketing and sales replacement automobile and truck tires. With their subsidiaries they produce medium truck, motorcycle and racing tires. Their headquarters is in Findlay, Ohio. Cooper Tire has 60 facilities located around the world.
Cooper also owns the UK Avon Tyres brand, which also produces tires for motorcycles, road cars, and for motor racing.
The beginning for Cooper Tire was the "M and M Company". M and M was formed by two brothers-in-law in Akron, Ohio in 1914. M and M made tire repair materials. M and M was bought by the Giant Tire and Rubber Company and moved to Findlay, Ohio. The site is still occupied by Cooper Tire and is next to The Cooper Corporation facilities. The Cooper name came from Ira J. Cooper in 1919. He formed a company to manufacture new tires. The Cooper Corporation, the M and M Company, and The Falls Rubber company merged in 1930 to form the "Master Tire and Rubber Company".
During World War II the Master Tire and Rubber built military equipment, such as pontoons, waterproof bags, life jackets, and, tires. The company received the Army-Navy 'E' Award for excellence. The name was changed to Cooper Tire and Rubber Company in 1946.
Cooper Tire began a 51% owned joined venture with Shandong Chengshan Tire Co in 2006. They will produce truck and passenger car tires for Chinese and export markets. Cooper Tires is the second largest United States based tire company, after Goodyear.
Cooper Tires produces Cooper branded tires for passenger cars, light trucks, sport utility vehicles and commercial trucks.
In 1997, the tyre business of Avon Rubber PLC of Melksham, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom was sold to Cooper Tire. The Cooper Tire site remains a major employer in central Melksham.
In addition to Avon, Cooper Tire manufactures tires under the brand names Dean, Mastercraft and Starfire.
Cooper Tire became the official tire of the A1 Grand Prix for the series' initial 2005-06 season. Cooper was under contract to produce tires for the series championship until 2007-08. Cooper Tire became the official tire of the Champ Car Atlantic Championship in 2007. Cooper Tire became the official tire of USF2000 National Championship and the IMSA Prototype Lites series (formerly IMSA Lites) in 2010.
Cooper is heavily involved in the sport of drifting by supplying tires to several drifters in both the Need for Speed Formula D Drift series and Canadian Drift series.
Cooper employs 13,311 employees. Roy V. Armes is Chairman, President, and CEO.
Copper chloride
Copper chloride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) chloride, also known as cuprous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.
Copper(I) chloride is white when pure. It does not dissolve in water. It is green when in air because of conversion to copper(II) chloride. It can react with Lewis bases, a group of chemicals. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid easily. It dissolves in solutions that have ammonia in them. It absorbs carbon monoxide. It easily disproportionates into copper and copper(II) chloride. It reacts with ammonia and acetylene to make copper(I) acetylide, a reddish explosive.
It can be made by reduction of copper(II) chloride. It was made at first by reacting copper with mercury(II) chloride. It can be made by heating copper(II) chloride very hot. Some chlorine is released, and copper(I) chloride is left behind.
Copper(I) chloride is used to make a fungicide, which is used to kill fungi. It is also used to make many organic compounds.
Alex Delvecchio
Copper(II) chloride
Copper(II) chloride, also known as cupric chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains two chloride ions.
Copper(II) chloride is light brown when anhydrous. It is green when hydrated. It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with aluminium foil to make hydrogen, copper(I) oxide, and aluminium chloride. This is used in school demonstrations. It releases chlorine and turns into copper(I) chloride when heated very hot. It reacts with sodium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide. Copper(II) chloride reacts with metals to make metal chlorides and copper. It puts out blue flames if it is heated in a flame. It reacts with sulfur dioxide to make copper(I) chloride. It dissolves in water to make a blue solution. When more chloride is added, it turns green, then yellow.
It is made by reacting copper with chlorine. It can also be made by reacting copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) oxide, or copper(II) carbonate with hydrochloric acid and from pure copper and from 1:1 solution of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid where copper first get oxidized to CuO from H2O2 and then reacts with HCl to form CuCl2, reaction goes like this:
Cu + HO → CuO + HO
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl + HO
Copper(II) chloride is used to make fungicides. It is also used to make organic compounds. It is also used to make acetaldehyde from ethane.
It is toxic, with toxicity similar to copper sulfate It is therefore harmful.
Copper(I) oxide
Copper(I) oxide, also known as cuprous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.
Copper(I) oxide is a red solid. It can also be yellow, but not commonly. It does not dissolve in water. It turns into copper(II) oxide when in air. It dissolves in ammonia to make a colorless complex. This is oxidized to a blue complex of copper(II). It dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It also dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make copper(II) sulfate and nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate.
Copper(I) oxide is found in the ground. It is a copper ore.
Copper(I) oxide is made by heating copper in air. Some copper(II) oxide is also made. It can also be made by reducing copper(II) oxide or other copper(II) compounds. It is the result of a test for sugars. Green copper(II) chloride is reduced to red copper(I) oxide when a sugar is present.
Copper(I) oxide is used as a semiconductor. It is also used as a pigment and fungicide. It can be used to stop things from growing on ships.
Copper(I) acetylide
Copper(I) acetylide, also known as cuprous acetylide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuC. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains acetylide ions.
Copper(I) acetylide is a reddish solid. It is an explosive. It is a strange explosive because it does not release gas. When it detonates, it only releases copper and carbon. It can be formed inside copper pipes where acetylene flows through. It explodes because the acetylide is a reducing agent and the copper(I) is an oxidizing agent.
It is made by reacting copper(I) chloride dissolved in ammonia with acetylene. Hydrochloric acid and copper(I) acetylide is made. This reaction is used to test for acetylene.
It is used in organic chemistry. It is a very sensitive explosive, too sensitive to be used.
Illinois State University
Acetylide
Acetylide, also known as ethynide, dicarbide, and percarbide, is an ion. Its chemical formula is C. It is made by deprotonation of acetylene. Some acetylides (chemical compounds contain acetylide ions) are explosive. Many acetylides are used in organic chemistry. Some are known as carbides. Copper(I) acetylide is an example.
Bridgestone
The very first Bridgestone tire was produced on April 9, 1930, by the Japanese "Tabi" Socks Tyre Division. On March 1, 1931, the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi, made the "Tabi" Socks tire Division independent and established the Bridgestone Tire Co., Ltd. in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture. "Bridgestone" was named after the name of the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi ("Ishi" = Stone, "Bashi" = Bridge).
The Bridgestone tire Co., Ltd. decided to build tires based solely on Japanese technology. The company had many problems in the early days. Improvements were made in quality and the building processes. The business expanded rapidly on both the domestic and overseas markets.
Wartime regulations sent nearly all of the company's output to the military. After the war, the company was devastated. The Tokyo Headquarters building was destroyed by aerial bombing. All of their overseas assets were lost. The factories in Kurume and Yokohama were not damaged. Production was restarted after the war ended.
After World War II, Bridgestone started manufacturing motorcycles. But its main income was from supplying tires to its rival motorcycle makers such as Honda, Suzuki and Yamaha. Bridgestone later decided to stop building motorcycles.
In 1951, Bridgestone was the first company in Japan to begin selling rayon cord tires. The sale of nylon tires was started in 1959. 1967 saw the sale of first ever radial tire. Bridgestone's first overseas plant since the end of the war was opened in Singapore in 1965. Bridgestone America was started in the United States in 1967 to represent Bridgestone. The "Super Filler Radial" went on the market in 1978. In 1979 the company introduced the high-performance "POTENZA" radial tire.
The company name changed to Bridgestone Corporation in 1984.
In 1988, Bridgestone purchased the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. Bridgestone invested a lot of money into Firestone. They worked on rebuilding the Firestone company. By 1992, they were making a profit with "Bridgestone Firestone Europe". By 1993, they were making a profit with "Bridgestone Firestone USA".
The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and Bridgestone Tire Company Ltd USA were merged in 1990 and became Bridgestone Firestone North American Holdings Ltd. To increase the brand awareness, they re-entered the Firestone brand into IndyCar racing in 1995. In 1997, "Bridgestone Corporation Japan" entered the Bridgestone brand into Formula One racing.
Bridgestone has supplied tires in Formula One since . They supplied tires on a one race only basis for the and Japanese Grands Prix. These tires were for Japanese teams such as Heros Racing and Kojima.
Bridgestone decided to supply tires for Formula One in 1995. They wanted to improve company's name value in the European market. Their main competitor was Michelin.
Their first title was acquired in by Mika Häkkinen and McLaren-Mercedes. Bridgestone users took five Drivers' championship titles and five Constructors' championship titles during the years that had more than one tire available. For (–), they competed with Goodyear. For (–), they competed with Michelin.
Michelin chose to end its Formula One tire program after the season. All teams have used Bridgestone tires from the season to the season. On November 2, 2009 Bridgestone announced that they will end their contract to supply tires to Formula One teams after 2010. The company said it was "addressing the impact of the continuing evolution of the business environment"
Bridgestone makes many other products than tires. The list includes: automotive components, industrial products, polyurethane foam products, construction materials, parts and materials for electronic equipment, bicycles and sporting goods.
On December 5, 2006, Bridgestone America and Bandag Inc. announced a merger. Bandag was a leading company in the tire re-treading business. Tire re-treading is the process of putting a new tread on a used tire. This will extend the life of the tire and save money. This process is mostly done on large truck tires. The name of new company has become "Bridgestone Bandag, LLC".
The Bridgestone Cycle Co Ltd started in 1949. It offers bicycles under its own brand and under the "Anchor brand".
"Bridgestone Aircraft tire (USA)" builds aircraft tires and provides re-tread services.
"Precept Golf" is a division of Bridgestone. They sell the Bridgestone Golfing Products. Bridgestone has been producing golf-related products since 1935. The Golf division of Bridgestone currently produces both clubs, balls and accessories.
Indian or Indians can refer to:
An Abstraction keeps only the most important information about something in order to make it easier to reuse.
Abstraction concerns the ways by which higher, less "real" concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or "concrete") data or other information.
Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or a phenomenon as viewed, often to keep only the information which is needed for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball will keep only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, leaving out the traits of that particular ball. Compare with word: "generalizing". The opposite of the adjective ""abstract"" is commonly the word ""concrete"".
The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossil objects dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago in Africa.
In philosophical terminology, "abstraction" is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.
Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, where formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.
For example, many different things can be the color red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in "picture 1", to the right). The property of "redness" and the relation "sitting-on" are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram "graph 1" identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their six labels), whereas the "picture 1" shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.
"Graph 1" details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the "agent" and "CAT:Elsie" depicts an example of an "is-a" relationship, as does the arrow between the "location" and the "MAT". The arrows between the gerund "SITTING" and the nouns "agent" and "location" express the diagram's basic relationship; ""agent is SITTING on location""; "Elsie" is an instance of "CAT".
Although the description "sitting-on" (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in "Gödel, Escher, Bach" (1979):
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be "multiply instantiated", in the sense of "picture 1", "picture 2", etc., shown above.
It is not sufficient, however, to define "abstract" ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define "abstraction" as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are "abstractions", they are not "abstract" in the sense of the objects in "graph 1" above.
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from "cat" to "mammal" to "animal", and see that "animal" is more abstract than "mammal"; but on the other hand "mammal" is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to "marsupial" or "monotreme".
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered "concrete" (not abstract) if it is a "particular individual" that occupies a particular place and time.
Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like "God", "the number three", and "goodness" are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use "predicates" as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. "good"). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the "graph 1" above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.
Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.
The way in which physical objects, like rocks and trees, have "being" differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have "being". For example, the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in "picture 1" exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in "graph 1" exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.
Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to "tropes" (instances of properties) as "abstract particulars". E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an "abstract particular". Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.
If an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object, that is a fallacy (an error). In linguistics, it may happen that abstract concepts are used as if they were nouns that signify concrete objects:
This is called "metonymy". It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things.
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".
This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.
A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts cause greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, compared to concrete concepts when concrete concepts cause greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus.
Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres, of the brain, differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.
Typically, "abstraction" is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.
In music, the term "abstraction" can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration of internal numeric relationships.
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. "Abstraction" is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of "Psychological Types".
There is an abstract "thinking", just as there is abstract "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition". Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous "sensation" and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic "intuition". (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).
Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems, such as organizing data to be stored in a database.
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.
The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.
Eye makeup
Eye makeup is a type of cosmetics which aims to make the eyes look noticeable and attractive. It is mostly used by females, and by stage performers of all types. Eye makeup is an important part of the fashion and cosmetic industries.
The idea can be taken much further. The colour of the eye can be altered by using contact lenses. Glitter and other "appliqués" can be stuck on near the eye. Fake eyelashes or eyelash extensions are possible.
Mascara is a cosmetic used to darken, colour, thicken, lengthen, or define eyelashes. Historically, it was (and still is) usually black, but now it also comes in many colours and tints. Mascara comes in three forms: liquid, cake, and cream. It is available in tubes with wand applicators. Ingredients in mascara include water, wax thickeners, film-formers, and preservatives.
Eye shadow is a cosmetic that is applied on the eyelids and under the eyebrows. The average distance between eyelashes and eyebrows is twice as big in women as in men. Pale eye shadow visually enlarges this area and has a feminising effect.
Eye shadow can be applied in a variety of ways depending upon the desired look. Typically application is done using sponges, fingers, and/or brushes. The most important aspect of applying eye shadow, and makeup in general, is blending well.
To remove eye shadow, a commercial eye makeup remover may be used, though a face wash will usually remove all traces of colour. Generally it is easy to remove, and simple water and soap can be used. Eye shadow, eyeliner, and mascara may also be removed using baby oil or olive oil. There are also makeup wipes that may be used.
Eye liner is a cosmetic used to define the eyes. It is applied around the contours of the eye, along and above the edges of the eyelids where the eyelashes grow. Often applied just on the outer half of the eye.
Depending on its texture, eyeliner can be softly smudged or clearly defined. There are four main types available on the market:
Kohl is an ancient black eye pigment which survives to the present day in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It was a dark-colored powder made of crushed galena (lead sulfide) and/or antimony, burnt almonds, lead, cupric oxide, ochre, ash, malachite, or any combination of them. It may be used as an eye liner, mascara or eyeshadow.
The upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore good eyesight and reduce eye infection. Kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid.
According to images of the time, the use of makeup was not limited to women. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup.
Indy Racing League
The Indy Racing League (IRL) is an American-based open-wheel auto racing sanctioning body. The League sanctions three racing series. The premier IZOD IndyCar Series (ICS), the two developmental series; Firestone Indy Lights and the U.S. F2000 National Championship. ICS is sometimes considered the same as the Indy Racing League. The Indy Racing League's centerpiece race is the Indianapolis 500.
The IRL is owned by Hulman and Co., which also owns the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex and the Clabber Girl brand.
On September 10, 2010, the IRL announced that effective January 1, 2011, the Indy Racing League will simply be known as "IndyCar".
The "IndyCar Series" is the series name for the premier series sanctioned by the IRL. The name started being used in 2003. Izod was announced as the IndyCar Series title sponsor in 2010. The deal is expected to run for at least five years.
At first IndyCar only raced on oval tracks. In 2005, the series started adding road and street course events.
"Firestone Indy Lights" is the development series for the Izod Indycar series. It started in 2002, as the "IRL Infiniti Pro Series". "USF2000" is a series the IRL started sanctioning in 2010. It started in 1991 and ended in 2006. It then restarted in 2010.
"Indy car" is sometimes used as a name for any open-wheel auto racing in the United States. The Indy car name derived as a result of the link to the Indianapolis 500 Mile Race (often called to as the "Indy 500").
Beginning in 1980, the term Indy car was used for the race cars in CART races. CART had become the main governing body for open-wheel racing in the United States. The Indianapolis 500 was not controlled by CART. It remained sanctioned by USAC. CART recognized the Indy 500 on its schedule, and awarded points for finishers in the race from 1980–1995 despite not sanctioning it. The two entities operated separately, but used the same equipment.
In 1992, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway tradmarked the "IndyCar". They licensed CART to use the name. CART renamed its championship the "IndyCar World Series". The name "CART" was no longer used. The series did not want fans to think they were go-karts.
The IRL was founded in 1994 by Tony George and began racing in 1996. George designed the IRL as a lower-cost open-wheel alternative to CART. CART was dominated by a few rich multi-car teams, much like Formula One. The split between IRL and CART was very unfriendly. Both series greatly suffered because of it.
In February 2008, Indy Racing League founder and CEO Tony George and owners of the Champ Car World Series completed an agreement to join together the sport for 2008. The Champ Car World Series was suspended except for the Long Beach Grand Prix. Many of the former Champ Car teams moved to the IndyCar Series using equipment provided by the League.
Driver safety has also been a major concern. A number of drivers injured, mostly in the early years of the series. Several of those injuries were serious or fatal. Unlike road racing, the higher speed and lack of runoff areas on oval tracks, allowed for less margin for error. Car design was a leading cause of early injuries.The series made improvements to chassis design to address those safety concerns.
The IRL was also the first race series to adopt the new SAFER barrier soft wall safety system. First at the Indianapolis 500 and now installed at almost all major oval racing circuits.
Open wheel car
Open-wheel car describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and, in most cases, one seat. Other names include formula car, single-seater car in British English, or Indy car in the United States. Open-wheel cars are different from street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars. These car have their wheels below or inside the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built just for racing. Often, they have a higher amount of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor racing.
A typical open-wheeler has a small cockpit. It is only large enough for the driver's body. The head is exposed to the air. In modern cars the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have spoilers or wings. They are very low and have an almost flat bottom. These help add aerodynamic downforce. This pushes the car on to the road and makes it handle better.
Some races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix are held on temporary street circuits. Most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as the Nürburgring in Germany. In the United States some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, both short track and superspeedways. The most famous the annual Indianapolis 500 (Indy 500)
Driving an open-wheel car is very different from driving a car with fenders. Open-wheel vehicles, are light weight, have good aerodynamics, and powerful engines. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous. If the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, the vehicle my be flipped into the air and upside down.
Speech and language therapist
A speech and language therapist is a health care professional who specialises in communication and swallowing difficulties. The main part of their work involves assessing people and planning therapy. They work with people of all ages across different settings such as nurseries, schools, day centres, care homes, clinics and hospitals.
These can include difficulties with fluency (stuttering), making sounds and words, making sentences,
understanding what others say, and using language socially. These difficulties fall into two main areas:
There are two types of language difficulties:
People with receptive language difficulties have problems understanding spoken and written language. Because of this they usually also have expressive language difficulties although this is not always the case.
People with expressive language difficulties are able to understand but cannot say the words and sentences they want to. This may be because of word finding difficulties or problems making sentences.
In children language difficulties are divided up into