AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Verbal phrases can be extremely difficult to analyse: "I'm afraid I will need to be going soon". There seem to be three verbal phrases here, which mean something like "Sorry, I must go soon".
In English and many other languages, verbs change their form. This is called inflection. Most English verbs have six inflected forms (see the table), but "be" has eight different forms.
You should notice that some of the verb forms look the same. You can say they have the same shape. For example, the plain present and the plain form of "walk" have the same shape. The same is true for the past and the past participle. But these different forms can have different shapes in other verbs. For example, the plain present of "be" is usually "are" but the plain form is "be". Also, the past of "eat" is "ate", but the past participle is "eaten". When you look for a verb in the dictionary, it is usually the plain form that you look for.
An English sentence must have at least one primary-form verb. Each main clause can only have one primary-form verb.
English has two main kinds of verbs: normal verbs (called lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. The difference between them is mainly in where they can go in a sentence. Some verbs are in both groups, but there are very few auxiliary verbs in English. There are also two kinds of auxiliary verbs: modal verbs and non-modal verbs. The table below shows most of the English auxiliaries and a small number of other verbs.
There are several auxiliary verbs:
The following verbs are "modal auxiliaries".
Auxiliary verbs also inflect for negation. Usually this is done by adding "not" or "n't".
Sometimes the verb "do" is used with other verbs. It does not really change the meaning, but it can be used to make a strong statement.
It is also used in the negative when no other auxiliary verbs are used.
Sometimes it comes before the subject. This is called inversion and it usually means the sentence is a question.
Many other languages do not use the verb "do" as an auxiliary verb. They use the simple present for "do", and the simple past or perfect for "did".
There are three main systems related to the verb: tense, aspect, and mood.
Tense is mainly used to say when the verb happens: in the past, present, or future. In order to explain and understand tense, it is useful to imagine time as a line on which past tense, present tense and future tense are positioned.
Some languages have all three tenses, some have only two, and some have no tenses at all. English and Japanese for example have only two tenses: past and present. Chinese and Indonesian verbs do not show tense. Instead they use other words in the sentence to show when the verb happens.
Aspect usually shows us things like whether the action is finished or not, or if something happens regularly. English has two aspects: progressive and perfect. In English, aspect is usually shown by using participle verb forms. Aspect can combine with present or past tense.
English uses the gerund-participle, usually together with the auxiliary "be" (and its forms am, is, are, was, and were) to show the progressive aspect.
Many other languages, such as French, do not use progressive tenses.
The past perfect can be used to express an unrealized hope, wish, etc.
After If, wish and would rather, the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that never happened.
Finally, English mood is now usually shown by using modal verbs. In the past, English had a full mood system but that has almost completely disappeared. The subjunctive mood now uses the plain form. There is also a form of "be" that is used in conditionals to show that something is not true (e.g., If I were a bird, I would fly to California.)
Certain parts of a sentence naturally come before verbs or after them, but these are not always the same for all verbs. The main sentence parts are: subject, object, complement, and modifier.
Almost all English sentences have subjects, but sentences that are orders (called imperatives) usually do not have any subjects. A subject usually comes before a verb, but it can also come after auxiliary verbs. In the following examples, the subject is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.
Many verbs can be followed by an object. These verbs are called transitive verbs. In fact, some verbs must have an object (e.g., "take"), but some verbs never take an object (e.g., "sleep"). Verbs that do not take an object are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can even have two objects. They are called ditransitive verbs. In the following examples, the object is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.
Some verbs can or must be followed by a complement. These verbs are called linking verbs or copula. In the following examples, the complement is underlined and the verb is in bold.
Verbs can be modified by various modifiers, mainly adverbs. Note that verbs generally do not need modifiers; it's usually a choice. In the following examples, the adverb is underlined and the verb is in bold.
Verbs also commonly take a variety of other modifiers including prepositions.
Sometimes a verb and another word can have the same shape. In these cases you can usually see the difference by looking at various properties of the words.
Sometimes a verb and an adjective can have the same shape. Usually this happens with participles. For example, the present participle "interesting" and the adjective "interesting" look the same. Verbs are different from adjectives, though, because they cannot be modified by "very", "more", or "most". For example, you can say "That is very interesting," so you know interesting is an adjective here. But you cannot say "My teacher is very interesting me in math" because in this sentence "interesting" is a verb. On the other hand, if you cannot change the 'be' verb to 'seem' or 'become', it is probably a verb.
The gerund-particle sometimes looks like a noun. This is especially true when it is used as a subject, as in the following example:
The main differences between these verbs and nouns are: modifiers, number, and object/complement
Verbs cannot generally be modified by adjectives and nouns cannot generally be modified by adverbs. So, in "Running regularly is good for you", "running" is a verb because it is modified by "regularly", an adverb.
Verbs cannot change for number, so if you can make the word plural, it is a noun, not a verb. For example, "this drawing is nice" can change to "these drawings are nice", so "drawing" is a noun. But "drawing trees is fun" cannot change to "drawings trees is fun", so it is a verb here.
Many verbs can take objects or complements, but nouns cannot. So, in "parking the car is hard", "parking" is a verb because it takes the object "the car". But, if you say, "there's no parking", parking may be a noun because it does not have an object.
Some verbs have become prepositions. Again, usually these share a shape with participles. Here are some examples:
The main difference between verbs and prepositions is that verbs have a subject. Even if the subject is not written, you can understand what it is. Prepositions do not have a subject.
The volume of an object is a measure of the amount of space occupied by that object, and is not to be confused with mass. The volume of a mountain is much larger than the volume of a rock, for instance.
By convention, the word volume implies a three-dimensional context where:
For objects at or near the Earth's surface, height or depth often refers to the dimension of the object along the local vertical. All physical objects occupy a volume, even if some are so thin that they appear to be two-dimensional, like a sheet of paper.
The unit of volume in the International System of Units is the cubic meter, which is represented by the symbol m.
In some fields or applications, one often uses different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance:
Traditional units are still in encountered in some countries: Imperial units such as the gallon or the fluid ounce were in widespread use within the British Empire. Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the bushel, the quart, the cup and the teaspoon (in cooking recipes, for example). See U.S. customary units for more examples.
The volume of an object is not a fundamental property of that object: it can change with environmental conditions such as pressure and temperature, especially if the object is highly compressible.
The volume of a mixture of fluids (liquids, gases) may or may not be equal to the sum of their volumes before they were mixed.
In mathematics, the volume of simple geometric objects, written formula_1, can often be calculated on the basis of their shape and dimensions:
The volume of a gas is typically that of its container, but it could be ill-defined, as in the case of the atmosphere, which has no clear upper limit. The volume of a liquid is often measured by pouring it into a graduated container. The volume of a small solid can be estimated by immersing it into a graduated container partially filled with a known amount of liquid, provided the solid is not soluble in the liquid.
Venus is the second planet from the sun. It has a day longer than a year. The year length of Venus is 225 Earth days. The day length of Venus is 243 Earth days. It is a "terrestrial planet" because it has a solid, rocky surface like other planets in the inner solar system. Astronomers have known Venus for thousands of years. The ancient Romans named it after their goddess Venus. Venus is the brightest thing in the night sky except for the Moon. It is sometimes called the "morning star" or the "evening star" as at some elongations it is easily seen just before the sun comes up in the morning and, at other times, just after the sun goes down in the evening. Venus comes closer to the Earth than any other planet does. A Venusian day takes about 243 Earth days.
Venus is sometimes called the sister planet of Earth as they are quite similar in size and gravity. In other ways the planets are very different. Venus' atmosphere (air) is mostly carbon dioxide with clouds of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is a chemical that is very poisonous to humans.
The thick atmosphere has made it hard to see the surface, and until the twenty-first century many people thought things might live there. The pressure on Venus' surface is 92 times that of Earth. Venus has no moons. Venus spins very slowly on its axis and it spins in the opposite direction to the other planets.
It is also sometimes known as the Earth's "evil twin".
Venus is a terrestrial planet so, like the Earth, its surface is made of rock. Venus is much hotter than Earth. All the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts like a blanket, trapping heat from the Sun. This effect is called the greenhouse effect and it is very strong on Venus. This makes the surface of Venus the hottest of any planet's surface in the Solar System with an estimated average temperature of . This is hot enough to melt lead or zinc.
Venus has no oceans because it is much too hot for water. Venus' surface is a dry desert. Because of the clouds, only radar can map the surface. It is about 80% smooth, rocky plains, made mostly of basalt. Two higher areas called continents make up the north and south of the planet. The north is called "Ishtar Terra" and the south is called "Aphrodite Terra". They are named after the Babylonian and Greek goddesses of love.
The surface of Venus looks like it has been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has a lots of volcanoes. The surface of Venus is estimated to be 300–600 million years old.
Venus' atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas with clouds of sulphuric acid. Because the atmosphere is so thick or dense the pressure is very high. The pressure is 92 times the pressure on Earth, enough to crush many things.
It is impossible to see the planet's surface from space as the thick cloud layer reflects 60% of the light that hits it. The only way scientists are able to see it is by using infrared and ultraviolet cameras and radar.
Scientists believe that billions of years ago, the atmosphere of Venus could have been like Earth's atmosphere. There may have been lots of water on the surface of Venus. But after 600 million to several billion years, a greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of the water, which made lots of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere.
In 1967, Venera 4 found that the magnetic field of Venus was much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind. Venus' magnetosphere is not strong enough to protect the atmosphere from cosmic rays.
Venus can sometimes be seen passing between the Sun and Earth. Venus looks like a black dot when seen through a special telescope. These passages are called "transits". These "transits" happen in pairs eight years apart. Then it is more than a hundred years to the next pair.
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 108 million km (67 million mi). It completes an orbit every 224.7 days. The rotation of Venus is slow. A Venusian day is longer than a Venusian year.
Many man-made satellites have been sent to Venus to study it. They are:
Mariner 2 was launched on August 27, 1962. It was made to study the atmosphere of Venus, its magnetic field, and mass. The last radio signal from Mariner 2 was received on January 3, 1963. Mariner 2 is still orbiting around the Sun today.
Venera 4 was a probe made by the Soviet Union to explore Venus. The probe had a two probes. One was designed to enter the atmosphere of Venus and use a parachute to land on the surface. Another received the information from the probe on Venus to mission controllers on Earth. Venera 4 was launched on June 12, 1967. The last radio signal from Venera 4 was received on October 18, 1967.
Mariner 5 was a spacecraft of the Mariner program. Mariner 5 was launched on June 14, 1967. The last radio signal from Mariner 5 was on October 14, 1968. Mariner 5 was made to study the magnetic field of Venus and to measure the hard ultraviolet spectrum, of the Venusian atmosphere.
Venera 9 was a spacecraft made by the Soviet Union. It consisted of a probe to orbit Venus which was called an orbiter and another probe that will land on Venus which was called a lander. It was launched on June 8, 1975. The last radio signal from the orbiter was on March 22, 1976. The last radio signal was on October 22, 1975. The orbiter was the first spacecraft to orbit Venus, while the lander was the first to return pictures from the surface of another planet.
Venera 10 was a spacecraft made by the Soviet Union. It consisted of an orbiter and a lander. It was launched on June 14, 1975.
Venera 13 was a probe in the Soviet Venera program. It was made to explore Venus. It was launched on October 30, 1981. The last radio signal from the lander was on March 1, 1982. The last radio signal from the spacecraft that took the lander to Venus was on April 25, 1983.
Venera 14 was a probe in the Soviet Venera program. It was made to explore Venus. It was launched on November 4, 1981. The last radio signal from the lander was on March 5, 1982. The last radio signal from the spacecraft that took the lander to Venus was on April 9, 1983.
Venera 15 was a spacecraft sent to Venus by the Soviet Union. It was made to map the surface of Venus. It was launched on June 2, 1983. The last radio signal from Venera 15 was on January 5, 1985.
Venera 16 was a spacecraft sent to Venus by the Soviet Union. It was made to map the surface of Venus. It was launched on June 7, 1983. The last radio signal from Venera 16 was on June 13, 1985.
Vatican City (; officially Vatican City State, ) is an independent sovereign state and the smallest country in the world by size, at 0.44 km². Its territory is completely surrounded by Italy and it is only one of three countries in the world that are enclaves of another country (the others being San Marino, also in Italy, and Lesotho in southern Africa). Also, it is the only country in the world that is an enclave of a city, as all of the land around it is part of Rome, the capital of Italy.
The Vatican City is the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church and its government, the Holy See. Its head of state is the Pope which is, religiously speaking, the Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church. The current Pope, Pope Francis, former cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, was elected on 13 March 2013.
Established on 11 February 1929 with the Lateran Agreement ("Patti Lateranensi") signed by Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, the Vatican City is also important for its culture and art. The Vatican's masterpieces are very well known in the world: St. Peter's Square, St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, the Vatican Museums and the Apostolic Palace, where the Pope lives. There are also hundreds of other sculptures and pictures.
The Pope used to rule the Papal States, which included most of Italy. Catholic popes had generally tried to stop Italy from becoming one country because they feared they would lose their control of at least one of the Papal States. In 1861 Italy was unified under the King of Savoy, but Rome and Latium remained unconquered. On September 20, 1870 Italian troops invaded. Rome became capital of the new kingdom.
The Pope claimed he was a prisoner of the Italian state and excommunicated all the people who helped invade the Papal state. This stopped Catholics from taking part in public life under Catholic government.
In 1929 Benito Mussolini, decided to sign an agreement with the Holy See, called the Lateran Treaty, which created the Vatican State. Another treaty gave the Vatican money each year to compensate for the lost territories.
The government structure is theocracy with the pontifical leader being the highest authority. The pope is elected by the College of Cardinals which can lead the Roman Catholic Church and the city-state itself. The Pope also holds the title of "Bishop of Rome".
Vatican City has a population of 453 people, and 246 of them are citizens. Also, there are 372 Vatican citizens who live in other countries.
The Vatican does not have a law declaring an official language. Italian is the main language used. The Holy See's official language is Latin.
The religion of the city is the Roman Catholic Church.
Velocity is a measure of how fast something moves in a particular direction. To define it needs both magnitude and direction. If an object moves east at 9 metres per second (9m/s), then its velocity is 9 m/s to the east.
The idea behind this is that speed doesn't tell us in which direction the object moves in a given frame of reference. Speed is one part of velocity, direction is the other part. Depending on the frame of reference, the velocity can be defined with many mathematical concepts required for making the correct analysis.
To calculate the average velocity of an object, we divide its displacement (its change of position) by the time it took to change position.
For example, if an object moves 20 meters (m) to the left in 1 seconds (s), its velocity (v) would be equal to:
Unlike average velocity, the instantaneous velocity tells us how fast something is moving at only one time, because velocity can only change with time.
The concept of velocity allows us to consider two different means of calculating the velocity. Two-dimensional motion "requires" us to use vector notation to define the physical quantities found throughout the kinematics.
where: formula_5is the total distance traveled in a given time interval formula_6. Each of these quantities can be calculated by substracting two different values intertwined within the given quantity, hence formula_7give the desired formula_8.
Contrary to average velocity, the instantaneous velocity tells us the rate of change at which a given object is moving along a certain path at a given instance of time, which usually tends to be infinitesimally small.
When formula_10, we can see that formula_11. Taking that into consideration we can conceptualize this rate of change between displacement vector and interval of time using mathematical analysis "(most notably-" "Calculus)"
Velocity can also be measured by comparing the motion of two objects. This is called relative velocity. The second object is called the reference frame. To find the relative velocity, subtract the velocity of the reference frame from the velocity of the first object. For example, Earth moves at 67,000 miles per hour around the Sun. Usually, we do not care about this motion. So we subtract the vector that represents Earth's motion from the total motion.
Virtual community
A virtual community is a group of people who share an interest, hobby or set of views. The people in it may come from many different places. They talk with each other using technology, such as the Internet, telephone calls, and email. The most common is the Internet.
Virtual communities may use any of the following to communicate:
The World Wide Web ("WWW" or "The Web") is the part of the Internet that contains websites and webpages. It was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. Sir Tim Berners-Lee created a new markup language called HTML. Websites are composed of pages linked by hypertext links that are written in HTML.
The software to see the World Wide Web is called a web browser. One also needs a connection to the Internet.
Many companies nowadays offer limited website hosting allowing one to make websites that can be displayed on the World Wide Web like any other domain (www.stuff.com) site. These sites usually make money from advertisements instead of fees.
A wiki is a type of a website that lets anyone who can access the wiki create and change its pages. The word is Internet slang. The word "wiki" is short for WikiWikiWeb. "Wikiwiki" is a word from the Hawaiian language, meaning "fast" or "speed" while combining the word "pedia" which comes from the Ancient Greek παιδεία meaning general education Examples of wikis include Wikipedia, Everipedia, Citizendium, Conservapedia, Wiktionary and Wikibooks.
Every wiki can be changed, or edited, by anyone who has an account on the wiki, or by everyone in the world if the wiki allows it. Some important pages can only be changed by certain users. Wikis are central places where we all can share information, people can add new information, and then people read them. Wikis allow information from all around the world to be collected.
On a wiki, people can write pages by collaboration. Pages are watched closely to see whether changes are good or bad. If one person writes something wrong, another can correct it. Other users can also add something new to the page. Because of this, the page gets better when people change it. Administrators can block someone from editing if they vandalize, or for other reasons.
Users can also discuss things on wikis. Discussion can help people understand things better and get a chance to tell their views. In Wikipedia the talk pages are for that, but in some wikis, the article and the discussion are in the same page.
Wikis can be used for different things; not all wikis follow the same rules for using them. For example, the purpose of Wikipedia is to write articles for an encyclopedia. That is why in Wikipedia, people do not want general discussion that does not help in writing articles.
Ward Cunningham started the first wiki in March 1995. Many people liked it, and wrote there, after which they started similar websites. MediaWiki is the most used software for wikis. JSPWiki is one of many others. "Wiki" is also sometimes an abbreviation for Wikipedia.
Most wikis can be edited by anyone and everyone. Some wikis are even available to people without an account, so sometimes wikis will become a target for vandals to add unwelcome, disruptive or even misleading content. There are many ways to prevent this. Individual pages can be protected to allow only certain users, or only those with an account, to edit them. Administrators can also block users who make repeated vandalous edits after a minimum of a single warning. Vandalism may not be stopped totally, but regular, careful checking can limit the amount of disruptive edits you will see in a day.
A website is a set of webpages that are joined together. People look at websites with a computer of some kind, sometimes including the computer inside mobile phones and televisions. The websites are kept on computers called web servers.
There is almost always a single homepage which has links to other pages that are part of that "site". Sometimes it has links to pages that are part of other "sites" as well. (Note that net jargon uses the word site, which also means a physical place in the real world, to mean a web URL). A home page serves as the introduction page of a website.
Websites can be used to advertise or sell things. They can also be used to talk to other people. A blog is a website where the location of the material is less relevant than who writes it, and which is more focused on dialogue. Very often the people who use blogs dislike the word "site" since it implies a controlled place. Sites are good for looking up information on the computer.
Users can access any website by using a URL. This is the website address which is shown near the top of the web browser. The homepage and the rest of the site usually have the same words at the start of the URL — for instance, pages at the Simple English Wikipedia always start "http://simple.wikipedia.org/..." but are different after that. However, if a person does not buy a domain name, the website could be an IP Address. An example of an IP address is 172.217.13.228.
Web sites are usually shown in HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) but are not always written or kept that way - some use WAP and others use XML.
Website builder software is usually a collection of software tools that allow the construction of websites without manual code editing. Several hosted website services have website builder software built-in.
A word is something spoken by the mouth, that can be pronounced. In alphabetic writing, it is a collection of letters used together to communicate a meaning. These can also usually be pronounced. A logogram is also a word.
Some words have more than one meaning, for example 'spring' can refer to the season, the device, or a conjugation of the verb. These are homonyms. Some words have different pronunciation, for example, 'wind' (the noun) and 'wind' (the verb) are pronounced differently.
Some words have different spelling for example 'color' and 'colour', which are both correct. Color is used in American English and colour is used in British English. Some words can be only one letter, for example "a" and "I" in English. Besides English, other languages have their own words. When written with an alphabet, words are usually separated by a space. When written with ideograms, each word is usually a separate symbol.
Words can be invented. This is called neologism. For example, radar was originally an acronym but became an actual word. Two words may be joined to make a compound word.
A word is the smallest thing which can be said "with meaning". For example, "hello" is a word.
This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but may not stand on its own. A word may consist of a single morpheme (for example: "oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect"), or several ("rocks, redness, quickly, running, unexpected"), whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just given, these are "-s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed").
The meaning of a word can be found in a dictionary.
A web browser is a computer program application for reading pages of the World Wide Web. Since the late 1990s, most personal computers and mobile phones and other mobile devices have a browser.
Web browsers are used by people to find and look at web sites on the Internet. The first web browser was created in 1990. Many different web browsers are available for free. All web browsers can go to websites but each browser has good things and bad things about it. For example, some browsers focus on data security and keeping computers safe from viruses. Other browsers are made so that web pages appear on screen faster.
Some popular web browsers include:
Other browsers are:
A webpage is one page of a website. Every web page has a web address.
A web browser goes to a web page using a web address. It downloads the HTML file stored at that address. Its browser engine then reads and translates the HTML file. The browser will then show the webpage on the screen as text, images and clickable links.
Web can mean several things
A webpage (or web page) is a document from the internet which can be seen with a web browser. Web pages each have a URL or address, which is how a page is found, and is different for every page. When a webpage is part of a larger group of pages managed by a company, person, or organization, it is part of a website.
Pages can have words, pictures, videos, and links. Links are ways to get to other web pages.
For example, this article is a webpage. It has the URL https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webpage, and is part of the Wikipedia website. It has words and links. The links in this page are shown in blue and can be clicked to go to other webpages.
Web pages are usually stored in HTML code which describes what to show on the page like words or pictures. Web pages also use two other types of code to tell the page how to work:
Wiktionary is a wiki-based project to develop a multilingual online dictionary, or a group of meanings for words, in the form of a wiki. There are many languages of Wiktionary. Wiktionary is also a thesaurus. Wiktionary is run by the Wikimedia Foundation, which also runs Wikipedia. The English Wiktionary currently has over 6.1 million pages and 3.5 million users. Much like Wikipedia, the Wiktionary is run in several different languages that can be selected from the homepage.
In 2006, there was a vote for the change of the logo of Wiktionary. The original logo of only words was replaced. However, there were very few people who voted in this contest. Therefore, smaller wikis used the newer logo but the English Wiktionary stayed with the same logo.
In 2009, there was a second contest for a newer logo "(pictured)". This was a step to make all the Wiktionaries to have the same logo on all projects. However, the English Wiktionary still did not use the new logo. The Simple English Wiktionary voted on the new logo on November 30, 2010 and the community decided the new logo to use it as their logo. However, no changes were made to the logo and the discussion was thus forgotten.
Microsoft Windows is an operating system for computers made by the United States-based company Microsoft. Windows is used by almost 90% of desktop and laptop computers.
The first version of Windows, Windows 1.0, came out on November 20, 1985. The newest version, Windows 10, came out July 29, 2015. Most new personal computers come with Windows 10. However, some older or cheaper personal computers may come with Windows 8.1 or Windows 7.
Windows makes it easier to run programs (applications) than MS-DOS did. DOS, required typed commands to make the computer do something. DOS required correct syntax of each command. Making mistakes caused the computer to usually give an error message and do nothing.
Users control their Windows computer by its graphical user interface (or GUI for short). It only needs a keyboard "or" a mouse to work. In later versions, a touch screen works as well. However, using both a keyboard and a mouse makes many tasks easier. By clicking a few buttons on the screen, Windows helps keep your files safe, and easier to change and move. Versions of Windows after 2005 make it even easier for some users with disabilities because these versions have touch screens. For use of a touch screen, some mobile devices come with Windows. Tablet computers and smartphones such as Microsoft Surface and Microsoft Lumia use Windows.
The following programs are included with Windows:
Windows has several kinds of applications/programs available. Popular applications include games, word processors (to write words) or additional programs like Adobe Flash Player (to watch some videos and play many games on internet sites). Adding new applications to Windows is called "installing". Applications can be bought/purchased on a CD or DVD. Applications can also be downloaded from the Internet.  Some internet applications can be downloaded for free, and others can be bought using the internet.
Many users complain that Windows creates problems for them. Some users complain that Windows made their computers slower when they changed from DOS. Many people also complain about problems that make their computer less safe to use, even though Microsoft tries to fix these problems. Many computer viruses are created to infect computers running Windows since it is such a popular operating system. Windows was the most popular operating system until recently (today mobile operating systems such as Android are more popular).
A window is an opening in a wall or roof of a building, in a car etc., to let air and light in. It is usually filled with a sheet of glass. There can be many different shapes and sizes, including rectangular, square, circular, or irregular shapes. Some windows include coloured glass. Windows are usually transparent so that people can see through them.
Before glass was used in windows, people in Asia used paper to fill the hole in the wall. The paper would let light in.
These are different types of windows. They are:
A cross-window is a window that has a mullion and a transom, that makes a cross.
A fixed window is a window that cannot be opened. It is made to allow light to enter. The windows in churches are usually fixed.
A single-hung sash window is a window that has one horizontal sash at the bottom that can move up and down.
A double-hung sash is a window that has two horizontal sash at the top and bottom that can move up and down.
A casement window is a window with a sash that has a hinge that swings in or out like a door. Casement windows are usually held open using a casement stay.
A skylight is a window built into a roof. This type of window allows natural daylight and moonlight to enter.
A roof lantern is a glass structure that has lots of different colors. It looks like a small building. It is built on a roof for day or moon light.
A stained glass window is a window that is made up of pieces of colored glass. The colored glass can be transparent, translucent or opaque. It usually shows people or places. Usually the glass in these windows is separated by lead rods. Stained glass windows are very common in churches.
Different materials are used when making a window. For the frame of the window wood, polyvinyl chloride, composite, aluminium, steel, fiberglass are used.
Many windows have movable window coverings such as blinds or curtains. They keep out light, give extra insulation. It also ensure privacy. Windows allow natural light to enter. But too much can have bad effects such as glare and heat gain.
Wine is an alcoholic drink. The word "wine" is usually used to talk about drinks made from the juice of grapes, although people sometimes call alcoholic drinks made from the juice of other fruits (such as plums or blackberries) "wine". This article only deals with wine made from grapes.
Wine is made by the fermentation of the sugar in grapes. There are two main types of wine, red wine and white wine. Red wine is made from red grapes in contact with their skins, and white wine is made from red and white grapes, but without any skin contact. Rosé wine is made by leaving red grapes in skin contact for a very short time. The colour comes only from the skin, so if you have short skin contact, the wine will not turn red but only "pink" (rose wine). Wine sometimes has bubbles in it; this wine is called sparkling wine. The most popular sparkling wines are champagne, which comes from France and spumante, from Italy.
People have been making wine for about 5000 years.
Wine is a popular drink in many countries. The countries that drink the most wine (using numbers from the year 2000) are:
However, if you make a list of countries where the average person drinks the most wine, the list is different:
Luxembourg, France, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, Switzerland, Spain, Argentina, Uruguay, and Slovenia.
Wine is made in many countries. The countries that make the most wine (using 2015 numbers) are:
Italy, France, Spain, USA, Argentina, Chile, Australia, South Africa, China and Germany.
Width or breadth is the side-to-side length, measuring across the object at right angles to the height.
For example, the distance between the left side and right side of a chair is its width.
Water () is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and almost colorless chemical substance and covers over 70% of Earth's surface. No known life can live without it.
Lakes, oceans, seas, and rivers are made of water. Precipitation is water that falls from clouds in the sky. It may be rain (liquid) if it is warm, or it may be frozen if it is cold. If water gets very cold (below ), it freezes and becomes ice, the frozen variant of water. If water gets very hot (above ), it boils and becomes steam or water vapor. It is moved around in the water cycle. Water is essential for life.
Water is a fluid. Water is the only chemical substance on Earth that exists naturally in three states. There are over 40 anomalies (strange things) about water. Unlike most other liquids such as alcohol or oil, when water freezes, it expands by about 9%. This expansion can cause pipes to break if the water inside them freezes.
Water is a molecule made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Its chemical formula is HO.
Like other liquids, water has a surface tension, so a little water can make drops on a surface, rather than always spreading out to wet the surface.
Things having something to do with water may have "hydro" or "aqua" in their name, such as hydropower or aquarium, from the Greek and Latin names for water. It is also called the "universal solvent", because it dissolves many other compounds.
In small amounts, water appears to have no colour but in large amounts (such as seas or lakes), it has a very light blue color.
Plants and animals (including people) are mostly water inside, and must drink water to live. It gives a medium for chemical reactions to take place, and is the main part of blood. It keeps the body temperature the same by sweating from the skin. Water helps blood carry nutrients from the stomach to all parts of the body to keep the body alive. Water also helps the blood carry oxygen from the lungs to the body. Saliva, which helps animals and people digest food, is mostly water. Water helps make urine. Urine helps remove bad chemicals from the body. The human body is between 60% and 70% water, but this value differs with age; i.e. a foetus is 95% water inside.
Water is the main component of drinks like milk, juice, and wine. Each type of drink also has other things that add flavor or nutrients, things like sugar, fruit, and sometimes alcohol. Water that a person can drink is called "potable water" (or "drinking water"). The water in oceans is salt water, but lakes and rivers usually have unsalted water. Only about 3% of all the water on earth is fresh water. The rest is salt water.
Many places, including cities and deserts, don't have as much water as people want. They build aqueducts to bring water there.
Though people can survive a few months without food, they can only survive for a day or two without water. A few desert animals can get enough water from their food, but the others must drink.
Water has no smell,taste or color
Water is also used for recreational purposes, "see list of water sports".
Water is used as both the coolant and the neutron moderator in most nuclear reactors. This may be ordinary water (called light water in the nuclear industry) or heavy water.
Water is also used for washing a lot of objects. Goods, services and people are transported to other countries in watercrafts on bodies of water.
Water is used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant. Water is also used in fire fighting. Water is also used for cooking.
The dihydrogen monoxide parody involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name "dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO) and listing some of its harmful effects in an alarming way. Some examples include talking about how "it causes burning, suffocation and corrosion," when it is actually just talking about hot water, drowning and rust. Sometimes the parody calls for it to be banned and/or labelled as dangerous.
The prank works because it takes advantage of people's misunderstanding. Calling water by an unfamiliar name and making it sound like a harmful chemical can make people think it is dangerous.
"Dihydrogen monoxide" is an alternative chemical name for water, but nobody uses it. The word "dihydrogen" means two hydrogens, and "monoxide" means one oxygen. The chemical formula of water has two hydrogens and one oxygen.
The parody gained most of its popularity in the 1990s, when a 14-year-old named Nathan Zohner collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility. Zohner fooled a lot of people, which has led to his project being used in lessons about critical thinking and the scientific method.
The website DHMO.org is a joke website which lists the harmful effects of water (DHMO), answers questions, and calls for it to be banned, among other things.
A BBC short item explains that every molecule on Earth has existed for billions of years, and all of them came from elsewhere. Water is alien because it arrived on asteroids and comets. It is the second most common molecule in the universe. Why is it not a gas? It is made of two very light elements. Ice floating on water is also an oddity. Also, hot water freezes faster than cold, and no-one knows why this is. Molecules of water can move up against the force of gravity (that is due to surface adhesion).
Much of the universe's water is produced as a by-product of star formation.
On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor containing "140 trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire existence".
Water has been detected in interstellar clouds in our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too. Its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Most other planetary systems are likely to have similar ingredients.
We do not know exactly how the Earth came to have so much water. It is everywhere in the Universe, but rarely in such quantity. Reasoning from first principles, every element except hydrogen has been formed in stars. Therefore oxygen was originally formed in stars. The formation of water is not a problem: it is exothermic, so forming the molecule from its atoms does not need outside energy. But to explain how the Earth has so much in comparison with, for example, Mars, is not easy. It is an undecided problem in planetary geology.
It was long thought that Earth’s water did not come from the planet’s region of the protoplanetary disk. Instead, it was thought that water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history. But hydrogen inside the Earth did play some role in the formation of the ocean. The two ideas may each be partly right. Water was delivered to Earth by impacts from icy planetesimals (asteroids) in the outer edges of the asteroid belt. How much is not known.
Water vapor is found in:
Liquid water is found on Earth. It covers about 71% of the surface of the Earth. Liquid water is sometimes found in small amounts on Mars. Scientists believe that liquid water is in Enceladus, Titan, Europa and Ganymede.
Water ice is found in:
A want is a wish or a desire for something. If a person would like to have something, but can choose not to have it, that thing is wanted or can be called a want. To want is not the same as to need, which is when someone "must" have something.
People often talk about needing a thing, when they really just want it. Wants can be for the same things as needs. For example, a person can "need" to eat food and can "want" to eat cake. If there is no cake then he or she may have to eat something else, perhaps bread. The need is no longer so important (the person is no longer hungry) although the want may still be there. If there is cake, then the person's needs and wants can both be met.
In economics, a want is about goods or services. Choice is how to satisfy a want, when there are different ways to do this.
Want can also be the idea of what it means to be poor, hungry or with no money. Charles Dickens wrote a famous book called "A Christmas Carol" in which there are two children, named Want and Ignorance.War
War is a situation or a period of fighting between countries or groups of people. A war generally involves the use of weapons, a military organization and soldiers. War is a situation in which a nation enforces its rights by using force. Not every armed conflict is a war. A fight between individuals, between gangs, drug cartels, etc. is not considered a war. However, most wars are called armed conflicts. International humanitarian law is a set of rules that tries to limit the effects of wars. International Humanitarian Law recognizes two kinds of wars. These are:
Karl von Clausewitz wrote in his classic book, "On War", that "war is a mere continuation of policy with other means.” Clausewitz viewed war as a political instrument. His book about military philosophy remains the most influential work on the history and strategy of war. An earlier authority on war was Sun Tzu. In his book "The Art of War", Sun Tzu saw war as a necessary evil. It was something people do.
Wars have been fought to control natural resources, for religious or cultural reasons and over political balances of power. They have been fought over legitimacy (correctness) of particular laws. They have been fought to settle arguments about land or money, and many other issues. The reasons behind any war are often very complex. While a war can start for just about any reason, there is usually more than one cause. War is also a terrible coincidence to be through
From the earliest times, individual states or political factions have used war to gain sovereignty over regions. In one of the earliest civilizations in history, Mesopotamia, they were in a near constant state of war. Ancient Egypt during its Early Dynastic Period came about by war when Lower and Upper Egypt were joined together as one country, about 3100 BC. The Zhou Dynasty ruled Ancient China came to power in 1046 through war. Scipio Africanus (236-183 BCE) defeated Carthage leading Ancient Rome to begin a conquest of the known world. Philip II of Macedon (382-336 BCE) united a group of city-states to become Ancient Greece.
Sometimes, people don't see a difference between fighting between countries or people, and the formal declaration of a state of war. Those who do see this difference usually only use the word "war" for the fighting where the countries' governments have officially declared war on each other. Smaller armed conflicts are often called riots, rebellions, coups, etc.
One country may send forces to another country for a variety of reasons. Sometimes it is to help keep order or prevent killings of innocents or other crimes against humanity. It may be to protect a friendly government against an uprising. Here it may be called a police action or humanitarian intervention instead of a war. Some people think it's still a war.
Another kind of war existed from 1947 until 1991 called the Cold War. This started when diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union broke down. Both countries had nuclear weapons and both stood ready to use them against the other. But there was no actual war between the two. It ended with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The cold war was also called a containment where the United States tried to prevent the spread of communism to other countries. During the cold war, the major powers did not fight themselves, but often backed third parties in what was called a proxy war. The Vietnam War is often given as an example of a proxy war. But proxy wars happened long before the cold war and are still happening.