AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Isolated in Dublin, Ormonde agreed to a ceasefire ("to stop fighting") with the Catholics, which began in September 1643. The greater part of Ireland was given up into the hands of the Catholic Confederation. This left only districts in the north, the Dublin Pale, round Cork City, and certain smallish garrisons in the possession of Protestant commanders. This truce was strongly opposed by the Lords Justices and the Protestant community in general in Ireland.
In November 1643 the king appointed Ormonde as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. This was the highest post in the Irish government. Ormonde was told to stop the king's Parliamentarian enemies being helped from Ireland. He also had to deliver more troops to fight for the Royalist side in England. He was also given the king's authority to make peace with the Catholic Confederation. They could then allow their troops to fight against the Parliamentarians.
Ormonde had a difficult job to do.
The Old native Irish and Catholic Irish of English descent ("the Old English") had their own government in Confederate Ireland. They would support King Charles I of England if he would allow them freedom to be Catholics, and give them self-government. On the other side, any deals he made with Catholic Confederates meant that his support among English and Scottish Protestants in Ireland would become less.
On August 25, 1645, Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester, acting on behalf of King Charles, signed a treaty ("peace agreement") in Kilkenny with the Irish Catholic Confederates. He did not talk about this with the Irish Protestant community. Irish Protestants were strongly against this, and Charles was forced to undo the treaty almost immediately. He was afraid that almost all Irish Protestant would give support to the other side in the English Civil War.
On March 28, 1646, Ormonde, on behalf of the king, signed another treaty with the Confederates. This one gave them religious and other rights. However, the Confederates' General Assembly ("their government") in Kilkenny did not like the deal. This was in part because of what the pope's ambassador (nuncio) Giovanni Battista Rinuccini said. He did not want the Catholics to compromise. The Confederates arrested those among them who had signed the treaty with Ormonde.
Ormonde then judged that he could not keep the Confederates out of Dublin. He asked for help from English Long Parliament and signed an agreement with them on June 19, 1647. At the beginning of August Ormonde handed over Dublin, together with 3000 royalist troops under his command, to the Parliamentarian commander Michael Jones. He had arrived from England with 5000 Parliamentarian troops. Ormonde in turn sailed to England. He said about his surrender that he "preferred English rebels to Irish ones."
The royalist and parliamentarian troops were fighting on different sides in the English Civil War. But in Ireland, they fought together against the Catholic Confederates. The combined troops won a major battle against the Confederates soon afterward near Dublin (Battle of Dungan's Hill).
In March 1648 he joined the queen and the Prince of Wales in Paris. In September he went back to Ireland. He was going to try to get the Irish Confederates and the Irish Protestants to support the king now that the pope's nuncio was gone.
The Irish Confederates wanted to make a compromise now. Their battle against the English Parliamentarian forces was not going well. On 17 January 1649 Ormonde signed a peace with the rebels which said that they could practice their religion freely.
After Charles I was executed in 1649, he stated Ireland's support for Charles II. Ormonde was put in command of the Irish Confederates' armies and also the English Royalist troops who had come to Ireland. Almost all of Ireland was under his control before August 1649. Yet Ormonde was not able to stop the conquest of Ireland by Oliver Cromwell in 1649-50.
Most of the English and Protestant Royalist troops left Ormonde's side and went to fight for Cromwell in May 1650. The Irish Catholic troops were the only ones left under his command. They did not trust him. Ormonde was made to leave his command in late 1650. He returned to France later that year. In Cromwell's Act of Settlement 1652, all of Ormonde's lands in Ireland were taken from him.
Ormonde was great friends with Charles II and the queen mother in Paris. He went to Aix and Cologne with Charles when he had to leave France. He played an active part in the secret planning of the Restoration ("the plan to put Charles II back on the throne of England.").
After Charles II became king, Ormonde got a lot of different responsibilities and titles from the king. He was made
He also got back his lands in Ireland. On 4 November 1661 he became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland again. He did not like it when Charles II stopped importing cattle from Ireland. In return, he stopped importing cattle from Scotland.
In March 1669, Ormonde was removed from the government of Ireland. He did not mind. He made sure that his sons and others that listened to him stayed in their posts. He was chosen as Chancellor of the University of Oxford on 4 August 1669.
In 1670 an attempt was made to kill the duke by an adventurer named Thomas Blood. Ormonde was attacked by Blood and his helpers while driving up St James's Street on the night of 6 December 1670. He was pulled out of his carriage, and taken on horseback along Piccadilly. They wanted to hang him at Tyburn. Ormonde managed to escape.
In 1677 the king decided that he would become the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland once again.
On his arrival in Ireland he set up a tax system, and reorganised the army. After the Popish Plot (1678) in England, Ormonde at once took action that would make Roman Catholics powerless. There were far more Catholics than Protestants in the country (15 Catholics for every 1 Protestant). In 1682 he went back to London at the request of the King, who he supported. The last thing he did as lord lieutenant was to declare Irish support for James II of England after the death of Charles II.
Ormonde lived in retirement at Cornbury in Oxfordshire. Ormonde died on 21 July 1688 at Kingston Lacy, Dorset. Ormonde was buried in Westminster Abbey on 1 August 1688.
Macbeth (opera)
Macbeth is an opera by Giuseppe Verdi. It is based on Shakespeare’s play with the same name. The opera is normally in Italian, though there is also a French version that's almost never used anymore. The libretto (the words) was written by Francesco Maria Piave with some extra additions by Andrea Maffei.
Verdi wrote several works based on Shakespeare plays. "Macbeth" was the first of these. It was composed in 1847, at a time when he was composing a lot of operas. In those days Italian operas were always about a love story, but "Macbeth" was unusual because there was no love story. Instead, it is a story about wanting power, even if means murder. The opera helped to make him very famous, and it has remained one of his most popular operas.
Andrea Maffei, a poet and friend of Verdi, suggested to him that "Macbeth" would be a good story to make into an opera. Verdi did not read Shakespeare’s original work until after he had composed the opera. The words were written for him by Piave who based the libretto on an Italian translation. Verdi loved the story, he thought it was “one of the greatest creations of man”. The opera is very similar to the story told by Shakespeare, but Verdi uses a large chorus of witches instead of just three. The last act ends with the refugees coming together on the English border, and, in the revised version, ends with a chorus of bards celebrating their victory over the cruel tyrant.
The 1847 version was performed a great deal all over Italy. Then, in 1865, Verdi made several changes to the opera in a revised version. It was to be performed in Paris, and in France people expected to have ballet music in operas. Verdi wrote some music for the dancers, and took the opportunity to make other changes as well. Verdi worked in Italian, and had it translated into French for the performance there, but people don't use the French translation. They instead use all his changes for the French version, but keep the Italian text.
After 1865 it was not performed very often. Verdi was very disappointed about this because he was particularly proud of this opera. He had worked closely with Piave. It was Verdi who gave Piave the outline of the story he wanted him to write. Verdi concentrated on three main characters: Lady Macbeth, Macbeth and the Witches. It was not until around the time of World War II that it became very popular again.
"Scene 1: A heath"
In the prelude (the music of the opening) we hear music that comes later in the sleep-walking scene. The chorus of Witches prophesy the future. A messenger arrives to say that Macbeth has been given the title and estates of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo, his general, think about the witches’ prophecy. Half of the prophecy has just come true (the other half being that Macbeth will become king, and that the kings that come after him will be Banquo’s heirs). The witches dance and sing at the end of this scene.
"Scene 2: Macbeth's castle"
Lady Macbeth reads a letter from her husband in which he tells her about the prophecy the witches had made. She decides to make sure that Macbeth really does become king. She decides that she must persuade her husband to murder Duncano (Duncan, King of Scotland). Macbeth sees a dagger in front of him. He takes it and murders Duncano (who never sings in the opera). Then he is horrified at what he has done. His wife is disgusted that her husband feels terrible about the murder. She takes the dagger and completes the crime, then smears Duncano’s blood on the guards who are asleep. Banquo and Macduff, a Scottish nobleman, arrive, Macduff discovers the crime, and all the characters sing a chorus asking God to punish the murderer(s).
"Scene 1: A room in the castle"
Macbeth is now king. He is worried about the prophecy that Banco’s heirs will become king. He and his wife decide that Banco and his son must be murdered.
"Scene 2: Outside the castle"
A gang of murderers are waiting for Banco. He is caught, but his son Fleanzio manages to escape.
"Scene 3: A dining hall in the castle"
Macbeth receives the guests and Lady Macbeth sings a brindisi (drinking song) which is quite similar to the famous one in "La Traviata". Macbeth is told that Banco has been murdered, but when he goes back to the table he finds Banco’s ghost sitting in his place. He shouts and raves at the ghost. The other people cannot see the ghost and think that Macbeth has gone mad. The feast ends quickly.
"The witches' cave"
The witches are sitting round a cauldron in a dark cave. They sing, and then dance a ballet which was written for the 1865 version. The music sounds like magic. Macbeth enters and wants the witches to tell him his future. They conjure up three apparitions for him. The first one tells him to beware of Macduff. The second tells him that he cannot be harmed by a man 'born of woman'. The third one says that he cannot be conquered till Birnam Wood marches against him.
Macbeth is then shown the ghost of Banco and his descendants, eight future Kings of Scotland. This shows that the witches prophecy from the beginning of the opera must indeed come true. Macbeth collapses. When he recovers and tells his wife what he saw, she is even more determined to kill Banco’s son and all his family.
"Scene 1: Near the border between England and Scotland"
Scottish refugees stand near the English border and sing a song about how Macbeth, the tyrant, is oppressing his people.
Malcolm, Banco’s son, tells his soldiers to cut branches from trees in Birnam Wood and carry them as they attack Macbeth's army. They want to free Scotland from tyranny.
" Scene 2: Macbeth's castle"
A doctor and a servant watch the Queen as she walks in her sleep, wringing her hands trying to clean them of blood.
"Scene 3: The battlefield"
Macbeth has heard that an army is coming towards him. He is told that the Queen is dead, but he does not seem to mind. He gets his army together. Banco’s army march against him with their tree branches. The prophecy has come true: Birnam Wood has marched up against him. Macduff fights Macbeth and kills him. He tells Macbeth that he was not "born of woman" but "ripped" from his mother's womb. The fight continues. Macduff kills Macbeth. Macduff's men call out that Macduff is the new King. All the soldiers and the women sing a hymn to victory.
G20 developing nations
The G20 (Group of 20, also variously G21, G22 and G20+) is a bloc of developing nations established on 20 August 2003. Distinct and separate from the G-20 major economies, the group emerged at the 5th Ministerial WTO conference, held in Cancún, Mexico, from 10 September to 14 September 2003. The G-20 accounts for 60% of the world's population, 70% of its farmers and 26% of world’s agricultural exports. In 2008 the group had 23 members.
Cahors () is a commune in southwestern France. It is in Occitanie. Cahors is the "prefecture" (capital) of the Lot department. It is also the capital of 3 "cantons": Cahors-1, Cahors-2 and Cahors-3.
Cahors was the capital of the old province of Quercy and the people of this city are known, in French, as "cadurciens" (women: "cadurciennes"). This name comes from the old name of the city, "Carduca".
Cahors is an ancient town. The people that inhabited the area at the time of the Roman conquest were called "Carduci" and so the Romans named the town as Divona or "Divona Cadurcorum", "Divona of the Cadurci"; Divona was a source of water, now called ""fontaine des Chartreux"". The word "Cahors" comes from "Cadurcorum".
Cahors is located in the southwest of France, in the old province of Quercy, in the valley of the Lot river, and is found in a peninsula () formed by an U-shaped meander of that river which gives its name to the department.
The "commune" is at north of Toulouse and is surrounded by the "communes" Mercuès, Calamane, Pradines, Arcambal, Lamagdelaine, Laroque-des-Arcs, Trespoux-Rassiels, Labastide-Marnhac, Le Montat and Flaujac-Poujols.
The climate of Cahors, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.
With a population of 19,630, Cahors has a population density of inhabitants/km.
Evolution of the population in Cahors
Cahors forms, together with the "commune" Pradines, the urban area of Cahors, with a population of 23,090 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Cahors, formed by 44 "communes" with a population of 44,255 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .
Cahors is the prefecture of the Lot department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Cahors and the administrative centre () of the Cahors-1, Cahors-2 and Cahors-3 cantons.
It is part of the intercommunality "Le Grand Cahors" ().
Mende, Lozère
Mende is a "commune" and prefecture of the department of Lozère, part of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Mende.
The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as "Mendois" (women: "Mendoises").
Mende is located in the southern Massif Central, to the north of the "Cévennes", near the Mont Lozère, the highest point of the Lozère department. The Lot river flows through the city and most of Mende is on the left side of the river.
The "commune" of Mende has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .
The "commune" of Mende is surrounded by the "communes" Chastel-Nouvel, Badaroux, Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile, Balsièges, Barjac and Servières.
The climate in Mende in the Köppen climate classification is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.
The city of Mende had 11,542 inhabitants for a density of persons/km.
Evolution of the population in Mende
Mende is the prefecture of the Lozère department since 1790. It is also the capital of the Mende "arrondissement" and of two "cantons":
It is part of the intercommunality "Cœur de Lozère" ().
Mende is twinned with:
Communes of the Maine-et-Loire department
The following is a list of the 363 communes of the Maine-et-Loire "département" in France.
Communes of the Lozère department
The following is a list of the 185 communes of the Lozère "département", in France.
Communes of the Lot-et-Garonne department
The following is a list of the 319 communes of the Lot-et-Garonne "département", in France.
Communes of the Lot department
The following is a list of the 340 communes of the Lot "département", in France.
Communes of the Loiret department
The following is the list of the 334 communes of the Loiret "département", in France.
Diffraction is a physics concept which occurs when waves bend around small obstacles, or spread out after they pass through small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can see. Diffraction also occurs with matter such as electrons.
Diffraction is caused by one wave of light being shifted by a diffracting object. This shift will cause the wave to have interference with itself. Interference can be either constructive or destructive. When interference is constructive, the intensity of the wave will increase. When interference is destructive, the intensity will decrease, sometimes to a point where it is completely destroyed. These patterns of interference rely on the size of the diffracting object and the size of the wave. The strongest examples of diffraction occur in waves where the wavelength is similar to the size of the object causing diffraction.
Diffraction can be used to separate different wavelengths of light using a diffraction grating. A diffraction grating can be a series of closely-spaced slits or a mirror with a series of small grooves. Diffraction gratings work because different wavelengths of light will constructively interfere at different angles. Diffraction gratings are used in many analytical chemistry tools, such as a spectrometer.
Diffraction can also be used to look at molecules using X-ray crystallography. In X-ray crystallography, X-rays are aimed on a crystal. The crystal diffracts the X-ray and makes a diffraction pattern. This pattern is unique to the type of crystal and can be used to identify the molecule that makes the crystal. Diffraction also occurs in a bending movement where the wave becomes more spread out
Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. (Brooks/Cole, California).
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Diffraction.png
Wyre
Wyre is a local government district in Lancashire, England. It is a borough, based in the town of Poulton-le-Fylde. Wyre is named after the River Wyre, which runs through the district.
Wyre was formed in 1974.
River Wyre
Michael Konsel
Michael Konsel (born 6 March 1962) is a retired Austrian football player who played as goalkeeper in Austria and Italy.
He started as defender for Fortuna 05 when he was six but at the age of nine he became goalkeeper, a position he played for the rest of his career. At the age of 16 he came to FC Kritzendorf where he became goalkeeper of the first team. His first professional team was First Vienna FC, then he want to SK Rapid Wien. For Rapid he played 395 matches in the league, 47 Cupmatches and 42 international matches (2 times the final of the UEFA Cupwinner Cup)
After his successful time with Rapid he went to AS Roma in Italys Seria A. The last year of his career he spent with SSC Venice.
Michael Konsel played 43 matches in Austrias national team. He was member of Austrias team for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 and 1998. 1990 in Italy he was second goalkeeper but 1998 he was number 1 and played 3 matches. Although he played his first match 1985 he became number 1 in the team not until 10 years later. His last match was a friendly versus Worldchampion France in Viennas Ernst-Happel-stadium.
List of European stadiums by capacity
The list contains European stadiums with a capacity of at least 25,000. Almost all of these stadiums were built mainly for association football. Most of the rest were built for athletics, the rugby codes, or (in Ireland) Gaelic games.
(d) indicates retractable seating deployed,
(nd) indicates retractable seating not deployed
(m) indicates movable seating deployed
(t) indicates capacity with temporary seats to be removed
An asterisk - * - indicates that a team does not play all of its home matches at that venue.
The "Category" column indicates whether the stadium has been designated by UEFA as capable of hosting Champions League or Europa League matches.
Lamp (electrical component)
Locus
Locus may refer to:
Chaumont, Haute-Marne
Chaumont is a commune of France, and the capital (or "prefecture") of the Haute-Marne department in the Grand Est region.
The city of Chaumont is on the "Langres" plateau on the geographical centre of the Haute-Marne department in northeast France. It is along the Marne (river) river.
The "commune" of Chaumont is surrounded by the "communes" Condes, Treix, Chamarandes-Choignes, Laville-aux-Bois, Biesles, Verbiesles, Neuilly-sur-Suize, Richebourg, Semoutiers-Montsaon, Villiers-le-Sec and Jonchery.
Two rivers flow through the city: the "Suize" to the west and the Marne to the east.
The climate of Chaumont, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.
The inhabitants of Chaumont are known, in French, as "Chaumontais" (women: "Chaumontaises").
The city of Chaumont has a population, in 2014, of 22,674; its population density is of inhabitants/km.
Evolution of the population in Chaumont
Chaumont forms with Chamarandes-Choignes the urban area of Chaumont with a population of 23,716 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Chaumont, formed by 65 "communes", with a population of 42,594 inhabitants (2014) and an area of .
Chaumont is the prefecture of the Haute-Marne department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Chaumont and the administrative centre () of three cantons:
It is part of the intercommunality "Chaumont, du Bassin Nogentais et du Bassin de Bologne Vignory Froncles" ().
Chaumont is twinned with:
Saint-Lô
Saint-Lô is a commune. It is in the Manche department in west France.
Saint-Lô is twinned with:
Communes of the Haute-Marne department
The following is a list of the 433 communes of the Haute-Marne "département", in France.
Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department
Vannes is a commune. It is the prefecture of Morbihan in Brittany.
Vannes is twinned with:
Vannes also has partnerships (‘partenariats’) with:
Bar-le-Duc
Bar-le-Duc is a commune. It is found in the Meuse department in the east of France.
Bar-le-Duc is twinned with:
Royal Hospital Kilmainham
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is a 17th-century building in Kilmainham, Dublin, Ireland. It was built to be a home for retired soldiers. It was used as a home for over 250 years.
The hospital was built between 1680 and 1684 by architect Sir William Robinson. He was the official State Surveyor General for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to King Charles II.
The style is based on Les Invalides in Paris. The Royal Hospital Chelsea in Chelsea, London was completed two years later and looks alike in style.
The Tudor Gothic gateway at the end of the road leading to the Royal Hospital was designed by Francis Johnston. He was one of the leading architects of the day. This gateway originally stood beside the River Liffey at Bloody Bridge (now Rory O'More Bridge). It was moved after the arrival of the railway in 1844.
When the Irish Free State was formed, they thought about using the building for the Oireachtas Éireann, the new Irish national parliament. This did not happen. After the soldiers were all gone, the buildings were used for different things like offices for the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) and as storage for the National Museum of Ireland.
The Government of Ireland restored the buildings in different stages from 1957, and opened in 1985 as the National Centre for Culture and the Arts. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art was opened here.
Every year on the National Day of Commemoration the President of Ireland lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations.
Communes of the Morbihan department
The following is a list of the 261 communes of the Morbihan "département", in France.
Communes of the Meuse department
The following is a list of the 500 communes of the Meuse "département", in France.
Kilmainham
Kilmainham (In Irish: "Cill Mhaighneann", "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.
In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base ("longphort") in Ireland.
In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.
The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod.
Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much.
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.
Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse "haugr" meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.
Balancing selection
Balancing selection refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population "at frequencies above that of gene mutation".
This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.
Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story.
There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.
In heterozygote advantage, or "heterotic balancing selection", an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are "balanced polymorphisms".
A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy.
A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes.
The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists.
Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency.
In "positive frequency-dependent selection" the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common. In "negative frequency-dependent selection" the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes less common. For example, in prey switching, rare morphs of prey are fitter because predators concentrate on more frequent morphs.
The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.
The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the population are doing at the time.
Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield
Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield PC KG (22 September 1694 – 24 March 1773) was a British statesman and intellectual.
Stanhope was born in London. He got his schooling at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. After that, he went on the Grand Tour of the continent. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales.
In 1715 he entered the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and member for St Germans. He left for Paris and sent the government valuable information about the Jacobite plot. In 1716 he returned to Britain and sat in the House of Commons. He liked to take part in the debates.
He took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1728 he was sent to the Hague as ambassador. He did a good job, and got the Order of the Garter in 1730, and the position of Lord Steward. After he did not support Walpole's Excise Bill, he was dismissed from his stewardship. He spent years opposing the ruling party in the House of Lords. First against Robert Walpole and then against King George II of England. In 1744, the "Broad Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office. They ruled together with the Pelhams.
He was then sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the Austrian Succession. His mission was successful. When he got back to London, he was made Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. This was a position he wanted for a long time.
He took the his role seriously. He established schools and manufacturing in Ireland. In politics, he found a way to work with both Protestant and Roman Catholic parties.
He also still took his seat in the Upper House. In 1751 he helped in making the Gregorian calendar a fact. That Act of Parliament is sometimes known as Chesterfield's Act. After he slowly became deaf, he had to stop his work in the parliament.
He lived for some years at the Ranger's House, Chesterfield Walk, Greenwich, London.
In politics, he is best known for the time he was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. As a writer, he is best known for his "Letters to his Son". Those letters were not really written to be read by the general public. His widow Eugenia Stanhope first published them in 1774. "Letters to his Godson" was published in 1890. Both sets of letters are written with great style and knowledge.
Chesterfield County, Virginia and Chesterfield County, South Carolina in the United States were named in his honour. He also plays a role in the 1757-1758 novel "The Virginians" by William Makepeace Thackery.
Things he has probably said:
The Grand Tour was the name of travel through Europe by rich European (mostly British) young men between 1660 until about 1840. It was done to learn about European society and art. The idea was that what they learned on their travels could be used to help those that stayed at home. Italy was often the final country to visit. They would mostly travel with servants and a teacher called a "bear-leader".
Which places the Grand Tour would visit changed through the years. An example would be a British tourist would go from Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend, in the Spanish Netherlands/Belgium, or Calais, or Le Havre in France.
There they could rent or buy a carriage and travel to Paris. Or they could make the trip by boat, traveling up the Seine to Paris, or up the Rhine to Basel.
In Paris, the traveler could take lessons in French, dancing, fencing, and horse riding. Paris was popular because of the language and fashion of French high society.
From Paris he would go to Switzerland for a while, often to Geneva. From there the traveler would make a difficult crossing over the Alps into northern Italy.
Once in Italy the tourist would visit Turin, then might spend a few months in Florence. Other Grand Tourists would be in Florence to welcome him. A trip to Pisa then on to Padua, Bologna, and Venice.
Venice was seen as the most important place for Italian architecture, and was very important place to visit.
From Venice the traveler went to Rome to study the ruins of ancient Rome. Some travelers also visited Naples to study music. Naples was often the final destination before turning back.
From here the traveler went north through the Alps to the German-speaking parts of Europe. From there travelers visited Holland and Flanders before returning across the Channel to England.
Alnico
Alnico is a type of alloy made up of iron with aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co). The name is an acronym from Al-Ni-Co. Alnico may also contain copper and sometimes titanium.
Alnico alloys are ferromagnetic (a mechanism by which some materials form permanent magnets). Alnico alloys also have a high coercivity (they do not easily lose their magnetism) and are used to make permanent magnets. Before rare-earth magnets were developed in the 1970s, alnico magnets were the strongest type of magnet. The development of Alnico began in 1931 when T. Mishima in Japan found that an alloy of iron, nickel, and aluminium had double the coercivity of the best magnets of that time. (the coercivity of Alnico is 400 oersted).
Alnico alloys can be made magnets by strong magnetic fields. Rare-earth magnets like neodymium and samarium-cobalt are the only easily found magnets which are stronger than alnico magnets. Alnico magnets produce very strong magnetic fields at their poles (a pole is one of the two ends of a magnet) as high as 1500 gauss (0.15 tesla which is about 3000 times stronger than earth's magnetic field.
Some types of alnico magnets are isotropic (properties are same in all directions) and can be properly magnetised in all directions. Other types like alnico 5 and alnico 8 are anisotropic (properties change when direction changes) have a preferred direction (one direction would be better than other directions) for magnetisation. Anisotropic alnico alloys will make stronger magnets in their preferred direction than an isotropic alnico alloy.
Alnico magnets are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot.
In 2008, the cost of Alnico magnets was about $44/kg ($20/pound).
Hermit Thrush
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (plural: Lords Lieutenant) is the name of a political office ("job"). It was the representative of the King and head of the Irish executive (government) between 1171 and 1922. The term is always pronounced as 'Lord "Lef"-tenant of Ireland'.
Other words used for this office were Judiciar in the early medieval period, and Lord Deputy as late as the 17th century. The people in this job were often also called viceroy, from the French "vice roi" or deputy king.
In the Middle Ages some Lord Lieutenants had been Irish noblemen. After that only noblemen from Great Britain worked in this job.
The King's representative had a number of different roles. He was
The Lord Lieutenant was helped to govern by the Irish Privy Council. This was a group of people chosen to be on the Council. Some inherited their seat. They usually met in the Council Chamber in Dublin Castle.
The main politicians were:
Lords Lieutenant stayed in power until the British Government/the King wanted them to leave.
Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, went from Dublin Castle to 10 Downing Street as Prime Minister of Great Britain, in 1756 and 1783 respectively. At other times, the post was used to move politicians that were no longer wanted in London out of the way.
By the mid-to-late 19th century the post was no longer very important. The Chief Secretary for Ireland had become more important in ruling the country than the Lord Lieutenant.
The official house of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle. This was also where the Viceregal Court was based. When the Lord Lieutenant had to live in Ireland full time, this had to change. In 1781 the British government bought the former ranger's house in Phoenix Park. It was named the Viceregal Lodge. It is now known as Áras an Uachtaráin. It is the residence of the President of Ireland.
The Lords Lieutenant then only lived in the Castle during the Social Season (early January to St. Patrick's Day, 17 March).
The office of Lord Lieutenant, like the British government in Ireland, was generally unpopular.
From the early 19th century, calls were made frequently to get rid of the office. However, the office survived right down until the end of British rule in most of Ireland.
Dublin Zoo
The Dublin Zoo (), in Phoenix Park, Dublin, Ireland is the largest zoo in Ireland. It is one of Dublin's most popular attractions. It was opened in 1831.
It is over in size. It has a number of special areas like:
It was founded on 10 May 1830 and opened to the public on 1 September 1831. This makes it the third oldest zoo in the world. The animals, 46 mammals and 72 birds,< were a present from London Zoo.> It now has over 600 animals from all over the world.
In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.
A how-to or a how to is an informal, often short, description of how to do a specific physical task, think to solve a specific problem, or think about a topic.
Wild type
Wild type is a term in genetics for the most common type in a natural population. It is applied to alleles of a gene, or the genotypes or phenotypes of a species.
The term is used in genetics to contrast normal alleles with mutant alleles.
With "Drosophila melanogaster", wild type usually means the standard version of the famous laboratory population used in the T.H. Morgan laboratory, and since used around the world. This was, of course, only a sample of the natural populations.
CMUNE
Cmune is a software development company. It is the maker of UberStrike, a popular web-based video game. Cmune was started in 2007 by Shaun Lelacheur Sales and Ludovic Bodin.
UberStrike was originally developed under the name Paradise Paintball. It is a free, multiplayer first-person shooter browser game. There are over 10 million registered players. As of November 2012, it was still the largest FPS inside Facebook.
Tábor
Tábor is a city in the Czech Republic. It is in the South Bohemian Region. At the 2007 census, 35,859 people lived there. The city was started in 1420. The current mayor is Hana Randová. The city is named after Mount Tabor.
Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi
Yamaguchi is a city in southern Japan. It is the capital of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The city had a population of 198,971 people in 2010. Yamaguchi was made when 40 towns were merged together on April 1, 1889.
Random mating
Random mating is a term in population genetics. It describes an ideal situation in which all individuals on one sex are equally potential partners of all members of the opposite sex. The technical term for it is panmixia.
Random mating is one of the requirements for the Hardy–Weinberg law to hold. This is the foundation equation of population genetics.
There are a number of types of non-random mating, such as mate choice (selection by females from a small group of males), mating type (in microorganisms like "Paramecium"), selfing in some flowering plants, and in general, inbreeding. Mechanical or geographical differences within a species will often prevent a whole species being panmictic.
The opposite of random mating is "assortative mating".
Ernst-Happel-Stadion
The Ernst-Happel-Stadion is a football stadium in Vienna, Austria. The Ernst Happel Stadium is the largest football stadium in Austria. It is the home of the Austrian national football team. Club football matches are limited to the Austrian cup final and international competitions with one of Vienna's top clubs, FK Austria Wien and SK Rapid Wien, as their homegrounds are too small for UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. Local derbies between FK Austria and SK Rapid have also been played in the stadium. In 2014, it became the official homeground of SK Rapid Wien because their stadium was being rebuilt.
The stadium was built between 1929 and 1931. It was used and opend for the second Workers' Olympiad 1931. The capacity of the stadium was approximately 60,000 people. The first match in the new stadium was a match between a selection from workers sportclubs from Lower Austria and Vienna. (2:3).
During the occupation of Austria by Nazi Germany it was used as barracks and also as collecting point for Viennese Jews. In 2003 a private plaque was created in the VIP area to remind on this incidents. In 1944 the stadium was bombed and heavily demaged.
After the Second World war the stadium was reconstructed. 1956 the capacity was extended to 92,708 people.The record was 91,000 visitors on October 30, 1960 at the football match between Spain and Austria (3-0). After the death of former Austrian top player and coach Ernst Happel, the Prater Stadium was renamed after him in 1992.
The Ernst-Happel-Stadion hosted 7 games of Euro 2008: 3 group games of the Austrian team, two quarter-finals, one semi-final and the final.
The stadium has hosted concerts by many famous artists, including AC/DC, Bon Jovi, David Bowie, Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band, Guns N' Roses, Michael Jackson, Pink Floyd, Robert Plant, Rihanna, The Rolling Stones, U2, Kanye West and Robbie Williams, among others.
Hollow-cathode lamp
A hollow-cathode lamp (HCL) is type of cold cathode lamp used in physics and chemistry as a spectral line source (for example, in atomic absorption spectrometers) and as a frequency tuner for light sources such as lasers. An HCL takes advantage of the hollow cathode effect, which causes conduction at a lower voltage and with more current than a cold cathode lamp that does not have a hollow cathode.
The HCL is a light source or radiation source which is used to excite electrons of a metal of interest to a higher energy level. Excitation is when an electron in its lowest energy state, also known as the ground state, undergoes a transition to a higher energy state known as an excited state. These transitions can occur through heat, electrical energy, light, particles, or a chemical reaction.
A HCL consists of an anode and a cathode inside of a glass tube. The glass tube is filled with some type of inert gas such as argon or neon with a pressure of around 5 torr (666 Pascal). It is important that the gas is inert in order to minimize interferences in the output of the data. The anode is an electrode in which loss of electrons by ionization takes place. The anode is typically constructed of an inert conducting metal to ionize the inert gas.
The cathode is made of the pure metal of interest or a mixture of metals containing the metal of interest. It is important that the cathode be stored under a vacuum to avoid any kind of contamination. Contamination of the cathode compromises the purity of the metal of interest and the data obtained for that metal. The material of the window is specifically selected in order to get the best transmission of spectral lines for the cathode element.
The excitation process of the element of interest takes place through a few steps. First, the inert gas contained inside of the glass tube is ionized by a voltage. Ionization is the process by which neutral atoms are converted to charged species. This voltage is applied across the anode and the cathode and generates a current of 5-15 mA. This current allows for electrons to move to the anode and cathode.
If the voltage applied is large enough, the ions of the inert gas gather enough energy to remove some of the metal atoms of interest from the surface of the cathode by striking the surface. The removal of these atoms produces a cloud around the cathode. The process of producing this cloud is called sputtering. Some of these metal atoms in the cloud have moved to an excited energy state and as they return to their ground state, they emit a specific radiation which is characteristic to the metal of interest. The release of this radiation allows for data to be collected and information gathered pertaining to the metal of interest. After a period of time, the atoms move to the glass walls of the lamp or back to the surface of the cathode.
How well the HCL works and how long it lasts is dependent on the care of operation. When a high voltage is applied, higher currents arise. These higher currents allow for more intense data output but at the same time can produce a number of unexcited atoms in the cloud. These unexcited atoms can interfere with good output data because they are able to absorb the radiation that is emitted from the excited electrons returning to their ground state. This process is called self adsorption. The process of self adsorption results in weaker intensities. Increasing the current too much can also result in a shorter lifetime of the lamp, as well as melting the metal on the cathode thus ruining the lamp.
Ernest Tubb
Ernest Dale Tubb (February 9, 1914 – September 6, 1984) was an American country music singer and songwriter. Tubb was nicknamed "The Texas Troubadour". He is probably best known for his hit song "Walking the Floor Over You" in 1941. He joined the Grand Ole Opry as a member in 1943. He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1965.
Photomultiplier tubes
A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a transducer which converts photons into electrons, which generate a current and voltage. Photomultiplier tubes are used to detect low levels of incident light, even as low as a single photon.
An incoming photon will strike the photocathode surface of the PMT which will emit electrons. These electrons are then accelerated toward additional electrodes by a potential difference of about 90 volts. Upon striking this electrode, more electrons are emitted. This process repeats nine times, each time generating more and more electrons. This process can generate 10 to 10 electrons for each individual photon. These electrons are then collected at the anode where the current and voltage is then measured.
Photomultiplier tubes are highly sensitive and have very quick response times. The sensitivity of the PMT can be improved by cooling it, to reduce temperature induced noise. Photomultiplier tubes must not be exposed to intense light, such as the sun or ambient light because the intensity can damage the components.
Photomultiplier tubes are commonly used for analysis techniques as well as medical and research purposes.
2011–12 Juventus F.C. season
The 2011–12 season is Juventus Football Club's 114th in Serie A. Juventus starts the season with a new Manager, Antonio Conte.
On June 15, Former Juventus director manager Luciano Moggi has been banned for life from all Italian football.
On July 8, Juventus start pre-season training in Turin.
On October, President Andrea Agnelli said that Alessandro Del Piero will leave Juventus at the end of the season.
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). This makes it possible to identify different substances within a test sample. GC-MS has many uses include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis and explosives investigation. It can also be used to identify unknown samples. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, GC-MS can identify trace elements in deteriorated materials, even after the sample fell apart so much that other tests cannot work.