AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Notre Dame is a very old cathedral in Paris, France. It is one of France's most famous landmarks and many people visit it each year. The cathedral is on a small island on the River Seine. It is the cathedral of the Catholic Archdiocese of Paris, one of 23 archdioceses in France. The cathedral was built during two centuries. It is a very good example of Gothic Architecture in France. At the time it was finished, the cathedral was the biggest such building in Western Europe. Between 1844 and 1864, the building was renovated under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who incorporated elements into the design that the medieval building had not possessed before. The two rose windows which ornate the transept are among the biggest in Europe: each has a diameter of 13m.
The bronze plate in the parvis before the cathedral is the origin of all road distances in France calculated from Paris. The national geographic institute in France uses the building as a benchmark. The coordinates and altitude for this point are known precisely.
Victor Hugo wrote a famous story called 'Notre-Dame de Paris'. The story takes place around the cathedral. The English title is 'The Hunchback of Notre Dame', and it has also been made into movies.
Tradition has it that Notre-Dame’s first stone was laid in 1163 in the presence of Pope Alexander III.
On May 21, 2013 French historian Dominique Venner committed suicide at Notre Dame de Paris because of his beliefs for gay rights. About 1,500 people were evacuated from the cathedral.
On 15 April 2019, smoke and flames were sighted and the Cathedral was declared to be on fire. The fire burnt for over half a day and caused massive damage. Most works of art in the cathedral could be saved. The French government announced that the damage would be repaired and the cathedral would be rebuilt.
Stand Up for Love
"Stand Up for Love" was the first single from Destiny's Child's greatest hits album, "1's". Released in 2005, the single became Destiny's Child's first single to fail to chart in the United States. The song was the final Destiny's Child single, although another new song from the album, "Check on It" (a solo Beyoncé Knowles song) was released.
Survivor (song)
"Survivor," Destiny's Child's signature song, is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles for Destiny's Child's third studio album "Survivor" (2001). It was produced by Beyoncé and Dent, and was released as the album's first single in early 2001. The song reached number one in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and entered the top 10 of the majority of the charts it appeared on, making it one of Destiny's Child most successful single releases. The song also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
Erich Honecker
Erich Honecker (25 August 1912 – 29 May 1994) was an East German Communist politician who led the German Democratic Republic from 1971 until 1989.
After German re-unification, he went to the Soviet Union but was sent back by the new Russian government to Germany, where he was imprisoned and tried for high treason and crimes committed during the Cold War. However, as he was dying of liver cancer, he was released from prison. He died in exile in Chile about a year and a half later.
Honecker was born in Neunkirchen, nowadays Saarland. He had two brothers and three sisters.
He joined the Young Communist League of Germany (KJVD), the youth section of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), in 1926 and joined the KPD itself in 1929. Between 1928 and 1930 he worked as a roofer, but did not finish his apprenticeship. Thereafter he was sent to Moscow to study at the International Lenin School and for the rest of his life remained a full-time politician.
He returned to Germany in 1931 and was arrested in 1935 after the Nazis had come to power ("Machtübernahme"). In 1937, he was sentenced to ten years for Communist activities and remained in captivity until the end of World War II. At the end of the war, Honecker started working for the communist party again under leader Walter Ulbricht. In 1946, he became one of the first members of the new Socialist Unity Party of Germany ("Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands", SED), made up of the old KPD and the Social Democrats of eastern Germany.
He was a member of the parliament in the Soviet Occupied Zone after the elections of October 1946. The German Democratic Republic was created on 7 October 1949. Its constitution set up a system of government like the Soviet Union's. Honecker became a candidate member of the secretariat of the Central Committee in 1950 and full member in 1958.
In 1961, Honecker was in charge of the building of the Berlin Wall. In 1971, he started a political power struggle. The Soviet's supported him, so Honecker became the new leader, or "General Secretary", of the Socialist Unity Party, replacing Walter Ulbricht. In 1976, he also became Chairman of the Council of State ("Staatsratsvorsitzender").
Under Honecker there was a big improvement in living standards, even though the GDR had the highest standard of living in the Eastern bloc countries. More consumer goods were made available and new house-building was speeded up.
Although Honecker was more caring to the people about goods and housing he did not allow criticism of the government. The most obvious way this was shown was the Berlin Wall. About 125 East German citizens were killed during this period while trying to cross the border into West Berlin.
In foreign relations, Honecker would never allow a unified Germany. He was very loyal to the USSR, but accepted détente (that is, becoming friendlier to western countries). Under his government East Germany even became friendlier to West Germany. In September 1987, he became the first East German head of state to visit West Germany.
In the late 1980s Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced glasnost and perestroika, reforms to liberalize communism. Honecker and the East German government, however, refused to implement similar reforms in the DDR. As the reform movement spread across Central and Eastern Europe there were demonstrations against the East German government. The biggest were the 1989 Monday demonstrations in the city of Leipzig. The other leaders of the DDR decided to get rid of Honecker, and forced him to resign on 18 October 1989. Egon Krenz took over instead.
After the German reunification Honecker stayed in a Soviet military hospital near Berlin. Then he fled to Moscow with his wife, to avoid prosecution over charges of Cold War crimes. The German government said he should be prosecuted because 192 East Germans died trying to leave East Germany. After the Soviet Union broke up in December 1991, Honecker went to the Chilean embassy in Moscow, but was sent back by Boris Yeltsin's government in 1992. The trial started in early 1993, but Honecker was released due to ill health and on 13 January of that year moved to Chile to live with his daughter Sonja, her Chilean husband Leo Yáñez, and their son Roberto. He died of liver cancer in Santiago, Chile on 29 May 1994.
Honecker married Edith Baumann in 1950 and divorced her in 1953. They had a daughter, Erika (b. 1950). In 1953 he married Margot Feist and they remained married until his death. They had a daughter, Sonja, born in 1952. Margot Honecker was the Minister for National Education in East Germany.
Honecker's autobiography "Aus meinem Leben" is translated into English as "From my life".
New York : Pergamon, 1981.
List of current heads of state and government
This page lists the national rulers in the world. They are heads of state and heads of government.
In some cases they are de facto leaders not occupying either of those positions or prime ministers who are not heads of government. 195 states (193 UN members + Vatican City + Taiwan) are the basic list.
Also there are leaders of 10 other national entities (quasi and unrecognized states, and of 7 in exile and/or alternative governments (only in exile governments that exercised power or succeeded governments that exercised power).
For local rulers, for example rulers of dependencies and of the main administrative divisions, such as autonomous regions, insular or peninsular regions, successors of historical regions or regions with strong identity, regions in the news, etc.) see List of the main local rulers.
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Chara (singer)
Chara (born as Miwa Watabiki, on January 13, 1968) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She began performing in 1991. "Swallowtail Butterfly - あいのうた" is one of her popular songs.
Chara grew up in Kawaguchi, Saitama. She started learning the piano from age four, and starting composing songs in elementary school.
Notre-Dame de Reims
Notre Dame de Reims is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.
The cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.
The Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.
Bayeux Cathedral
Bayeux Cathedral is a cathedral. It is in Bayeux, in Normandy. The current cathedral was consecrated on July 14, 1077. It is part of a larger complex, a bishop's palace. It was built as a replacement for an earlier church which dated from the Merovingian era. It was here that Harold Godwinson swore an oath that later led to the Norman Conquest.
Year 1107 (MCVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
1030 (MXXX) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the thirtieth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
1266
Coelurosauria
Coelurosauria is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.
This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.
All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.
Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).
An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".
A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur "Protoavis". What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.
Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. "Archaeopteryx" is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). "Ornitholestes", the troodontid WDC DML 110, "Coelurus fragilis" and "Tanycolagreus topwilsoni" are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. "Epidendrosaurus" and "Pedopenna" are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160 Ma or 145 mya.
The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.
In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.
There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.
Maniraptora
Maniraptors ("hand snatchers") is a clade of coelurosaurian dinosaurs starting in the Jurassic period.
Many paleontologists believe birds evolved from them some 150 or so million years ago. Hence, according to phylogenetic taxonomy, birds are by definition maniraptors, and the other maniraptors are their closest relatives. It is now known, from the Jehol biota, that many or all of this clade had feathers. They are often called dinobirds.
The most primitive (basal) member of the group may be "Ornitholestes", and the most advanced (derived) of the non-bird maniraptors is "Velociraptor" and "Deinonychus".
IEEE 802.1X
Software Development Kit
A software development kit (SDK or "devkit") is usually a set of development tools that allows a software developer to create applications for a certain software package, software framework, hardware platform, computer system, video game console, operating system, or similar platform.
SDKs vary greatly between a simple application programming interface to hardware used to simulate a system.
Tagged Image File Format
Ounce
Camino was a free, open source web browser, that was designed for the Mac OS X operating system. It was developed by the Camino Project, a community organization. It was based on Mozilla's Gecko rendering engine.
Pixels per inch
An arm is an upper limb of the body.
Arm (or arms) can also mean:
Safari (web browser)
Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. which can be downloaded free of charge. It also comes with a Mac computer. It is based on the WebKit engine, which is a fork of KDE's KHTML engine.
Apple Inc. replaced the previous default web browser, Internet Explorer, with their Safari many years ago. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, said that it would be released in Jan 2003. Since then, 14 types of Safari have been made. The newest one was made in Sep 2020 for iOS and iPadOS, and Nov 2020 for macOS.
Safari has several features. Some are specific to certain operating systems or platforms.
Here is a list of some of Safari's features:
Netscape Navigator
Netscape Navigator (or just Netscape) was a closed source web browser between 1994 to 1998. In 1999, they made it open source. It was first released in 1994. It was very popular during the 1990s. In 1998, Internet Explorer gained more market share, due to Microsoft bundling Internet Explorer with Windows 98. Netscape Communications Navigator Version 0.9B (Mosaic Netscape Navigator 0.9b) got released in June 13, 1994-present (at dejavu.org/1994win.htm).
List of The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episodes
This is a list of "Treehouse of Horror" episodes from the animated television series "The Simpsons". "Treehouse of Horror" episodes have aired every year since the second season (1990). Each episode has three separate segments. These segments usually involve the family in some horror, science fiction, or supernatural setting. They always take place outside the normal continuity of the show and are therefore considered to be non-canon.
The first "Treehouse of Horror" episode aired on October 25, 1990 and was inspired by EC Comics Horror tales. Before "Treehouse of Horror XI", which aired in 2000, every episode was aired in the week preceding or on October 31; "Treehouse of Horror II" and "Treehouse of Horror X" are the only episodes to air on Halloween. However, due to Fox's current contract with Major League Baseball's World Series, every episode since has aired in November, with the exception of "Treehouse of Horror XX", which aired on October 18, 2009.
From "Treehouse of Horror" to "Treehouse of Horror XIII", all three segments were written by different writers. In some cases there was a fourth writer that wrote the opening and wraparound segments. For "Treehouse of Horror", there were even three different directors for the episode. However, starting with season fifteen's "Treehouse of Horror XIV", only one writer was credited as having written a "Treehouse of Horror" episode, and the trend has continued since.
As of 2019 there are 30 "Treehouse of Horror" episodes, with one airing every year. They are known for being more violent than an average "Simpsons" episode and contain several different trademarks, including the alien characters Kang and Kodos who have appeared in every episode. Quite often the segments will parody well-known films, books, radio shows, and television shows. "The Twilight Zone" has been parodied quite often and has been the inspiration for many segments. The 31st season made a Thanksgiving themed episode named "Thanksgiving of Horror".
The term English literature means literature written in the English language.
English literature began in Old English with the epic poem Beowulf, which dates from sometime between the 8th to the 11th centuries. It is not written in language people can understand today, but there are several good translations into modern English. It is the most famous work in Old English, despite being set in Scandinavia. The poem is written with no rhymes but with alliteration. The next important landmark is the works of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400), especially "The Canterbury Tales". That is in Middle English 1066 to the middle/late 1400s. Chaucer introduced into English poetry rhyme royal that is a seven-line stanza rhymed ababbcc.
Modern English literature began in 16th century. Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey wrote first English sonnets. The last-mentioned invented also blank verse. Edmund Spenser wrote "The Faerie Queene", a long epic poem while Philip Sidney wrote a sequence of sonnets Astrophel "and Stella".
The next stage is Thomas Kyd, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Shakespeare and John Milton, sometimes described as Early Modern English (1470 to 1650).
William Shakespeare is the author of the most famous sentence written in English: "To be, or not to be, that is the question:". It is the first line of prince Hamlet's monologue from drama "The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark" that was published in 1603.
King James Version of Bible was published in 1611. John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress" which is one of the most popular books ever published.
In 18th century first modern novels were written by Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Laurence Sterne and Horace Walpole.
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats,Jane Austen, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens,Robert Browning, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, D.H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf and Ted Hughes are all important English writers in modern English.
T.S. Eliot was perhaps the most important poet in 20th century who wrote in English. His best known work is the poem "The Waste Land" that was published in 1922. Another book by him was "The Four Ouarters". The poet himself regarded it as his best work.
Not all English literature was written by writers born in England. Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Hilaire Belloc was French, Emma Lazarus was Jewish, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V. S. Naipaul is Trinidadian, and Vladimir Nabokov was Russian. The greatest Portuguese poet of 20th century, Fernando Pessoa wrote some poems in English, too. In other words, English literature includes all the varieties and dialects of English spoken around the world.
English is a language known by many million people. They can read literary works from any country in English translation.
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, "Introduction to the History of English Literature" (1863).
Georges Auguste Escoffier (28 October 1846 – 12 February 1935) was a French chef, restaurateur and writer who updated traditional French cooking methods and made them more popular. He was important in the development of modern French cuisine.
A lot of Escoffier's ideas and ways of working were based on Antoine Carême's. Careme wrote about French "Haute cuisine". Escoffier simplified and modernised Carême's complicated recipes and style.
As well as recording and inventing recipes, Escoffier made cooking a respected profession.
He organised his kitchens into sections run by "chefs de partie". He also carried on Careme's habit of "service à la russe" (serving each dish in the order printed on the menu) instead of "service à la française" (serving all dishes at once).
Gregor Von Görög, Chef to the Royal family at Buckingham Palace, was quick to assume this form of service, and soon all 'High Society' was adopting 'Russian-style' service.
He was born in the village of Villeneuve-Loubet, near Nice. At thirteen he became an apprentice at his uncle's restaurant, "Le Restaurant Français", in Nice. In 1865 he moved to "Le Petit Moulin Rouge" restaurant in Paris. He stayed there until the start of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, when he became an army chef. His army experience led him to study the ways of canning food.
Some time before 1878 he opened his own restaurant, "Le Faisan d'Or" (The Golden Pheasant) in Cannes. In 1880 he married Delphine Daffis. In 1884 the couple moved to Monte Carlo, where Escoffier took control of the kitchen at the Grand Hotel.
During the summers he ran the kitchen of the Hotel National in Lucerne, where he met César Ritz. At that time the French Riviera was a winter resort.
The two men formed a partnership and in 1890 moved to the Savoy Hotel in London. From the Savoy they started a number of famous hotels, including the Grand Hotel in Rome, and many Ritz Hotels around the world.
At the London Savoy, Escoffier created many famous dishes. For example, in 1893 he invented the Pêche Melba (Peach Melba) in honour of the Australian singer Dame Nellie Melba. Another of his creations was Tournedos Rossini, in honour of the Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini. He left the Savoy Hotel after taking money from food suppliers.
In 1898 Escoffier and Ritz opened the Hôtel Ritz in Paris. The Carlton in London followed in 1899, where Escoffier first introduced the practice of the "à la carte" menu. Ritz had a nervous breakdown in 1901, leaving Escoffier to run the Carlton until 1919, shortly after Ritz's death. For a time one of his pupils was Ho Chi Minh who was training as a pastry chef.
In 1903 Escoffier published his first major book, "Le Guide Culinaire". This "Guide to Cooking" had 5,000 recipes. Even today it is used as both a cookbook and textbook for classic cooking.
In 1904 and 1912 Escoffier was hired to plan the kitchens for ships belonging to the steam-ship company Hamburg-Amerika Lines. On the second voyage, Kaiser William II congratulated Escoffier, telling him "I am the Emperor of Germany, but you are the Emperor of chefs."
In the 1920s, Escoffier became the first chef to receive the Legion of Honour and in 1928 was made an Officer of the Legion.
He died at the age of 88 in Monte Carlo a few days after his wife.
29 Amphitrite
29 Amphitrite is one of the biggest S-type asteroids, probably third in diameter after Eunomia and Juno, although Iris and Herculina are similar in size.
It is probably not a fully solid body, since its density is too low for a solid silicate object and much lower than Eunomia or Juno. Its orbit is less eccentric and inclined than those of its bigger cousins - being indeed the most circular of any asteroid found up to that point - and as a consequence it never becomes as bright as Iris or Hebe, especially as it is much farther from the Sun than those asteroids. It can reach magnitudes of around +8.6 at a favorable opposition, but more usually is around the binocular limit of +9.5.
Amphitrite was found by Albert Marth on March 1, 1854. It was the only asteroid he found. It is named after Amphitrite, a sea goddess in Greek mythology.
A moon is suspected based on the lightcurve data.
31 Euphrosyne
31 Euphrosyne is one of the biggest main belt asteroids, found by James Ferguson on September 1, 1854. It was the first asteroid found from North America. It is named after Euphrosyne, one of the Charites in Greek mythology.
It is the eighth biggest main belt asteroid and contains around 1% of the mass of the entire asteroid belt, but is a very dark body near the belt's farther edge. Because of that, Euphrosyne is never visible with binoculars, having a maximum magnitude at the best possible opposition of around +10.2, which is actually fainter than any of the thirty asteroids previously found.
It has not been studied a lot despite being one of the biggest asteroids. It is a normal C-type asteroid with a primitive surface. Its orbit, however, is quite unusual. It's orbit is similar to that of 2 Pallas in its high inclination and eccentricity. Whereas Pallas and Eris - the only bigger bodies with comparably tilted orbits - have nodes near perihelion and aphelion, Euphrosyne's perihelion lies at the northernmost point of its orbit. During a rare perihelic opposition Euphrosyne is very high in the sky from northern latitudes, but invisible from such countries as New Zealand and Chile.
Its apparently low density suggests that, unlike 10 Hygiea, 704 Interamnia and 52 Europa, Euphrosyne is a loosely-packed rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken apart by a collision with all the pieces pulled together by gravity). Its rotation period is very common for big asteroids, but nothing is known of its axial tilt.
Chemistry (band)
Misia (Japanese singer)
MISIA (born July 7, 1978 in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Kyūshū, Japan) is a Japanese singer who is most popular in Japan. One of her most famous songs is called "Everything".She served as an honorary ambassador on the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10) and the TICAD V (5th Conference on African Development) .
Pikaia gracilens is regarded as the earliest known primitive chordate from the Middle Cambrian fossil found near Mount Pika in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It was discovered by Charles Walcott in 1911. Walcott classified it as a Polychaete worm.
It was about 40 mm in length and swam above the sea-floor. Pikaia may have filtered particles from the water as it swam along. Only 60 specimens have been found to date.
Opabinia
Opabinia is a fossil animal found in Cambrian fossil deposits. Its sole species, Opabinia regalis, is known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. The discoverer of "Opabinia", Charles Doolittle Walcott, named it after a local mountain, Opabin Peak in the Canadian Rockies.
Thirty specimens of Opabinia are known and each ranges in size from 40 to 70 mm. The most intriguing feature of Opabinia are its five eyes found on the dorsal surface of the head. These eyes were used to search for food. Because of its flexible body it is not known whether Opabinia was pelagic or benthic.
Wiwaxia
Wiwaxia corrugata is an extinct species of animal known only from fossils found in Canada's Burgess Shale deposits.
Wiwaxia somewhat resembles a very small porcupine (about 30 mm in diameter) with its quills pulled out. The body is covered by both spines and scales. The spines are believed to have been used for defence purposes. Wiwaxia probably grazed or scavenged by walking or crawling along the sediment. One hundred and forty specimens are known from the Burgess Shale. Similar scales and spines have turned up in similarly aged sediments from elsewhere around the world suggesting that Wiwaxia was widespread during the Cambrian.
Cambrian
The Cambrian is the first geological period of the Palaeozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from 541 million years ago to 485.4 million years ago. Before it came the Ediacaran, and after it the Ordovician.
Biologists have learnt quite a lot about the soft parts of Cambrian animals. This is because places have been found where soft parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. This means our understanding of the Cambrian biota is better than that of some later periods.
Life on Earth changed greatly during the Cambrian period. Before the Cambrian, life was mostly small and simple. Complex organisms (metazoa) evolved during the Proterozoic era. But during the Cambrian period, some organisms used carbonate minerals for shells, so they had hard parts which could become fossils. There were many different kinds of life during the Cambrian period. This increase in the diversity of lifeforms was relatively rapid, and is called the Cambrian explosion. This adaptive radiation produced the first members of the main groups of animals, called phyla.
Almost all of this new life was in the oceans. There was little life on land except a layer of microbes. There were shallow seas near several continents, because a supercontinent called Pannotia had broken into smaller pieces. The seas were warm, and there was no ice at the North and South Pole. Many animals with hard shells appeared for the first time during the beginning of the Cambrian.
At the start of the Cambrian, the earlier animals (the Ediacaran biota) may have become extinct. It seems these older life forms were affected by new types which burrowed into the sea floor. This changed the conditions of life for the older types. The burrowing must have disturbed the mat of bacteria and algae which covered the sea-floor. About this time we find the first examples of many phyla. There are also some fossil traces on what was land at the time, so perhaps a few Cambrian organisms did leave the water.
Fossils from the Cambrian period sometimes show what the soft parts were like, unlike most fossils where the soft parts disappear. Fossils from the Burgess Shale in Ontario, Canada are examples of fossils with soft parts. Here are some life forms that first appeared in the Cambrian period, with the oldest ones first:
It is not always clear which phylum a fossil should be put into. So there are some fossils which are still being discussed, years after they were discovered.
A conjecture is an idea in mathematics that appears "likely" to be true but that has not been "proven" to be true.
After a conjecture is proven to be true, it becomes a theorem.
Until recently, one of the most famous conjectures was Fermat's Last Theorem. The name was incorrect, because although Fermat said he had a proof for it, none could be found in his notes. In 1992, British mathematician Andrew Wiles found a proof for it, making it a theorem and not a conjecture.
Other famous conjectures include:
Not every conjecture can be proven true or false. The continuum hypothesis, which describes the size of certain infinite sets, is an example. It was shown to be independent of the generally accepted axioms of set theory, which means that it cannot be proven true or false using those axioms. It is therefore possible to take this statement, or its negation, as a new axiom in a consistent manner (much as we can take Euclid's parallel postulate as either true or false).
In this case, if a proof uses this statement, researchers will often look for a new proof that "does not" require the hypothesis The one major exception to this in practice is the axiom of choice -- unless studying this axiom in particular, the majority of researchers do not usually worry whether a result requires the axiom of choice.
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a passenger aircraft made by Boeing. Its first flight took place on 15 December 2009. It was planned to be released earlier, but the first passenger flight of the airplane was in October 2011. Because of this some airlines will get their aircraft nearly 30 months late.
The aircraft has had some problems. It is being reviewed by the FAA and the Japanese aviation agency. On January 16, 2013, the FAA said that no 787s were allowed to fly in the U.S. The EASA, Japanese Transport Ministry, India's Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), and Chile's Dirección General de Aeronautica Civil (DGAC) also said that the 787 was not allowed to fly in their country.
In the late 1990s Boeing wanted to make a plane called the Sonic Cruiser, which would go very fast. According to Boeing, the 787 consumes 20% less fuel than the similarly-sized 767. But after the September 11, 2001 attacks fuel prices went up, so airlines wanted more efficient planes rather than faster ones. Boeing cancelled the Sonic Cruiser and replaced it in January 2003 with the "7E7," which was the code name for the 787 at the time. In July 2003, Boeing decided to call the new plane the "Dreamliner."
On April 26, 2004, Japanese airline All Nippon Airways became the launch customer for the 7E7, and they expected to have the plane delivered in 2008. In 2005 it was renamed the 787.
The 787 was designed to be much more efficient. It did this by using composite to build most of the plane instead of aluminum, which made the plane lighter. It also used two new engine types, the General Electric GEnx and the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000. According to Boeing this made the 787 20% more efficient than the 767.
In December 2006 Boeing said that the 787 was heavier than they expected, so the plane was delayed. Also, Boeing had tried to shorten the time to make the plane by asking parts suppliers to assemble parts of the plane. These parts manufacturers were not used to the extra work though, and this delayed the 787 even more.
Boeing started to test the 787 on the ground. They found more problems and the plane was delayed even more. Finally on December 15, 2009 the 787 went on its first flight. Boeing began testing the plane in the air. There were more problems, like a failure of one of the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines, and an in flight fire, which delayed the plane even more. Some airlines wanted to be paid back for all the delays. Finally in July 2011, Boeing delivered their first 787 to ANA.
The Boeing 787 has a common type rating as the Boeing 777, which means that a pilot who trains in one of the planes can easily switch to the other with very little additional training.
One of the most interesting features of the 787 is the sawtooth pattern at the back of the engine. According to Boeing this makes the plane quieter for people on the plane and on the ground. The engines also have sound absorbing material at the front of the engine to make the plane even quieter.
The inside of the 787 is the most noticeable feature. The windows are much bigger on the 787 than on other planes because the plane is made mostly of composite, which is stronger than the aluminum which is used on most other planes. Also, the windows of the plane don't use slide-down shades like most planes. Instead they have buttons which can make the window darker or lighter. The inside of the plane also uses LED lighting. This lets the plane change the colors of the lights inside.
The fact that the plane is made of composites instead of aluminum makes the passengers more comfortable. Most passenger planes fly so high that they needs to pump air into the cabin so the passengers can breathe. Most planes pump in enough air so that the passengers feel like they are at about 8000 feet (2400 meters). But since the 787 uses composites, which is stronger than aluminum, the plane can pump in more air so the passengers feel like they are at about 6000 feet (1800 meters). The composite is also less vulnerable to corrosion, so the plane can have a higher humidity than most other planes. Boeing says that these improvements will make passengers feel better after a long flight.
Boeing makes 3 variants of the Dreamliner: the 787-8, the 787-9, and the 787-10. The 787-10 is in testing. They were also going to make the 787-3, but it was later cancelled due to low airline demand.
The -8 is the shortest 787 variant, flying 210 people about 15200 km. It started flying in 2011. The -8 will replace the Boeing 767-200ER and Boeing 767-300ER aircraft. It is meant for very long trips with fewer passengers, where a bigger plane will not make enough money for the airline.
The -9 is a larger 787 and has a range of about 15750 km. It will be able to fly about 270 people and started production in 2014. It will be able to carry more weight than the -8, and it will be longer than the -8. It will compete against Airbus and their A330-300 aircraft and their A330-200. It will replace the Boeing 767-400ER.
The -10 is larger than both the 787-8 and the 787-9. It will carry about 300 people, but to do that it will have less range. It will compete with the Airbus A350, and it will also replace the Boeing 777-200ER aircraft.
The -3 was going to be the smallest and would have the shortest range at about 5000 km, and would fly about 290 people. It would have replace the Boeing 747-400D (the D stands for domestic, which means flights that take-off and land in the same country) that was used by two Japanese airlines. At first these Japanese airlines had ordered the 787-3, but since the plane was late the airlines cancelled their orders. This made Boeing scrap the 787-3.
Akshobhya
Buddha Akshobhya is one of the five Dhyani buddhas.
Akshobya represents Dharma that changes hatred and dislike into wisdom. He is shown touching the earth with his right hand and holding an upright thunderbolt in his left hand. Akshobya's blessings enables us to develop wisdom and understand the true nature of reality.
Jambhala
In the Buddhist religion, Jambhala is the wealth-giving form of Avalokiteśvara or Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of compassion.
Jambhala's blessings are to help others by eliminating poverty, so that they may practice the Dharma. There are five Jambhalas - Yellow Jambhala (overcomes pride), White Jambhala (overcomes attachment), Black Jambala (overcomes resentment), Green Jambhala (overcomes jealousy) and Red Jambhala (overcomes greed). For instance, the White Jambhala is shown sitting on a turquoise dragon and his left hand holds a mongoose that spews out precious jewels.
Bodhi
Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics. It is concerned with finite or countable infinite sets. Combinatorics is part of discrete mathematics. Combinatorics are about graph theory, or Partitions of sets. According to George Pólya, combinatorics looks at counting the number of possibilities, and about the questions whether certain configurations exist, and how to get to them.
Permutation is concerned with the following problems:
There are variations in the problems as follows:
Enrique Granados
Enrique Granados (born Lérida, Spain, 27 July 1867; died in the English Channel, 24 March 1916) was a Spanish composer and pianist. He lived most of his life in Barcelona. His favourite painter was Goya and his best work, the piano pieces called "Goyescas", are inspired by Goya’s paintings.
Granados started having piano lessons in Barcelona and then went to Paris where he studied privately with Charles de Bériot. He returned to Barcelona in 1889 and the following year gave his first piano recital. He wrote a zarzuela (light opera) called "Maria del Carmen". The king liked it very much and gave him an award.
During the following years he composed a lot and performed with famous musicians such as Jacques Thibaud, Pau Casals and Camille Saint-Saëns. His piano suite "Goyescas" was first performed in Barcelona in 1911 and then in Paris in 1914 where it soon became extremely popular.
He was persuaded to make "Goyescas" into an opera. The opera was going to be performed at the Paris Opéra but, because of World War I it was performed in New York instead. Granados was invited to go to New York to watch the first performance of his opera. He was very frightened of the sea, but eventually was persuaded to go. The opera was a great success when it was performed on 26 January 1916. Granados felt that he was at the beginning of a successful career. President Wilson invited him to play the piano at the White House. Because of this invitation he missed the ship that would have taken him back to Spain. He took a ship to England instead. In Liverpool, he got off the ship and got onto another one which would take him to Dieppe in France. The ship was called the "Sussex". When the "Sussex" was in the middle of the English Channel it was torpedoed by a German submarine. Granados managed to get onto a lifeboat, but then he saw his wife in the sea and he jumped in to try to save her, but they both drowned.
Granados wrote mainly piano works and songs. He was influenced by Romantic composers such as Grieg, Schumann and Liszt, but he was starting to make his music sound very Spanish. His songs include some of the best written by a Spanish composer. His piano works include "Ten Spanish Dances", which are not too difficult to play, and the suite "Goyescas" which is mostly quite difficult to play. The most popular piece in this suite is called "Lament, or The Maiden and the Nightingale". It has a very romantic tune which is repeated several times.
Manuel de Falla (born Cádiz, Spain, 23 November 1876; died Alta Gracia, Argentina, 14 November 1946) was a Spanish composer. Falla (pronounce: “FA-ya”), together with Albéniz and Granados, helped to make Spanish music important again after three centuries during which there had been no important Spanish composers.
Falla had his first music lessons in Cádiz. At first he did not know whether he wanted to take music or literature as a career. When he was ten he started to go to music evenings where he heard chamber music being played. Then he started to go to the opera, and he heard church music and orchestral music. He liked the music of Grieg and decided that he wanted to do something similar with Spanish music. He went to Madrid where he studied very hard and won prizes. His first compositions were played in Cádiz. He studied with Pedrell who had also taught Albéniz and Granados.
He wrote a song called "Tus ojillos negros" which became very popular, and he won a prize for a piano composition, but it was his opera "La vida breve" (1904-1905) which really showed his genius, although it was not performed at the time. No one in Spain wanted to perform his zarzuelas, so he went to Paris in 1907. He soon made friends with Dukas, Debussy and Ravel. He made changes to "La vida breve" and it was performed in Paris in 1913. His piano works and songs were also performed in Paris, and in Madrid.
In 1915 he wrote "El amor brujo". It was a work with dances, songs and spoken passages. He soon turned it into a ballet. The music uses the songs of Andalusia and the rhythms of Spanish folkmusic. He wrote a work for solo piano and orchestra called "Noches en los jardines de España" ("Nights in the gardens of Spain"). Later he changed it to a ballet for Diaghilev, calling it "El sombrero". It was performed in London in 1919 with designs by Picasso. The music is very lively and often sounds like a guitar. He wrote a piano piece called "Fantasia bética" (1919) which is the most important Spanish piano work after Albéniz’s "Iberia".
Falla had many friends, including Lorca. They liked small theatre pieces and Falla wrote "El retablo" and set it as a puppet opera. He liked the music of the past centuries, and wrote a concerto for harpsichord and five other instruments.
During his final years Falla was composing a very large work called "Atlántida". It was a long oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra. The words were in Catalan. Falla did not live long enough to finish the work. He became very depressed because of World War II. In the end he was invited to Argentina where he settled. He continued to work at "Atlántida", but he had not finished it when he died. A man called Ernesto Halffter spent many years trying to finish it and prepare it for a performance. It was performed on stage at La Scala, Milan, in 1962, but it does not work well as an opera. Occasionally it is performed as a concert piece.
Joaquín Turina
Joaquín Turina Pérez (9 December 188214 January 1949) was a Spanish composer of classical music.
Turina was brought up in Seville, and the music of this town always had a big influence on his music. His father was a painter. As a small boy Turina’s favourite toy was a small toy accordion. He started to study medicine, but he wanted to be a musician, so his father let him study music instead. He had piano lessons with Enrique Rodriguez and studied harmony with Garcia Torres, who was in charge of music at the cathedral in Seville.
Soon Turina started to compose. He met Falla and the two musicians became lifelong friends. He moved to Paris in 1905 where he studied with Moskowski and d’Indy. One of the his first works to be performed was piano quintet. The style was similar to César Franck. Albéniz heard it and advised the young composer to make his music sound Spanish.
Turina’s music started to be performed widely. In 1914 both Turina and Falla returned to live in Spain. They were two of the most important Spanish composers. He was choirmaster at the Teatro Real and he had an opera "Jardin de oriente" performed there. He became director of the Madrid Conservatory and received many honours. He died after a long illness.
Turina’s music always sounds very Spanish, although he used the forms of main European composers. He wrote many short piano pieces which often describe a person. He wrote songs and guitar music.
Edouard Lalo
Edouard Lalo (born Lille, 27 January 1823; died Paris, 22 April 1892) was a French composer.
His family originally came from Spain. Edouard learned to play the piano and violin at the Lille Conservatory, but his parents did not want him to take music as a profession. So he left home when he was 16 and went to Paris. He took some lessons and earned money by teaching and playing the violin. He liked chamber music. Not many people in France were interested in chamber music at that time. With three friends he formed a string quartet and they helped to make the string quartets of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven better known in France. He played the viola in his quartet, and later he played second violin. In 1859 he composed a string quartet.
It was not until the 1870s, when he was already in his 50s, that he started to become really well known. Some famous conductors such as Pasdeloup, Lamoureux and Colonne and the violinist Sarasate took an interest in his orchestral works and performed them. He wrote a violin concerto and a work called "Symphonie espagnole" ("Spanish Symphony") which was also for solo violin and orchestra. Sarasate played both these works. He wrote a cello concerto in 1877.
He wrote an opera "Le roi d’Ys", but no opera house wanted to perform it. They asked him to write a ballet instead. He did not know anything about ballet, but he composed one called "Namouna". It had some good music, although people who did not like him said it sounded like Wagner or like the music of someone who is used to writing symphonies.
In 1888 his opera "Le roi d’Ys" was performed at last. It was an enormous success, but Lalo only had four more years to live, and he did not compose anything more of importance. He had married one of his pupils in 1865 and they had a son.
In France Lalo is mainly remembered for his opera "Le roi d’Ys", but in other countries his best known work is his "Symphonie espagnole". It is not really a “symphony”, it is a violin concerto. It has five movements and there are lots of lively, Spanish rhythms. His cello concerto is also an excellent work.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980
Las Vegas Raiders
The Las Vegas Raiders are a professional American football team in the National Football League. They play in Paradise, Nevada, USA. Their stadium is Allegiant Stadium. They were created in 1960 as a new American Football League team. They play in the Western Division of the American Football Conference. Division rivals are Denver Broncos, Kansas City Chiefs, and Los Angeles Chargers. The Raiders have won three Super Bowls.