AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
By 1 October over 70% of the men of General Clarence Huebner's 1st Infantry Division were new troops. The last two weeks of September were spent giving these men training in fighting and weapons training.
The plan called for both infantry divisions to avoid street fighting in Aachen. The plan was for the two divisions to encircle the city. Then a small force would capture it while most of the US forces moved east.
Although American units were usually able to get new troops quickly, the replacements rarely had enough training. Many junior officers were lacked tactical and leadership abilities. Some tank drivers had never even driven a car before. Some tank commanders had to teach their men how to load and fire their tank guns in the field before missions.
The US system meant that new troops reaching the front lines were not properly trained for combat. Sometimes half of a unit's replacements would become dead or wounded within the first few days of combat.
These losses required more troops to be brought into the fighting. A battalion of the US 28th Infantry Division was sent against Aachen to help the US 1st Infantry Division during 18–21 October.
These forces were supported by the Ninth Air Force, which knew where 75% of the pillboxes were. They planned an opening bombing using 360 bombers and 72 fighters. New aircraft would be used for a second attack, which included napalm.
With the Germans having few anti-aircraft guns and severely limited support from the Luftwaffe, Allied forces controlled the skies over Aachen.
For six days before the American attack allied artillery bombed German defenses around Aachen. Although bombing German LXXXI Corps to stop all movements of troops and supplies, it did not harm the pillboxes and strongpoints.
The opening air bombing on 2 October also did little damage to German defences. The 450 aircraft did not hit any German pillbox. Their targets had been hidden by thick smoke from the Allied artillery. After the aircraft finished their bombing, the artillery fired 18,696 shells.
The 30th Infantry Division moved forward on 2 October. They used artillery to destroy German pillboxes. It took thirty minutes to capture a pillbox. Heavy fighting had not been expected, and one group lost 87 troops in an hour; another lost 93 out of 120 soldiers to a German artillery strike.
The attackers were slowly able to cross the Wurm River. They attacked German pillboxes with flamethrowers and explosives. By the afternoon of 2 October, the 30th Infantry Division had got past German defenses and reached the town of Palenberg.
Here, US soldiers had to fight to get to each house. (Private Harold G. Kiner was awarded the Medal of Honor for throwing himself on a German grenade saving the lives of two soldiers).
Fighting in the town of Rimburg was terrible. American armour could not cross the Wurm River, and it could not support infantrymen who were attacking the Germans. The 30th Infantry Division destroyed 50 German pillboxes on the first day.
The division's advance was helped by the 29th Infantry Division's attacks. The Germans thought that the 29th Division's attacks were the main attack.
On the night of 2 October, the German 902nd Assault Gun Battalion was ordered to attack the 30th Infantry Division. Allied artillery made the German attack not start on time. The German attack failed.
American armor could help with the advance on 3 October. The US attacks were stopped by German attacks. Rimburg was captured on the second day. Fighting had also begun in the town of Übach. American tanks tried to attack the town. However, they could not move due to German artillery fire.
American artillery fire stopped the Germans from recapturing it. By the end of the day the 30th Infantry Division had around 300 dead and wounded.
German forces continued their attacks on Übach. This stopped American troops from advancing. On 4 October the Allies had only captured Hoverdor and Beggendorf. The Americans lost 1,800 soldiers in the past three days. On 5 October, the 119th Regiment of the 30th Infantry Division captured Merkstein-Herbach.
The next day the Germans attacked Übach, but the attack was not a success. The American had many more tanks. The Germans did not have extra troops. General Koechling did get a Tiger tank group to defend Aachen from the north.
The Germans attacked on 8 October with an infantry regiment, the 1st Assault Battalion, the 108th Panzer Brigade, and 40 armored vehicles. The left side of the attack cut off an American platoon. The Germans had many losses and the Americans were getting closer.
In the south, the 1st Infantry Division attacked on 8 October. They wanted to capture the town of Verlautenheide. A big artillery attack helped them to capture the town.
By 10 October, the 1st Infantry Division was in its planned position, where it could join with the 30th Infantry Division. The Germans attacked but they ended up with over 40 dead and 35 prisoners. Despite repeated German attacks, the 1st Infantry Division was able to capture the high land around the city.
On 10 October, the US threatened to bomb the city if it didn't surrender. The German commander refused to surrender. American artillery fired 5,000 shells and the city was bombed American aircraft.
American dead and wounded were increasing. This was caused by German attacks and the danger of attacking pillboxes. The Germans in the town of Bardenberg made pillboxes to defend themselves. American attackers pulled back and shelled the town with artillery.
On 12 October, the Germans attacked the American 30th Infantry Division. The Americans defended themselves with artillery fire and anti-tank defenses.
At the village of Birk, there was a fight between German tanks and a single American Sherman tank. Then the 2nd Armored Division arrived and the Germans were pushed out of the town.
The 30th Infantry Division had to defend itself over all the land they held. They were ordered to move south to join with the 1st Infantry Division. Two infantry battalions from the 29th were sent to join the 30th.
The same day (12 October), two German infantry regiments attempted to recapture. Both regiments were almost completely destroyed. Between 11–13 October Allied aircraft bombed Aachen.
On 15 October, the Germans again attacked the 1st Infantry Division. Although a number of heavy tanks managed to break through American lines, most of German forces were destroyed by artillery and airplanes.
On the next day, the Germans attacked with the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division. They had heavy losses and they had to stop the attack.
The 30th Infantry Division and parts of the 29th Infantry and 2nd Armored divisions moved southwards between 13–16 October. They could not get through German defenses and join up with allied forces to the south.
The Germans attacked with artillery. German tanks were hidden in houses. General Hobbs, commander of the 30th Infantry Division, tried to get around the German defenses. He attacked with two infantry battalions. The attack was a success. The 30th and 1st Infantry Divisions joined up on 16 October.
The fighting had caused American XIX Corps over 400 dead and 2,000 wounded, with 72% from the 30th Infantry Division. The Germans had 630 of their soldiers killed and 4,400 wounded; another 600 were killed in the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division's attack on the US 1st Infantry Division on 16 October.
The 1st Infantry Division had only a single regiment to capture the city. They attacked with machine guns and flamethrowers. Only by a few tanks and one howitzer were used in the attack.
The city was defended by 5,000 German troops, including navy, air force and city police. Most of these soldiers lacked experience and training. They were supported by a few tanks and assault guns. However, Aachen's defenders could use the narrow streets to defend the city.
The 26th Infantry's attack on 13 October was stopped by Germans firing from sewers and cellars. Sherman tanks could not move around in the narrow streets. The 26th Infantry Regiment used howitzers to destroy German fortifications. Sherman tanks were attacked by German anti-tank guns.
American tanks and other armored vehicles would shoot buildings to kill any defenders hiding inside. German infantry moved through sewers to attack Americans.
The Germans fought very hard. They attacked the Americans and used armor to stop American movement.
On 18 October, the 3rd Battalion of the 26th Infantry Regiment prepared to attack the Hotel Quellenhof. This was one of the last areas held by the Germans in the city. American tanks and other guns fired at the hotel. That night, 300 new soldiers of the 1st SS Battalion moved into the hotel. They stopped several attacks on the building.
A violent German attack managed to get past American infantry companies outside of the hotel. The Germans were then stopped by American mortar fire.
The Americans shelled German positions with guns. As well, a battalion of the 110th Infantry Regiment was used to fill gaps in the city. The new battalion was told on 19–20 October to attack the city.
On 21 October, soldiers of the 26th Infantry Regiment captured central Aachen. The Germans in the Hotel Quellenhof surrendered, ending the battle for the city.
Danilo Medina
Danilo Medina Sánchez (born November 10, 1951) is a Dominican politician. He was the President of the Dominican Republic from 2012 to 2020.
Sophia Bush
Sophia Bush (born July 8, 1982) is an American television and movie actress. She has also directed. Movies in which she appeared include "John Tucker Must Die". Television programs in which she appeared include "Chicago Hope", "Chicago PD" and "One Tree Hill". Bush was born in Pasadena, California.
Hongkong Electric Company
Hongkong Electric Company (HKC; ) is an electricity generation company in Hong Kong, People's Republic of China.
The company was established on 1 December 1890 in British Hong Kong.
Joaquín Balaguer
Joaquín Antonio Balaguer Ricardo (September 1, 1906 – July 14, 2002) was the President of the Dominican Republic. He served three non-consecutive terms for that office. His first term was from 1960 to 1962, for his second term from 1966 to 1978, and again for his third and final term from 1986 to 1996. In 2000, Balaguer decided to seek an eighth term as president he lost the election.
On July 14, 2002, Balaguer died of heart failure at Santo Domingo's Abreu Clinic at the age of 95.
CLP Group
CLP Group (CLP; ) is an electricity company in Hong Kong. Their business are power generation, power transmission and electricity selling.
CLP Group was established in British Hong Kong in 1901 as China Light and Power Company Syndicate.
Juan Bosch
Juan Emilio Bosch Gaviño (30 June 1909 – 1 November 2001) was a politician, historian, short story writer, essayist, and educator. He was the first democratically elected President of the Dominican Republic in 38 years. He served as president from February through September of 1963. Before this, he had been the leader of the Dominican opposition in exile to the dictatorial regime of Rafael Trujillo for over 25 years.
In 1934, he married Isabel García and had two children with her: Leon and Carolina. During Trujillo's dictatorship, Bosch was jailed for his political ideas, being released after several months. In 1938, Bosch managed to leave the country, settling in Puerto Rico.
Juan Bosch died on November 1, 2001 after a long hospitalization period in Santo Domingo. He was suffering from Alzheimer's disease and was hospitalized for respiratory failure. As a former President, he received the corresponding honors at the National Palace, and was buried in his hometown of La Vega.
Companhia de Electricidade de Macau
Companhia de Electricidade de Macau (CEM; ; English: Macau Electricity Company) is an electricity company in Macau, China. Its main business is power generation, power transmission, power distribution and electricity selling in Macau.
CEM was established in 1972 in Portuguese Macau.
Felicity Jones
Felicity Rose Hadley Jones (born 17 October 1983) is a British television, stage and movie actress. She starred in movies including "Brideshead Revisited" (2008), "Cemetery Junction" (2009) and "Rogue One" (2016). Jones was born in Birmingham. Sources differ on her year of birth, with some saying 1983 and others saying 1984.
A blindfold is a piece of cloth tied over a person's eyes. Sometimes a blindfold is made of material other than cloth. Blindfolds make it impossible to see. They are used for many different reasons:
In art, Justice is sometimes made to look like a woman wearing a blindfold.
Everland is a theme park in Yongin, South Korea. It is about one hour's drive away from Seoul.
Everland is the largest theme park in South Korea. In 2012, it ranked 12th in the world by number of visitors. It had 6.6 million visitors according to "Travel + Leisure" magazine.
The park is 36 years old. It has many kinds of attractions, as well as a zoo called Safari World, and a water park named Caribbean Bay. Everland also has seasonal festivals throughout the year. Samsung Everland, a part of company of Samsung operates and manages the park and the surrounding area.
Caribbean Bay is South Korea's largest water park. It has outdoor and indoor parts, and only indoor parts, named 'Aquatic Center' opens throughout the year.
Home Bridge is a resort and cabin site near Everland. The wooden lodges are located 2,000 meters above sea level.
Everland Speedway is South Korea's first racing track. It holds many racing events or competitions as well as provides guests to drive racing car.
Chalet Girl
Chalet Girl is a 2011 British-German-Austrian romance-comedy movie. It is about introducing people, romance and various family matters. Felicity Jones plays Kim Matthews. Brooke Shields plays Caroline. Sophia Bush plays Chloe.
This movie got mixed reviews from the critics. It was released in the United States in October 2011.
Christian Benítez
Christian Rogelio Benítez Betancourt (May 1, 1986 – July 29, 2013), also known as Chucho, was an Ecuadorian footballer who played as a forward for El Jaish of the Qatar Stars League at the time of his death.
On July 29, 2013, Benítez entered a hospital in Doha, Qatar because of a "strong pain" in his abdomen. He later went into respiratory failure. He died from complications leading to cardiac arrest at the age of 27.
Feature movie
A feature movie or feature film is a movie (also called a film or motion picture) with a run time long enough to be the main or only movie to fill a program at a movie theatre. A program is the set of shows that people are given for one admission ticket. A feature movie is therefore a movie that runs for long enough to be the main or only show in a program. According to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, American Film Institute, and British Film Institute, a feature movie runs for at least 40 minutes. The Screen Actors Guild states that it is 80 minutes or longer.
The majority of feature movies are between 70 and 210 minutes long. "The Story of the Kelly Gang" was the first feature movie based on length, and was released in Australia in 1906. The first feature-length movie based on a book was "Les Misérables" which was released in 1909.
Feature movie for children are usually between 70 and 105 minutes. Other early feature movies include a version of "Oliver Twist" (1912), "Richard III" (1912) and "From the Manger to the Cross" (1912).
Joana Raspall i Juanola
Joana Raspall i Juanola (1 July 1913 – 4 December 2013) was a Spanish writer and librarian. She was born in Barcelona on 1 July 1913. Juanola died on 4 December 2013 from natural causes, aged 100.
High-pass filter
Low-pass filter
Band-pass filter
Steam drum
Water-tube boiler
Coal burner
A coal burner is a device that burns fine coal which has been ground into smaller particles.
Superheater
Soot blower
Marianne Muellerleile
State Grid Corporation of China
China Southern Power Grid
Excitation (magnetic)
Switchgear
Jane Child (also Jane Richman; February 15, 1967) is a Canadian musician. She sang the song "Don't Wanna Fall in Love" which was #2 on "Billboard" Hot 100 in spring 1990. She also sang other hits. Child was born in Toronto, Ontario.
Ma Ying-jeou
Ma Ying-jeou () is a Taiwanese politician. He was the President of the Republic of China from 20 May 2008 to 20 May 2016.
Ma Ying-jeou was born in Kwong Wah Hospital in Kowloon, British Hong Kong on 13 July 1950. He studied in National Taiwan University, New York University and Harvard University.
British Hong Kong
British Hong Kong () was a colony and British Dependent Territory of the United Kingdom. It was Hong Kong when it was controlled as part of the British Empire. The British governed Hong Kong from 1841 to 1997, except for a small amount of time when the Japanese took over Hong Kong during World War II. During the First Opium War in 1841, the British took over Hong Kong Island. The British took over the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and the New Territories in 1898.
Hong Kong was given by the Qing Dynasty to the British Empire in 1841 under the Treaty of Nanking. Kowloon was added to the area of Hong Kong in 1860 under the Convention of Peking, and New Territories was added in 1898 under the Second Convention of Peking. In 1941–1945, Hong Kong was ruled by the Japanese Empire during World War II. In 1984, People's Republic of China and the United Kingdom agreed under Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong that Hong Kong was to be returned to China on 1 July 1997.
The Imperial Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, also known as “Hong Kong Fallen/The Fall of Hong Kong”, lasted from December 25, 1941 to August 15, 1945. The Hong Kong population called this event as the “Three years and eight months”.  On the same day when the Japanese troops attacked Pearl Harbor, the Japanese General Takashi Sakai lead his troops to attack Hong Kong from Bao’an Country. In December 25, 1941, the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong signed the surrender agreement to the Japanese in a hotel named “The Peninsula Hong Kong”. Nine days after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, on August 15, 1945, the Emperor of Japan surrendered, signifying the end of the Second World War. At the end of August, the British once again took the control of Hong Kong back from Japan, and set up a marshal government.
During the Qing Dynasty, the British wanted to make Victoria Harbour the biggest harbour in East Asia. The British also wanted to grow its sea trade in the Far East through Victoria Harbor. 20 years after the British took over  Hong Kong, in 1861, this harbour was named Victoria Harbour, after the Queen of England at the time. The British also expanded the city on Hong Kong Island (香港岛). Hong Kong's economy today is very strong and always growing. It all would not have been possible, however, without the shipping, banking, merchants, and industrial growth from the British being there. The British Navy had an especially large role in shipping and protection of goods. During that time, the British Navy was stronger than any other navy in the world, and was able to protect the trade interests of the British Empire. After World War II had started, many merchant and banking businesses moved to Hong Kong, at the same time as the Industrial growth really took off.
The Independent Commission Against Corruption(ICAC/廉政公署) was established in February 15, 1974. It Is a system that is self-standing, Independent and controlled only by the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the Hong Kong Disciplined Services. Hong Kong Disciplined Services is a system include Hong Kong Police Force, Immigration Department, Customs and Excise Department, Fire Services Department, Correctional Services Department, Government Flying Service, Civil Aid Service and Auxiliary Medical Service. In the 1960’s through the 1970s, the population of Hong Kong had increased immensely alongside the sudden explosion of Hong Kong’s economy. The sudden growth unfortunately led to widespread corruption. When British Hong Kong faced this issue, their government had to focus on maintaining the order of society. Since its inception in 1974, ICAC had used a “three-pronged approach” to tackle corruption in each of the three branches of government. Three pronged approach” is a unique strategy to fight corruption on three front, which is Operation Department (Law enforcement), Corruption Prevention Department (Prevention), and Community Relation Department (Education).
During the 1960s through the 1970s, the corruption in Hong Kong was a really serious issue because the population in Hong Kong had increased really quickly. Resource allocation was a huge part of corruption in the 1960s. For example, the lower class workers that worked for the government were often taken advantage of because their advantage would allocate a portion of their pay for themselves. This meant that lower class workers always only ever saw a fragment of their actual paycheck.
Elizabeth Debicki
Elizabeth Debicki (August 1990) is an Australian actress. She played Jordan Baker in "The Great Gatsby". Her career began in 2010. The actress was born in Paris, France.
Bastille (band)
Bastille are an English Indie rock band. They started in London in 2010. In February 2013, they released a single called "Pompeii". It was number one in Scotland and Ireland. It reached number two in Italy and the UK. They released their first album, "Bad Blood", on 4 March 2013 in the United Kingdom. It went straight to number one in the UK Albums Chart. It was released in the US in September 2013. It reached number eleven in the United States' "Billboard" 200. It also reached the top ten in Ireland and Australia.
Bastille have four members. Daniel Campbell Smith is the main singer. At first he was the only member. He writes all of the band's songs. Chris "Woody" Wood was the main drummer, until former drummer David Kendrick (formerly of Sparks, Gleaming Spires, and Devo) joined in 2016. Will Farquarson plays bass, keyboards, and acoustic guitar. Kyle Jonathan Simmons plays keyboards, bass, and percussion. Charlie Barnes has been a touring member since 2015 and plays guitar and keyboards.
Nicholle Tom
Mark LoMonaco
Mark LoMonaco (born July 14, 1971) is an American professional wrestler. He currently works for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling where he competes under the ring name, Bully Ray.
He is also known for working with Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) from 1995 to 1999 under the ring name Buh Buh Ray Dudley and for World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (WWF/E) under the name, Bubba Ray Dudley. He is known for being one-half of the tag team, Dudley Boyz (also known as Team 3D) along with Devon.
Tori Kelly
Victoria Loren "Tori" Kelly (born December 14, 1992) is an American singer and songwriter. She won America's Most Talented Kids in 2004. In 2010, she was on American Idol. She was not chosen as one of the final twenty-four contestants. On January 21, 2012, Kelly put a video on her YouTube channel of her singing "Thinkin Bout You" by Frank Ocean. A lot of people watched it. It now has over 17 million views. In May 2012, she released her first extended play "Handmade Songs". Her manager is Scooter Braun. On November 1, 2013, Kelly sang at Ed Sheeran's concert at New York's Madison Square Garden. In an interview with BBC, Kelly said that Sheeran is "a really close friend". They have written a song together.
Ella Eyre
Ella Eyre (born 1 April 1994) is a British singer-songwriter. She sang on Rudimental's single "Waiting All Night". It was number one in the UK Singles Chart in April 2013.
Eyre was raised in Ealing, London. She went to a private school called Millfield and the BRIT School for Performing Arts & Technology.
Eyre was signed to Warner/Chappell Music in July 2012.
Eyre sung on the fourth song on Naughty Boy's album "Hotel Cabana". The album was released in August 2013. The song, "Think About It", was then released as the album's fourth single on 17 November 2013. It reached number 78 in the UK Singles Chart.
On 19 October 2013 Eyre performed at the Music of Black Origin Awards. "Waiting All Night" was nominated for Best Song.
On 31 October 2013 "BBC Radio 1Xtra" played Eyre's first solo single, "Deeper". She was also interviewed by DJ MistaJam. On 22 November Eyre released the video for the single.
On 4 November 2013, British rapper Tinie Tempah released his second album "Demonstration". Eyre sung on the first song on the album, "Someday (Place in the Sun)".
She was nominated for MTV Brand New 2014 on 28 November 2013. Other nominees were The Vamps, Eylar Fox, and Banks. In December MTV started letting the public vote for the winner. In February MTV will tell the public who got the most votes.
On 5 December 2013 BBC put her on their Sound of 2014 list. She was also nominated for the 2014 Brit Awards Critics' Choice award.
Her first EP "Deeper" was released on 15 December 2013 by Virgin/EMI.
Eyre is dating John Newman.
Freud's psychoanalytic theories
Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) is considered to be the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. Psychodynamic therapy looks closely at the unconscious drives that motivate people to act in certain ways.
The role of the mind is something that Freud repeatedly talks about because he believes that the mind is responsible for both conscious and unconscious decisions based on drives and forces. Unconscious desires motivate people to act accordingly. The id, ego, and superego are three aspects of the mind, which Freud believes, makes up a person’s personality. “We are simply actors in the drama of our minds, pushed by desire, pulled by coincidence. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggle going on deep within us” (Cash, Psychology for Dummies).
Freud does not believe there is any supernatural force that affects the way we think or has pre-programmed us to behave in a certain way. His idea of the id explains why people act out in certain ways, when it is not in line with the ego or superego. Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires." (Freud). Freud believes that people rely on religion to give explanations for anxieties and tension they do not want to consciously believe in. The basis of Christian theology states, “God created humanity in his image” (Genesis 1:27), but Freud argues that humanity created God in their image. This reverses the idea of any type of religion because he believes that religion is constructed by the mind. The role of the mind is something that Freud repeatedly talks about because he believes that the mind is responsible for both conscious and unconscious decisions based on drives and forces. The idea that religion causes people to behave in a moral way is incorrect according to Freud because he believes that no other force has the power to control the ways in which people act. Unconscious desires motivate people to act accordingly. Freud does a significant amount of research studying how people act and interact in a group setting. He believes that people act in different ways according to the demands and constraints of the group as a whole. In his book "Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego", Freud argues that the church and organized religion forms an “artificial group” which requires an external force to keep it together. In this type of group, everything is dependent on that external force and without it, the group would no longer exist. Groups are necessary, according to Freud, in order to decrease the narcissism in all people by creating libidinal ties with others by placing everyone at an equal level. The commonness among different people with different egos allows people to identify with one another. This relates to the idea of religion because Freud believes that people created religion in order to create these group ties that they unconsciously seek for.
According to Freud’s many theories of religion, the Oedipus complex is utilized in the understanding and mastery of religious beliefs. In Freud’s psychosexual stages, he mentions the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex and how they affect children and their relationships with their same-sex parental figure. According to Freud, there is an unconscious desire for one’s mother to be a virgin and for one’s father to be an all-powerful, almighty figure. Freud’s interest in Greek mythology and religion greatly influenced his psychological theories. The Oedipus complex is when a boy is jealous of his father. The boy strives to possess his mother and ultimately replace his father as a means of no longer having to fight for her undivided attention and affection. Along with seeking his mother’s love, boys also experience castration anxiety, which is the fear of losing their genitalia. Boys fear that their fathers will retaliate and castrate them as a result of desiring one’s mother. While the Oedipus complex presents itself in males, females experience a different form of incestuous rivalry known as the Electra complex. Girls become jealous of their mothers and begin to feel desire towards their fathers. Females also experience penis envy which is the parallel reaction to the male experience of castration anxiety. Females are jealous of their fathers’ penis and wish to have one as well. Girls then repress this feeling and instead long for a child of their own. This suppression leads to the girl identifying with her mother and acquiring feminine traits.
According to Freud, the id is the part of the unconscious that seeks pleasure. His idea of the id explains why people act out in certain ways, when it is not in line with the ego or superego. The id is the part of the mind which holds all of humans' most basic and primal instincts. It is the impulsive, unconscious part of the mind that is based on desire to seek immediate satisfaction. The id does not have a grasp on any form of reality or consequence. Freud explains that the pleasure principle is controlled by the id because it makes people engage in need-satisfying behavior without any accordance to what is right or wrong. Freud compares the id and the ego to a horse and a rider. The id is compared to the horse, which is directed and controlled by the ego (the rider). This example goes to show that although the id is supposed to be controlled by the ego, they often interact with one another according to the drives of the id.
Freud defines the id as: “The id, cut off from the external world, has a world of perception of its own. It detects with extraordinary acuteness certain changes in its interior, especially oscillations in the tension of its instinctual needs, and these changes become conscious as feelings in the pleasure-unpleasure series. It is hard to say, to be sure, by what means and with the help of what sensory terminal organs these perceptions come about. But it is an established fact that self-perceptions—coenesthetic feelings and feelings of pleasure-unpleasure—govern the passage of events in the id with despotic force. The id obeys the inexorable pleasure principle”.
In order for people to maintain a realistic sense here on earth, the ego is responsible for creating balance between pleasure and pain. It is impossible for all desires of the id to be met and the ego realizes this but continues to seek pleasure and satisfaction. Although the ego does not know the difference between right and wrong, it is aware that not all drives can be met at a given time. The reality principle is what the ego operates by in order to help satisfy the id’s demands as well as compromising according to reality. The ego is a person’s “self,” composed of unconscious desires. The ego takes into account ethical and cultural ideals in order to balance out the desires originating in the id. Although both the id and the ego are unconscious, the ego has close contact with the perceptual system. The ego has the function of self-preservation, which is why it has the ability to control the instinctual demands from the id.
“The ego is first and foremost a bodily ego; it is not merely a surface entity, but is itself the projection of a surface. If we wish to find an anatomical analogy for it we can best identify it with the ‘cortical homunculus’ of the anatomists, which stands on its head in the cortex, sticks up its heels, faces backwards and, as we know, has its speech-area on the left-hand side. The ego is ultimately derived from bodily sensations, chiefly from those springing from the surface of the body. It may thus be regarded as a mental projection of the surface of the body, besides, as we have seen above (Figure 3), representing the superficies of the mental apparatus.”
The superego, which develops around age four or five, incorporates the morals of society. Freud believes that the superego is what allows the mind to control its impulses that are looked down upon morally. The superego can be considered to be the conscience of the mind because it has the ability to distinguish between reality as well as what is right or wrong. Without the superego Freud believes people would act out with aggression and other immoral behaviors because the mind would have no way of understanding the difference between right and wrong. The superego is considered to be the “consciousness” of a person’s personality and can override the drives from the id. Freud separates the superego into two separate categories: the ideal self and the conscious. The conscious contains ideals and morals that exist within society that prevent people from acting out based on their internal desires. The ideal self contains images of how people ought to behave according to society's ideals.
Freud believed that the answers to what controlled daily actions resided in the unconscious mind, despite alternative views that all our behaviors were conscious. Notions of the unconsciousness, gaps in the consciousness, can be explained by other acts of which the consciousness affords no evidence. The unconscious mind positions itself in every aspect our life whether one is dormant or awake. It is more than just a habitat for our undesired memories, we are at loss to what truly exists here. Though unaware of the effect of the unconscious mind, it influences the actions we engage it. Human behavior should be understood by searching for analysis of mental processes in expressions of individual states. This explanation gives significance to verbal slips and dreams; they are caused by hidden reasons in the mind displayed in concealed forms.
Verbal slips of the unconscious mind are referred to as a Freudian slip. This is a term coined by Freud to explain a spoken mistake derived from the unconscious mind. Traumatizing information of thoughts and beliefs are blocked from the conscious mind, slips expose our true thoughts stored in the unconscious. Sexual instincts or drives have deeply invested roots in the unconscious mind. Instincts act by giving vitality and enthusiasm to the mind through meaning and purpose. The ranges of instincts are in great numbers; therefore, Freud expressed them in two categories. Eros is the self-preserving life instinct containing all erotic pleasures. In contrast, thanatos is the death instinct, full of self-destruction of sexual energy. The main part of human behavior and actions is tied back to sexual drives. Since birth the existent of sexual drives can be recognized as one of the most important incentives of life.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is represented amongst five stages. According to Freud, each stage occurs within a specific time frame of one’s life. If one becomes fixated in any of the five stages, he or she will develop personality traits that coincide with the a specific stage and its focus.
The first stage is the oral stage. An infant is in this stage from birth to eighteen months of age. The main focus in the oral stage is pleasure-seeking through the infant’s mouth. During this stage, the need for tasting and sucking becomes prominent in producing pleasure. Oral stimulation is crucial during this stage; if the infant’s needs are not met during this time frame, he or she will be fixated in the oral stage. Fixation in this stage can lead to adult habits such as thumb-sucking, smoking, over-eating, and nail-biting. Personality traits can also develop during adulthood that are linked to oral fixation; these traits can include optimism and independence or pessimism and hostility.
The second stage is the anal stage, which lasts from eighteen months to three years of age. During this stage, the infant’s pleasure seeking centers are located in the bowels and bladder. Parents stress toilet training and bowel control during this time period. Fixation in the anal stage can lead to anal-retention or anal-expulsion. Anal retentive characteristics include being overly neat, precise, and orderly, while being anal expulsive involves being disorganized, messy, and destructive.
The third stage in psychosexual development is the phallic stage. This stage begins at 3 years old and ends when the child reaches six years of age. The phallic stage focuses on the genitals as pleasure-seeking areas of the body. Boys in this stage experience the Oedipus complex, while girls experience the Electra complex. In both cases, the child develops incestuous feelings for the parent of the opposite sex. Children tend to develop characteristics of the same-sex parent during this stage. Fixation in the phallic stage has different personality traits depending on one’s gender. Males may take great pride in their masculinity and their sexuality, while women may become flirtatious and promiscuous. In both instances, these personality traits are a sign of low self-esteem and self-worth.
The fourth stage is the latency stage which begins at the age of six and continues until the age of eleven. During this stage there is no pleasure-seeking region of the body; instead all sexual feelings are repressed. Thus, children are able to develop social skills, and find comfort through peer and family interaction.
The final stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage. This stage begins at the age of eleven, lasts through puberty, and ends when one reaches adulthood at the age of eighteen. The onset of puberty reflects a strong interest from one person to another of the opposite sex. If one does not experience fixation in any of the psychosexual stages, once he or she has reached the genital stage he or she will grow into a well-balanced human being.
Freud proposed a set of defense mechanisms in one’s body. These set of defense mechanisms occur so one can hold a favorable or preferred view of themselves. For example, in a particular situation when an event occurs that violates one's preferred view of themselves, Freud states that it is necessary for the self to have some mechanism to defend itself against this unfavorable event; this is known as defense mechanisms. Freud’s work on defense mechanisms focuses on how the ego defends itself against internal events or impulses, which are regarded as unacceptable to one’s ego. These defense mechanisms are used to handle the conflict between the id, the ego, and the superego.
Freud noted that a major drive for people is the reduction of tension and the major cause of tension was anxiety. He identified three types of anxiety: reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the most basic form of anxiety and is based on the ego. It is typically based on the fear of real and possible events (for example, being bit by a dog or falling off of a roof). Neurotic anxiety comes from an unconscious fear that the basic impulses of the id will take control of the person, leading to eventual punishment from expressing the id's desires. Moral anxiety comes from the superego. It appears in the form of a fear of violating values or moral codes, and appears as feelings like guilt or shame.
When anxiety occurs, the mind's first response is to seek rational ways of escaping the situation by increasing problem-solving efforts, and a range of defense mechanisms may be triggered. These are ways that the ego develops to help deal with the id and the superego. Defense mechanisms often appear unconsciously and tend to distort or falsify reality. When the distortion of reality occurs, there is a change in perception which allows for a lessening in anxiety resulting in a reduction of tension one experiences. Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego defenses which were noted throughout his work. His daughter, Anna Freud, developed and elaborated on them. The defense mechanisms are as follows:
These defenses are not under our conscious control, and our unconscious will use one or more to protect one’s self from stressful situations. They are natural and normal. Without these, neurosis develops (such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria).
Sigmund Freud was born to Jewish parents in a heavily Roman Catholic town. Freud desired to understand religion and spirituality and deals with the nature of religious beliefs in many of his books and essays. He regards God as an illusion, based on the infantile need for a powerful father figure. Freud believed that religion was an expression of underlying psychological neuroses and distress. In some of his writing, he suggests that religion is an attempt to control the Oedipal complex, as he goes on to discuss in his book "Totem and Taboo".
In 1913, Freud published the book "Totem and Taboo". This book was an attempt to reconstruct the birth and the process of development of religion as a social institution. He wanted to demonstrate how the study of psychoanalysis is important in the understanding of the growth of civilization. This book is about how the Oedipus complex and incest taboo came into being and why they are present in all human societies. The incest taboo rises because of a desire for incest. The purpose of the totemic animal is not for group unity, but to re-enforce the incest taboo. The totemic animal is not a symbol of God, but a symbol of the father and it is an important part of religious development. Totemism originates from the memory of an event in pre-history where the male group members eat the father figure due to a desire for the females. The guilt they feel for their actions and for the loss of a father figure leads them to prohibit incest in a new way. Totemism is a means of preventing incest and as a ritual reminder of murder of the father. This shows that sexual desire, since there are many social prohibitions on sexual relations, is channeled through certain ritual actions and all societies adopt these rituals so that sexuality develops in approved ways. This reveals unconscious desires and their repression. Freud believes that civilization makes people unhappy because it contradicts the desire for progress, freedom, happiness, and wealth. Civilization requires repression of drives and instincts - such as sexual, aggression, and death instincts - in order for civilization can work.
According to Freud, religion originated in pre-historic collective experiences that became repressed and ritualized as totems and taboos. He states that most, if not all religions, can be traced back to early human sacrifice - including Christianity, in which Christ on the cross is a symbolic representation of killing the father and eating the father figure. This is shown with ‘the body of Christ’, also known as Communion. In this work, Freud attributes the origin of religion to emotions such as hatred, fear, and jealousy. These emotions are directed towards the father figure in the clan from the sons who are denied sexual desires towards the females. Freud attributed totem religions to be a result of extreme emotion, rash action, and the result of guilt.
"The Psychopathology of Everyday Life" is one of the most important books in psychology. It was written by Freud in 1901 and it laid the basis for the theory of psychoanalysis. The book contains twelve chapters on forgetting things such as names, childhood memories, mistakes, clumsiness, slips of the tongue, and determinism of the unconscious. Freud believed that there were reasons that people forget things like words, names, and memories. He also believed that mistakes in speech, now referred to as Freudian slips, were not accidents but instead the “dynamic unconscious” revealing something meaningful.
Freud suggests that our everyday psychopathology is a minor disturbance of mental life which may quickly pass away. Freud believed all of these acts to have an important significance; the most trivial slips of the tongue or pen may reveal people's secret feelings and fantasies. Pathology is brought into the everyday life which Freud points out through dreams, forgetfulness, and parapraxes. He uses these things to make his case for the existence of an unconscious that refuses to be explained or contained by consciousness. Freud explains how the forgetting of multiple events in our everyday life can be consequences of repression, suppression, denial, displacement, and identification. Defense mechanisms occur to protects one’s ego so in "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life", Freud states, “painful memories merge into motivated forgetting which special ease” (p. 154)
Freud wrote "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality", sometimes titled "Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex", in 1905. It explores and analyzes his theory of sexuality and its presence throughout childhood. Freud’s book describes three main topics in reference to sexuality: sexual perversions, childhood sexuality, and puberty. His first essay in this series is called "The Sexual Aberrations". This essay focuses on the distinction between a sexual object and a sexual aim. A sexual object is the object that one desires, while the sexual aim is the acts that one desires to perform with the object.
Freud’s second essay was explained "Infantile Sexuality". During this essay he insists that children have sexual urges. The psychosexual stages are the steps a child must take in order to continue having sexual urges once adulthood is reached.
The third essay Freud wrote described "The Transformation of Puberty". In this essay he examines how children express their sexuality throughout puberty and how sexual identity is formed during this time frame.
Freud ultimately attempted to link unconscious sexual desires to conscious actions in each of his essays.
"The Interpretation of Dreams" is one Sigmund Freud’s greatest published works known to date because of the stage it set for his psychoanalytic work. During therapy sessions, Freud would ask his patients to talk about whatever would first come to their mind, usually their responses directly related to a dream. He then began to analyze their dreams, believing that this gave him access to their deepest thoughts. He also believed he could find links between his patients' current hysterical behaviors and past traumatic experiences. From here he began to formulate a book to allow others to understand dream interpretation, by using his current theory of the unconscious.
Freud believed that dreams were messages from the unconscious, masked as wishes controlled by internal stimuli. The unconscious mind plays the most imperative role in dream interpretation. In order to remain in a state of sleep, the unconscious mind has to detain negative thoughts and represent them in an edited form. Therefore, when one dreams, the unconscious makes an effort to deal with any conflict.
Freud categorized dreams into different levels in order to better understand the unconscious as the primary standard for dream interpretation. The first level of dreams is the manifest content, which is the dream one remembers after waking up. But Freud believed no attention should be given to this level, because the unconscious mind produced the dream into a different meaning from its original. Latent content is the second level of dreams, which is the real dream amongst your unconscious thoughts. This is where the true meaning of the dream lies and turned into another sense to protect ourselves. In order for our dreams to convert from latent content to manifest content, four steps are required: condensation, displacement, symbolism, and secondary revision. A special focus on symbolism was emphasized in interpretation. Freud believed that dreams are highly symbolic, with an underlying principle meaning. Most of the symbolic stages focuses on sexually connotation (for example, a tree branch could represent a part of the male genitals). He also believed all human behavior originated from our sexual drives and desires.
Jazz (wrestler)