AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Krispy Kreme is the name of an international chain of doughnut shops that was made by Vernon Rudolph in 1937. The real parent company of Krispy Kreme is Krispy Kreme Doughnuts, Inc.
While selling all types of doughnuts, Krispy Kreme's signature is a glazed doughnut that is traditionally served warm.
Loblaws supermarkets and Petro-Canada gas stations in Canada have Krispy Kreme. In the United Kingdom Tesco supermarkets, Tesco Extra and Moto service stations carry Krispy Kreme products.
On May 6, 2008, the first Krispy Kreme shop in Puerto Rico opened, followed by two additional places in 2010 and one location in 2011.
In 2002, Krispy Kreme opened a restaurant-style shop in the Amarillo area in Texas.
The 18 stores that opened in Canada were reduced to four. Two of them are in Quebec while the other two stores are in Mississauga, Ontario and Delta, British Columbia. A small seasonal shop was recently opened in Wasaga Beach, Ontario. The Wasaga Beach receives its doughnuts from the Mississauga shop every morning. Another small store recently opened on November 3, 2010 in Toronto at Bathurst and Harbord Streets in the city's Harbord Village neighborhood. This store got shipments from the Mississauga store. Krispy Kreme's Canadian assets were put up for sale in 2005 seven weeks after the U.S.-based doughnut company had the firm that owns the stores in Canada placed under bankruptcy protection.
In Japan, over 27 shops of Krispy Kreme doughnuts opened around the country.
Infinite (Eminem album)
Infinite is the debut studio album by American rapper, Eminem. It was released on November 12, 1996. It was produced by Jeff & Mark Bass, Denaun Porter, DJ Head, Eminem and DJ Rec. The album was given 2.5 out of 5 stars by Allmusic.
The Slim Shady LP
The Slim Shady LP is the second studio album and the major-label debut by American rapper, Eminem. It was released on February 23, 1999 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Mark & Jeff Bass, and Mel-Man. The album got critical and commercial success. It debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 charts. The first single from the album is "My Name Is". It earned Eminem a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album and was included in "Rolling Stone Magazine"'s list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
Gampopa
Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (1079–1153) is Tibetan Buddhist teacher - lama, holder of the Kagyu school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
He was the most important (or sun like) student of Milarepa.
In his young years Gampopa was a physician in Dagpo region of S. Tibet. Before studying under Milarepa, Gampopa had studied the Kadampa tradition, which belongs to gradual Mahayana path. He searched for, and eventually met Milarepa, and attained realization of ultimate reality under his guidance.
Four of his disciples founded the four "major" Kagyu schools:
The Marshall Mathers LP
The Marshall Mathers LP is the third studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "The Marshall Mathers LP" was released on May 23, 2000 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Mel-Man, Bass Brothers, Eminem and The 45 King. The album was given 5 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. "The Marshall Mathers LP 2", the sequel to "The Marshall Mathers LP", was released on November 5, 2013.
Trill consonant
A trill consonant is a consonant that is made by vibrating an articulator, or hitting it many times against something else. For example, the <rr> in the Spanish word "perro" is an alveolar trill, where the tongue is hit many times against the alveolar ridge, or the place just behind the teeth. This vibration is caused by a flow of air.
There are three trill consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet. These are:
The Eminem Show is the fourth studio album by American rapper, Eminem. It was released on May 26, 2002 and was produced by Eminem, Jeff Bass, Dr. Dre, and Mr. Porter. The album was given 4 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. On March 7, 2011, the album was certified ten-times-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over ten million copies.
Encore (album)
Encore is the fifth studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "Encore" was released on November 12, 2004 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Luis Resto, Mike Elizondo and Mark Batson. The album was given 3 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. It was nominated for Best Rap Album, Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for the song "Encore" and Best Rap Solo Performance for "Mockingbird" at the 48th Grammy Awards.
Relapse (album)
Demersal
Demersal animals live on or near the bottom of the sea or lakes. The term is usually applied to fish.
They occupy the sea floors and lake beds, which usually consist of mud, sand, gravel or rocks. In coastal waters they are found on or near the continental shelf, and in deep waters they are found on or near the continental slope or along the continental rise. They are not generally found in the deepest waters, such as abyssal depths or on the abyssal plain, but they can be found around seamounts and islands. The word "demersal" comes from the Latin "demergere", which means "to sink".
Demersal fish are bottom feeders. They can be contrasted with pelagic fish which live and feed away from the bottom in the open water column. Demersal fish fillets contain little fish oil (one to four percent), whereas pelagic fish can contain up to 30 percent.
S&amp;M Airlines
S&M Airlines is the second studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "S&M Airlines" was released on September 5, 1989. The producer of the album was Brett Gurewitz. The last track on the album is a cover of the Fleetwood Mac song, "Go On Your Way".
Selena Etc.
Through the Years/A Traves de los Años
Through the Years/A Traves de los Años is a album by American singer Selena. The album contained an unreleased song called "Feelings". The song was recorded when Selena was only 7 years old.
The album peaked at number 28 on the Top Latin Albums Chart and was certified Gold by the RIAA.
Wet 'n Wild
Alice Paul
Alice Stokes Paul (January 11, 1885 – July 9, 1977) was an American suffragist and activist. Along with Lucy Burns and others, she led a successful campaign for women's suffrage. Her work resulted in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Lucy Burns was part of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and she had been treated badly as Alice Paul was but she went to save the women rights by suffering. Lucy Burns met Alice Paul in the police station in London when both were arrested because they were protesting Parliament
Paul was the original author of a proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution in 1923. The ERA would not get to the Senate for a vote until 1972. That year, it was approved by the Senate and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. Approval by 38 states was required to ratify the amendment. Not enough states — only 35 — voted in favor before the deadline. However, people still work to have the states pass the ERA passed by Congress in the 1970s. Other people are working to add a new equality amendment to the US Constitution. Also, almost half of the U.S. states have adopted the ERA into their state constitutions. Alice paul was treated badly but she stood up for the women rights.
Canton of Lucerne
Lucerne (German: "Luzern", Swiss German: "Lozärn", French: "Lucerne", Italian: "Lucerna", Romansh: "Lucerna") is a canton of Switzerland. It can be found in the centre of Switzerland. As of 31 December 2018, the canton has 409,557 people lived there. The capital is Lucerne.
The Canton of Lucerne has six districts:
The Canton of Lucerne has 82 municipalities ():
Basel-Landschaft
The Canton of Basel-Landschaft is a canton of Switzerland. The capital is Liestal.
There are five districts:
There are 86 municipalities:
Basel-Stadt
Basel-Stadt is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. The capital is Basel. It is the smallest canton by area.
There are three municipalities:
Canton of Neuchâtel
Neuchâtel is a French-speaking canton in western Switzerland. As of 2018, 176,850 people lived there. The capital is Neuchâtel.
To the northeast it borders the canton of Bern, to the northwest France (Bourgogne-Franche-Comté). Lake Neuchâtel lies southeast of the canton, while the canton of Vaud is southwest of the canton of Neuchâtel. The canton lies in the central area of the Jura Mountains.
PlayStation Vita
The is a handheld game console made by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to the PlayStation Portable. It was released in Japan on December 17, 2011. It was released in Europe, North America, South America and Singapore on February 22, 2012. It was released in Australia on February 23, 2012.
It competes with the Nintendo 3DS. It is part of the eighth generation of gaming.
It was discontinued on Amazon on October 12, 2017.
La Salle University
La Salle University is a private, co-educational, Roman Catholic university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The university has about 7,554 students. It was founded in 1863. The current president of the university is Bro. Michael McGinniss.
The athletics teams of the university are called the Explorers. They have 23 varsity teams and they compete in the Atlantic 10 Conference.
George Washington University
The George Washington University is a private, coeducational university in Washington, D.C.. The university has about 24,531 students. It was founded on February 9, 1821. The current president of the university is Steven Knapp.
The athletics teams of the university are called the Colonials. They have 22 varsity teams and they compete in the Atlantic 10 Conference.
Feathered dinosaur
A feathered dinosaur is a dinosaur with feathers. It is now thought that all coelurosaurs, and perhaps all theropods, had feathers.
The possibility that dinosaurs are closely related to birds raised the possibility of feathers. Fossils of "Archaeopteryx" include well-preserved feathers, but it was not until the early 1990s that clearly non-bird dinosaur fossils were discovered with preserved feathers. About 40 genera of theropods are now known to be feathered.
Most of these fossils come from the Yixian formation in China. The fossil feathers of one specimen, "Shuvuuia deserti", have been tested positive for beta-keratin in immunological tests. This is the main protein in bird feathers.
After a century without clear evidence, well-preserved fossils of feathered dinosaurs were discovered during the 1990s, and more continue to be found. The fossils were preserved in a Lagerstätte — a sedimentary deposit exhibiting remarkable richness and completeness in its fossils — in Liaoning, China.
The area had repeatedly been smothered in volcanic ash by eruptions in Inner Mongolia 124 million years ago, during the Lower Cretaceous. The fine-grained ash preserved the living organisms that it buried in fine detail. The area was teeming with life, with millions of leaves, angiosperms (the oldest known), insects, fish, frogs, salamanders, mammals, turtles, lizards and crocodilians discovered to date.
The most important discoveries at Liaoning have been a host of feathered dinosaur fossils, with a steady stream of new finds filling in the picture of the dinosaur-bird connection and adding more to theories of the evolutionary development of feathers and flight. Quill knobs were found an ulna of "Velociraptor mongoliensis". These are associated with large, well-developed secondary feathers.
Behavioural evidence, in the form of an oviraptorosaur on its nest, showed another link with birds. Its forearms were folded, like those of a bird. Although no feathers were preserved, it is likely that these would have been present to keep eggs and juveniles warm.
The feathered tail of a non-avialan (non-bird) theropod has been found preserved in mid-Cretaceous (∼99 mya) amber from Kachin State, Myanmar (Burma). The BBC describe it as "perfectly preserved". Lida Xing found it at an amber market in Myitkina, Myanmar. The amber was already polished for jewellery: the seller thought it was plant material. However, it was the tail of a feathered dinosaur about the size of a sparrow. The feathers were not flight feathers. Dr Paul Barrett, from London's Natural History Museum, called the specimen a "beautiful fossil", describing it as a "really rare occurrence of vertebrate material in amber".
In 2011, samples of amber were discovered to contain preserved feathers from the Cretaceous period, with evidence that they were from both dinosaurs and birds. Initial analysis suggests that some of the feathers were used for insulation, and not flight.
A number of non-avialan dinosaurs are now known to have been feathered. Direct evidence of feathers exists for the following genera, listed in the order currently accepted evidence was first published.
The evidence consists of feather impressions, or convincing skeletal or chemical evidence. Skeletal evidence would be the presence of quill knobs (the anchor points for wing feathers on the forelimb) or a pygostyle (the fused vertebrae at the tail tip which often supports large feathers).
For comparison: "Archaeopteryx" (1861; avialan) definitely had working flight feathers with off-centre rachis (stem). Otherwise, apart from the front limbs, it was a typical small carnivorous dinosaur.
Monoculture is growing a single crop in a large area. Farmers decide what is the best crop, and grow only that. This is very common in modern agriculture, as it simplifies the farm and allows relatively few people to harvest large amounts. Monocultures have problems, however: Pests and diseases that attack only one kind of plant can spread more easily when they only find that kind. Each kind of plant also needs particular nutrients from the soil. Fertilizers are used to supply that nutrient. Farmers who don't understand farming may ruin their farm.
Rahonavis
Rahonavis is a genus of bird-like feathered dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous, 70–65 million years ago (mya) of what is now northwestern Madagascar.
It is known from a partial skeleton found in a quarry. "Rahonavis" was a small predator, at about long, with the typical "Velociraptor"-like raised sickle claw on the second toe.
"Rahonavis" has quill knobs on its ulna (forearm bone), which led at first to its inclusion among the birds. However, the rest of the skeleton is rather typically dromaeosaurid.
Makovicky and colleagues consider "Rahonavis" to be closely related to the South American dromaeosaurids "Unenlagia" and "Buitreraptor", and thus a member of the subfamily Unenlagiinae. Norell and colleagues (2006) also found "Rahonavis" to lie within the Unenlagiinae, as the sister taxon to "Unenlagia" itself. A 2007 study by Turner and colleagues again found it to be closely related to "Unenlagia". However, studies published since 2009 that have found many traditional "dromaeosaurids", including the unenlagiines, closer to Avialae than to dromaeosaurines. A cladistic analysis recovered "Rahonavis" as a probable relative of "Jeholornis" and "Jixiangornis".
"Rahonavis" was one-fifth larger than the closely related "Archaeopteryx", about the size of a modern raven.
Although numerous artists' reconstructions of "Rahonavis" show it in flight, it is not clear that it could fly. There is even been some doubt that the forearm material, which includes the quill knobs, belongs with the rest of the skeleton. Some researchers have suggested that "Rahonavis" represents a chimaera, with the forelimb of a bird mixed with the skeleton of a dromaeosaurid.
The nearby discovery of the primitive bird "Vorona berivotrensis" shows that the possibility of a mix-up cannot be entirely excluded. However, many other scientists, including the original describers of "Rahonavis", think its remains belong to a single animal. The wing bones are close to the rest of the skeleton. All the bones attributed to "Rahonavis" were buried in an area "smaller than a letter-sized page", according to co-describer Luis M. Chiappe in his 2007 book "Glorified Dinosaurs". Chiappe maintained that "Rahonavis" could probably fly, noting that its ulna was large and robust compared to "Archaeopteryx", and that this fact, coupled with the prominent quill knobs, suggest that "Rahonavis" had larger and more powerful wings than that earlier bird. In addition, "Rahonavis" shoulder bones show evidence of ligament attachments allowing the independent mobility needed for flapping flight. Chiappe concluded that "Rahonavis" was capable of flight, though it would have been more "clumsy in the air than modern birds".
Gran Turismo 2
Wii Party
Wii Party is a party video game for the Nintendo Wii games console. It was released in Japan on July 8, 2010, in North America on October 3, 2010, and in Europe on October 8, 2010. It takes elements from the "Mario Party" series, which is another video game series that is made by Nintendo. It has over 80 minigames, like Spin-Off, and House Party.
Board Game Island
In the beginning the players play a minigame to set an order. The winner gets a normal dice plus a gold dice,the second placed
gets a silver dice, the 3rd place is playing with the bronze dice and the last one does not get anything. He has to play with only one normal dice. The gold dice has the numbers 1 - 6,the silver dice has the numbers 1 - 3,the bronze dice has the numbers 1 - 2 while the normal dice the normal 1 - 6. After the minigame the winner starts first. Then it is the turn of the second place. Place 3 plays as third one and the loser as last one. The object of the game is to reach the mountaintop as first. On the way to the goal there are many happening spaces which makes it harder or easier to win. After each player rolled the dices a minigame appears.
Globe Trot
The players go on a journey around the world. But in contrast to the other game the player has to take card to move. He can go
1,2 or 3 spaces. Each player gets 10 coins in the beginning, an Easter egg from the Mario Party series.The object is to reach special points on the globe (as example: Buy a fan in Japan or eat a Hamburger in the USA.)The visiting of a point costs 10 coins. With any visiting the player collects photos. The player who has the most at the end wins.
A game that makes always fun while playing. As a parody to the famous gambling Bingo. Each player chooses a card with Mii's faces on it. Then the game begins. A huge bingo machine drops balls in every round. The balls show Mii's faces. If a player has 3 faces in a row a voice calls 'Bingo!' and the player wins. So called Minigame balls make the players play a minigame. The winner can choose which face we wants to choose.
Mii of a kind
The players swap their Miis against Miis in the middle. The player who has two rows with 3 same Miis in it wins. It is a parody of the card game Thirty-one.
Players spin a wheel and get money. The player who has the surpreme amount of money wins.
UEFA Women's Championship
The UEFA Women's Championship is the women's version of the UEFA European Football Championship. Germany has had the most titles so far (eight titles). The first champion of the tournament was Sweden
The tournament was founded in 1984. The current champions are Germany. Three of the tournaments have been part of the European Competition for Representative Women's Teams and all the rest have been "UEFA Women's Championship".
Separatist movements of Pakistan
Pakistan was established in 1947 as a state for Muslims of colonial India. The driving force behind the movement for Pakistan was the educated Muslim in the Muslim minority states of United Province and Bombay Presidency, those of the Muslim majority areas such as Punjab region, Sindh or Bengal, parts of which eventually formed Pakistan were less enthusiastic and joined the cause of Pakistan in the last years before independence and partition. Its formation was based on the basis of Islamic nationalism. However, due to rampant corruption within the ranks of the government and bureaucracy, economic inequality between the country's two wings caused mainly by a lack of representative government and the government's indifference to the efforts of fierce ethno-nationalistic politicians like Mujeeb-ur-Rehman, colonial East Bengal (Eastern Pakistan) Civil war of and Partition of Pakistan the Bhola cyclone and the 1970 elections were the major factors, resulting in the formation of a new linguistic state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Buddhism in Bangladesh
Soweto
Soweto is a poor part of Johannesburg, South Africa. The name used to stand for Southwestern townships. The vast majority of its residents are black. Soweto is known by Soweto Uprising occurred in 1976.
Synagogue of Besançon
The synagogue of Besançon () is a synagogue in the French city of Besançon, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It was built in the center of the city between 1869 and 1871 by Pierre Manotte, and has a Moroccan style.
This Jewish shrine replaced an old flad that held everyone in Besançon, about 600 persons in the 1860s. The new building just can hold about 200 persons. All rites are Sephardi.
Eurovision Song Contest 2012
The 57 Annual Eurovision Song Contest was held in Baku, Azerbaijan in May of 2012. It was held in Azerbaijan since they won in 2011 with their singers Ell & Nikki with their song ""Running Scared"" in Düsseldorf, Germany.
Forty-two countries announced their participation in this year's contest which less than the 2011 edition when that year, forty-three countries participated in the contest. This year's contest, saw the return of Montenegro after not being part in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2009 and the withdrawal of Armenia and Poland.
Sweden and its representative Loreen, won the contest with the song "Euphoria" with 372 points; ahead Russia, Serbia, the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012, Azerbaijan and Albania.
Helle Thorning-Schmidt
Helle Thorning-Schmidt (born 14 December 1966) is a Danish politician. She is the leader of the Danish Social Democrats and is the first female Prime Minister of Denmark. She left the government in 2015.
Helle Thorning-Schmidt was born in Rødovre to Holger Thorning-Schmidt and his wife Grete. Thorning-Schmidt's father was a lecturer in mathematics and national economics at the University of Copenhagen. Her parents were both politically conservative and she grew up in the Copenhagen suburb of Ishøj.
She was elected to Prime Minister of Denmark on September 15, 2011, and her government took over at October 3, 2011, from the liberal Lars Løkke Rasmussen.
She formed the government with the Social Liberal Party (Det Radikale Venstre) and the Socialist People's Party (Socialistisk Folkeparti). Together they had 77 seats, and with the support of their parliamentary basis, Unity (Enhedslisten), obtain the 89 seats. Furthermore, she has the support of the North Atlantic - two seats from Greenland and one from the Faroe Islands.
She is married to Stephen Kinnock, only son of British politician Neil Kinnock.
Pallas () was a Titan from Greek mythology. He was associated with war, killed by Athena in the contest to fight for Zeus. Most sources say he was the son of Crius and Eurybia, the brother of Astraeus and Perses, and the husband of Styx. He was the father of Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia. In addition, he has been named as the father of Scylla, Fontes, and Lacus. Some say he was the son of Megamedes and father of Selene, and is also recorded as the father of Eos.
The city Pellene, in Achaea, was named after Pallas, as was the asteroid 2 Pallas.
Childhood obesity
Fricative consonant
A fricative consonant is a consonant that is made when you squeeze air through a small hole or gap in your mouth. For example, the gaps between your teeth can make fricative consonants; when these gaps are used, the fricatives are called sibilants. Some examples of sibilants in English are , , , and .
English has a fairly large number of fricatives, and it has both voiced and voiceless fricatives. Its voiceless fricatives are [s], , [f], and [θ], and its voiced fricatives are [z], [ʒ], [v], and [ð]
This is a list of sibilant fricatives.
In many languages, such as English, the glottal "fricatives," like the in English "hat", are not really fricatives because they are just vowels that are not voiced. However, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives.
FIFA World Rankings
The FIFA World Rankings is a ranking of men's football teams selected by FIFA. Currently, the team ranked #1 is Belgium. The rankings were first made in 1993. The first team to receive first place was Germany.
A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA-recognized full international matches.
FIFA announced in June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modeled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game-by-game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes was removed. However, the new method does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, unlike the Elo rankings. This produced a more altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking.
When the system was created, Germany began as the top-ranked team following their dominant period in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany.
Brazil's success in their 1993 qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 UEFA Euro.
Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October.
In April 2010, Brazil returned to the top of the table. After winning the 2010 World Cup, Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011, when the Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time, only to drop it the following month.
In July 2014, Germany took over the lead once again, having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In July 2015, Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008, after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, as well as the 2015 Copa America Final. In November 2015, Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time, after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group. Belgium led the rankings until April 2016, when Argentina returned to the top. Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot in April 2017 for the first time since just prior to the 2010 World Cup, because they had already qualified for the 2018 World Cup as they were 1st in their qualification group with 4 match days still left to go. However, Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup.
In the summer of 2018, FIFA updated their rating system by adopting the Elo rating system. The first ranking list with this system, in August 2018, saw France retake the top spot for the first time after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. One month later, for the first time, two teams were both leaders as Belgium reached the same ranking as France. This lasted only one month, and from September 2018 until now (), Belgium is leading the FIFA ranking.
The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is.
The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year ("z") multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year ("y"). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year.
The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006.
While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the 'Best Movers' in the rankings since 2007.
Central limit theorem
In probability theory and statistics, the central limit theorems, abbreviated as CLT, are theorems about the limiting behaviors of aggregated probability distributions. They say that given a large number of independent random variables, their sum will follow a stable distribution. If the variance of the random variables is finite, then a Gaussian distribution will result. This is one of the reasons why this distribution is also known as "normal" distribution.
The best known and most important of these is known as "the central limit theorem". It is about large numbers of random variables with the same distribution, each with an identical finite variance and expected value.
More specifically, if formula_1 are "n" identical and independently distributed random variables with mean formula_2 and standard deviation formula_3, then the distribution of their sample mean, formula_4, as "n" gets large, is approximately normal with mean formula_2 and standard deviation formula_6. Furthermore, the distribution of their sum, formula_7, as "n" gets large, is also approximately normal, with mean formula_8 and standard deviation formula_9.
There are different generalisations of this theorem. Some of these generalisations no longer require an identical distribution of all random variables. In these generalisations, another precondition makes sure that no single random variable has a bigger influence on the outcome than the others. Examples are the Lindeberg and Lyapunov conditions.
The name of the theorem is based on a paper George Pólya written in 1920, "About the Central Limit Theorem in Probability Theory and the Moment problem".
MG 42
The MG 42 (shortened from German: "Maschinengewehr 42", or "machine gun 42") was a general-purpose machine gun. It was created in Nazi Germany. It began being used by the "Wehrmacht" in 1942. It was used with (and sometimes replaced) the MG 34 machine gun in the German Armed Forces. Both weapons were made and used until the end of the war.
The MG 42 was known for being reliable, simple and easy to use. However, it is best known for its very high rate of fire so the Germans called it "Hitlersäge", or "Hitler's saw". There were other automatic weapon designs with similar firepower. Some examples of these are the French Darne, the Hungarian-Gebauer, the Russian 7.62mm ShKAS and the British Vickers K machine gun. However, because the MG 42 got its ammunition from a belt and its barrel was easy to change, it could fire for longer periods of time than these weapons.
The MG 42 was used to create new weapons after Nazi Germany surrendered. The MG1 (MG 42/59) was nearly exactly the same as the MG 42. The MG1 became the MG1A3, which in turn became the MG 3. The Swiss MG 51, SIG MG 710-3, Austrian MG 74, and the Spanish 5.56mm Ameli light machine gun were all designed from the MG 42. The M60 and Belgian MAG also copied some features. The MG 42 was still used by many armed groups after the war.
During the 1930s, the German Army began using the MG 34. The MG 34 was thought to be the first general-purpose machine gun. The MG 34 had a barrel that could be changed quickly. It was also able to fire from big magazines or a belt. This meant that the MG 34 could fire for much longer than weapons like the Browning Automatic Rifle, Japanese Type 11, British Bren and French Châtellerault LMG. It was also much lighter than weapons like the Vickers machine gun and M1917 Browning machine gun. The MG 34 was also very changeable. It was able to fire from a belt and a drum magazine. It could also be fired from tripods or from armoured vehicles. It even became one of the main defensive guns for the "Luftwaffe" as the MG 81. It was also used as a second gun on tanks as the MG 34 Panzerlauf. However, the MG 34 did have some problems. An example of this is that the MG 34 broke down easily if it got dust on it. It was also quite expensive to make. The MG 34S was made as an improvement to the design.
So that these problems could be fixed, a contest was started to find a replacement for the MG 34. Three companies were asked to design this replacement. These were: Metall und Lackierwarenfabrik Johannes Großfuß AG, Rheinmetall-Borsig, and Stübgen. Großfuß AG's design turned out to be the best. Strangely, Großfuß did not make weapons. They mostly made metal lanterns. Ernst Grunow was one of the head design engineers with Großfuß. He did not know anything about machine guns when he was told he would be involved in the project. However, he knew a lot about the machines used to make a lot of a product (mass production). Grunow went to an army machine gunner's training course to help him understand machine guns more. He also asked some soldiers for information. He then used some ideas used by Mauser and added some features he learned about from talking to army machine gunners and things that happened early on in World War II. The new design, the MG 42, was much easier to build. It took 75 hours to make the new gun. However, the MG 34 took 150 hours. The new gun cost 250 RM. However, the MG 34 cost 327 RM. The MG 42 was also made out of stamped metal. This made it easier to make than other machine guns.
This gun ended up being called the MG 39. It was similar to the MG 34 overall. To the gunner, the only large change was that it could not fire from drum magazines anymore. This meant that the weapon had to fire from a belt or from a drum-shaped magazine that attached to the side of the gun and had a belt inside it.
The weapon was officially brought into service. The weapon began being made in 1942 as the MG 42. Großfuß, Mauser-Werke, Gustloff-Werke and some others were given contracts to make the MG 42.
The MG 42 had a very high rate of fire. It could fire about 1,200 rounds per minute. This was twice the rate of the British Vickers machine gun and American Browning. Soldiers were so terrified of the MG 42 that the United States Army made training movies to help the soldiers deal with the fear of going against the MG 42 in battle. At such a high rate, the human ear can not easily hear the sound of a single bullet being fired. This meant that the gun made a sound similar to "rrrrp". Allied soldiers nicknamed the MG 42 "Hitler's Buzzsaw".
When the MG 42 was fired for a long amount of time, it used a lot of ammunition. Because of this, a German MG 42 gunner would usually only fire the weapon in short bursts.
Because of the way the barrel was changed, the MG 42 could not be used on World War II German tanks. However, it could be used on one tank. This tank was called the Jagdpanzer IV.
During World War II, every German machine gun squad had an MG 42.
The MG 42 weighed 11.8 kg. This was lighter than the MG 34.
The MG 42 usually had a crew of six. These people were: the gun commander (the person who told the No.1 what to do with the gun), the No.1 who carried and fired the gun, the No.2 who carried the tripod, and Nos.3, 4, and 5 who carried ammunition, extra barrels and tools to dig foxholes in the ground. This big team was often cut to just three: the gunner, the loader (who loaded ammunition into the weapon and carried the barrels), and the spotter (the person who spotted targets for the gunner to shoot at). The leader of the squad and his assistant were given MP-40 submachine guns.
The MG 42 was used on nearly all German armoured vehicles. In combat, the gun's barrel could be changed in seconds.
The MG 42 was also very durable. To keep the gun working, all that was needed was some oil. The MG 42 could be dropped in mud or water and still work.
The job of many German riflemen was to support the machine gun. If the MG 42 and its crew moved, the riflemen would cover them to keep them safe. When the crew set up the MG 42, the riflemen would dig holes in the ground for the MG 42 crew to sit in. While the MG 42 was firing, the riflemen would carry ammunition to the gunners.
An MG 42 being used in a battle would usually use 3,000 rounds per day.
The MG 42 fires belt fed 7.92mm cartridges from an open bolt.
The MG 42 can only fire fully automatically. Single shots are very difficult even for people who are experienced with the MG 42. This is because of the weapon's high rate of fire.
The MG 42 barrel can be changed quickly. It has a device in the barrel to make this easier. This feature is similar to the Thompson Light Rifle.
In 1944, the Third Reich were getting short of materials. This led them to develop the MG 45 (or MG 42V). It had an even higher rate of fire and was easier to make.
The American military tried to copy the MG 42 during the war. They thought it could be a possible replacement for the Browning Automatic Rifle and the M1919A4 for foot soldiers. Saginaw Steering Gear made a prototype and called it the T24 machine gun. However, it was realised that the .30-06 cartridge that the gun would fire might be too long. There was also a design problem with the prototype. These problems meant that the project was ended.
Yugoslavia built the MG 42 at the Zavodi Crvena Zastava company as the M53 machine gun. They did this under a license. This gun still fired the 7.92 x 57mm Mauser cartridge. By doing this, the M53 was nearly an exact copy of the German MG 42. The only big difference is that the rate of fire is lower than the MG 42. Some M53s were sent to Iraq in the 1980s. They were also used a lot during both of the Gulf wars. M53 was known under nickname "Šarac".
The Beretta MG 42/59 was just the MG 42 with some small changes. This is still used by the Italian Army. The Rheinmetall MG 3 is also just the MG 42 with some changes. The MG 3 is used with the German armed forces ("Bundeswehr").
The last type of MG 42 is called the MG 74. It was developed in Austria. It has been the main machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces since 1974.
Chocolate gravy
Waziristan
Waziristan (Pashto and , "land of the Wazir") is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering about . It is part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which is not part of any of the country's four provinces.
Though declared by the rebels as a "state" or "emirate", there are questions whether the region being should be called such. Those who support that the region is a state point to the facts that the federal government has little to no power in the region and that the area is ruled mostly by tribal elders. The Taliban are reported to control most of the region with its own style of Sharia rule, which the Pakistan government has been unable to stop. Such bold show of autonomy has led one writer in the "Wall Street Journal" to remark that Waziristan was a "state within a state."
Chemical biology
Chemical biology is a science that combines the fields of chemistry and biology. It involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.
It is different from biochemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biological molecules. For example, a biochemist studies the three-dimensional structure of a protein and how that structure relates to the chemistry of the protein. Also, biochemistry studies the way enzymes work. Chemical biologists use chemical principles to modulate systems. They do this to either investigate biology relationships or create new functions. In this way, the research done by chemical biologists is often closer to that of cell biology than biochemistry. Biochemists work in the chemistry of biology, but chemical biologists work in chemistry applied to biology.
Solid-state chemistry
Solid-state chemistry, (also called materials chemistry) is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It focuses on non-molecular solids. It has much in common with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics. It focuses on the synthesis of new materials and their characterization.
Technology helps solid-state inorganic chemistry. Solid-state chemistry works to make materials used in commerce. Researchers serve industry, as well as answering academic questions. There were many important discoveries in the 20th century: zeolite and platinum-based catalysts for petroleum processing in the 1950s, high-purity silicon as a core component of microelectronic devices in the 1960s, and “high temperature” superconductivity in the 1980s. William Lawrence Bragg invented X-ray crystallography in the early 1900s, which brought further discoveries.
Carl Wagner's worked on oxidation rate theory, counter diffusion of ions, and defect chemistry. This work showed how reactions proceed at the atomic level in the solid state. Because of this, he has sometimes been referred to as the "father of solid state chemistry".
A diverse variety of syntheic methods are used to make solid-state compounds. For organic materials, such as charge transfer salts, the methods operate near room temperature and are often similar to the methods of organic synthesis. Redox reactions are sometimes conducted by electrocrystallisation. For example, Bechgaard salts can be made from tetrathiafulvalene.
For materials that can withstand heat, chemists often use high temperature methods. For example, chemists use tube furnaces to prepare bulk solids. This allows reactions to be conducted up to around . For higher temperatures up to , chemists use special equipment such as ovens made with a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. But this depends strongly on the system studied. Some solid state reactions already proceed at temperatures as low as .
Chemists often melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved, the reactants are often put in an ampoule and then all air is removed. Often, the chemists keep the reactant mixture cold (for example, by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen) and then seal the ampoule. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a specified heat treatment.
Solvents can be used to prepare solids by precipitation or by evaporation. At times the solvent is used under pressure at temperatures higher than the normal boiling point (hydrothermally). Flux methods add a salt of relatively low melting point to the mixture to act as a high temperature solvent in which the desired reaction can take place.
Many solids react readily with reactive gases such as chlorine, iodine, oxygen or others. Others solids form adducts with other gases, (for example CO or ethylene). Such reactions are often carried out in a tube with open ended on both sides and through which the gas flows. A variation of this is to let the reaction take place inside a measuring device such as a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In that case stoichiometric information can be obtained during the reaction. That information helps identify the products. (By accurately measuring the amount of each reactant, chemists can guess the ratio of the atoms in the final products.)
A special case of a gas reaction is a chemical transport reaction. These are often carried out by adding a small amount of a transport agent (for example, iodine) to a sealed ampoule. The ampoule is then placed in a zone oven. This method can be used to obtain the product in the form of single crystals suitable for structure determination by X-ray diffraction (XRD).
Chemical vapor deposition is also a widely used high temperature method for the preparation of coatings and semiconductors from molecular precursors.
Many solids attract water (hygroscopic) and/or sensitive to oxygen. For example, many halides absorb water and can only be studied in their anhydrous form if they are handled in a glove box filled with dry (and/or oxygen-free) gas, usually nitrogen.
Because a new synthetic method produces a mixture of products, it is important to be able to identify and characterize specific solid-state materials. Chemists try changing the stoichiometry to find which stoichiometries will lead to new solid compounds or to solid solutions between known ones. A prime method to characterize the reaction products is powder diffraction, because many solid state reactions will produce polycristalline ingots or powders. Powder diffraction will help the identification of known phases in the mixture. If a pattern is found that is not known in the diffraction data libraries an attempt can be made to index the pattern, that is to identify the symmetry and the size of the unit cell. (If the product is not crystalline the characterization is much more difficult.)
Once the unit cell of a new phase is known, the next step is to establish the ratio of the elements (stoichiometry) of the phase. This can be done in a number of ways. Sometimes the composition of the original mixture will give a clue, if one finds only one product (a single powder pattern) or if one was trying to make a phase of a certain composition by analogy to known materials. But this is rare.
Often chemist work hard to improve the synthetic methodology to get a pure sample of the new material.
If chemists can separate the product from the rest of the reaction mixture, then chemists can use elemental analysis on the isolated product. Other ways involve Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the generation of characteristic X-rays in the electron beam. The easiest way is to solve the structure is by using single crystal X-ray diffraction.
Improving the preparative procedures requires chemists to study which phases are stable at what composition and what stoichiometry. In other words, the chemists draw the phase diagram of the substance. An important tools in finding the phase diagram data are thermal analysis such as DSC or DTA and increasingly also, thanks to the advent of synchrotrons temperature-dependent power diffraction. Increased knowledge of the phase relations often leads to further refinement in synthetic procedures which repeats the cycle. New phases are thus characterized by their melting points and their stoichiometric domains. Identifying stichiometric domains is important for the many solids that are non-stoichiometric compounds. The cell parameters obtained from XRD are particularly helpful to characterize the homogeneity ranges of non-stoichiometric compounds.
In many cases new solid compounds are further characterized by a variety of techniques from solid-state physics.
For non-metallic materials, chemists try to get ultra-violet/visible spectra. In the case of semiconductors that will give an idea of the band gap.
Four-point (or five-point) probe methods are often applied either to ingots, crystals or pressed pellets to measure resistivity and the size of the Hall effect. This gives information on whether the compound is an insulator, semiconductor, semimetal or metal and upon the type of doping and the mobility in the delocalized bands (if present). So, important information is obtained on the chemical bonding in the material.
Magnetic susceptibility can be measured as function of temperature to establish whether the material is a para-, ferro- or antiferro- magnet. This tells the bonding in the material. This is particularly important for transition metal compounds. In the case of magnetic order, neutron diffraction can be used to find the magnetic structure.
Abdominal obesity
Alveolar consonant