AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
This specialty consists of well trained doctors who practice cardiac surgery. They are best known for their role in cardiac bypass surgeries. In cardiac bypass, the surgeon restores blood flow to the area of the heart that was deficient due to a blocked coronary artery. This is usually done by taking a vein, most commonly the saphenous vein from the leg, to create a pathway of blood flow to the heart region that needs it.
Emergency room doctors are in charge of sudden important or life-threatening emergencies. In addition to dealing with heart attacks, strokes, traumas, issues that require immediate medical attention or surgeries, they also deal with a wide range of other health conditions, such as mental health and drug overdoses. Their training is broad and diverse as anyone can walk through the door seeking help. They see patients of all ages and walks of life. However, unlike a general practitioner or family doctor, their immediate goal is to make sure the patient is stable and exclude any serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions.
A family doctor, otherwise known as general practitioner, is trained to provide medical service to people of all ages, demographics, and walks of life. Their training is diverse to deal with a variety of conditions including all non surgical specialties. They also follow the patient from birth to death and are trained to treat an individual as a whole, in the context of their social setting and also their family situation and mental health. Unlike specialists who mainly deal with problems of one organ or system, family doctors deal with all parts of the body and synthesize this information for the patient's general health. They provide a global perspective of the person's health in the patient's unique life situation. They are an individual's regular doctor who knows the patient in their social and family context. They can refer to specialists for issues that require more detailed or specialized treatments unavailable to them as an outpatient or beyond their expertise.
Gastroenterologists are doctors who specialize in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and upper abdominal organs. The GI tract is consists of the esophagus all the way down to the anus. The upper abdominal organs include the liver, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen. In addition to dealing with medical conditions associated with these organs, doctors in this speciality also perform endoscopies. This is where a camera is placed to visualize the esophagus and stomach (upper endoscopy) or the colon (lower endoscopy or colonoscopy). Gastroenterologists that specialize in the liver is called a Hepatologist. They are responsible for treating patients with liver failure or cirrhosis. They also treat patients with viral Hepatitis (A,B,C) and many other forms of liver disease.
Doctors in this specialty are trained to recognize and treat a variety of different conditions involving the internal organs. They have wide knowledge in a number of specialties including, but not limited to: Respirology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, Cardiology. Doctors who practice broadly in this field are known as General Internists (or General Internal Medicine doctors). Internists can go to receive further training beyond residency in a particular field. For example, Gastroenterologists are internists that have chosen to specialize in GI medicine. Internal medicine doctors are in charge of inpatient units when patients are admitted for a general reason. Unlike family doctors and emergency doctors, although their training is diverse and they have broad knowledge in many organ systems, they do not treat or manage children, babies, or pregnant women. (Those patients are instead cared for by Pediatricians and Obstetrics/gynecology, respectively.)
Doctors in this field, abbreviated OBGYN or Obs/Gyn, specialize in women's health covering conditions of the female reproductive organs, and pregnancy care and delivery. Some examples of gynecological issues they deal with include contraceptive medicine, fertility workup and treatments, prolapse and incontinence, sexual health, ovarian tumors/ cysts, gynecological oncology. They are also surgeons in their fields, capable of performing numerous gynecological surgeries. Doctors in this field also practice obstetrical medicine, specializing in maternal fetal care and deliveries, complications related to deliveries, assisted deliveries (such as vacuum and forceps deliveries) and Caesarian sections.
This medical specialty consists of well trained doctors who recognize and treat medical conditions associated with the eyes. Some common complaints they see include red eye, eye pain, visual changes and trauma. They deal with many eye diseases including conjunctivitis, iritis, blepharitis, hordeolum, chalazion, glaucoma, cataracts, macular degeneration, retinal detachments, papilloedema, central retinary artery occlusion. They are trained to perform surgery.
These are doctors with special training to treat the ears, nose and throat. These are the doctors who will very commonly remove an organ call the "tonsils" from a patient.
This medical area, commonly known as chest medicine or respiratory medicine, deals with the respiratory system. It usually involves patients who require intensive care including life support and mechanical ventilation. Doctors of this field usually are knowledgeable in diseases and conditions of the chest, such as pneumonia or asthma. Doctors in this field tend to perform minor procedures in surgery of the respiratory tract. Pulmonary specialists often practice critical care medicine. They also manage complicated chest infections.
Transport, or transportation, is moving people or things from one place to another place. Transport can be divided into "infrastructure", "vehicles" and "operations".
"Infrastructure" includes roads, railways, airports, canals and pipelines. The infrastructure is the network where things are carried. Infrastructure also includes airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports (docks). Infrastructure is usually built by governments and paid for by taxes from the citizens of a country or region. Infrastructure such as roads and railways are designed by civil engineers and urban planners.
"Vehicles" or vessels travel on the infrastructure. Vehicles include cars, trucks, trains and airplanes. Vehicles are usually designed by mechanical engineers. Vessels include boats, ferries, and barges which travel on canals and use docks and seaports. In the same way that trains use train stations, airplanes use airports. In the same way that trains use railway lines (train tracks), airplanes use flight paths and then fly in the sky.
"Operations" control the system. Operations include traffic signals, railway signals and air traffic control. Operations also include the government policies (a policy is a plan of action to guide decisions and actions) and regulations (a set or group of laws and rules) used to control the system, such as tolls, fuel taxes, and traffic laws.
Transport and communication can be used instead of each other (someone could telephone a person rather than visit them). Transport traffic also needs communication. For example, air traffic control lets more airplanes fly. So, an increase of either transport or communication usually leads to an increase in the other one.
Transport uses a lot of energy. Most transport uses hydrocarbons (oil and gas). This can create pollution. Environmental regulations (laws) and low-pollution fuels (for example liquified natural gas) can reduce pollution. But as more vehicles are used, more pollution is created. Ethanol and biodiesel pollute less than petroleum.
Transport can be by land, water or air:
People have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.
When traffic congestion becomes a frequent problem, the road may be made wider or other roads built.
Road building and care is usually paid for by taxes. Some roads are toll roads, where people pay to use the road.
2004 (MMIV) was .
Hawaiian Islands
From west to east, Hawaii is made up of the following Hawaiian Islands:
Hawaii has been a U.S. state since 1959.
The Hawaiian islands, plus former islands now below sea level (guyots), make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.
Mauna Kea
Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is the highest point in Hawaii at 4,205 meters. If measured from top to bottom, below sea level, it is 10,200 meters high and would be the tallest mountain in the world. It is around 1,000,000 years old. Mauna Kea means 'white mountain' because in winter it often has snow at the summit.
Mauna Kea is an important site for astronomy. Many different countries or institutions have an observatory there, including the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. The W. M. Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror is one of the most powerful in the world. Mauna Kea is an important site, especially for infrared astronomy, because of its height and clear skies.
High altitude is important because atmosphere causes an effect called seeing, which limits the quality of images by blurring them. At high altitude, there is less atmosphere between the observatories and space and this lessens the effect.
Mauna Loa
Mauna Loa is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands of the United States.
“Mauna Loa” is Hawaiian for “long mountain”.
The volcano is at least in volume and over 4 kilometers above sea level. Measured from its base on the ocean floor it reaches above 8 kilometers making it the tallest mountain on Earth, but not the highest. That distinction is reserved for Mount Everest.
Measured from sea level Mauna Loa is 4,169 meters high. It is also one of the largest volcanoes measuring 60 miles long and 30 miles wide.
The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii's 'Big Island'. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 1984. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometres (32 miles) long.
Kilauea
Kilauea is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is a shield volcano. The volcano is 1,277 meters high. Kilauea is a large lake of lava. The crater of Kilauea is named Pu'u'O'o. The first eruption of Kilauea is estimated as 300 to 600 thousand years ago. Its first recorded eruptions were in 1823. Its most recent eruption was March 3 2018. It is still erupting now. The Hawaiian name "Kilauea" means "spewing" or "much spreading". It refers to the constant flow of lava. Kilauea lies on the curve of volcanoes on the island of Hawaii that includes Mauna Loa and Kohala. The volcano of Kilauea is one of the youngest and also is said to be the home of an ancient volcano goddess Pele. The oldest dated rocks are said to be about 23,000 years old. It has its own magma plumbing under the Earth that goes down under the Earths crust by 60 km. Kilauea has a basalt-based lava rock type. Kilauea was formed on a volcanic hot-spot.
In May 2018, the volcano erupted causing damage in nearby homes and streets.
Van
A van is a type of vehicle. A van can carry either goods or people. A van is usually bigger than the regular sized car. Panel vans (= vans whose cargo space has no side windows) are used for deliveries and carrying goods. These usually have large cargo space and few windows. A van which is used to carry people is often called a "minibus". It can usually carry many people, sometimes up to a total of 15.
Many companies make vans, including: Chevrolet, Daihatsu, Dodge, Fiat, Ford, GMC, Honda, Hyundai, Isuzu, Mazda, Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Subaru, Suzuki, Toyota, Vauxhall, and Volkswagen.
A minivan is smaller and usually carries up to seven people.
You may usually drive a van with the same driver's license as an ordinary car, but the heaviest and largest vans may require a truck licence.
The demand for minivans is dwindling due to the introduction of crossovers. However, some companies still make minivans. The most popular minivans are the Toyota Sienna and Honda Odyssey.
Pan can mean:
A pantograph is an machine. It is used in drawing or planning. It makes it easy to copy diagrams.
The device that an electric train uses to get its electricity is also called a pantograph, because it looks a bit like the drawing instrument.
Paperback
A paperback is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is "soft cover".
Paperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.
Usually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a "mass market" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued.
Glow-worm
A glow-worm, or glowworm, is an insect.
Other names for glow-worms are fire-fly and lightning bug.
There are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, "Arachnocampa". They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.
The major families are
Palette knife
A palette knife is not actually a knife. It has a very flexible steel blade and no sharpened cutting edge. It is a tool.
A palette knife is used for mixing paint colors. It may be used for mixing and applying a whole range of semi-fluid mixtures.
Foolscap
Foolscap is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4.
In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.
Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.
A polymer is a molecule, made from joining together many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.
Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.
If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.
If the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a "copolymer" or a "heteropolymer".
Many polymer molecules are like "chains" where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have "branching" from the main chain, or "cross-linking" between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.
Medium might mean:
A "phrase" is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.
In English there are five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word, or the word that is what the phrase is about, is called the "head." In these examples, it is printed in "bold". The other words in the phrase do the work of changing or "modifying" the head.
In a 'Noun phrase', one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.
In an Adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective.
In a Verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.
In an Adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb.
In a Prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position).
Prepositions often describe the position of something, the time when something happens or the way in which something is done. The prepositions "of", "to" and "for" have other functions.
Prepositions may sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, "What did you put that there for?" (better English is the alternative: "Why did you put that there?") Example 2: "A pen is a device to write with" (better English is "A pen is a writing device"). In general, because they are links, prepositions belong in the middle of sentences, rather than at the end.
The table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences.
Here is a list of common prepositions:
A pronoun is traditionally a part of speech in grammar, but many modern linguists call it a type of noun. In English, pronouns are words such as "me, she, his, them, herself, each other, it, what".
Pronouns are often used to take the place of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. For example, instead of saying
it is easier to say
When a pronoun replaces a noun, the noun is called the antecedent. For example, in the sentence: "The dog that was walking down the street", the relative pronoun is the word that referring back to the antecedent, the word 'dog'. In the sentence "The spy who loved me", the relative pronoun is the word 'who' and its antecedent is the word 'spy'.
Pronouns are different from common nouns because pronouns normally do not come after "article"s or other "determiner"s. For example, people do not say "the it". Pronouns rarely come after adjectives. They are also different because many of them change depending on how they are used. For example, "we" is a 'subject' in grammar, but the word changes to "us" when used as an object.
Pronouns are the same as nouns because they both change for number (singular & plural), case (subject, object, possessive, etc.), and gender (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.) Nouns and pronouns can be used in almost all the same places in sentences, and they name the same kinds of things: people, objects, etc. Even though they can not normally come after determiners, or adjectives, neither can proper nouns.
There are four kinds of pronouns: personal, reciprocal, interrogative, and relative.
This table shows all the personal pronouns in English that are commonly used today.
A subject pronoun can replace a noun that is the subject of a sentence. Refer to the table above; the subject pronouns are: I, You, He, She, It, We, They. An object pronoun can replace a noun that is the object of a sentence. A possessive pronoun shows who or what a noun belongs to.
Another type of personal pronoun is called the 'reflexive pronoun'. Reflexive pronouns are the words ending in '-self' or '-selves', such as: "myself, itself, themselves".
"It" and its other forms "its", and "itself" only refer to objects, not people. "They" and its other forms "them", "their", and "theirs" can be used as a singular, for a person whose gender is unknown at the time, or for a person who does not identify with either the "she/her" or "he/him" pronouns. For example: "The patient will be told how much "they" will be required to pay."
An adverb is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions "how?", "when?", "where?", "how often?", and "in what way?". Words like "slowly", "loudly", "carefully", "quickly", "quietly" or "sadly" are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in "-ly".
Examples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics): that is a weird word and is seen differently
An adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb
In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence.
As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, "it is a cool evening", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).
Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective
Ottawa is the capital of Canada and is part of the province of Ontario. It is south of the Ottawa River. In 2004, there were about 808,391 people in the city. The region has about 1,146,790 people. The mayor of the city today (since December 2010) is Jim Watson. Ottawa is in the Ottawa Valley on the border with the province of Quebec. Ottawa is the fourth largest city in Canada.
When people talk about Ottawa, they are sometimes using the name as an eponym meaning the highest government in Canada, and not its local government or the city.
The cities of Ottawa, Kanata, Nepean, Gloucester and Vanier and the villages of Manotick and Rockcliffe Park joined in the year 2000 to form the new city of Ottawa. Ottawa also includes Orléans, which joined at that same time.
The city began with the name Bytown and became the city of Ottawa in 1855. The Rideau Canal ends in Ottawa.
Ottawa has many museums, many buildings for the government of Canada and many parks. There is a market area downtown.
There are many festivals during the year including Winterlude in February, The Tulip Festival in May, and BluesFest in the summer. There is also a large celebration on July 1st for Canada Day.
The Ottawa Senators play ice hockey in an arena called The Canadian Tire Centre.
The average yearly precipitation in Ottawa is 943 millimetres.
2017 was a record year in Ottawa because there was precipitation of 1,213 millimetres during the first ten months of the year. The old record was in 1972, when the precipitation was 1,174 millimetres.
News agency
A news agency is a kind of company. It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.
In the United Kingdom and some other countries a news agency or newsagent is a shop which sells newspapers, magazines and cigarettes.
Mudguard
A mudguard, fender or wing is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road. It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage.
Mudguards protect in several ways:
Para rubber tree
A Para rubber tree (or simply, rubber tree) is the tree which naturally produces rubber. It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.
Para Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family. In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses. Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper.
Most rubber plantations are in South Asia and Southeast Asia. When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested. Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years.
Safety curtain
Safety lamp
A safety lamp is a miner's lamp with a covered flame that used to be used in coal mines.
The first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny. It used bellows and water to separate gasses. Later, two newer designs were invented. One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy. In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines.
Coal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together). A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people. The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion.
Christmas stocking
List of Austrian football teams
These are the Austrian football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2010/11 season.
The champion of the league promotes to the Austrian Bundesliga.
The Regionalliga is divided into three sections. The second teams of clubs from the first division are not allowed to promote to the Second Division.
2001 (MMI) was .
Sex is a type of reproduction common among living things. Sex is used by plants and animals, and also by fungi and various single-celled organisms. It usually needs two individuals which are different sexes from the same species. It works by combining genes from more than one source.
Organisms may have more than one kind of reproduction:
Asexual reproduction is easier than sexual reproduction, but there are benefits and drawbacks to both:
In humans, sex is normally either male or female. For example: John's sex is male. Jane's sex is female. Most of the time, the sex of a person depends on what sex chromosomes that person got from his or her parents. A woman's ovum (egg cell) contains one X chromosome. A man's sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome. When a sperm and ova combine to form a fertilised egg, the baby may get either of these chromosomes from its father. If the baby gets two X chromosomes, it will develop into a female. If the baby gets one X and one Y, it will develop into a male. Before babies are born, their sex parts are already formed, but not ready yet. During Puberty, the sex parts finish developing as well as other parts of the body like breasts and body hair.
There are some exceptions to this rule. Sometimes, the process of meiosis, which makes the sex cells, can go differently. This can result in a person having 3 X chromosomes, or 2 Y chromosomes or XXY instead of XY. Other times, the body may not follow exactly what their chromosomes are telling it to do.
Some people may have sexual feelings that are different from their bodies. For instance, a male person may only be attracted to other males and not to females. This is called Homosexuality. There are also people, who feel they're a different sex from their bodies. These people are called Transgender. All these variations are sometimes called gender.
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago. It evolved within single-celled eukaryotes. The scientific community still discusses why it appeared, and why it still exists. Reasons commonly given include:
Sexual reproduction is a process that can only be found in eukaryotes. These cells have a nucleus and mitochondria. There are other kinds of organisms (other than animals, plants and fungi), the other eukaryotes – such as the malaria parasite – that also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria. This is not the same as sexual reproduction, but it results in a similar mixture of genetic traits.
In sexual reproduction the cells used for reproduction, called gametes, are either eggs or sperms. Fertilisation needs two different such cells. The mechanism of cell division only works when one sperm alone enters the egg. Once it is in, a fast reaction goes through the egg cell wall to shut off all other sperm.
Sex determination in biology is about the function of sex, not what individuals look like. In humans, males and females usually look different. In many species they do not, except for the sex organs.
Sex can be determined in different ways:
When there is sex determination there are basically two cases:
Usually, sex is determined by an organism's genes. With genetic sex determination, most alleles or genes that influence sexual development are on the same chromosome. That chromosome is then called the sex chromosome. Because genetic sex determination is controlled by a pair of sex chromosomes (or if of one of the chromosomes is there or not), there are usually the same number of male and female offspring. In humans, for instance, sperms carry either an X or a Y chromosome, and they occur in roughly equal numbers.
For some species sex is not determined by inheritance, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C.
Some fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called "sequential hermaphroditism". In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true—most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.
In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite. Ferns which grow in soil which has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male.
In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle. For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. It is hard to move gravel with a spade but a proper shovel can do it.
In games, a spade is one of the four shapes or "suits" on playing cards.
A shovel is a tool used for moving loose material. Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material.
Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.
A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.
Ladders can be made of metal, wood or even rope. There are different types of ladders.
Some ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.
Step ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined together by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.
Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.
Fire engines always have ladders. They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.
Rope ladders can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.
Oral history is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred.
Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.
A generation is used to mean the average amount of time between the birth of parents and the birth of their children. It is also used to mean all the people on one level of a family tree. For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you. It can also be used to mean a series of something, like a generation of a car model (2nd generation, etc.).
Genes are parts of DNA. DNA is a molecule inside a cell that carries the instructions for making the proteins the cell will need. Each gene contains a single set of instructions. These instructions usually code for a particular protein. Humans have about 20,000 genes that code proteins and many more that are non-coding. Half of a person's genes come from the mother. The other half come from the father.
Originally: a hereditary unit which occupies a specific position ("locus") on a chromosome. Other definitions are ways the gene showed itself:
Modern definitions must take note of later discoveries. There are now two classes of genes:
Genes are passed on from parent to child and are an important part of what decides how children look and act (their biological properties). Genes affect the way our bodies work, including how we look. Our eye, hair and skin color are decided by genes. It is said that genes cause "genetic" effects in our bodies.
A gene may be "dominant" or "recessive". These terms refer to the effect a gene has on the offspring who carry it in their genome.
For example, let's say a mother only has genes for brown hair and a father only has genes for red hair. The child will inherit – receive – genes for red hair (from her father) and brown hair (from her mother). The brown hair gene is 'dominant' to the red hair gene. This means the child will have brown hair even though she has genes for both red and brown hair. This means only one dominant gene is needed for the child to receive that particular trait, while two recessive genes are needed for one.
A recessive trait might stay hidden for many generations. Let us use the child from the last example. We will call her "Mary". Mary has brown hair but has genes for both red and brown hair. Let us say Mary grew up and married Tom. Tom also has brown hair, but like Mary one of his parents had red hair. This means Tom has genes for both red and brown hair. Mary and Tom would each have a chance of passing either brown or red hair genes to their children. This means that the children of Mary and Tom could have either red or brown hair. This explains why a person might look different from their parents, but look like their grandparents or great grandparents.
The structure of a gene has many elements: the actual protein coding sequence is only a small part. There are DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.
Alliteration
Alliteration is when a sentence or phrase has many words that start with the same sound. It is commonly used in advertising, poetry, headlines, and tongue-twisters. Basically the first consonant repeats itself throughout the sentence.
Alliteration is common for poetry. It was used one thousand years ago in Anglo-Saxon poems. A fine example is a strophe from "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:
Robert Browning used alliteration many times, too. he employed it in the poem "Summum bonum". This is a Latin expression and means "all the best".
Alliteration is most commonly used in modern music but is also seen in magazine article titles, advertisements, business names, comic strip or cartoon characters, common sayings, and a variety of other titles and expressions.
One example of alliteration is "Sally sold sea shells by the sea shore". In "Death Note", the pseudonym of the detective, L, is Ryuzaki Ryuga, his real name is L Lawliet.
Often, characters in books are named with alliteration. Many names in Harry Potter feature alliterations (for example, Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin). Similarly, in "Hairspray", most characters' names feature alliterations (e.g. Tracy Turnblad, Link Larkin, Corny Collins, Dan Dougherty, Penny Pingleton, and Seaweed Stubbs).
Titles of books sometimes use alliteration, including the titles of all thirteen books (except the last one) in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. Author Jeff Lindsay's novels about serial killer Dexter Morgan all feature alliteration in their titles: for example, Darkly Dreaming Dexter. Another example is William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost.
A common application of alliteration is in books intended for children learning about letters. Animalia by Graeme Base famously applies alliteration within a storybook, going in order through each letter of the English alphabet and providing many sentences with alliteration.
Places in books: Bat Barn, Terror Tombs, Vampire Village, etc.
Code names: The release names of the Linux distribution, Ubuntu (e.g. Breezy Badger, Hoary Hedgehog, Feisty Fawn, etc.).
Game Titles: Prince of Persia (also the tag: Prince of Persia – Warrior Within).
Brand Names and Alliteration
Companies company use this alliterative effect all the time. The major reason companies use this technique is to ensure that their brand name is memorable. Think, for example, of all of the famous and well known brands and companies that have used alliteration in their names:
•Dunkin’ Donuts
•PayPal
•Best Buy
•Coca-Cola
•LifeLock
•Park Place
•American Apparel
•American Airlines
•Chuckee Cheese’s
•Bed Bath & Beyond
•Krispy Kreme
•The Scotch and Sirloin
Famous People and Alliteration
Alliterative names can also help you stand out in the crowd and can make you more memorable. For example, both fictional characters and real people may stand out in your head as a result of the alliterative effect of their name. Think of:
•Ronald Reagan
•Sammy Sosa
•Jesse Jackson
•Michael Moore
•William Wordsworth
•Mickey Mouse
•Porky Pig
•Lois Lane
•Marilyn Monroe
•Fred Flintstone
•Donald Duck
•SpongeBob SquarePants
•Seattle Seahawks
•Katie Courec (Remember, alliterative words don’t even necessarily have to start with the same letter, they simply have to have the same first sound).
Finally, many famous phrases, quotes and saying also make use of alliteration:
•Busy as a bee
•Dead as a doornail
•Get your goat
•Give up the ghost
•Good as gold
•Home sweet home
•Last laugh
•Leave in the Lurch
•Living the life
•Look to your laurels
•Mad as a March hare
•Make a mountain out of a molehill
•Method to the madness
•Moaning Minnie
•Neck and neck
•Not on your nelly
•Out of order
•Pleased as punch
•Pooh-pooh
•Primrose path
•Right as rain
•Right roughshod
•Round Robin
Alliteration is commonly used since it adds interest to a sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases that you might other wide forget. Enjoy alliteration. It is a very fun and useful literary device.
Homophone
Homophones are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.
Examples include:
Condensation is the process through which gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is an important part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation.
Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape. Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing. In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature).
During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change.
Condensation is exothermic. This means that condensation makes the temperature go up. Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.
It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.
Precipitation is a form of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.
Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.
If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.
Relative humidity is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be. Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.
When the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold. If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist. The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.
When the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity become 100% and the water vapor condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.).
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips.
Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.
Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.
Through history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten.
The first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the British Royal Navy called James Lind, who at sea in May 1747 gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal ships food, while others continued on normal food alone.
The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.
Lind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors.
As well as lemons, limes and oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with different effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.
It was believed that only humans got scurvy but in 1907, Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food.
In 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimo (Inuit) people are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat.
In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word "vitamin" for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy "Vitamin C".
From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called "ascorbic acid".
In 1933/1934, the British chemists Norman Haworth and Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.
It was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.
In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have.
Citrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C.
Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit.
The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary.
The amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then.
Cooking food destroys vitamin C.
Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. Synthesis is achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds. The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources.
It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C for humans. The muscle and fat that make up the modern western diet are however poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.
Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.