AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
On 1 January 2008, 105 countries were members of the ICC. These countries have a duty to help the ICC.
Nearly all the countries in Europe and South America are members, and about half the countries in Africa are members. Only a few countries in Asia have joined.
The ICC can normally only investigate three kinds of crime:
The ICC can only investigate crimes that happened after 1 July 2002. It can only open a case when national courts are not able to or do not want to. If a national court is investigating or prosecuting a case, the ICC is not allowed to.
There are 18 judges in the ICC. They all come from member-countries of the ICC. No two judges can come from the same country.
The prosecutor's job is to investigate crimes. If he finds evidence that a person did something wrong, he asks the judges to start a trial.
The ICC is managed by an "Assembly of States Parties". The Assembly elects the judges and the prosecutor. Each ICC member-country has one vote in the Assembly.
The ICC has opened investigations in four places: Northern Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic and Darfur.
The ICC has arrested three people. They are all from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Thomas Lubanga is accused of using children to make war. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui are both accused of murder, sexual slavery, using children to make war, and other crimes.
Brahma
According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Brahma is one of the three major gods of Hindus. Brahma is said to be the creator of the whole universe. The other two gods are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer, all three of which make up the Trimurti.
Hindu tradition states that Brahma originally had five heads. However, the mythological story tells that Shiva ordered Bherav to cut one of the heads of Brahma because Brahma lied, saying that he had found the finite source of the actually infinite Linga of light that was Shiva's manifestation. He had not found it, but had come only to the highest heaven and not to the Transcendent, Shiva. The tradition also states that the remaining four heads of Brahma represent many aspects of Hinduism. The four heads represent four Vedas, which are very important Hindu scriptures. It is said that the four heads of Brahma are eternally reciting the four Vedas in penance for having lied. These four heads also represent four divisions of time of Hinduism, the Yugas. They also represent four divisions of the Hindu society, the four Varnas.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is reproduction without sex.
In this form of reproduction, a single organism or cell makes a copy of itself. The genes of the original and its copy will be the same, except for rare mutations. They are clones.
Asexual reproduction is the opposite of sexual reproducing. The second one has sex and the first one does not. Mostly the first one contains splitting of body part.
The main process of asexual reproduction is mitosis. This type of reproduction is common among some single-cell organisms, for example, "Amoeba". Many plants also reproduce asexually, for example by means of runners. The individual zooids in a particular coral or bryozoan are usually genetically identical. They are formed by asexual reproduction of the first individual to arrive in a place. One whole order of the rotifers, the bdelloid rotifers, has no sexual reproduction. Many types of living things have a double cycle. At one stage they have sexual reproduction, at another they simply multiply by splitting, or producing eggs which develop without fertilization (aphids). All the daughters of the honey bee develop from unfertilized eggs. So, asexual reproduction is common in many forms of life.
Binary Fission means "division into two" . It is the simplest and the most common method of asexual reproduction .It occurs in prokaryotes e.g bacteria, many unicellular eukaryotes e.g protozoa and some invertebrates. During Binary Fission in bacteria, the bacteria split in two, so one bacterium becomes two bacteria. This always leads to daughter cells, and the offspring will be identical to the parent. In other words the single cell doubles its DNA and divides into two cells.
Budding is similar to binary fission, but it is used by plants and some animals, which cannot simply split in half as bacteria can. It is when a small part of a plant or animal breaks off and then, while they are separated from their "mother", they start to grow until both the "parent" and the "offspring" are the same size and both are capable of budding again. This may happen many more times.
Parthenogenesis is found in both plants and animals. Eggs develop without fertilization. Examples occur in water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps. Parthenogenesis is very rare for vertebrates.
Very common in some types of plants using rhizomes or stolons (for example in strawberry). Other plants form bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and dahlia tubers). Some plants may form a clonal colony, where all the individuals are clones, and the clones may cover a large area.
Fungi (for example, mushrooms) produce spores, which may be asexual or sexual. The asexual spores have the genetic material inside, which allows them to make a whole new organism identical to its parent. They are produced by mitosis. Different fungi make different kinds of asexual spores, conidia, oidia, and pycniospores. The shape and color of the spores can be helpful to identify the species of fungus.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization. 189 countries are members of the International Monetary Fund. It has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., USA.
In the 1930s, many countries faced economic problems. The standard of living declined, and a great many people were unemployed. International trade became much smaller. Some countries reduced the value of their currencies. All these factors combined in the 1930s, and an economic depression resulted. By late 1939, the Second World War had started.
As the Second World War ended, most countries found that international values faced many restrictions and were not smooth. Leaders of many countries thought over these matters and discussed them in meetings and agreed on the Bretton Woods system. Thus, after the Second World War, many countries felt the need to have an organization to get help in monetary matters between countries. To begin with, 29 countries discussed the matter, and signed an agreement. The agreement was the Articles of Association of the International Monetary Fund. The International Monetary Fund came into being in 29th December 1945.
Any country may apply to become a member of the IMF. When a country applies for membership, the IMF’s Executive Board examines the application. If found suitable, the Executive Board gives its report to IMF’s Board of Governors. After the Board of Governor clears the application, the country may join the IMF. However, before joining, the country should fulfill legal requirements, if any, of its own country. Every member has a different voting right. Likewise, every country has a different right to draw funds. This depends on many factors, including the member country’s first subscription to the IMF.
The IMF does a number of supervisory works relating to financial dealings between different countries. Some of the works done by IMF are:
A Board of Directors manages the IMF. One tradition has governed the selection of two most senior posts of IMF. Firstly, IMF’s managing director is always European. World Bank's president is always from the United States of America.
Current managing director is French economist Christine Lagarde.
The major countries of Europe and America control the IMF. This is because they have given more money to IMF by way of first subscriptions, and so have larger share of voting rights.
Many people and countries have commented about IMF. Some are good and some are bad comments about the work of IMF. Despite many bad comments about IMF, research shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that IMF has had a "positive" effect on their country.
São Paulo F.C.
São Paulo Futebol Clube, usually called São Paulo FC or just São Paulo, is a very traditional Brazilian football team from São Paulo. The team was founded on January 25, 1930, and re-founded on December 16, 1935. It is often called "Tricolor" (meaning "with three colours") by its supporters. The prime footballer in the team is the goalkeeper called Rogério Ceni.
It is the most successful club of Brazilian football.
Twenty-two won state championships, six Brazilian Championships - besides being the only one to win it three times, in 2006, 2007 and 2008, three Libertadores and three World Club Championship.
Intercontinental Cup
Copa Conmebol
Recopa Sudamericana
Supercopa Sudamericana
Copa Masters Conmebol
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Copa do Brasil
Copa dos Campeões
Torneio Rio-São Paulo
Campeonato Paulista
Supercampeonato Paulista
World Bank Group
The World Bank Group is a group of five international organizations. The World Bank Group gives advice and finance to member countries for economic development and reducing poverty. It is a non-profit-making international organization owned by member governments. The Group has its headquarters in Washington, D.C.. It also has offices in 124 other member countries.
The World Bank Group is made of the following five organizations:
The World Bank Group originated at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Many countries met and decided to start a Bretton Woods system including an international organization to provide finance to member countries. The Bank came into existence on 27th December 1945. Its name was the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The Bank’s first loan was to France. The loan was of 250 million US Dollars. The purpose was to help France to again build industry and other important things like roads destroyed during the Second World War.
The activities of the World Bank Group cover many activities. Some of these activities are as follows:
The World Bank Group gives loans at low rate of interest to member countries. The member countries use the money received for any one of above or some other similar activity.
In short, the World Bank Group’s main mission is 1) to fight poverty and 2) to improve the living standards of people in the developing world. Beside giving direct money and finance, the World Bank Group provides advice and assistance to developing countries on almost every aspect of economic development.
In general, the World Bank Group is part of the United Nations system. But, member countries govern it through a board. The IBRD has 184 countries as its members. Other four organizations of the Group have between 140 and 176 member countries. A Board of 24 Executive Directors controls the activities of the World Bank Group. A President heads the Board.
Many economists and people have criticized the World Bank Group for its style of functioning. Before giving loans, the Bank sometimes requires many changes in the policies of a country. This has attracted criticism as it reduces the country’s independence to run its economy in its own way. The criticism is also on account of other factors. One of them is that two or three countries have more power to decide matters. As of November 1, 2004 the United States held 16.4% of total votes, Japan 7.9%, Germany 4.5%, and the United Kingdom and France each held 4.3%. As major decisions require an 85% super-majority, the US can block any change.
In spite of several criticisms, the World Bank Group’s role in economic development and reduction of poverty has continued in many countries.
The International Court of Justice (French La Cour internationale de justice (CIJ), is an international organization. It is the main judicial organ or branch of the United Nations. In short, International Court of Justice is ICJ; sometimes people call it the World Court. In French language, it is "Cour internationale de justice". Established ICJ in 1945, ICJ has its headquarters at The Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ began its working from 1946. It replaced an earlier similar court named Permanent Court of International Justice. The International Court of Justice is different from the International Criminal Court. The ICJ uses two languages, the English language and the French language.
The International Court of Justice has two major functions. Firstly, it settles disputes, which the member countries may bring before it. Secondly, it may give its opinions on legal matters. Since 1980s, many developing countries have been using the services of the ICJ. But, in 1986, the United States of America did not accept the court’s views on all matters, but rather selectively, on a case-to-case basis. Since the year 2000 the docket went down from 23 to 12 cases. In the meantime the staff tripled.
The ICJ has fifteen permanent judges. The UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council elects the judges. A judge serves for a nine-year period and may be re-elected if necessary. If a serving judge dies, another judge, from the same country he or she belonged to is generally elected to fill the vacant position. Elections are staggered, thus five judges (one-third of the Court) come up for election every three years.
The fifteen permanent judges are elected from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute Generally, five members of the Security Council of the United Nations always have a judge from their country. These countries are China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
In some case, the ICJ allows Ad hoc judges. Thus, the countries in dispute have a right to nominate one judge each for that particular case, if desired. This right is not available if that country already has a judge of its nationality in the ICJ. Thus, sometimes, instead of fifteen, seventeen judges may be deciding a case.
There are many rules, which lay down the qualifications and conduct of the judges of the ICJ.
Generally, all the judges of the ICJ sit together to hear and decide any matter. However, sometimes smaller chambers of three to five judges hear and decide a case. Such chambers may be for special types of cases. Sometimes, the ICJ sets up ad hoc chambers to hear and decide particular disputes.
While deciding the case, the ICJ applies the principles of international law. It also uses the laws of the civilized world. This may be the civil and criminal law of major countries. It may also refer to legal writings, law books, and earlier decisions while deciding any matter.
Indian independence movement
The Indian independence movement was a movement from 1857 until 15 August 1947, when India got its independence from the British Raj.
Vasco da Gama of Portugal had discovered a sea route to India. He had reached Kozhikode (Calicut, Kerala) in 1498. After this, many Europeans started coming to India for trading. They made their offices and forts in various parts of India. The British East India Company became the major force in India. The Company's troops led by Robert Clive defeated the rulers of Bengal in 1757. This battle became famous as the Battle of Plassey. That was the beginning of British rule, known as the British Raj, in India. In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was won by the English forces. After "this", the British got control over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed many laws to help the British East India Company. The , , and the Charter Act of 1813 were designed to help trade with India.
Before the First War of Independence (1857), Indians in different parts of India had revolted against the British. Many such of the revolts and armed struggles had taken place in this Some examples include:
India's First War of Independence (by this name later a book was published by V.D Savarkar) was a revolt of Indian soldiers and people (rulers and peasants) against British rule. Historians had used the terms like the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny to describe this event. The rebellion by Indian troops of the British Raj started in May 1857 and continued until December 1858. Many reasons had combined to result in this rebellion.
The British rulers continued to forcibly take regions ruled by Indians and made these regions part of the British Raj. They did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals and the Peshwa. They also made the Indian soldiers of their army use a special type of cartridge (immediate cause of the rebel). The soldiers had to open the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their guns. The cartridges supposedly used cow and pig fat. For Hindus the cow is a sacred animal and they do not eat beef. Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork. Thus, the use of these cartridges made soldiers of both the religions turn against the British. Although the British tried to replace the cartridges, the feelings against them stayed.
Rebellion broke out when a soldier called Mangal Pandey attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey but he refused. Later the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier. The British killed both by hanging them.
At the beginning the British were slow to respond. Then they took very quick action with heavy forces. They brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India. They also redirected many regiments that were going to China from India. The British forces reached Delhi, and they surrounded the city from 1st July 1857 until 31st August 1857. Street-to-street fights broke out between the British troops and the Indians. Ultimately, they took control of Delhi. The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also important. The last important battle was at Gwalior in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed. With this, the British had practically suppressed the rebellion. However, some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early in 1859 and Tantia Tope was captured and executed until April 1859.
India's First War of Independence was a major event in the history of modern India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858. The United Kingdom started ruling India directly through its representative called the Viceroy of India(earlier governor-general of India). It made India a part of the British Empire. They promised "the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," equal treatment under the British law.
The British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India, and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon in Burmese), Burma where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about four hundred years, ended with his death.
The British also took many steps to employ Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India. They stopped interference in religious matters. They started employing Indians in the civil services but at lower levels. They increased the number of British soldiers, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery.
The period following India's First War of Independence was an important period in the Indian independence movement. Many leaders emerged at the national and provincial levels, and the Indians became more aware of their rights. Social movements also helped in shaping people's outlook, tried for social changes, and tried to remove bad social practices and evils like illiteracy and caste system. During this period, many social and religious leaders worked to inspire the Indian society. They included men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna , Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji. They spread the message of self-confidence, removing of social evils, and making India free from domination of foreign power. Lokmanya Tilak was one such leader who was not very modest in his views. The British arrested him. In the court he declared: "Swaraj (independence) is my birthright". This concept of Swaraj later became a main policy and philosophy of India's independence movement in the following decades until India became independent.
In 1885, at the suggestion of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay. They founded the Indian National Congress. The delegates represented educated Indians in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. A few years before, Dadabhai Naoroji had already formed the East India Association. It merged with the Indian National Congress to form a bigger party.
To begin with, the Indian National Congress was not a very active political party. It met annually and gave some suggestions to the rulers of the British Raj. The suggestions generally related to civil rights and opportunities for Indians in the government jobs. Despite its claim to represent all Indians, it represented only the educated and higher class of the society. But, it failed to attract all Muslims. Many Muslims had become distrustful of Hindu reformers who raised their voice against matters like religious conversion and killing of cows for their meat. For Hindus, the cow is a sacred animal not to be killed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a separate movement for Muslims, and founded in 1875 a college in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Later, this college became Aligarh University in 1921. The objective of the college was to give modern education to India's Muslims. By 1900, the Indian National Congress had become a national party, but did not represent all groups of Indian society, particularly the Muslims.
In 1905, Lord Curzon (George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston), the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899-1905) of India divided Bengal province into two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta (Kolkata). At that time Calcutta was the capital city of the British Raj. The people became very angry at that partition (division), and created the phrase "divide and rule" for the policy followed by the British Empire. The leading intellectual figures of India at that time expressed their unhappiness at this partition. For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the most famous Indian poet (originally from Bengal) composed a poem against this partition.
During the First World War, Indians gave support to the United Kingdom. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers went to many parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to fight. Many Indians, including the princes and rich people of India, contributed money and materials to the war funds of the United Kingdom. However, many Indian soldiers died in foreign lands. In India, flu called Spanish flu spread like an epidemic killing many people. The tax rates increased in India, and prices also increased. The Indians became restless.
In August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the British Parliament about many steps to give more rights to Indians. A new law named the Government of India Act of 1919 gave many rights to the Indians in the provincial government. These rights related to farming, local government, health, education, and public works. The British administrators kept matters like taxation, finance, and law and order under their control.
In 1919 the British made a new law named the Rowlatt Act. Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial. They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news. The people called this act the Black Act. Indians protested against this law in many places.
The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate "seditious conspiracy." The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work ("hartal") was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.
The agitation reached a peak in Amritsar (Punjab, India). In Amritsar, on 13th April 1919, about 10,000 Indians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh. They had no idea of the law that they couldn't gather. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire at the civilians without any warning. The troops fired 1,650 times. Some historians estimate that the troops killed 379 and injured about 1,137 people. This incident came to be known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. With this killing of innocent people, the British lost the trust of the Indian people.
congress forced Britishers to investigate massacre of jallianwala later, a tehkikat committee was made by congress.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi) had received his education at London. He was a barrister (lawyer). In 1893, he went to South Africa. After Gandhi was thrown off a train because he was a colored person sitting in a first-class seat, he took that emotion and used it to begin to fight the injustices that many people of color faced at the time. He became successful and the government of South Africa removed most of such rules and restrictions. Gandhi led the Salt March, an act of protest.
When Gandhi returned to India in 1915, few people knew him. Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians began to use a different method to get freedom over the next few years.
In December 1929, the Indian National Congress Party agreed to start a movement for complete independence from British rule. The Party decided to start a movement named to disobey the British rule. It became the civil disobedience movement. They decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the complete Independence Day (this is the reason why India celebrate republic day on 26 January). Many other political parties and revolutionaries came together to support this movement.
Gandhi started this movement, leading 72 people on a 400 kilometer route from Ahmedabad to Dandi (both in the Indian state of Gujarat), on the coast of the Arabian Sea. There they made salt from the seawater and broke a law of British India prohibiting making salt without paying taxes, so this event is referred to as the Salt March. Thus the civil disobedience movement began, and it soon spread throughout India. Indians started to break unfair laws in a peaceful manner in protest against the British rule.The effect of civil disobedience movement in Kerala was at Payannur and Beypore.
Many Indians did not believe in such peaceful protests, claiming that the British would not give independence to Indians so easily. They believed in armed struggle was necessary to oust the British from India. In some way, this had continued for years after the partition of Bengal in 1905. Many revolutionaries and leaders emerged from time to time. Bhagat Singh was one of them.
The rulers of the British Raj made a new law to govern India, named the Government of India Act 1935. This law aimed at constitutional process to govern India. It had three major aims: to establish a federal system with many provinces, to give self-ruling position (autonomy) to the provinces, and to give the Muslim minority protection through giving them some separate electorates. In such separate electorates only Muslims could stand for elections. In February 1937, elections took place for the provincial assemblies. The members of the Indian National Congress won in five provinces, and held upper position in two more provinces. The Muslim League's performance in the election was not good.
During the Second World War, the rulers of the British Raj declared India to be a party to the war. They did not discuss the matter with Indians and their leaders. The Indians and their leaders became divided over this matter. Some supported the British, while many did not. British rulers of India wanted the Indians to fight and die in the name of freedom, yet they had denied this freedom to India and the Indians for more than a hundred years. This created a lot of dissatisfaction among Indians, and two big movements for India's independence took shape. The first was the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose. The second was Quit India Movement of Mohandas Gandhi.
Subhas Chandra Bose and many leaders did not like the British decision to drag India into the Second World War. He had twice (in 1937 and 1939) become president of the Indian National Congress Party, the leading Indian political party of that time. However, he and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress Party differed on many matters. He resigned and formed a new party named All India Forward Bloc. The British government of India put him under house arrest, but he escaped in 1941. He reached Germany and secured the support of Germany and Japan to fight the British in India. In 1943, he traveled in submarines of Germany and Japan, and reached Japan. He organised the Indian National Army. The INA fought the troops of the British Raj in northeastern India. Despite many difficulties, INA recorded many victories. However, with the surrender of Japan in 1945, INA's operations stopped. Bose died in a plane crash, but circumstances of his death are not clear.
The British government of India put on trial three Indian National Army officers at the Red Fort in Delhi. The British had chosen for this trial one Hindu, one Sikh, and one Muslim of the INA. This made many Indians of all religions very angry. A naval mutiny also broke out in Bombay. Ultimately, the British ruled that these officers were guilty, but they set them free seeing the public anger. When India became independent, the government of India did not allow the former officers and soldiers of the INA to join the armed forces of the independent India. However, the government granted them very good pensions and other facilities. The Indian public also gave them much respect.
Many consider Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose a controversial figure due to his association with the Axis Powers. But, in India, people consider him a patriotic hero of the Indian independence movement.
On 8th August 1942, the leaders of the Indian National Congress Party met in Bombay (Mumbai). The leaders adopted a policy to force the British out of India. Gandhi's slogan "Do or Die" became a national slogan, and the movement became the Quit India Movement. At the beginning of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress Party had supported the British, but they had demanded freedom for India after the war. The British did not agree to this proposal. On 14th July 1942, the Indian National Congress Party passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British rule. However, this did not have support of some other political parties.
Gandhi had asked the people to keep the Quit India Movement as a peaceful movement. Many people started the movement in many places of India. But at some places, the movements turned violent. Gandhi refused to eat until the violence stopped. He was successful in ending the violence.
The British action was very quick. They arrested over 100,000 people. They levied fines on many people. They dropped bombs on the people who demonstrated against the British Raj. The troops of the British Raj even beat people with sticks and caned them. The British arrested all the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, died during detention, as well as his secretary Mahadev Desai. Gandhi's health had also become very bad. In 1944, the British set him free fearing that Gandhi's death might result in a very large protest by Indians. Gandhi continued to oppose the British, and demanded that all other leaders be set free.
The Second World War had reduced the economic, political, and military strength of the British Empire. They were also aware that after the war Indians would begin a larger movement for independence. The mood of the British people and the British Army had also changed. After the Second World War, most of them were no longer willing to support the British ruling class in India. That position was now clear to the leaders of the United Kingdom. By early 1946, those leaders set free all the political prisoners held in India and opened independence discussions with the Indian National Congress Party. On the 14th of August 1947 Pakistan gained independence and a day later on the 15th of August India gained its independence as well.
On midnight of 15th August 1947, Britain handed India its formal political Independence. A short time after that, Gandhi, who was aging and ill, died from a bullet fired by a Hindu extremist named Nathuram Godse. The national leadership was then passed to his chief lieutenant, Jawaharlal Nehru. On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan. In this partition, many people died while others were separated from their families. On 26th January 1950, India adopted their constitution, the longest constitution in the world.
Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel
The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel is a document that announced the establishment of the independent and sovereign state (country) of Israel.
This term describes the announcement of establishment of a Jewish state, named State of Israel. This State of Israel was established on 14th May 1948. In Hebrew language, "" means the State of Israel. The British Mandate of Palestine was a part of the British Empire. This was the land where the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah had once been. The State of Israel covered more or less the same land.
Some persons call this as the beginning of "Third Jewish Commonwealth". The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of Solomon's Temple, and the second with the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem two thousand years ago.
On November 29th 1947, the United Nations had adopted a resolution. The resolution recommended the establishment of an Arab State and a Jewish State in Palestine. The resolution recommended taking steps to establish such a state.
On May 12th 1948, the Jewish national administration met at Tel Aviv Museum of Art. They had gathered to decide acceptance of an American proposal for a truce or to declare a new state of Israel. Six of the ten voting members supported declaration of a state of Israel. Two days later, on May 14th 1948, the Jewish National Council (Vaad Leumi) met at Tel Aviv. At mid night of May 14th, 1948, a member of the Council read the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel.
The declaration followed a style generally seen in the United Nations documents. First few sentences stated the reasons for the declaration and the right of the Jews for an independent country. Then, the sentences gave the features and characteristics of the new Jewish state.
A few quotes from the declaration:
The United States, the Soviet Union, and many other major countries of the world accepted the state of Israel. Using terms of international law, these countries recognized the state of Israel. However, many Arab countries and countries of the Middle East opposed the establishment of Israel. They did not recognize the state of Israel as a sovereign state, that is, an independent country. Many countries of the world did not recognize Israel, but establish trading and other relations with it.
Parvati
According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Parvati is considered to be a mother goddess by many people. Parvati is a word in the Sanskrit language that means "daughter of the mountain". Hindu teachings call Parvati the daughter of the Himalayas Mountains, where she is said to live. She has two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya with her husband Shiva. Shiva is one of the main gods of the Hindu religion.
Parvati has four arms. In her arms she carries prayer beads, a mirror, a bell and citron. But when she sits by the side of her husband Shiva, Parvati has only two arms. In her form with two arms, Parvati holds her right hand up in blessing and holds a lotus flower in her left hand.
Parvati's conveyance (vahana) is a lion or tiger. This means that Parvati rides a lion or a tiger.
In Hindu scriptures, Parvati is mentioned many times. She is called by many other names. Some of them are:
Estádio Palestra Itália
Estádio Palestra Itália, also known as Parque Antártica, is the name of the football stadium of Palmeiras. It is located in São Paulo, Brazil, and has a capacity of 32,000.
1963 Pan American Games
The 4th Pan American Games were held in 1963 in São Paulo, Brazil.
"Host country in bold."
Pan American Games
The Pan American Games are a multi-sport event. They are held every four years between competitors from all nations of the Americas.
The Pan American Games were going to be started in 1932, but World War II caused the first Pan American Games to happen on 1951. From that time, the Games are held every four years.
More than 5000 athletes from more than 40 countries have attended the recent Games. USA has won the most gold, silver and bronze medals.
Campinas (IPA: ) is a Brazilian city in the state of São Paulo. In 2005, 1,045,706 people lived there. It is about from the city of São Paulo. Campinas has an area of .
Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language. The ability to speak two languages is "bilingualism," a type of multilingualism. Many immigrants are bilingual and speak languages of both their old and their new country. Multilingualism is useful in many kinds of work, partly because international trade is more common than in past centuries. Some countries and organizations having more than one official language hire people who speak more than one, so they can work with more people.
Most people have a first language that they learned as babies. Other languages are usually learned much later.
Some linguists think there are more multilingual people in the world than monolingual people, who speak only one language
People who can speak several languages are called "polyglots". Those who can speak many, such as Heinrich Schliemann and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, are called "hyperpolyglots".
Fall/Liberation of Saigon
The Fall/Liberation of Sàigòn happened on April 30, 1975. It was the capture of Saigon (Vietnamese:Sài Gòn) by the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam and the Vietnam People's Army, marking the end of the Vietnam War. It also resulted in the name of Saigon being changed to Ho Chi Minh City, in honour of former President Ho Chi Minh.
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Patrice Lumumba
Patrice Émery Lumumba (July 2, 1925 – January 17, 1961) was the only elected leader of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (called the "Republic of the Congo" at the time, but this should not be confused with today's Republic of the Congo). The official position of the US government, as seen in the U.S. News & World Report, associated Lumumba's ideas of African socialist democracy as an African brand of communism. Thus, the Americans had plans to kill him. He was murdered by the Katangans on January 17, 1961, just months after independence.
Lumumba's son, François is now a political figure in the Congo. He has created a small Lumumbist group.
Hồ Chí Minh, born Nguyễn (a common Vietnamese last name) Sinh Cung, (May 19, 1890 - September 2, 1969) was the leader (Prime Minister from 1945-1955, and President from 1945-1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (later the Socialist Republic of Vietnam).
'Hồ Chí Minh', meaning 'Hồ with the will of light', was not his real name. He took this name around the time of the August Revolution in 1945. His name was Nguyễn Sinh Cung when he was born. At age ten, he changed his name to Nguyễn Tất Thành, according to Confucian tradition. He would later use many 'pseudonyms' (false names). Other than 'Hồ Chí Minh', his most famous name was probably Nguyễn Ái Quốc meaning 'Nguyễn (by far the most common Vietnamese last name) who loves his country'. Vietnamese people commonly refer to him as Bác Hồ (Uncle Hồ).
Nguyễn studied in Paris from 1919-23. In those four years, he started following communism, and began to believe that Vietnam- then a French colony-should be independent. During this time he wrote a letter, which was ignored, to United States President Woodrow Wilson, asking for U.S. military aid to help overthrow the French colonial rulers. He joined the French Communist Party, and started visiting Moscow regularly, as a member of the Asian branch of the Comintern.
Hồ led a revolution against the French rulers of Vietnam from 1945-1954. After overthrowing the French, a Communist regime, supported by the Soviet Union and China, was set up in the northern half of the country, with himself leading the country as both President and Prime Minister. A non-Communist government, supported by the United States, was set up in the southern half of the country, because the United States did not want all Vietnam to be Communist. This was because the United States was then fighting the Cold War.
When South Vietnam and America did not keep their promise to hold an election and unite the two halves into one country, Hồ led Vietnam into a military and political struggle to bring the rice fields of the South under his Communist rule. Two decades of war followed, killing millions of Vietnamese. The United States supported South Vietnam with military aid, while the Soviet Union (led by Nikita Krushchev and then Leonid Brezhnev) and People's Republic of China (led by Mao Zedong) continued to support North Vietnam's war effort.
In the end, North Vietnam won the war several years after Hồ Chí Minh died.
Suffering from diabetes and heart problems, Hồ Chí Minh died on the morning of September 2, 1969, of a heart attack.
In his will he said he wished to be cremated and have his ashes be buried in hills in the north, center, and south of Vietnam. After he died however, his followers embalmed his body and put it in a tomb, the mausoleum, where he is still worshipped today.
In 1976, in the style of the Soviet Union, the victorious Communist North renamed the capital of the non-Communist South, Saigon, to Ho Chi Minh City, in honour of their leader.
Vietnamese Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was a speech read by Ho Chi Minh on September 2, 1945, in Ba Dinh Square, Hanoi, Vietnam, which proclaims the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from France and Japan Empire after the Second World War.
During the August Revolution, Ho Chi Minh wrote the speech at 48 Hang Ngang Street, Hanoi, at the home of a bourgeoisie family that donated 5,147 taels of gold to the Revolutionary Government headed by Ho Chi Minh. The Declaration was written with the advise of OSS Detachment 101 Maj. Archimedes Patti.
It is based on the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Khmer Rouge
The Khmer Rouge (Khmer: ""; French for "Red Khmer") was a Stalinist, Maoist militant group in Cambodia. They took over the capital, Phnom Penh, on 17 April 1975. It was led by Pol Pot, who was called Saloth Sar before the take over. They named the country Democratic Kampuchea. They immediately forced everyone out of the cities, effectively turning the whole country into a giant labor camp. They were defeated by the Vietnamese in January of 1979. During the Khmer Rouge Years, between 1.7 million and 2 million people were killed (20–30% of the population) in a genocide comparable to the Holocaust. The international community continued to recognize the Khmer Rouge as the government of Kampuchea for a decade after they were defeated. Therefore, the Khmer Rouge held a seat in the United Nations until 1989.
Pol Pot died in 1998. He was cremated without any ceremony. By 1999, the Khmer Rouge disbanded.
A leading source summarised the Khmer Rouge as follows:
"...The Khmer Rouge regime [was] the ultimate twentieth-century paradigm of the totalitarian state. Using sheer violence and terror, a small clique [took] power. [It saw itself] as the messianic mission to bring happiness and prosperity faster than any of its revolutionary model and competitors. It came to control every aspect of social and private life. No one was allowed to nurse, let alone express, any form of opposition".
The same source summarises the effect: "Between 17 April 1975 and 7 January 1979 the death toll was about 25% of a population of some 7.8 million; 33.5% of men were massacred or died unnatural deaths as against 15.7% of the women, and 41.9% of the population of Phnom Penh".
Juche () is the group of ideas developed by North Korean leader Kim Il-Sung, "Juche" means self-reliance. According to its supporters, the idea was developed from Marxism and Leninism. In many cases, it is noticeably different from both. At its base, the idea states that the interests of the people and their nation are more important than those of Leninism or Marxism. A strong leader is required to undertake the necessary reforms. The nation of (North) Korea is special, and should be the focus of interest. Every nation needs to drive forward its own revolution. Three things are necessary for this:
It is the role of the state to make sure these three things are there. According to this idea, man himself is responsible for designing what the world should look like. The welfare of many people (which form the nation) is more important than the fate of the individual.
Juche also says that intellectuals are important.
Certain people have described these ideas as a philosophy, others see it as a religion.
Louis XVI (23 August 1754 21 January 1793) was the King of France from 1774 until 1792, when the monarchy was abolished during the French Revolution. His overthrow and execution ended a monarchy that was over 1,000 years old, although he was not the last French king.
Louis came from the House of Bourbon. He became the king at the age of 20, after the death of his grandfather Louis XV. Early in his reign, he tried to make France more modern. He stopped the government from using torture and allowed people to be Protestant again. He and his minister Turgot took away some laws on selling grain, which led to high grain prices in years when the harvest was bad. He also supported the Americans in their war for independence from Great Britain. Debts from this war, other war debts and the outdated tax system caused major money problems in France. Louis's plans to solve the problems were blocked by the nobles. The money problems and the new ideas of the Age of Enlightenment caused more people to stop supporting the existing monarchy (the "Ancien Régime") and demand change.
In 1789, Louis called the Estates-General (a parliament) to try to solve the problems. As a leader who was weak-willed and did not want to change the country much, he soon disappointed the elected politicians who wanted to reduce the king's powers. Protests against the monarchy became more common, especially among the poorer people of Paris and the middle class. This led to the Storming of the Bastille in July and the Women's March on Versailles in October. These events caused the king to lose control of the country to the National Assembly.