AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Van Beneden in "Ascaris" eggs. The "significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance", however, was first described in 1890 by Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. Thus the work of the earlier cytologists laid the ground for Weismann, who turned his mind to the consequences for evolution, which was an aspect the cytologists had not addressed. All this took place before the work of Mendel had been rediscovered
Theodor Boveri
Theodor Heinrich Boveri (12 October 1862 – 15 October 1915) was a German biologist who made discoveries in cytology, embryology and genetics. His career was devoted to the processes whereby a new individual arises from parental reproductive materials.
His work with sea urchins showed that it was necessary to have all chromosomes present in order for proper development of the embryo to take place. This discovery was an important part of the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. His other significant discovery was the centrosome (1888), which he described as the "especial organ of cell division". Boveri also discovered the phenomenon of chromatin diminution during embryonic development of the nematode "Parascaris".
1902–1904: Boveri, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".
In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. E.B. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the "Sutton–Boveri hypothesis".
Boveri reasoned that a cancerous tumor begins with a single cell in which the make up of its chromosomes becomes scrambled, causing the cells to divide uncontrollably.
It was only later that researchers such as Thomas Hunt Morgan showed that Boveri was correct.
Fred Hoyle
Sir Fred Hoyle (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer. He is noted mainly for being the first man to think of the idea that nuclear fusion might happen in stars, like our Sun. In addition to his work as an astronomer, Hoyle was a writer of science fiction, including a number of books co-written with his son Geoffrey Hoyle. Fred Hoyle gave the Big Bang theory its name in a radio broadcast.
Edmund Beecher Wilson (Geneva, Illinois, 19 October 1856 – 3 March 1939) was a pioneering American zoologist and cell biologist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, "The Cell".
Wilson graduated from Yale in 1878. He earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins in 1881. He was a lecturer at Williams College in 1883–84 and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1884–85. He served as professor of biology at Bryn Mawr College from 1885 to 1891.
He spent the balance of his career at Columbia University where he was successively adjunct professor of biology (1891–94), professor of invertebrate zoology (1894–1897), and professor of zoology (from 1897).
Wilson is credited as America's first cell biologist. In 1898 he used the similarity in embryos to describe evolutionary relationships. By observing spiral cleavage in molluscs, flatworms and annelids he concluded that the same organs came from the same group of cells and concluded that all these organisms must have a common ancestor.
He also discovered the chromosomal XY sex-determination system in 1905—that males have XY and females XX sex chromosomes. Nettie Stevens independently made the same discovery the same year.
In 1907, he described, for the first time, the additional or supernumerary chromosomes, now called B-chromosomes.
Professor Wilson published many papers on embryology, and served as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1913.
The American Society for Cell Biology annually awards the E.B. Wilson Medal in his honour.
1902–1904: Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), a German biologist, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".
In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the "Sutton–Boveri hypothesis".
Reginald Punnett
Reginald Crundall Punnett FRS (Tonbridge, Kent, 20 June 1875 – Bilbrook, Somerset, 3 January 1967) was a British geneticist. He became Professor of Biology and then Professor of Genetics at the University of Cambridge.
He co-founded, with William Bateson, the "Journal of Genetics" in 1910. Punnett is probably best remembered today as the creator of the Punnett square, a tool still used by biologists to predict the probability of possible genotypes of offspring. His "Mendelism" (1905) is sometimes said to have been the first textbook on genetics; it was probably the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public.
Reginald Punnett was born in 1875 in the town of Tonbridge in Kent, England. While recovering from a childhood bout of appendicitis, Punnett became acquainted with Jardine's Naturalist's Library and developed an interest in natural history.
Attending the University of Cambridge, Punnett earned a degree in zoology in 1898, and a masters in 1902. Between these degrees he worked as a demonstrator and part-time lecturer at the University of St Andrews Natural History Department. However, by 1902 Punnett was back at Cambridge working in zoology, primarily the study of nematode worms. It was during this time that he and William Bateson began a research collaboration, which lasted several years.
When Punnett was an undergraduate, Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance was largely unknown and unappreciated by scientists. However, in 1900, Mendel's work was rediscovered. William Bateson became a proponent of Mendelian genetics, and had Mendel's work translated into English. It was with Bateson that Reginald Punnett helped establish the new science of genetics at Cambridge. He and Bateson co-discovered genetic linkage through experiments with chickens and pea plants.
In 1908, unable to explain how a dominant gene would not become fixed and ubiquitous in a population, Punnett introduced his problem to the mathematician G. H. Hardy, with whom he played cricket. Hardy went on to formulate what became known as the Hardy–Weinberg law.
In 1910 Punnett became professor of biology at Cambridge, and then the first Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics when Bateson left in 1912. In the same year, Punnett was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He received the society's Darwin Medal in 1922.
During World War I, Punnett successfully applied his expertise to the problem of the early determination of gender in chickens. Since only females were used for egg-production, early identification of male chicks, which were destroyed or separated for fattening, meant that limited animal-feed and other resources could be used more efficiently. Punnett's work in this area was summarized in "Heredity in Poultry" (1923).
Punnett squares are used by biologists to determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype.
If B represents the allele for having black hair and b represents the allele for having white hair, the offspring of two Bb parents would have a 25% probability of having two white hair alleles (bb), 50% of having one of each (Bb), and 25% of having only black hair alleles (BB). The phenotype (in this case the appearance) of the offspring would depend on whether and to what extent one of the alleles was dominant.
Canons of Dort
The Canons of Dort, also called the Canons of Dordrecht (full name: "The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands") is the ruling of the National Synod (or meeting) that took place in the Dutch city of Dordrecht from 1618-1619. Dordrecht is often called "Dort" in English.
Today, the Canons of Dort are part of the Three Forms of Unity, which is one of the confession standards of many of the Reformed churches around the world. The Reformed churches continued use of the Canons as a standard keeps the Reformed churches from being in full harmony with the followers of Jacob Arminius, the Remonstrants and the Dutch Reformed Churches, who disagree with the Canons.
The Canons are not supposed to be an absolute explanation of the Reformed doctrine, but only explain the five points of doctrine that were being argued over. These Canons introduced the Five Points of Calvinism.
Three Forms of Unity
The Three Forms of Unity is the name that is given to the Belgic Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These three works are about the doctrinal concerns of Continental Calvinism. They are considered official statements of Church doctrine by many of the Reformed churches.
From 1618 to 1619, the Dutch government, acting for the Dutch Reformed Church, called a series of meetings that would come to be called the Synod of Dort. Members from the Netherlands and twenty-seven members from eight other countries met at this Synod to discuss and come to an agreement on their views. This agreement is known as the "Canons of Dort."
This meeting then added the Canons of Dort to two other documents, the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism. Those were both commonly used by the Dutch Church at this time.
The reasons that they chose to do this were:
The different forms each serve different things:
Total depravity
Total depravity (also called total inability or total corruption) is a theological teaching that comes from Augustine's teachings on original sin. It is the teaching that, since the Fall of Man, every person who has been born into the world is a slave of sin and, without the irresistible grace of God, it is not possible for man to choose to follow God or accept salvation as He freely offers it.
Total depravity is taught by many Protestant confessions of faith, including Lutheranism, and Methodism, Arminianism, and Calvinism.
Dordrecht Confession of Faith
The Dordrecht Confession of Faith is a statement of faith that was created by Dutch Mennonite leaders at a meeting (also known as a Synod) in Dordrecht, Netherlands, on April 21, 1632. It has 18 articles of faith that talk about the importance of salvation through Jesus Christ, baptism, nonviolence, feet washing, and not taking oaths.
It was a very important part of the Radical Reformation and is still a very important document to many Anabaptist groups today, such as the Amish. In 1725, Jacob Gottshalk with sixteen other ministers from Pennsylvania and together they created the Dutch Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith.
Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior
Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior (born 15 October 1977) is a former Brazilian football player.
Martin Müller
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280||7
Pavel Horváth
Pavel Horváth (born 22 April 1975) is a Czech football player. He has played for Czech Republic national team.
278||55
20||1
361||68
Bernard Genghini
Bernard Genghini (born 18 January 1958) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.
363||118
!Total||27||6
Jun Yanagisawa
Jun Yanagisawa (born 27 June 1987) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Sagan Tosu.
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Anders Svensson
Anders Svensson (born 17 July 1976) is a Swedish football player. He plays for Elfsborg and Sweden national team.
260||59
387||68
!Total||108||17
John Piper (broadcaster)
John Piper was the mid-morning talk show host on the BBC Radio Solent throughout the 1970s. The name of his program was called "Piper's Tune". The show was a mix of music, talk guests and the regular feature called, "Give a Neighbour a Hand", in which listeners would call in and ask for advice and other listeners would call in and give advice. Piper left the BBC in 1879 to join the Two Counties Radio in Bournemouth, as the station's first Programme Controller. He stayed on the air in Bournemouth until he left radio to move to Spain with his wife, Dilys.
In the 1980s, Piper also served as the mayor of his home town, Sitio de Calahonda which is located near Málaga in Spain. Piper also served in the Special Operations during World War II as a journalist and naturalist.
Xerophyte
Xerophytes are plants which are adapted to dry/desert areas. They are a type of succulent plant. To survive these harsh conditions they have special features. For example, a cactus has white hairs which help to prevent water loss. Another example is manzanita plants, which have a thick waxy coating and keep their leaves vertical to the sun.
Some Xerophytic plants sit out a drought. They can still extract water from soil. They may have very salty cell sap and therefore a very low water potential in the roots; they may have very extensive or deep roots or may pick up the slightest dew and survive on that.
Others have special features about their shape or structure (xeromorphs). Thick waxy cuticle ("Aloe"); hairy surfaces ("Edelweiss"); dense packing of leaves, reduced leaf size (species of cypress); reduced density of stomata (many cacti); pitted and grooved position of stomata (Ammophila) Water storage in stem and tubers, etc. (baobab). They may also protect this water store from animals by spines and chemicals.
Liga MX
Liga MX, known as the Primera División de México before the 2012–13 season, is the top football league in México.
Like most football leagues in Latin America, Liga MX divides its season into two phases—Apertura and Clausura (Spanish for "opening" and "closing"), with different champions in each phase. The Apertura is held in the Northern Hemisphere fall (autumn), and the Clausura in spring.
Fortuna Düsseldorf
SC Freiburg
S.C. Freiburg is a football club which plays in Germany.
MSV Duisburg
The Meidericher Spielverein 02 e. V. Duisburg is a football club which plays in Germany. The club was founding member of the German Bundesliga 1962/63 and is now playing in the Second Bundesliga. Due to their striped jerseys they are also called the "Zebras".
The club was founded in 1902 as "Meidericher SV". On 9 January 1967 the club was renamed into his still today valid name "MSV Duisburg".
"As of 1 November 2011"
Hansa Rostock
Hansa Rostock is a football club from Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The club plays in German 2. Bundesliga.
The club was founded on 1 November 1954 multi-sport Sportclub Empor Rostock. Because it was not possible to find enough players for the football team the team of Empor Lauter was transferred to Rostock. This was common in the German Democratic Republic. Rostock took the place of Lauter in the first league. The re-organization of East German sports in 1965 led to the association's football department becoming independent as Fußball Club Hansa Rostock. The new club was named "Hansa" to remember northern Europe's Hanseatic League. Rostock was an important member there.
After the reunification of Germany Hansa played together with Dynamo Dresden in the German Bundesliga. They were relegated but came back. Their best result in the Bundesliga was 2 times a 6th place.
"As of 31 August 2011"
FC Red Bull Salzburg
F.C. Red Bull Salzburg is a football club from Salzburg that plays in the Austrian Bundesliga. The club was known as SV Austria Salzburg until 2005, when the club was bought by the Red Bull Company. They renamed the club and changed the colours from the traditional violet to red and white. Also, the company's logo was added. The club runs two academies in Ghana and in Brazil. Their home stadium is the Red Bull Arena which was opened in 2003 and was renovated for the 2008 Euro.
The club was formed on September 13, 1933 by the unification of the cities two clubs: FC Rapid Salzburg and FC Hertha Salzburg.
In 1952-53 they reached the A-Liga for the first time, the highest division of Austrian football then, beating Kapfenberger SV in the play-offs. They played there for 3 seasons but were relegated in 1959. To stay in the league they signed Erich Probst, who was the second best scorer in the FIFA World Cup 1954. In 20 matches he scored 14 goals, which helped Salzburg stay in the league. He was also the first player of SV Austria who played for the Austrian national football team.
The next years were characterized by ups and downs. The first success was being second in the league in the 1971-72 season. This year was also their first year of playing in the UEFA Cup. The same year they made the Lehener Stadion their homeground. Two years later, in 1974, they reached the Austrian Cup final for the first time. However, the lost to FK Austria Wien 3-2 on global.
The best years of the club were between 1990 and 1997. In these years, the club reached the championship three times, played in the UEFA Champions League and played in the 1994 UEFA Cup final versus Inter Milan. They won their first Austrian Bundesliga title the same year, and the next year too. Their first Champions League in 1994 saw them reach the group stage, however, they were eliminated after finishing in third place out of four. In 2005 the Red Bull Company bought the club because the owners were having problems with money. Some traditional fans left the club and started a new club under the old name SV Austria Salzburg. Ever since 2005, the club has been named FC Red Bull Salzburg.
In 2005 the Red Bull Company bought the club because the owners were having problems with money. Some traditional fans left the club and started a new club under the old name SV Austria Salzburg. Ever since 2005, the club has been named FC Red Bull Salzburg. One of the aims of the new owners was to form a team which can play in the UEFA Champions League regularly. This was not reached but the new club was nevertheless successful. In the national league they reached four titles and were four times second. In 2008, they beat FC Banants of Armenia 10-0 on aggregate as part of qualification for the 2008-09 Europa League. In the 2009-10 Europa League the club won their group with 6 victories over Villarreal CF, SS Lazio and Levski Sofia. In the Round of 32 they lost versus Standard Lüttich. Also the next two Euro League group stages were reached. In the 2011–12 Europa League they got second in the group stage behind Athletic Bilbao. Although they ost 1-8 on aggregate to Metalist Kharkiv in the Round of 32, they beat Paris Saint-Germain 2-0 in the group stages.
In the 2013–14 season the team was very successful: They came in first place in the league and got to the round of 16 of the Europa League. In the Europa League, the club won all 6 of their group stage matches. Then they beat AFC Ajax 6-1 on aggregate in the round of 32, but unfortunately lost 1-2 to Basel in the round of 16. In the 2017–18 Europa League, Salzburg reached the semi-finals where they lost to Olympique de Marseille 2-3 on aggregate. They had also beaten Lazio, Borussia Dortmund, and Real Sociedad.
After the Red Bull take over of SV Austria Salzburg some group of fans were unhappy because the new club has other colours and did not accept the history of the club. After some negotiations these fans left the club and founded a new one under the name SV (Sportverein) Austria Salzburg. The new club is playing in the Regionalliga West
In the meantime Red Bull Salzburg has 44 official fan clubs all over Austria.
FC Liefering, which currently plays in the Austrian Second League, has been a reserve team for Salzburg.
"As of 4 June 2020"
Austrian Bundesliga
Austrian Cup
Austrian Supercup
UEFA Cup
"<nowiki>*</nowiki> as Austria Salzburg"
SK Sturm Graz
S.K. Sturm Graz is a football club which plays in Austria. It was founded in 1909 and the colors are black and white. Therefore they are nicknamed the "Blackies".
The club was founded on 1 May 1909. It was founded by teenagers between 16 and 18. The official foundation of the club was in 1912. From 1921 to 1949 Sturm won the styrian championship 11 times. During German occupation the club played his first season in the highest division, the Gauliga Ostmark, but was relegated the same year. 1949 Sturm entered the national league as first team which came not from Vienna. In 1981 the team had the first success, it finished second in the league and reached the quarterfinals of tne UEFA Cup.
With the new president Hannes Kartnig a new successful era started. In 1994 Ivica Osim became coach of the team. 1995 they finished second in the league and 1996 they reached their first title, the Austrian Cup beating Admira Wacker. In 1998 they reached the first title. In 1999 they also won the league.
The first time they played for the Champions League, they only got one point against Spartak Moscow of Russia. The second time they played there they reached the 3rd place in the group. In the 1999/2000 season of the Champions League they won the Group D versus Galatasaray Glasgow Rangers and AS Monaco.
After this success some key players left the club and also coach Ivica Osim. Since 2005 Sturm has had financial problems. Therefore Sturm was forced to play with young players. Under Franco Foda this way was successful, and now Sturm is one of the top four teams in the league. In 2010 they reached the third title and played in the qualification for the Champions League but lost in the play off round against BATE Borisov.
L.A.S.K. Linz
L.A.S.K. Linz is a football club which plays in Linz, the capital of Upper Austria. They are playing in the First League, the second division in Austrias league system.
The club was founded on 7 August 1899 as Athletiksportclub Siegfried, the football section was founded in February 1919. The first match was on 4 May 1919 against Fußballverein Wels . LASK lost 1:4. Being the most successful section of the Athletiksportclub it was decided that the name of the club should be Linzer Athletik-Sport-Klub (Linzer ASK). Till the occupation by Germany in 1938 they reached many titels in the Upper Austrian league. In the 1938/39 season they were promoted to the Gauliga XVII, which was then the highest class in Austrian football. But they were relegated the same season.
After the Second World War LASK reached the title in Austrian highest class in the 1964/65 season. The LASK was the first team which came not from Vienna to do so. The same season they also won the Autrian Cup. The next decades were partly successful but also by relegetions to the second division. In 1997, due to public pressure, LASK Linz merged with city rivals FC Linz (formerly known as SK VOEST Linz) which, however, resulted in the cancellation of the latter. Club name, colors, chairmen and members remained the same.
In the 2010/11 season they were relegated. Today they are playing in Austrias First League, the second division in Austrian football.
"As of December 2008."
F.C. Wacker Innsbruck (2002)
F.C. Wacker Innsbruck is a football club which plays in Austria. The club was founded in June 2002 after the insolvency of FC Tirol Innsbuck. The fans think this club is the successor but leagaly they are a new club.
The club started in the Regionalliga West (3 stage of Austrian football, this was possible because the club played together with WSG Wattens, a 3rd league club) and promoted within 2 seasons to the Bundesliga. In the 2006/07 season they avoided relegetion only because of the insolvency of the GAK. But the following season they were relegated to the 1st league(2nd stage of Austrian football). 2009 they won the championship again and promoted again to the Bundesliga.
The second team (FC Wacker Innsbruck Amateure) is playing in the Regionalliga West (3rd level).
Grazer AK
Grazer AK (or GAK) is a football club which plays in Austria. it was founded in 1902.
The club was founded by a group of students led by medical student Georg August Wagner from Prague. Due to this development the first football match in Austria with the FA rules took place in Graz. 1902 was the official start of the Grazer Athletik-Sport-Club. The club reached the Styrian Championship in 1922, 1924 and between 1926 and 1933 and was Austrian Amateur Champion in 1929, 1932 and 1933. One of the players of GAK was Rudi Hiden, who went to Wiener AC and became goalkeeper of the famous "Austrian Wunderteam". 1944 the matches were stopped due to the Second World War.
1946 the club begun again. 1951 it reached the highest class (Liga A) and, at the end of that season, the 6th position, which was the best of a club outside Vienna. In the following years the Athletics were established in the first class. 1962 and 1968 they where runners-up in the cup-final. Only because the league was reformed the club was relegated to the second division in 1974, but came back one year later. 1981 the Athletics gained first title as professional team when they won the Austrian cup, which also was the first title for a styrian team. From 1990 to 1995 the club was in the second league. They won the cup-title also in 2000, 2002 and were double winners in 2004.
2007 the club collapsed due to 15,2 mil. € debts. They had to go to the third league where they went bankrupt again and had to interrupt playing in october 2012.
2013 they had to start over from the lowest (9th tier) league after being reestablished. Since then the club (named GAC due legal grounds initially) won every championship. For the Season 2017/18, they are in Landesliga Steiermark, 4th tier.
List of international games of GAK in UEFA-Cup, Champions League Qualification, Cupwinners' Cup and in Fairs' Cup:
1962/63:
1964/65:
1968/69:
1972/73:
1980/81:
1982/83:
1996/97:
1998/99:
1999/2000:
2000/01:
2001/02:
2002/03:
2003/04:
2004/05:
2005/06:
Total (in 1st Austrian League):
(Goals: 174:168)
Judge Joe Brown
Curt Stern
Curt Stern (30 August 1902 – 23 October 1981) was a German-American geneticist of Jewish descent. Born in Hamburg, Germany, he studied zoology at the University of Berlin, receiving his PhD in 1923 at the age of 21. He was selected for a fellowship to study at Columbia University, then the site of Thomas Hunt Morgan's famous drosophila fly room.
Stern accepted an appointment at the University of Berlin after his fellowship ended. In 1931, he was the first to demonstrate crossover of homologous chromosomes in "Drosophila melanogaster", only weeks after Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton had done so with maize.
Stern eventually returned to the United States in 1932. He became an American citizen in 1939. From 1933 to 1947, he taught at the University of Rochester. From 1947 until his retirement in 1970, he was a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he had numerous doctoral students.
In 1936, he demonstrated that recombination can also take place in mitosis resulting in somatic mosaics, organisms that contain two or more genetically distinct types of tissues. He later demonstrated that there were multiple genes on the "Drosophila" Y chromosome, and described the mechanism of dosage compensation.
During World War II, he led research for the American government on low dose radiation safety. His laboratory group concluded that there is no "safe" threshold below which radiation is not harmful.
After the war his research focused on human genetics, pioneering in what is now known as gene regulation. Although not a physician, he engaged in clinical work in human genetics. In 1943 he began teaching a course in human genetics to medical students at the University of Rochester. The first edition of Stern's pioneering textbook "The Principles of human genetics" was published in 1949. Both his teaching and his textbook were instrumental in re-founding human genetics on a non-racist basis, in contrast with pre-war German and American traditions in the subject. Stern was a signatory of the 1950 UNESCO statement "The Race Question", a statement by leading scientists in many fields that questioned the validity and scientific foundations of racism.
The Curt Stern Award, established by the American Society of Human Genetics in 2001, recognizes a scientist who has made major scientific achievements in human genetics during the previous 10 years.
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Thomas Hunt Morgan (25 September 1866 – 4 December 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Morgan took his PhD at Johns Hopkins University in 1890, and researched embryology while at Bryn Mawr College.
After the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900, Morgan switched his research to the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster". In 1904, E.B. Wilson invited Morgan to join him at Columbia University. This move freed Morgan to focus fully on experimental work.
In his famous Fly Room at Columbia, Morgan was able to show that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of the modern science of genetics.
Morgan moved to California in 1928 to head the Division of Biology at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Research was focused on genetics and evolution; experimental embryology; physiology; biophysics and biochemistry.
He was given the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. It was the first one given for genetics, for his "discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity". The prize was not shared with the lab's main researcher, Alfred Sturtevant, a decision of the Nobel Committee which was certainly controversial.
Morgan's early work with "Drosophila" was on the associations known as 'coupling' and 'repulsion', discovered by English workers in 1909 and 1910 using the Sweet Pea. These were, in reality, the same phenomenon, which was later called linkage. Morgan's first papers dealt with the demonstration of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes in the fly, the male fly being heterogametic (XY).
During his distinguished career, Morgan wrote 22 books and 370 scientific papers, and, as a result of his work, "Drosophila" became the main 'model organism' in genetics. The Division of Biology he started at the California Institute of Technology produced "seven" Nobel Prize winners.
Alfred Sturtevant
Alfred Henry Sturtevant (21 November 1891 – 5 April 1970) was an American geneticist. Sturtevant made the first genetic map of a chromosome in 1913. In his career he worked on the fruit-fly "Drosophila melanogaster" with Thomas Hunt Morgan.
Morgan was both a help and a hindrance to Sturtevant. Morgan supported him through the early part of his career, but took much of the credit for the research. Morgan's Nobel Prize in 1933 was not shared with Sturtevant, who was the lab's main researcher.
Later in his career, Sturtevant had another important relationship, this time with Theodosius Dobzhansky. The research was into the genetics of natural populations of "Drosophila". This relationship, too, became uneasy, and they split up after a few years. Sturtevant was one of the most outstanding genetics researchers not to get a Nobel Prize. In 1967, Sturtevant received the National Medal of Science.
H. J. Muller
Hermann Joseph Muller, generally known as H. J. Muller, (21 December 1890 – 5 April 1967) was an American geneticist, educator, and Nobel Prize winner. He was best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation, as well as his outspoken political beliefs. Muller frequently warned of the long-term dangers of radioactive fallout from nuclear explosions.
Muller's life was as extraordinary as could be imagined. Born in New York City, he got his PhD at CalTech in Morgan's "Drosophila" fly lab. He next worked at Rice University, and then spent twelve years at the University of Texas. Then he moved to Berlin in 1932, then to Leningrad (St Petersburg), and then to Moscow. In all these places he organised a genetics lab, and sometimes taught as well. Then arose the scientific charlatan Lysenko, who saw to it that genuine genetics scientists came under the disapproval of Stalin. Once again Muller moved, this time to Edinburgh, with 250 strains of "Drosophila", then finally back to the United States in 1940, where he became an advisor to the Manhattan Project. He became Professor of Zoology at Indiana University.
Muller's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946 was "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by X-rays". By then the real interest lay in the same effects caused by gamma rays from nuclear testing. Muller was a wholehearted enthusiast for eugenics, socialism, atheism and other relatively unpopular ideas, but his real contribution was to genetics. One reputable source writes of him:
Hermann Muller
Several people are named Hermann Muller or Hermann Müller:
Fat Man
Fat Man is the name of the second atomic bomb ever made from plutonium and the second atomic bomb to be used in nuclear warfare. It was dropped over the Japanese island of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.
Geography of Haiti
Haiti (; ) is a country in the Caribbean. It occupies the western three-eighths of Hispaniola; the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern five-eighths (63%) of the island.
The country has a total area of , of which 27,560 km² is land and 190 km² is water. Haiti has of coast-line and a border with the Dominican Republic.
The limits of the country are the Dominican Republic to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north, and the Caribbean Sea to the south and west. The capital, Port-au-Prince, is a seaport located on the west coast.
Cuba is to the northwest and Jamaica to the southwest of Haiti; the Winward Passage separates Cuba from Haiti (and Hispaniola), and the Jamaica Channel separates Haiti from Jamaica.
There are two large peninsulas: the Northwestern on the Atlantic Ocean, and the Southern peninsulas on the Caribbean Sea. The Northwestern, or just Northern, Peninsula () is also known as the Saint-Nicolas Peninsula; it was the first part of the Hispaniola visited by Christopher Columbus on 1492. The historical name of the Southern Peninsula () was Tiburón Peninsula.
Between those two large peninsulas there is a gulf (a very large bay): the Gulf of Gonâve. It is named so after the Gonâve Island that is in the middle of the gulf. It was called also Gulf of Léogane after the city of Léogane, one of the oldest in Haiti.
Haiti has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "Trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean, full of water vapour), which blow from the Atlantic all year long. In low lands with mountains to the northeast, the climate is arid (dry) because the trade winds leave their water in those mountains rather than the valleys and plains.
There are two rainy seasons, in spring and fall to the south, and in spring and winter to the north. From June to November (mainly from August to October), tropical storms and hurricanes are frequent and can do much damage in the country.
There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Haiti. The largest islands are:
The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern Peninsula, where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.
From north to south, the main mountain ranges and valleys are:
The river "Artibonite" is the longest river of the island and of Haiti. It is 321 km long (68 km in the Dominican Republic, 253 km in Haiti). Its sources are in the Cordillera Central (Dominican Republic) and flows into the Gulf of Gonâve. Its watershed has an area of 6,399 km² in Haiti and 2,614 km² in the Dominican Republic.
Another important Haitian river is the "Trois Rivières" (Three Rivers). It is 150 km long and its sources are in the Massif du Nord and flows into the Atlantic Ocean, near the city of Po//
Others lakes are "Étang de Miragoâne" (25 km²), of fresh water at 4 km southeast from the city of Miragoâne; and "Trou Caïman" (16.2 km²), a small lake at 6 km from Étang Saumâtre.
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Mundari language
Listed building
A listed building, in the United Kingdom, is a building that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. This is a list of buildings that are important in terms of architecture, history, or culture. There are many buildings on this list. In the UK, there are about 500,000 listed buildings.
In England and Wales, there are three kinds of listed buildings:
There used to be a fourth kind of listed building: Grade III. This type has not been used since 1970.
Holborn
Alice Ivers (1851-February 27, 1930), better known as Poker Alice, was a famous poker player. Her family moved from Devon, England, where she was born, to Virginia, United States, where she went to school and was raised. As an adult, Ivers moved to Leadville, Colorado where she met her husband Frank Duffield. Duffield was responsible for getting Ivers interested in poker, but he was killed a few years after they got married. Ivers made a name for herself by winning money from poker games in places like Silver City, New Mexico, and even working at a saloon that was owned by Bob Ford, the man who killed Jesse James
“Poker” Alice Ivers was born on February 17, 1851 in Devon, England to Irish Immigrants. Her family moved to Virginia when Alice was 12. As a young woman, she went to boarding school in Virginia to become a refined lady. While in her late teens, her family moved to Leadville, a city in the Colorado Territory.
It was in Leadville that Alice met Frank Duffield, whom she married at a young age. Frank Duffield was a mining engineer who played poker in his spare time. After just a few years of marriage, Duffield was killed in an accident while resetting a dynamite charge in a Leadville mine.
Ivers was known for splurging her winnings, as when she won a lot of money in Silver City and spent it all in New York. After all of her big wins, she would travel to New York and spend her money on clothes. She was very keen on keeping up with the latest fashions and would buy dresses to wear to play poker.
Alice met her next husband around 1890 when she was a dealer in Bedrock Tom’s saloon in Deadwood, South Dakota. When a drunken miner tried to attack her fellow dealer Warren G. Tubbs with a knife, Alice threatened him with her .38. After this incident, Tubbs and Ivers started a romance and were married soon after.
Alice Ivers and Warren Tubbs had 4 sons and 3 daughters together. Tubbs and Ivers did not want their children to be influenced by the world of poker, so they moved to a house just northeast of Sturgis on the Moreau River in South Dakota. Tubbs was not only a dealer, but a housepainter as well. It was most likely this house painting that caused him to fall sick with tuberculosis. Warren Tubbs died in 1910 in of pneumonia during a blizzard. To pay for his funeral, Alice had to pawn her wedding ring, which led her back to the poker world.
Alice’s third husband was George Huckert, who worked on her homestead taking care of the sheep. Huckert was constantly proposing to Ivers, yet for a while she did not agree. Eventually, however, Ivers owed Huckert $1,008, so she married him figuring that it would be cheaper than paying his back wages. Huckert died in 1913.
First husband Frank Duffield introduced Alice to poker when she accompanied him to his poker games in Leadville. For a while she just attended, watching and observing, but eventually she started to play and gamble along with the men. However, it wasn’t until after her first husband died that she started to play poker seriously.
Alice was in a tough financial position, and after failing in a few different jobs including teaching; she turned to poker to support herself financially. Alice would make money by gambling and working as a dealer. Ivers made a name for herself by winning money from poker games in places like Silver City, New Mexico, even working at a saloon that was owned by Bob Ford, the man who killed Jesse James.
By the time Ivers was given the name “Poker Alice,” she was drawing in large crowd to watch her play and men were constantly challenging her to play. Saloon owners liked that Ivers was a respectable woman who kept to her values. These values included her refusal to play poker on Sundays.
As her reputation grew, so did the amount of money she was making. Some nights she would even make $6,000, an incredibly large sum of money at the time. Alice claimed that she won $250,000, which would now be worth over three million dollars.
Ivers used her good looks to distract men at the poker table. She always had the newest dresses, and even in her 50s was considered a very attractive woman. She was also very good at counting cards and figuring odds, which helped her at the table.
Alice was known to always be carrying a gun with her, preferably her .38. She was also known to smoke a lot.
In 1910, Ivers opened “Poker’s Palace,” a saloon in Fort Meade, South Dakota, which offered gambling and liquor downstairs, and prostitution upstairs. The saloon was always closed on Sundays, due to Iver’s religious beliefs. However, in 1913, some drunken soldiers disobeyed Iver’s “no work on Sunday” rule and started to get unruly, chaotic, and destructive of the house. It was then that Ivers shot her gun, supposedly to quiet the soldiers down. The shot ended up killing one of the soldiers and injuring another, resulting in Iver’s arrest, along with the arrest of six of her ‘girls’.
Iver’s time spent in jail was short, but she got through it with the help of reading the bible and smoking cigars. At the trial, she claimed self-defense and was acquitted. After the trial, her saloon was shut down.
While in her 60s, Alice Ivers was arrested several times after the “Poker Palace” incident for being a madam, a gambler, and a bootlegger, as well as her drunkenness. She would comply with the law and pay her fines, but keep her business still. In 1928, she was arrested again for bootlegging and her repeated offenses of holding a brothel. Despite this sentence to prison, Ivers did not end up having to stay, because she was pardoned by then Governor Bulow of South Dakota who did so because of her old age.
After being forced to retire by the anger of the military and other people who were upset with her blend of religious elements at her house in Sturgis, Alice’s health began to fail her. Alice Ivers died on February 27, 1930 in Rapid City after a gallbladder operation at the age of 79. Ivers was buried at the St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sturgis, South Dakota.
Strand Underpass
The Strand Underpass (sometimes incorrectly called the Kingsway Underpass) is a vehicle tunnel in central London. It connects Waterloo Bridge to Kingsway near Holborn. It was built by John Mowlem & Co. It opened on 21 January 1964.
Southampton Row
Southampton Row is major road running northwest-southeast in Bloomsbury, Camden, central London, England. The road is part of the A4200.
Victoria Embankment
The Victoria Embankment is part of the Thames Embankment, a road and walkway along the north bank of the River Thames in London. Victoria Embankment extends from the City of Westminster into the City of London.
Charlton, London
Waterloo Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge crossing the River Thames in London, England between Blackfriars Bridge and Hungerford Bridge.
The first bridge on the site was designed in 1809-10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge Company and opened in 1817 as a toll bridge. The granite bridge had nine arches, each of span, separated by double Grecian-Doric stone columns and was long, including approaches. Before its opening it was known as 'Strand Bridge'. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a popular place for suicide attempts. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem "The Bridge of Sighs" about the suicide of a prostitute there. Paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and English Impressionist, John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and given to the Metropolitan Board of Works, who removed the toll from it.
Westminster Bridge
Westminster Bridge is a road traffic and foot bridge over the River Thames between Westminster and Lambeth, in London. It is right next to the Houses of Parliament.
Until Westminster Bridge was built in 1750, there was only one bridge crossing the River Thames.
Bloomsbury is an area of central London in the south of the London Borough of Camden.
Hop Exchange
River Fleet
The River Fleet is the biggest of London's subterranean rivers.
Blackfriars, London
Kennington
Battersea is a place in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is an inner-city district. It is southwest of Charing Cross. In April 2001, it had 75,651 people. In Battersea there is a home for dogs and cats called Battersea Dogs & Cats Home.
Wandsworth
Anti-abortion movement
The pro-life movement, also called the anti-abortion movement, is a group of people who believe that human life begins at conception and that the life of unborn children should be protected. People who believe this are sometimes called "pro-lifers". Pro-lifers believe that life begins at the moment of conception. They oppose abortion. As abortion is an important political topic, they are sometimes called anti-choice by the "pro-choice movement".
People who are pro-life believe that all humans, including the unborn, have a right to live. They believe that having a human genome is enough for a developing organism to be called a living human being. Others believe that an organism should be identified as a living human being once a heartbeat has been detected. Pro-lifers think that abortion should be illegal. Many pro-lifers think women who are pregnant and do not want to raise a child should look for alternatives to abortion such as adoption.
There are many advocacy groups that try to convince people that abortion is wrong.
The pro-life movement is most associated with conservative politics. In one poll in the United States, 66% of conservatives called themselves pro-life. It is also associated with the Catholic Church. Pope Francis has said that "Every child that isn't born, but is unjustly condemned to be aborted, has the face of Jesus Christ, has the face of the Lord."
The Dunning–Kruger effect is a bias in thinking, usually where a person is unaware of how badly they grasp a subject, not understanding that they are failing at it. They mistakenly think that they are doing as well as "average" or even "above average".
It is a psychological effect in which people don't realize their level of knowledge or ability in a subject. People who know little about a subject will think that they know more than they actually know. People of low ability may not have enough intelligence to fully grasp how complicated something can be, causing them to overestimate their knowledge or ability. This can cause them to underestimate the intelligence of a high ability person who claims something is complicated when they falsely believe they understand it fully.
This effect was shown in an experiment that was done by Justin Kruger and David Dunning at Cornell University.
The investigators said:
In the year 2000, Dunning and Kruger were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize in the field of psychology for their study.
Interferometer
Chris Terreri
Christopher Arnold Terreri (born November 15, 1964 in Warwick, Rhode Island) is a American former professional ice hockey goaltender who played for four professional teams of the NHL. He won the Stanley Cup two times with the New Jersey Devils. He is currently the goaltending coach of the New Jersey Devils of the NHL.
Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy is a 2004 American comedy movie set in San Diego in 1975. It was produced by Judd Apatow and directed by Adam McKay. The movie is number 100 on "Bravo's 100 funniest movies", and 113 on "Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time". It was narrated by Bill Kurtis. It was released on July 9, 2004. A sequel, "" was released on December 18, 2013.
A tic is a sudden body movement that a person can't control. It might be a jerking movement of the hand, or blinking a lot, or a throat sound. Even if the person is told that they are doing it, they usually can't stop. Sometimes if they try really hard, they can make the tic go away for a little bit, but they can't make it go away all the time. It's kind of like when you have something in your throat, eventually you just have to cough.
Tics can be either "motor tics" or "phonic tics." If they are "motor tics" it means they're movements, like blinking or shrugging shoulders. If they are "phonic tics" it means they're sounds, like clearing your throat, sniffing, or yelling.