AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
In many parts of the world, people keep them as pets. In Peru, Bolivia, and several other countries, they are raised for food. The first people who domesticated the animals, did it for food. Besides being a pet and a source of food, in some places people think guinea pigs keep bad spirits away. In Quechua, the language of some the native tribes of Peru, they are called "". The Spanish-speaking people of the region call them "cuy" (plural: "cuyes").
This perception of pigginess occurred in many languages other than English; the German word for them is "Meerschweinchen", literally "little sea pigs" (sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs, which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat), the Russian and Polish word for them is similar, "morskaya svinka" (Морская свинка) and "świnka morska" respectively, meaning also "little sea pig" (it comes from archaic use of the word to mean "overseas"). However, this perception of pigginess is not universal to all languages or cultures. For example, the common Spanish term is 'conejillo de Indias' (Indian bunny rabbit).
Guinea pigs need large open air cages in which to romp and frolic. They should have a diet of 1/8 cup of high quality grass-based guinea-pig pellets daily, as per manufacturer’s instructions. They should also have unlimited grass hay, and at least one cup of a variety of veggies. Guinea pigs like to be held in hand.
Guinea pigs should be kept in cages larger than 7.5 square feet or 10.5 square feet for 2 pigs. They should always have a friend as guinea pigs are social animals.
Breeding guinea pigs are not recommended as the rate of pregnancy complications is high.
For their diet guinea pigs generally prefer fresh fruits and vegetables.
Guinea pig is also slang for a person who is the first to try something. It can also mean the subject of an experiment. This is because guinea pigs are used by biologists as model organisms.
Philip Morris Glass (born January 31, 1937) is an American composer of modern music. He is one of the most influential music makers of the late 20th century.
Glass has created operas, music for quartets, dance, and much more. He is known for writing minimalist music.
Glass has described himself instead as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his early music shares much with what is called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically.
Audioslave is an American rock band. The band is made up of Chris Cornell (vocals), who was with Soundgarden until 1997, and Tom Morello (guitar), Tim Commerford (electric bass) and Brad Wilk (drums), who were with Rage Against The Machine until 2000.
Their first album "Audioslave" was released in 2002 and the next one, named "Out of Exile", followed in 2005. On May 6, 2005 Audioslave became the first American rock group to play in Cuba. Because of American laws against trade with Cuba, this concert had to be allowed by US authorities.
Environment means anything that surround us. It can be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic) things. It includes physical, chemical and other natural forces. Living things live in their environment. They constantly interact with it and adapt themselves to conditions in their environment. In the environment there are different interactions between animals, plants, soil, water, and other living and non-living things.
Since everything is part of the environment of something else, the word "environment" is used to talk about many things. People in different fields of knowledge use the word environment differently. Electromagnetic environment is radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation and magnetic fields. The environment of galaxy refers to conditions of interstellar medium.
In psychology and medicine, a person's environment is the people, physical things and places that the person lives with. The environment affects the growth and development of the person. It affects the person's behavior, body, mind and heart.
The living conditions of living organisms in an environment are affected by the weather or climate changes in the environment.
In biology and ecology, the environment is all of the natural materials and living things, If those things are natural, it is a natural environment.
Environment includes the living and nonliving things that an organism interacts with, or has an effect on it. Living elements that an organism interacts with are known as biotic elements: animals, plants, etc., abiotic elements are non living things which include air, water, sunlight etc. Studying the environment means studying the relationships among these various things. An example of interactions between non-living and living things is plants getting their minerals from the soil and making food using sunlight. Predation, an organism eating another, is an example of interaction between living things.
Some people call themselves environmentalists. They think we must protect the natural environment, to keep it safe. Things in the natural environment that we value are called natural resources. For example; fish, insects, and forests. These are renewable resources because they come back naturally when we use them. Non-renewable resources are important things in the environment that are limited for example, ores and fossil fuels after a few thousand years. Some things in the natural environment can kill people, such as lightning.
A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. "Chew" means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach).
Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth. Human children usually have 20 teeth.
Some human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth. These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life. Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2–3 thousand births. They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.
Deciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals. Humans have 20 of them. The first teeth (called "primary teeth") start to "erupt" (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old. When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called "teething" (verb: "to teethe"). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age.
At age 6–7 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11–12 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17–21 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.
The outside white part of teeth is called the "enamel". The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the "pulp" which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. "Cementum" is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.
If they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy.
Some things people can do to keep teeth healthy:
Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums). Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.
Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off.
The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.
Tom Jones (singer)
Sir Thomas John Woodward (born 7 June 1940), known professionally as Tom Jones, is a Welsh singer. He has won Grammy Awards. Jones is particularly noted for his powerful voice. He released his first album "Along Came Jones" in 1965. He has released thirty-nine studio albums since then. He released his most recent album "Spirit in the Room" in 2012.
He was born at 57, Kingsland Terrace, Treforest, Pontypridd, South Wales.
Jones was married to Linda from 1957 until she died of cancer in 2016. He has a son (born 1957) by Linda. He has a son (born 1988) by another woman.
Slade is a English Hard rock /Glam rock band. The band started in 1966 and were popular in the 1970s and 1980s. The band released fifteen studio albums and four live albums.
With worldwide success, particularly in the UK and Europe, the band scored six number one singles on the UK chart, and a total of 24 top forty singles in the country. The original line-up split in 1992 which led guitarist Dave Hill and drummer Don Powell to form Slade II, with new members. The new line-up continues to tour today.
In 1975, the band made a film titled "Slade in Flame".
Deep Purple are a rock band started in Hertford, England, in 1968. Their best known song is ""Smoke on the Water"" from the album "Machine Head". Some of their other albums like ""Deep Purple in Rock"" where a great hit and was rated #1 in Germany. Deep Purple are one of the pioneering bands and founders of the hard rock and heavy metal genre.
In 1967, a drummer called Chris Curtis was putting a new band together, where members would only be part of it when it suited them (or would "get on and off"). Because of this format, the band was called Roundabout. The first musicians to be hired were guitar player Ritchie Blackmore and keyboard player Jon Lord. Curtis behaved in a disorderly way, and so was fired from his own project. Blackmore and Lord wanted to continue, and so finished putting the band together themselves, with singer Rod Evans, bass player Nick Simper, and drummer Ian Paice. They renamed the band "Deep Purple" after a song Blackmore's mother liked, disliking the name "Roundabout".
This band lineup, known as "Mark I", released three albums, called "Shades of Deep Purple" (1968), "The Book of Taliesyn" (1968) and a self-titled (1969). They released a fairly popular single called "Hush", thought to be radio friendly in America, but, apart from that, did not have any success. Eventually, Blackmore and Lord decided to change the style of music the band would play from soft progressive rock to hard rock. While Ian Paice agreed to the change, they decided Evans and Simper would not fit this new style, and were let go from the band.
The band found a new singer called Ian Gillan and a new bass player called Roger Glover, forming Mark II. Jon Lord used to play in orchestras, and at this time, wanted to go back to them and base the Deep Purple sound around that. Whilst the band did perform as an orchestra (with new singer Ian Gillan writing lyrics) gaining the band some publicity, Gillan and Blackmore were not happy about the band being associated with orchestras, and were firm about Deep Purple being a hard rock band, though Jon Lord would write another orchestral piece for the band.
The band eventually got back to their plans of playing hard rock, and released "Deep Purple in Rock" in 1970, which became a big success. The famous album cover shows the band members' faces engraved into Mount Rushmore. The album itself had popular songs such as "Speed King" "Child in Time" and "Bloodsucker" (which was later re-recorded by the band in 1998). Critics and fans were pleased with new singer Ian Gillan's high pitched singing and screaming, and the album has since been considered a classic of the time, along with Black Sabbath's "Paranoid" and Led Zeppelin's "Led Zeppelin II".
The band followed "In Rock" up with "Fireball" in 1971, which did show hints of creative progressive rock but was still as heavy as the last album. Just weeks later, the band started working on the next album, which would become "Machine Head". An incident at a Frank Zappa & the Mothers of Invention concert would inspire the band to write their most popular song, "Smoke on the Water" which ended up on the album. "Machine Head", released in 1972, was another success and featured several other popular songs like "Highway Star" and "Space Truckin'".
Mark II's last album was "Who Do We Think We Are" in 1973, and it featured another hit song for the band, "Woman from Tokyo". Ian Gillan left the band that year as he did not like the band's touring and recording schedule, because at the time he wanted a break. He was also arguing with Ritchie Blackmore. Roger Glover left shortly after, also because of arguing with Blackmore.
David Coverdale and Glenn Hughes were hired to replace Ian Gillan and Roger Glover. Glenn Hughes also had singing talent so it was decided he would act as lead singer on some of the band's songs too. In fact, since Hughes was hired first, the band considered performing as a 4-piece from then on, with Hughes singing full-time as well as playing bass.
Mark III's first album, "Burn", released in 1974, was successful and seemed to point a positive picture for the band's future without Gillan or Glover. The singing harmonies from Coverdale and Hughes had something of a blues and funk style to them. These styles were explored more on the band's next album, "Stormbringer", released later the same year. Ritchie Blackmore left after he became more unhappy with this style of music, feeling it was just "shoeshine music".
Although many fans were wondering if Deep Purple could carry on without Blackmore, who had been their highly regarded guitar player from their formation up until this point, they chose to continue, and hired American guitar player Tommy Bolin (forming mark IV). The next album, "Come Taste The Band", showed Bolin bringing a further funk influence into the band's music, having a more creative output than Blackmore did when he left the band.
Ian Paice and Jon Lord, the last remaining founding members, agreed to end Deep Purple in 1976 after touring was over, but did not inform any other members. Shortly after, Coverdale informed them he was leaving the band, and only then did Jon Lord tell him: "David, there's no band to leave!" Glenn Hughes and Tommy Bolin were excited about the next Deep Purple album before they too were told that Paice and Lord had ended the band.
David Coverdale started a band of his own called Whitesnake, and Ian Paice and Jon Lord were members for a period of time. Ian Gillan had been performing in a solo band since he left in 1973. Ritchie Blackmore had started a band called Rainbow after leaving in 1975, releasing some successful albums with Ronnie James Dio as lead singer, who would carry on his fame in Black Sabbath and Dio (his own solo band). However, Tommy Bolin would only release one more solo album before he died in 1976, due to drug use.
Rod Evans put together a band and tried to perform as "Deep Purple", advertising it as a reunion although he was the only member who had ever been part of the band during its initial time together. Legal action was taken against him by the real representatives of Deep Purple, who sued him for using the band name without permission.
A real Deep Purple reunion happened in 1984 when the Mark II lineup got back together, and released the album "Perfect Strangers" that same year. It sold very well and was well received from fans who were excited about the return of the band's iconic lineup. The songs "Knockin' At Your Back Door" and "Perfect Strangers" were popular. The band also enjoyed success on tour.
"The House of Blue Light" was the next album to come from the band, in 1987. Some fans noticed that the band sounded more "modern" on this album than before, which led to mixed opinions. A new version of the band's 1968 minor hit "Hush" was re-recorded in 1988 by the Mark II lineup to mark the 20th anniversary of Deep Purple. However, Ian and Ritchie started arguing again over the future of the band, and their differences had torn their working relationship too far apart, meaning Gillan was fired in 1989. Blackmore seemed to want to make the band sound more commercial (something he had tried to do with his band Rainbow back in the early 1980s). He hired Joe Lynn Turner (also a former Rainbow singer) to replace Gillan, and the Mark V band released "Slaves and Masters" in 1990.
However, the band's popularity was declining, and Turner was forced out in 1992 by the record company, who wanted the iconic lineup with Gillan back for the band's 25th anniversary. And so, the Mark II lineup released one more album together in 1993 called "The Battle Rages On...". However, during the tour, audience attendances were getting lower, and problems between band members arose, with Ritchie Blackmore walking out on the band for good. Joe Satriani filled in for the rest of the tour, but did not become a full-time member afterwards, due to his label commitments. The band decided to hire American Steve Morse in 1994.
With Steve Morse in the band, Deep Purple enjoyed renewed success on tour. Ian Gillan was especially pleased that Ritchie Blackmore was no longer in the band, as he felt his departure saved them from a breakup. Since 1994, Deep Purple have enjoyed more success touring than with their studio albums, although their material written with Morse has received good reviews, with fans and critics feeling the band has more creativity again. Mark VII released two albums, "Purpendicular" (1996) and "Abandon" (1998), before Jon Lord retired in 2002, feeling the need to step down from the band's hard touring schedule. He was replaced by Don Airey.
Over the next few years, Deep Purple released two more albums, "Bananas" (2003) and "Rapture of the Deep" (2005). Their next tour, the "Rapture of the Deep tour" started in 2006, and finished in 2011, making it their longest tour to date. In 2012, Jon Lord died after battling cancer at the age of 71. The band continue to record as well as tour, and released their nineteenth and latest album, "Now What?!", in 2013.
Ian Paice is the only member to be in all of the band's lineups.
Mark I (1) (1968 - 1969):
The first complete lineup of the band. They released a single that was fairly successful in America called "Hush". Rod Evans and Nick Simper were fired as the other members wanted to play heavier rock music and did not think they would play this style of music well.
Mark II (2) (1969 - 1973, 1984 - 1989, 1992 - 1993):
This is the band's most famous lineup, releasing albums such as "Deep Purple in Rock" and songs such as "Smoke on the Water". In 1973, Ian Gillan left the band as he did not like the band's touring and recording schedule, because at the time he wanted a break. He was also arguing with Ritchie Blackmore. Roger Glover left shortly after, also because of arguing with Blackmore.
In 1984, this lineup of the band got back together. However, Ian and Ritchie started arguing again over the future of the band, meaning Gillan was fired in 1989. He rejoined in 1992, bringing this band lineup together for the third time, although Blackmore left a year later, this time, for good.
Mark III (3) (1973 - 1975):
David Coverdale and Glenn Hughes were hired to replace Ian Gillan and Roger Glover. Glenn Hughes also had singing talent so it was decided he would act as lead singer on some of the band's songs too. Ritchie Blackmore left after he became more unhappy with the style of music of the band, which was more funk rock at this time.
Mark IV (4) (1975 - 1976):
After making the hard decision to carry the band on without Blackmore, the band hired American guitar player Tommy Bolin and carried on the funk-rock music style Blackmore was unhappy about.
Mark V (5) (1989 - 1992)
Ritchie Blackmore had before played with Joe Lynn Turner in Blackmore's solo band called Rainbow, and suggested he join the band to replace Ian Gillan, who was brought back 3 years later because of record label pressures, as the band's 25th anniversary was coming up and they wanted the iconic Mark II lineup together again.
Mark VI (6) (1993 - 1994):
The band still needed to play concerts after Ritchie Blackmore, so they hired American guitar player Joe Satriani, although he did not stay with the band after the tour.
Mark VII (7) (1994 - 2002):
Joe Satriani turned down the chance to be a member of Deep Purple, so the band found another American guitar player called Steve Morse. In 2002, Jon Lord retired from the band after 26 years with them (not counting the 8 years the band was split up) leaving Ian Paice as the only founding member left. He was replaced with Don Airey.
Mark VIII (8) (2002 - present)
This has remained the lineup since Jon Lord's departure from Deep Purple and the hiring of Don Airey to replace him.
Yogurt, or yoghurt is a milk product made by bacterial fermentation of milk. The lactose in the milk becomes lactic acid when it is fermented. Lactic acid acts on the protein in the milk to make yoghurt thick and sour. The milk is heated to about 80 °C to kill any bacteria present, and to change the milk proteins so that they set together instead of becoming curd. After it is cooled to about 45 °C, the bacteria culture is added, and the milk is kept at that temperature for 4 to 7 hours to ferment. Soy yoghurt is made from soy milk.
Yogurt is one of the oldest produced foods in human history. No one knows for sure how long yogurt has been around. Today, it is eaten all over the world. It is rich in protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B and vitamin B.
In English, the word can be spelled either 'yogurt' or 'yoghurt'. In Canada 'yogourt' is also common. It can be spoken with either a short or a long 'o'.
The earliest yogurts were probably made by wild bacteria (yeast infections) and happened by chance.
The oldest writings mentioning yogurt were by Pliny the Elder, who said that some people knew how to thicken the milk into something which was sour but tasty.
Stamen Grigorov (1878–1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the bacteria in Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905 he said that it contained a round and a rod-like lactic acid-producing bacteria. In 1907 the rod-like bacteria was called "Lactobacillus bulgaricus" (now "Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus"). The Russian Nobel laureate biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Pasteur Institute in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov's work and made a hypothesis that eating yoghurt regularly was the reason why Bulgarian peasants lived for so long. Mechnikov believed that "Lactobacillus" was needed for good health, and worked to make yoghurt popular through Europe.
Yoghurt has a lot of protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 in it. It is healthier than milk is. Many people who are lactose-intolerant can enjoy yoghurt, because much of the lactose in the milk has been changed into lactic acid.
Yoghurt also has medical uses, such as preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea.
Marlon Brando, Jr. (April 3, 1924 – July 1, 2004) was an American actor and movie director. He is best known for his roles in the movies "A Streetcar Named Desire" (1951), "The Wild One" (1953), "On the Waterfront" (1954), "The Godfather" (1972), "Superman" (1978), "Apocalypse Now" (1979) and "The Island of Dr. Moreau" (1996). Brando died of respiratory failure from pulmonary fibrosis and congestive heart failure at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center on July 1, 2004.
Galician language
Galician (Galician: ) is a modern language that is spoken in Galicia, a region of Spain in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Galician is closely related to Portuguese because they split from the same language, which is now called Galician-Portuguese or Medieval Galician. Some even say that Galician and Portuguese are two dialects of the same language but with different accents. However, most scholars say that the differences are now so great since both languages separated in the Middle Ages that they are now truly different languages. Galician is also very similar to the Leonese language.
Galician is a Romance language that evolved from Vulgar Latin, the Latin of common people in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The area is now Galicia, the western parts of Asturias and Castile-Leon and the Norte region in northern Portugal.
Galician took most of its words from Latin, many from Spanish but some from Germanic and Celtic.
Galician comes from Galician-Portuguese, spoken during the Middle Ages in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia. Today, Galician is spoken only in Galicia and by some people in North America, South America and Western Europe. In Jalisco, Mexico, Galician still leaves traces in the accent and words.
Some people say Galician and Portuguese are really two dialects of the same language because there are not a lot of differences between them, but they are officially two separate languages. Most scholars say they that have become so different over hundreds of years that they are now two different languages.
People who speak Portuguese in northern Portugal, which is close to Galicia, and people who speak Galician in Galicia, say that they can understand a lot each other, but that is less true in the south of Portugal.
Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldun was an influential Arab thinker of the 14th century. His family were from Andalusia. Born in Tunisia in 1332, Khaldun served the governments of the day in many ways. He was sometimes in prison. He lived in Marrakesh in Morocco for a time, and in Granada. Then he moved to Cairo, where was a judge and died in 1406.
The most famous book Khaldun wrote is the Kitāb al-ʻIbar (Book of Lessons), a history of the world. The first part, Muqaddimah (Introduction) is often used alone. This book is often credited as inventing sociology. He also wrote his autobiography.
To understand and appreciate his work, one must understand his life. He lived a life in search of stability and influence. He came from a family of scholars and politicians and he intended to live up to both expectations. He would succeed in the field of scholarship much more so than in any other field.
The Swabian Jura (German: "Schwäbische Alb", Bavarian: "Schwobm Alb") is a plateau in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The Swabian Jura is situated between the Black Forest (West), Stuttgart (North), Bavaria (East) and Lake Constance (South). A lot of fossils are found here. The highest mountain is the Lemberg (1015 m).
A nerve is a group of special nerve cells grouped together in parallel. Another word for nerve cell is neuron. The special neurons grouped together in nerves take information (messages) to and from the human body to the central nervous system. The central nervous system (acronym) CNS is the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord is the big cord that goes from the brain into the back. It carries all the information that goes from the brain to the nerves in the body.
All the nerves in the body make the peripheral nervous system (acronym PNS). The brain and spinal cord are the CNS. All the nerves that come from the spinal cord are the PNS. Together the CNS and PNS are the nervous system.
Nervous system contains neurons and cells called glia. Glia cells keep the neurons safe and healthy. Neurons take messages to and from the CNS to the rest. The dendrite and axon are fibers that go out from the cell body. Axons take information "away from" the cell body. Dendrites take information to the cell body.
"Afferent" nerves take messages to the CNS (brain) from the body. They take messages about sensation from the skin. They take messages about the position of the body from the muscles. They take messages about the function of organs like the heart and stomach.
"Efferent" nerves take messages from the CNS to the body. They take messages that tell muscles to move. They take messages to glands. They tell glands like "sweat glands" to make sweat (the water that comes out of your skin when you are hot.)
There are many diseases of nerves. A disease of nerves is also called a "neuropathy".
A vaccine is medicine given by a doctor or nurse and makes a person less likely to get a disease or virus. It gives immunity to an infectious disease caused by a particular germ (bacteria or virus). For example, the flu vaccine makes it less likely that a person will get the flu. A flu vaccine is often called a flu shot.
Vaccines are usually made from something that is alive, or was alive.
The word "vaccine" comes from the Latin words "vaccīn-us" (from the word "vacca", meaning "cow"). In 1796, Edward Jenner used cows infected with cowpox ("variolae vaccinae") to protect people against smallpox. The use of vaccines is called vaccination.
Scientist Edward Jenner created the first vaccine in the 1770s. At this time, smallpox was a deadly disease. Jenner noticed that people who had already had cowpox (a disease that is related to smallpox) usually did not get smallpox. He thought that getting cowpox protected people against smallpox.
To test this idea, Jenner gave a boy cowpox. Then he infected the boy with smallpox. The boy did not get sick because he had already had cowpox. Jenner was right: having cowpox protected people against smallpox.
Because cowpox protection made fewer people sick than smallpox protection, England made smallpox protection illegal in 1840. In 1853, they made another law that said every child had to be vaccinated against smallpox using Jenifer vaccine.
In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur made a rabies vaccine.
In the 20th century, scientists created vaccines to protect people against diphtheria, measles, mumps, and rubella. In the 1950s, Jonas Salk created the polio vaccine.
However, vaccines still do not exist for many important diseases, like malaria and HIV.
Many countries have passed "compulsory vaccination laws" - laws that require certain people to get vaccinated. For example, in many countries, children have to be vaccinated against certain diseases in order to go to public school.
There are many different types of vaccines.
One common type of vaccine is a "live vaccine." This type of vaccine contains a small amount of a live virus or bacteria. Before the vaccine is given, scientists weaken the virus or bacteria so it cannot make a person sick. When a person gets a live vaccine, their immune system learns to recognize and fight off that virus or bacteria. Then, if the person is exposed to the virus or bacteria in the future, their immune system will already "know" how to fight it off. Examples of live vaccines include vaccines for measles, mumps, and chickenpox.
Another common type of vaccine is an "inactivated vaccine." These vaccines contain dead viruses or bacteria. These do not cause the immune system to react as strongly as live vaccines. Because of this, people may need "booster shots" - extra doses of the vaccine, given at certain times, so their immune system can "learn" how to fight off the infection. Examples of inactivated vaccines include vaccines for pertussis (whooping cough), rabies, and hepatitis B.
In other vaccines, only a protein molecule from the virus or bacterium is injected into the patient. The protein is enough for the patient's immune system to recognize the whole germ.
With messenger RNA vaccines, only the messenger RNA (mRNA), which acts as a blueprint or recipe for the protein, is injected into the patient. The first mRNA vaccines were made in the 1990s, but scientists did not make large numbers of them until the 2010s. Some mRNA vaccines work against cancer and can make tumors smaller.
Scientists can make some types of vaccines in a laboratory.
Vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a disease. In other words, a person can get a disease that they were vaccinated against.
Sometimes, this happens because the person's immune system did not respond to the vaccine (it did not "learn" how to fight off the disease after the person got the vaccine). This may happen because the person's immune system is already weak (for example, because of diabetes, HIV infection, old age, or steroid use). It may also happen because the person's immune system cannot make the particular B cells which make the antibodies that stick to the pathogen.
Some vaccines work better than others at protecting people from diseases. There are many reasons for this:
Since vaccines first existed, there have been people who did not agree with the idea of using vaccines. Around the world, most scientists and doctors agree that the benefits of using vaccines are much greater than the risks. The adverse effects from vaccines are rare. Not vaccinating people is a much greater risk, because vaccines prevent suffering and death from infectious diseases.
There have been controversies over using vaccines such as whether vaccines are safe, the amount of research and whether it is morally right to force people to get vaccinated.
Some religious groups do not allow uses of vaccines.
Some political groups argue that people should be able to choose whether or not to get vaccinated. They argue that laws requiring people to get vaccinated violate individual rights. In response, one study says: "Vaccine refusal not only increases the individual risk of disease but also increases the risk for the whole community".
Some parents choose not to follow the regular vaccine schedule for their children. One study looked at parents of children ages six months to six years old. It found that 13% of these parents reported following an alternative vaccination schedule. However, of these parents, less than 1 out of every 5 reported refusing all vaccines. Most refused only certain vaccines, and/or delayed some vaccines until the child was older.
Parents who delay vaccines until their children are older are often concerned about their child's immune system being too young and weak to handle getting many vaccines at once.
One challenge in developing vaccines is economic. The diseases that most need vaccines today - HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis - exist mostly in poor countries. Companies that make vaccines would not make much money because many of the people who need them are too poor to pay for them. There would also be financial and other risks to these companies if they tried making new vaccines for these diseases.
Throughout history, most vaccines have been developed by governments, universities, and non-profit organizations. Many vaccines have been highly cost-effective and good for public health. In recent decades, the number of vaccines given throughout the world has increased dramatically. This increase, particularly in the number of different vaccines given to children before they start school, may be due to laws and support from governments.
Another obstacle to making new vaccines is that when a new vaccine is made, the maker often files a patent on their vaccine. These patents can keep the process used to make the vaccine secret. That can make it harder to make other vaccines using the same process.
Vaccines often contain other things besides the active vaccine (the weakened or dead virus or bacteria). For example, vaccines may contain:
Preservatives in vaccines, such as thiomersal, phenoxyethanol, and formaldehyde, prevent serious adverse effects. Thiomersal is more effective against bacteria, lasts longer in storage, and makes the vaccine stronger, safer, and more stable (less likely to be changed by things like heat). However, in the United States, the European Union, and a few other developed countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines because it contains mercury. Some people have argued that thimerosal contributes to autism. However, no convincing scientific evidence says this is true.
If no preservative is added to a vaccine, harmful bacteria may grow in the vaccine. For example, in 1928, "Staphylococcus" bacteria grew in a diphtheria vaccine that had no preservative in it. Of 21 children who got that vaccine, 12 died.
Most versions of anti-coronavirus are kept at very low temperature before use. That helps preserve the vaccine in its most effective state.
Animals are vaccinated to keep them from getting diseases, and to keep them from infecting humans with diseases. Pets as well as livestock are routinely vaccinated.
In some instances, populations of wild animals may be vaccinated. Sometimes, wild animals are vaccinated by spreading vaccine-laced food in a disease-prone area. This method has been used to try to control rabies in raccoons. Where rabies occurs, laws may require dogs to get rabies vaccinations.
Dogs can also be vaccinated against many other diseases, including canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus-2, leptospirosis, bordatella, canine parainfluenza virus, and Lyme disease.
Scientists are also working on vaccines against many noninfectious human diseases, such as cancers and autoimmune disorders. For example, the experimental vaccine CYT006-AngQb has been investigated as a possible treatment for high blood pressure.
Injury means a "harm" or "hurt".
Usually an injury is when the body or a part of the body is damaged by something outside of the body. Another word for injury to a body is "trauma".
Injury can be by:
Injury can be "accidental" or "intentional". In an intentional injury a person "tries" to hurt another. (Intentional injury is also called "non-accidental" injury). Accidental injury is without meaning to hurt someone. A traffic collision for example may injure someone accidentally.
Mercedes-Benz () is a brand of cars, trucks, buses and coaches from the Daimler AG company of Germany. The company was once known as Daimler-Benz and is still sometimes called just "Mercedes." Mercedes-Benz is the world's oldest car maker and the cars they make cost a lot of money. The symbol of Mercedes-Benz is very famous. It is a three-pointed star inside of a circle and was designed by one of the men who started the company, Gottlieb Daimler. The three points of the star stand for land, air and sea because Daimler's engines were used not only in cars and trucks but in airplanes and boats. The symbol was first used in 1909.
Mercedes-Benz cars are an important part of the history of the car with many "firsts”. They were the first to build a diesel-powered car in the 1930s, the first to build a car with fuel injection in the 1950s and the first to offer antilock brakes in the 1970s. Mercedes-Benz cars have also been important in auto racing history.
The Benz Patent-Motorwagen was the company's first production car, built by Rheinische Gasmotorenfabrik Benz & Cie (known today as Mercedes-Benz) it was built in 1885 or 1886. It is often considered the first real gasoline -powered car. By 1901, the cars had become very popular among the rich, mostly because of the efforts of Emil Jellineck.
Mercedes-Benz builds a range of vans such as the Citan, Vito, and Sprinter
Mercedes-Benz Trucks and Daimler Trucks builds trucks together, They build buses, trucks, the Vito and the Sprinter van.
Mercedes-Benz has been building buses from 1895 in Mannheim in Germany. Mercedes-Benz produces a wide range of buses and coaches.
Record label
A record label or record company makes and sells audio and video recordings, on various formats including compact discs, LPs, DVD-Audio, SACDs, and cassettes. The name "record label" is from the paper label at the center of a gramophone record (what is also known as a "phonograph record" in American English).
Most major record labels are owned by a few large multinational companies (Big Four record labels) that make up the almost all of the global recording industry, although there is a recent resurgence in independent record labels.
Recording companies often spend a lot of time and money in discovering new musicians or developing the talent of artists they already have signed up with a contract. The association of the brand with the artists helps define the image of both the brand and the artist.
In spite of the fact that both parties need each other to survive, the relationship between record labels and artists can, at times, be a difficult one. Many artists have had albums changed or censored in some way by the labels before they are released—songs being edited, artwork or titles being changed, etc. Record labels generally do this because they believe that the album will sell better if the changes are made. Often the record label's decisions are correct ones from a commercial perspective, but this typically frustrates the artist who feels that their artwork is being destroyed.
In the early days of the recording industry, record labels were absolutely necessary for the success of any artist. The first goal of any new artist or band was to get signed to a contract as soon as possible. In the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, many artists were so desperate to sign a contract with a record company that they usually ended up signing a bad contract, sometimes giving away the rights to their music in the process. Entertainment lawyers are used by some to look over any contract before it is signed.
In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a phase of consolidation in the record industry that led to almost all major labels being owned by a very few multinational companies, who in turn were members of the RIAA.
In the 1990s, due to the widespread use of home studios, consumer CD recorders, and the Internet, independent labels began to become more commonplace. Independent labels are typically artist-owned (although not always), with a focus usually on making good music and not necessarily on the business aspects of the industry or making lots of money. Because of this, independent artists usually receive less radio play and sell fewer CDs than artists signed to major labels. However, they usually have more control over the music and packaging of the released product.
On occasion established artists, once their record contract has finished, move to an independent label. This often gives the combined advantage of name recognition and more control over one's music. Singers Dolly Parton, Aimee Mann and Prince, among others, have achieved this.
While there are many independent labels, folk singer Ani DiFranco's Righteous Babe Records is often cited as an ideal example. The singer turned down lucrative contracts from several top-name labels in order to establish her own New-York-based company. Constant touring resulted in noteworthy success for an act without significant major funding. Ani and others from the company have spoken on several occasions about their business model in hopes of encouraging others.
Some independent labels become successful enough that major record companies negotiate contracts to either distribute music for the label or in some cases, purchase the label completely.
On the punk rock scene, the DIY punk ethic encourages bands to self-publish and self-distribute. This approach has been around since the early 1980s, in an attempt to stay true to the punk ideals of doing it yourself and not selling out to corporate profits and control. Such labels have a reputation for being fiercely uncompromising and especially unwilling to cooperate with the Big Five record labels at all.
"Main Article:" net label
With the Internet now being a viable source for music, net labels emerge. Depending on the ideals of the net label, music files from the artists may be downloaded free of charge or for a fee that is paid via PayPal or an online payment system. Some of these labels also offer hard copy CDs in addition to direct download (for example, Baltimore's Schismatik record label ships CDs for a nominal charge). Most net labels acknowledge the Creative Commons licensing system thus reserving certain rights for the artist.
"Main Article:" Open source record label
The new century brings the phenomenon of "open-source" or "open-content" record label. These are inspired by the free software and open-source movement and the success of GNU/Linux.
Examples are
Pipette
A pipette is a glass tube used for moving a specific volume of a solution.
A smaller, less accurate version, known as a teat pipette is made of plastic and is filled by squeezing a plastic bubble at the top.
A pipette used for the delivery of small fractions of a milliliter of a liquid is called a micropipette.
Piston-driven air displacement pipettes, or 'micropipettes', are the most accurate and precise pipettes. They handle liquid in the microliter scale, and are used in biology and biochemistry,
Muscle is a tissue in animal bodies. Their main purpose is to help us to move our body parts. They are one of the major systems of human and animal bodies. When a muscle is activated it contracts, making itself shorter and thicker, thereby pulling its ends closer.
There are three kinds of muscles:
Muscle action can be classified as being either "voluntary" or "involuntary".
The skeletal muscles move the limbs (arms and legs). They move the jaw up and down so that food can be chewed. Skeletal muscles are the only "voluntary" muscles, the only ones that we can choose to move.
The cardiac muscle is the muscle in the heart. When this muscle contracts it pushes blood through the circulatory system. The cardiac muscle is "not" voluntary.
The smooth muscles are the other muscles in the body that are involuntary. Smooth muscles are in many places. They are in:
Muscles are made of many muscle cells. The cells contract together to make the muscle get shorter. The muscle cells know to do this together because many of them get information sent to them by nerves. The cells that get the message from nerves tell other cells that are near them. They tell the other cells by sending an electrical current.
Muscle cells are filled with proteins called actin and myosin. These are the proteins that make the muscle contract (get shorter.)
When a nerve tells a muscle to contract, the muscle opens holes in its cell membrane. These holes are proteins that are called "calcium channels". The calcium ions rush into the cell. Calcium also comes out of a special place in the cell called the "sarcoplasmic reticulum". This calcium sticks to the specialized proteins actin and myosin. This triggers these proteins to contract the muscle.
Contraction also needs ATP. This is the energy that your cells use. It is made from using glucose in the cell. It takes a lot of energy to release contracted muscles. They use most of the energy for building muscles.
Exercise makes muscles get bigger (see hypertrophy). Exercise also makes muscles stronger. If a person does not exercise, their muscles become smaller and weaker. This is called muscle atrophy.
There are many different kinds of muscle diseases. There are three big groups of diseases:
Game Boy
The , is an 8-bit handheld video game console, first released in Japan in April 1989. It was later released in North America in July 1989 and then in Europe in September 1990. It is Nintendo's first handheld. The Game Boy is also the first portable console to use game cartridges, meaning the games are interchangeable. The Game Boy family eventually extended to include the Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Game Boy Advance SP and Game Boy Micro.
The Game Boy has a green screen that displays four shades of dark green (gray for the Game Boy Pocket). Like the NES, the Game Boy has four buttons and a cross-shaped direction pad. The console has a single speaker, and it can be used with stereo headphones. As many as four Game Boys can be connected together with the Game Boy Link Cable.
The Game Boy was invented by Gunpei Yokoi, who also was responsible for creating the unsuccessful Virtual Boy and the successful Game & Watch games.
Recently, the Game Boy was compared to all Nintendo handhelds and systems released between 1989 and 2016 to see how long each one's battery life lasted, and the Game Boy beat all the other systems with 30 hours of battery life. The Game Boy provided the most game play at its time, and currently still does.