AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Adams Morgan continues to show linguistic and cultural diversity of its public schools. Many of the families served live beyond the boundaries established for routine student enrollment; however, Adams, Reed, and H.D. Cooke elementary schools all have international populations, with children from well over 30 nations in attendance. Latino and African-American children comprise the majority of students in the public schools, and virtually all are children of color.
The second Sunday of September, the neighborhood hosts the Adams Morgan Day Festival, a multicultural street celebration with live music and food and crafts booths. And, weather permitting, every Saturday—except during the coldest winter months—local growers sell fresh, organically grown produce and herbs; baked and canned goods; cheeses; cold-pressed apple juice and fresh flowers at the farmers market, in operation in the same location for more than 30 years. Also on summer Saturdays, the Western Art Market is open at the Marie Reed School.
In the 1960s, the neighborhood's attractions included the Avignon Freres bakery and restaurant, the Café Don restaurant, the Ontario motion picture theater, and the Showboat Lounge jazz nightclub. In the 1980s, Hazel's featured live blues and jazz. Its soul food offerings made it a favorite of black jazz musicians like Dizzy Gillespie when they came to town.
The area is not directly served by the Metrorail system. The nearest station, Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan (Red Line) is in the Woodley Park neighborhood, but was renamed in 1999 to reflect the station's proximity to Adams Morgan. The nearest station on the Green Line is Columbia Heights. In March 2009, the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) began operating a DC Circulator bus route connecting the center of Adams Morgan with both Metro stations. The area is also served by a number of WMATA Metrobus lines.
Adams Morgan is in the service area of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 1C. The boundaries of ANC 1C are 16th Street NW on the east, Harvard Street NW and Rock Creek Park on the north, Rock Creek Park and Connecticut Avenue on the west, and Florida Avenue and U Street on the south.
Foxhall (Washington, D.C.)
Foxhall is a rich neighborhood in Washington, D.C.. It is bordered by Reservoir Road on the north side and Foxhall Road on the west and south sides. Glover-Archibold Park makes up the eastern border.
The first homes were constructed along Reservoir Road and Greenwich Park Way in the mid-1920s. By the end of December, 1927, some 150 homes had been erected, and the community given the name of Foxhall Village.
Foxhall is mostly residential. Foxhall has a distinct architecture. The vast majority of the homes are a brick Tudor style.
Judiciary Square, Washington, D.C.
Judiciary Square is a neighborhood in Northwest Washington, D.C.. It has various federal and municipal courthouses and a number of important federal and municipal office buildings. Judiciary Square is roughly between Pennsylvania Avenue to the south, H Street NW to the north, 6th Street to the west, and the I-395 access tunnel to the east.
The center of the Judiciary Square neighborhood is an actual plaza by the name of Judiciary Square, so named because it is adjacent to or inclusive of most of the courthouse buildings in the area. The square is between 4th and 5th Streets, with D Street to the south and F Street to the north.
Among the buildings in Judiciary Square are:
The neighborhood is served by the Judiciary Square station on the Red Line of the Washington Metro.
During the first half of the 19th century, Judiciary Square was mostly residential. Its proximity to the courthouses drew a number of lawyers, judges, and clerks to the neighborhood, while its location between the White House and the Capitol made it ideal for government employees. Among its most prominent residents were Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton, Vice President John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster. As of 2006, however, nearly all of the once plentiful rowhouses in the area were gone, with the remaining houses mostly centered around the intersection of 5th and D Streets.
Around the turn of the 20th century, the eastern side of Judiciary Square became an enclave of Italian immigrants in Washington - the equivalent of a Little Italy (although it was never called that). The Italian neighborhood rested on the eastern edge of the square proper, stretching eastward to about 2nd Street NW. The heart of the community was Holy Rosary Church, a chapel built at 3rd and F Streets NW. The neighborhood lasted well into the 20th century, with a particular surge of Italian immigrants in the 1950s and 60s; in the mid 1970s, however, construction of the I-395 northbound extension through the city gutted about half of the neighborhood and forced its remaining residents to move away from the heavy commuter traffic. Today the former Italian enclave is dominated by Federal office buildings and law offices for the trial attorneys who argue in Judiciary Square courthouses, although Holy Rosary Church remains standing and continues to draw a heavily Italian congregation along with its "Casa Italia" cultural center next door.
James Jabara
James "Jabby" Jabara (10 October 1923, Muskogee, Oklahoma – 17 November 1966) was the first American pilot to shoot down 5 Mig-15 airplanes in Korea. He was then transferred to Washington DC for duty before returning to K-14 Kimpo, Korea. He was the Executive Officer in the 334th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. While stationed there he was responsible for 10 more Mig kills thus making him a triple ace.
Jabara's father operated a grocery store at the corner of 3rd and Martin Luther King streets. At an early age the family moved to Kansas. According to newspaper reports he died in a car crash along with a daughter in 1966. He was also a fighter pilot in world war 2. In Korea he was flying F-86 Sabre Jets in the 334th Fighter Interceptor Squadron formerly known as the Fighting Eagles Squadron formed in England before we entered world war 2.
Walter Schachner
Walter Schachner (born 1 February 1957 in Leoben, Austria) is a retired Austrian football striker and former Austrian national team player. He is now working as football coach for LASK Linz for Austrias Erste Liga.
He started his professional career with DSV Leoben in the second division. After one and a half season he was nominated for Austrias national football team although he was playing in the 2. league. After three years with Austria Wien he played seven years in Italy for AC Cesena, Torino Calcio, SC Pisa and US Avellino. After returning from Italy he played for different clubs in Austria in the upper three divisions. He played his last match in the final round of the 2000/01 season for FC Kärnten whre he was coach at this time.
For Austria he played 64 matches and scored 23 goals. He was member of the squad for the FIFA World Cup 1978 and 1982. 1978 he was in the starting team in the 3:2 win versus Germany (Miracle of Cordoba).
His first club was the FC Zeltweg which he promoted from 4th to 3rd division. His first team in professional football was FC Kärnten in the First league. They promoted to the Bundesliga. 2002 he was coach of FK Austria Wien but was replaced by Christoph Daum in October despite the fact that the team was 7 points ahead of the second in the league. Only a few days later he became coach of the GAK from Graz. With GAK he won the Championship in 2004.
From 2006 till 2007 he was coach of TSV 1860 München then he came back to Austria and managed FC Kärnten again. From 2008 to 2010 he managed Admira Wacker Mödling. The first year they reached the Cup final. 2010 he was replaced by Dietmar Kühbauer.
2011 he became coach of LASK Linz but could not avoid the relegation to the First League.
Yashoda
Edvard Beneš
Johns Hopkins Hospital
The Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) is the teaching hospital and biomedical research of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
It was founded in 1889 by Johns Hopkins.
It is thought to be one of the greatest hospitals in the world. It was ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" news magazine as the best overall hospital in America for 21 years (1991–2011).
Kazimierz Świątek
Kazimierz Świątek (; born October 21, 1914 – died July 21, 2011) was a Roman Catholic Cardinal in Belarus. He was sentenced to death by the Soviet Union, but escaped after two months. He was later spent nine years hard labor by the Gulag and survived.
Świątek was born at Valga in the Apostolic Administration of Estonia on October 21, 1914. He graduated from the Major Seminary in Pinsk, Belarus. Świątek was ordained as a priest on April 8, 1939 He was sent to work in Pruzhany.
In Pruzhany in 1939, Świątek was accused of spying. He was found guilty in Stalinist show trial, and sentenced to death. A "show trial" is a highly public trial where the sentence has been decided before the trial starts. When German troops gained control of the territory, Świątek was able to escape from prison and avoid his execution.
Świątek was arrested by the KGB on December 18, 1944. He Minsk until July 21, 1945. Świątek was sentenced to 10 years of hard labor in the Gulag concentration camps. He spent two years in Mariinsk, Siberia, and seven years north of the polar circle in Vorkuta and Inta. He release on June 16, 1954. Świątek returned to Pinsk and his pastoral work in the cathedral parish.
On April 13, 1991, Pope John Paul II appointed the 77 year old Świątek the first archbishop of the new archdiocese of Minsk-Mohilev. He was also appointed the Apostolic Administrator of the diocese of Pinsk.
On November 26, 1994, Pope John Paul II named Świątek Cardinal. On February 11, 1999, Cardinal Świątek was elected the first president of the Conference of Catholic Bishops in Belarus. On the 14th of June 2006 Pope Benedict XVI accepted Świątek's resignation from the pastoral care of the Archdiocese of Minsk.
Roland Petit
Roland Petit (13 January 1924 – 10 July 2011) was a French choreographer who wrote dances for Rudolf Nureyev and was later in charge of the Paris Opera.
He was born in 1924 at Villemomble, France and began ballet lessons at the age of nine at the Paris Opera's School of Dance. After World War II, Petit started several ballet companies in Paris, as well as creating 11 ballets for the Paris Opera. He worked in Hollywood for four years and choreographed the 1953 ballet "The Lady in the Ice" with Orson Welles. He also worked on movies including "Hans Christian Andersen" starring Danny Kaye (1952), "Daddy Long Legs" with Fred Astaire and Leslie Caron (1955) and "Anything Goes" with Bing Crosby and Zizi Jeanmaire (1956).
In 1970 he was head of the Paris Opera and wrote works for Nureyev and Margot Fonteyn. He then did the choreography for the Casino de Paris. He has also worked with the San Francisco Ballet, the Bolshoi (Moscow), La Scala (Milan), the Asami Maki Ballet (Tokyo) and the National Ballet of China. He spent the last part of his life working with the National Ballet of Marseille-Roland Petit.
Malay Archipelago
The Malay Archipelago refers to the archipelago between mainland Southeastern Asia and Australia.
It has also been called the East Indies, the Indo-Australian Archipelago, Indonesian Archipelago and other names over time.
The archipelago is between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The group has over 25,000 islands. It is the largest archipelago by area, and third by number of islands in the world. It includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, East Malaysia and East Timor.
The island of New Guinea or islands of Papua New Guinea are not always included in definitions of the Malay Archipelago. The Indonesian Moluccas are included in the archipelago.
The Malay Archipelago is the place where two large tectonic plates meet, and is an area where orogeny (mountains) and volcanoes are common.
The Wallace Line is a key term in biogeography. It passes between Bali and Lombok, which are separated by a passage of water which is both deep and fast. On the one side are Australasian species, and on the other side Asian species. The natural history of the area was investigated by Alfred Russel Wallace, who spent eight years in the Spice Islands.
Lucian Michael Freud (December 8, 1922 — July 20, 2011) was a Anglo-German painter. He is regarded as having been one of the greatest painters of the human form. He was born in Berlin in 1922, and moved with his family to England in 1933 to escape from the Nazis. He became a British citizen in 1939. His father, an architect, was the son of Sigmund Freud. During World War II, Freud studied art as well as working as a sailor in the British Merchant Navy. His brother was Clement Freud (1924-2009).
He painted portraits which have been described as being brutally honest; he did not try to make people look good. He often painted them nude, with the faces staring straight ahead. He used thick layers of paint, impasto, using colours of green, grey and purple, which he blended to with pink to suggest skin color. He was popular for a while in the 1960's, but his work was rediscovered in 1987 after an exhibition in the US. In 2008 his painting “Benefits Supervisor Sleeping” was sold for US$33.6 million — the most ever paid for a painting by a living artist. This painting was of a fat nude woman asleep on a couch.
He was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1993. This honour, given by the Queen, is limited to only 24 people who have achieved distinction in the arts, science or other areas.
He died in London after a short illness.
Parthian language
The Parthian language is an old Iranian language. It has been spoken in the northeast of Iran, in the region called Parthia. The main time of this language was about 248 B.C. until 224 A.D. That was during the Parthian Empire. Parthian is an Indo-European language.
At the time of Sassanid Empire, the Parthian language was destroyed. Middle Persian replaced it.
There are many words in Armenian that came from Parthian.
President of the Czech Republic
The Wallace Line (or 'Wallace's Line') is a boundary that separates the ecozone of Asia and the Australasian ecozone. The transitional zone is sometimes called "Wallacea".
Plants and animals related to Asian species are found to the north-west. Australasian species are found mainly to the south-east, with some Asian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed this clear dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century.
The line runs through Indonesia, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and through the Lombok Strait between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east).
The distance between Bali and Lombok is only about 35 kilometers. Surprisingly, the distributions of many bird species observe the line, because many birds do not cross even the smallest stretches of open ocean water. Some bats have distributions that cross the Wallace Line, but other mammals are generally limited to one side or the other; an exception is the Crab-eating Macaque. Other groups of plants and animals show differing patterns, but the overall pattern is striking and reasonably consistent.
The term 'Wallace's Line' was first used by Huxley in 1868.
The root cause of Wallace's line is that the ancient supercontinent Gondwana was separated entirely from other parts of the world after Pangaea broke up. Australasia and its smaller islands were part of Gondwana, and that is why their fauna is so different from that of south-east Asia. Wallace's line marks where part of the old Gondwana plate touches part of the old Laurasia plate.
During Quaternary ice age cold periods, when the , both Asia and Australia were joined with their respective islands. The deep water between those two large continental shelf areas was — for over 50 million years — a barrier that kept the flora and fauna of Australia separated from that of Asia. Wallacea consists of islands that were never recently connected by dry land to either of the continental land masses, and thus was populated by organisms capable of crossing the straits between islands. 'Weber's Line' runs through this area (rather to the east of centre), at the tipping point between dominance by species of Asian vs. species of Australian origin.
Japanese macaque
The Japanese macaque ("Macaca fuscata"), also known as the snow monkey, is a monkey that lives in the high mountains of the island of Honshū in Japan. They live in below-zero temperatures, and they like to warm themselves and relax in hot springs.
Macaques eat fruit, flowers, seeds, bark, leaves, shrimp, and insects.
Macaques weigh around 12 kilograms and can grow up to 70cm. They have short tails.
Macaque
The macaques are a genus ("Macaca") of Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The 22 species of macaques live in sub-Saharan Africa, and more widely in Asia. One species is the well-known Gibraltar 'ape'. Macaques are of some interest to human researchers for their social structures, and their usefulness in animal testing, particularly regarding eyesight.
Macaques have a very intricate social structure and hierarchy. If a macaque of a lower level in the social chain has eaten berries and none are left for a higher-level macaque, then the one higher in status can, within this social organization, remove the berries from the other monkey's mouth.
The word geek is a slang word. It has many different meanings. It can mean a person who enjoys computers and knows a lot about them. It used to mean a carnival worker "who bit the heads off of chickens and rats." One dictionary says that a geek is "a peculiar or otherwise dislikable person, especially one who is perceived to be overly intellectual". This means "a strange and un-likeable person, especially one who is thought to be very clever", in simple English.
This word comes from English dialect words (words that are used in certain places) "geek, geck": fool, freak; from Low German "geck", from Middle Low German. A different form of the word "geck" is still used in Dutch and Afrikaans "gek": crazy. Other forms of "geck" are also used in some German dialects, and in the Alsatian word "Gickeleshut": geek's hat, used in carnivals.
In 18th century Austria-Hungary, "Gecken" were freaks shown by some circuses.
In 19th century, in North-America, the term "geek" referred to a freak in circus side-shows (see also freak show). In some cases, its performance included biting the head off a live chicken. The 1976 edition of the "American Heritage Dictionary" included only the definition regarding geek shows.
The word is often used to be rude or mean to someone. However, it can also be used without meaning to be hurtful, or with pride. An example is the 'Geek Squad' of the Best Buy company.
The meaning of geek has changed much over time, and there is no longer a single meaning. The words nerd, gimp, dweeb, dork, spod and gump have similar meanings as geek. But many people choose to say that these words mean slightly different things. However, the differences are not agreed on. In a 2007 interview on "The Colbert Report", Richard Clarke said the difference between nerds and geeks is "geeks get it done." Julie Smith described a geek as "a bright young man turned inward, poorly socialized, who felt so little kinship with his own planet that he routinely traveled to the ones invented by his favorite authors, who thought of that secret, dreamy place his computer took him to as cyberspace—somewhere exciting, a place more real than his own life, a land he could conquer, not a drab teenager's room in his parents' house."
Other meanings include:
The word "geek" is in Robert Heinlein's 1952 short story "The Year of the Jackpot". The word appears meaning the modern definition.
Being called a "geek" is usually an insult. The word is now often a nice thing to say, meaning that the person it is describing has extraordinary technical skill. Geek Pride Day has been observed on May 25 in Spain since 2006 (May 25 being the world premiere date of Star Wars and also Towel Day). The holiday promotes the right to be nerdy or geeky, and to express it in public without feeling bad. A new meeting, Geek.Kon, is held in Madison, Wisconsin to celebrate all things geek.
The website BoardGameGeek is an online community of boardgamers who see themselves as geeks at boardgame meetings; they call their website "The Geek", for short. Technical support services such as Geek Squad use the term "geek" to show that they have helpful technical abilities. In recent history, some geeks have grown a geek culture, such as geek humor and odd references on t-shirts. The so-called "geek chic" trend is a deliberate affectation of geek or nerd traits as a fashion statement. Nonetheless, the derogatory definition of geeks remains that of a person only thinking about his area of interest at the cost of social skills, personal hygiene, and status.
There has been criticism over the widespread appropriation of the terms "geek" and "nerd" as self descriptors. Certain people who would have most likely not been described as such under the traditional stereotype have argued this. Along with efforts to de-emphasize the negative social aspects, in recent years there have been arguments for de-emphasizing the necessity for having noticeably high levels of intelligence or technical aptitude. This has resulted in the desire to redefine the term geek rather as any person who pursues a passionate interest in anything regardless of genre, is creative, and individualistic. Arguments against the revisionist definitions, however, state that it is not only unnecessary, but it completely contradicts the traditional accepted definition of the terms which distinctly refer to persons who are noticeably above average intelligence, usually good at things in technically demanding fields, and socially awkward or alienated to a certain extent.
"Geek chic" is a phrase that means a person who has stereotypically "geek" features including black-rimmed glasses, T-shirts with geek in-jokes, and more technically complex things.
There are many ways of looking at the term "geek chic", with heavy black-rimmed glasses being the one defining thing as far as the press is concerned. Wearing them is sufficiently notable to have celebrities like David Beckham, Justin Timberlake and Myleene Klass being reported as "trying geek chic". David Tennant, the Tenth Doctor in "Doctor Who", has also described the look of his bespectacled character as having "a bit of geek chic".
Geeks themselves think that the term is used for "reclaiming the geek identity as something not only meaningful, but also stylish." - for this usage, more than just glasses are needed, and so the term has a wider meaning, being applied to home fittings and objects as well as clothes. In this usage, the term "geek chic" can even be used as a positive contrast to the somewhat more negative term "geeky".
Geek chic is not to be confused with preppie fashion, which is more widely to do with a conservative image rather than geek culture. Instead, much of the geek chic image borrows from various other youth fashions such as goth, hippie, and bohemian among others, but t-shirts with geeky in-jokes seem to originate from the geeks themselves. Shirt designers who tailor to geeks offer rewards for the best ideas.
The company of has trademarked "Geek Squad" as the name of its computer repair service. Best Buy has fought the trademarks of a dozen other companies, including Geek Rescue, Rent a Geek, and . It is also fighting with Newegg over the use of "Take it from a Geek" on Newegg's website. The NBC television show "Chuck" wanted to use "Geek Squad" to describe the main characters' job. But Best Buy asked for them to change the name. So the characters on "Chuck" were called "Nerd Herd" instead.
42 (answer)
42 is the "Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything" in "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" books. It was computed by
Deep Thought, the second greatest computer ever. The descendants of Deep Thought's creators are upset by the numeric nature of the answer, not understanding what to do with it or what to tell the people who had commissioned the 7.5-million year project.
When asked to produce The Ultimate Question to go with the answer "42", Deep Thought admits it is not capable of computing that itself, but that it can help to design an even more powerful computer, which can. This new computer will incorporate living beings into the "computational matrix" and will run for ten million years. It is the planet Earth.
Pleumeur-Bodou
Pleumeur-Bodou is a commune. It is found in the region Bretagne in the Côtes-d'Armor department in the west of France.
Pleumeur-Bodou is twinned with:
Northern Virginia military shootings
The Northern Virginia military shootings were several attacks by a man shooting a rifle at empty military buildings. The shots were fired in October and November 2010. Experts looked at the bullets left at the various places. They could see that all of the shots were from the same rifle.
The first shooting was aimed at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Triangle, Virginia on October 16, 2010. Some bullets from a high-velocity rifle went through the atrium skylight. The second shooting happened on October 19, 2010 shortly before 5 a.m. Someone shot at the south side of The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The bullets broke windows on the third and fourth floors. Special glass stopped the bullets from entering the building. The offices behind those windows were empty because of repairs. The Pentagon Reservation was temporarily closed because the police searched the area for evidence. The building was reopened about 5:40 a.m. The Joint Terrorism Task Force is leading the investigation into the incident. In the third shooting, the same rifle shot the Marine Corps Museum again on October 29. The same rifle was used to attack a Marine Corps recruiting center in Chantilly, Virginia on October 26.
These attacks made the organizers of the October 31, 2010 Marine Corps Marathon upgrade the safety measures. The race was run without problems. On November 3, police announced that the same rifle was used to shoot at a United States Coast Guard recruiting center in Woodbridge, Virginia on late November 1 or early November 2.
The person behind the attacks remained unknown until June 17, 2011 when Yonathan Melaku was arrested. He is a 22 year old naturalized Ethiopian immigrant and Marine Corps Reserve Lance Corporal. He was found at Arlington National Cemetery while it was closed. He was carrying spent shell casings, a notebook containing references to the Taliban and Osama bin Laden, and plastic bags filled with ammonium nitrate, a common component of homemade explosives. He also left his car parked in the woods near the Pentagon, police said. He had also been recently charged with breaking into 27 cars in suburban Washington. The investigation of the incident connected Melaku to the shootings. On June 23, 2011, he was charged with two counts of willfully injuring the property of the United States. If he is convicted of those charges, he could go to prison for 20 years. Melaku is also charged with two counts of using a firearm during a violent crime. If he is convicted of those charges, he could go to prison for the rest of his life. More charges are possible.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is working with the Fairfax County Police, the Prince William County police and the Pentagon Force Protection Agency to investigate the case.
Molecular symmetry
Molecular symmetry is a basic idea in chemistry. It is about the symmetry of molecules. It puts molecules into groups according to their symmetry. It can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties.
Chemists study symmetry to explain how crystals are made up and how chemicals react. The molecular symmetry of the reactants help predict how the product of the reaction is made up and the energy needed for the reaction.
Molecular symmetry can be studied several different ways. Group theory is the most popular idea. Group theory is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals. This is used in the Hückel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Another idea on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.
Scientists find molecular symmetry by using X-ray crystallography and other forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on facts taken from molecular symmetry.
Physicist Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929. Eugene Wigner used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy. The first character tables were compiled by László Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables in English (1933). E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes. The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy.
Mathematical group theory has been adapted to study of symmetry in molecules.
The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.
Each of the five symmetry elements has a symmetry operation. People use a caret symbol (^) to talk about the operation rather than the symmetry element. So, Ĉ is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and Ê is the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C is equivalent to E, S to σ and S to "i", all symmetry operations can be classified as either proper or improper rotations.
A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical "group", for which at least one "point" remains fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group which will work with translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic point groups, 30 of which are relevant to chemistry. Scientists use Schoenflies notation to classify point groups.
Mathematics define a "group". A set of symmetry operations form a group when:
The order of a group is the number of symmetry operations for that group.
For example, the point group for the water molecule is C, with symmetry operations E, C, σ and σ'. Its order is thus 4. Each operation is its own inverse. As an example of closure, a C rotation followed by a σ reflection is seen to be a σ' symmetry operation: σ*C = σ'. (Note that "Operation A followed by B to form C" is written BA = C).
Another example is the ammonia molecule, which is pyramidal and contains a three-fold rotation axis as well as three mirror planes at an angle of 120° to each other. Each mirror plane contains an N-H bond and bisects the H-N-H bond angle opposite to that bond. Thus ammonia molecule belongs to the C point group which has order 6: an identity element E, two rotation operations C and C, and three mirror reflections σ, σ' and σ".
The following table contains a list of point groups with representative molecules. The description of structure includes common shapes of molecules based on VSEPR theory.
Symmetry operations can be written in many ways. A good way to write them is by using matrices. For any vector representing a point in Cartesian coordinates, left-multiplying it gives the new place of the point transformed by the symmetry operation. Composition of operations is done by matrix multiplication. In the C example this is:
Although an infinite (going on forever) number of such representations (ways of showing things) exist, the irreducible representations (or "irreps") of the group are commonly used, as all other representations of the group can be described as a linear combination of the irreducible representations. (The irreps span the vector space of the symmetry operations.) Chemists use the irreps to sort the symmetry groups and to talk about their properties.
For each point group, a character table summarizes information on its symmetry operations and on its irreducible representations. The tables are square because there are always equal numbers of irreducible representations and groups of symmetry operations.
The table itself is made of characters which show how a particular irreducible representation changes when a particular symmetry operation is applied (put to it). Any symmetry operation in a molecule's point group acting on the molecule itself will leave it unchanged. But for acting on a general entity (thing), such as a vector or an orbital, this does not have to be what happens. The vector could change sign or direction, and the orbital could change type. For simple point groups, the values are either 1 or -1: 1 means that the sign or phase (of the vector or orbital) is unchanged by the symmetry operation ("symmetric") and -1 denotes a sign change ("asymmetric").
The representations are labeled according to a set of conventions:
The tables also tell the Cartesian basis vectors, rotations about them, and quadratic functions of them transformed by the symmetry operations of the group. The table also shows which irreducible representation transforms in the same way (on the right hand side of the tables). Chemists use this because chemically important orbitals (in particular "p" and "d" orbitals) have the same symmetries as these entities.
The character table for the C symmetry point group is given below:
For example, water (HO) which has the C symmetry described above. The 2"p" orbital of oxygen is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C and a σ'(yz) operation, but remains unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1). This orbital's character set is thus {1, -1, 1, -1}, corresponding to the B irreducible representation. Similarly, the 2"p" orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A irreducible representation, 2"p" B, and the 3"d" orbital A. These assignments and others are in the rightmost two columns of the table.
Jean Paul Getty (December 15, 1892 – June 6, 1976) was an American industrialist. He founded the Getty Oil Company. In 1957 "Fortune" magazine named him the richest living American, and the 1966 Guinness Book of Records named him as the world's richest private citizen, worth an estimated $1,200 million. At his death, he was worth more than $2 billion. A book published in 1996 ranked him as the 67th richest American who ever lived. (The book ranked his wealth as a percentage of the United States gross national product.) Despite his wealth, Getty was known for being a miser.
Getty enjoyed collecting art and antiquities. His collection formed the basis of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California, and over $661 million of his estate was left to the museum after his death. He established the J. Paul Getty Trust in 1953. The trust is the world's wealthiest art institution. It operates the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Foundation, the Getty Research Institute, and the Getty Conservation Institute.
His father George Getty owned a petroleum business in Minneapolis, Minnesota. J. Paul was one of the first people in the world with a fortune estimated at over one billion U.S. dollars.
He enrolled at the University of Southern California, then at University of California, Berkeley before graduating in 1914 from Magdalen College, Oxford with degrees in economics and political science. He spent his summers between studies working on his father's oil fields in Oklahoma. Running his own oil company in Tulsa, he made his first million by 1916. However, in 1917, he announced that he was retiring to become a Los Angeles-based playboy. Although he eventually returned to business, Getty had lost his father's respect. Just before George Franklin Getty died in 1930, he believed that Jean Paul would destroy the family company, and told him so.
After taking a few years off from the money-making grind to enjoy spending his earnings on women, Getty returned to Oklahoma in 1919. During the 1920s he added about $3 million to his already sizable estate. His succession of marriages and divorces (three during the 1920s, five throughout his life) so distressed his father, however, that J. Paul inherited a mere $500,000 of the $10 million the senior Getty left at his death in 1930.
Getty carefully invested his resources during the Great Depression. Getty acquired Pacific Western Oil Corporation. He began the acquisition (completed in 1953) of the Mission Corporation, which included Tidewater Oil and Skelly Oil. In 1967 the billionaire merged these holdings into Getty Oil.
Beginning in 1949, Getty paid Ibn Saud $9.5 million in cash and $1 million a year for a 60-year concession to a tract of barren land near the border of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. No oil had ever been discovered there. After spending $30 million over four years, oil was discovered there. From 1953 onward, Getty's gamble produced a year, which contributed greatly to the fortune which made him one of the richest people in the world.
Getty learned to speak Arabic which helped his unparalleled expansion into the Middle East. Getty owned the controlling interest in nearly 200 businesses, including Getty Oil. Associates identified his overall wealth at between $2 billion and $4 billion. It did not come easily, perhaps inspiring Getty's widely quoted remark—"The meek shall inherit the earth, but not the mineral rights."
He moved to England in the 1950s and loved English culture (Anglophile). He lived and worked at his 16th-century Tudor estate, Sutton Place near Guildford; the traditional country house became the centre of Getty Oil and his associated companies and he used the estate to entertain his British and Arabian friends (including the British Rothschild family and numerous rulers of Middle Eastern countries). Getty lived the rest of his life in the British Isles, dying of heart failure at the age of 83 on June 6, 1976.
Getty was married and divorced five times. He had five sons with four of his wives:
He was quoted as saying "A lasting relationship with a woman is only possible if you are a business failure".
Getty wrote a very successful book entitled "How to Be Rich".
Getty famously had a pay phone installed at Sutton Place, helping to seal his reputation as a miser. In his autobiography, he described his reasons:
Getty placed dial-locks on all the regular telephones, limiting their use to authorised staff, and the coin-box telephone was installed for others. When speaking in a televised interview with Alan Whicker, Getty said that he thought guests would want to use a payphone .
On July 10, 1973 in Rome, 16 year old John Paul Getty III was kidnapped and a ransom of $17 million was demanded over the phone for his safe return. However, "the family suspected a ploy by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather." John Paul Getty II asked his father for the money, but was refused.
In November 1973 an envelope containing a lock of hair and a human ear was delivered to a daily newspaper. The second demand had been delayed three weeks by an Italian postal strike. The demand threatened that Paul would be further mutilated unless $3.2 million was paid: "This is Paul’s ear. If we don’t get some money within 10 days, then the other ear will arrive. In other words, he will arrive in little bits."
When the kidnappers finally reduced their demands to $3 million Getty senior agreed to pay no more than $2.2 million - the maximum that would be tax deductible. He loaned his son the remaining $800,000 at 4% interest. Paul III was found alive in southern Italy shortly after the ransom was paid. After his release Paul III called his grandfather to thank him for paying the ransom but Getty refused to come to the phone. Nine people were later arrested for the kidnapping, but only two were convicted. Paul III was permanently affected by the trauma and became a drug addict. After a stroke brought on by a cocktail of drugs and alcohol in 1981, Paul III was rendered speechless, nearly blind and partially paralyzed for the rest of his life. He died thirty years later on February 5, 2011 at the age of 54.
Getty defended his initial refusal to pay the ransom on two points. First, he argued that to submit to the kidnappers' demands would immediately place his other fourteen grandchildren at the risk of copy-cat kidnappers. He added:
The 2017 movie "All the Money in the World" are based on these events. Christopher Plummer plays J. Paul Getty. In 2018, a television series based on the events, "Trust", premiered with Donald Sutherland playing Getty.
Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English writer John Milton. It was printed in 1667 though it was written nearly ten years earlier. The second part was printed in 1674. Most of the poem was written after Milton was blind.
The poem is about the Christian story of the Fall of Man: how Adam and Eve got out from the Garden of Eden and about the fallen angel Lucifer.
Muammar al-Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi( ' ) (c. 1942 - 20 October 2011) better known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan politician. He ruled Libya from 1969 to 2011.
Muammar al-Gaddafi was born in a tent near Qasr Abu Hadi. His family came from a small tribal group called Qadhadhfa. His family were Arabized Berber people in heritage. He joined the Libyan military in 1961; the military was one of the few ways for lower class Libyans like him to rise in social status. He became a colonel.
Gaddafi became head of state of Libya after removing King Idris from power in a 1969 bloodless coup. He ruled Libya from September 1, 1969 to August 23, 2011. After the coup, Gaddafi established the Libyan Arab Republic. He was one of the longest-serving non royal rulers in history, because he had ruled for more than 41 years. Gaddafi used Arab socialist and Arab nationalist ideas. He published a book about his philosophical views in 1975. This book is commonly known as "The Green Book". In 1977, he left the power of Libya, and continued playing role of revolutionary. People called him the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution".
The Libyan Arab Republic was renamed to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 1977 later it was renamed again to the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya by Gaddafi in 1986.
In the 1980s, he developed chemical weapons, because of it critics called Libya a pariah state. A Dutch investigation found that Gaddafi had built up a "billion-dollar empire", from assets in an international company in the oil industry. It also claims that his assets are scattered throughout much of Europe, Despite no trace or proof for even 1 billion have been found. Gaddafi had a strong interest in geo-political control, was a firm supporter of OAPEC and led a Pan-African campaign for a United States of Africa. In 1986 Libya was bombed by US, home of Gaddafi was targeted but he survived. Bombing was condemned by many nations and also by UN.
In 1988, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Libya. Gaddafi started to have closer economic and security relations with the West. He cooperated with investigations into alleged Libyan anti-western acts, by 1999 he offered to dismantle weapon of mass destruction of Libya, which would be inspected in 2003. As a result, the UN sanctions were lifted in the same year.
Gaddafi was elected Chairperson of the African Union in 2009.
In February 2011 there were major violent protests against Libyan government. These came alongside other demonstrations in Tunisia, Egypt, and other parts of the Arab world. The protests quickly turned into a civil war. Gaddafi vowed to "die a martyr" if necessary in his fight against rebels and external forces; he also said that "peaceful protest is one thing but armed rebellion is another."
On 17 May 2011 the International Criminal Court issued a request for an arrest warrant against Gaddafi for alleged crimes against humanity, which was approved on 27 June and a warrant was issued by the court. On June 2011, according to investigation made by Amnesty International, it was found that there was no evidence for many of the alleged crimes, and that the rebels had falsely blamed Gaddafi as well as the government. He was accused of ordering the Lockerbie bombing in Scotland that killed over 200 people. The bombing targeted a civilian plane and it was downed.
The Libyan Civil War (2011) erupted in February. The aim was to remove Gaddafi from power. Gaddafi was captured alive and killed by NATO backed rebels in Sirte, Libya, on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last stronghold of the Gaddafi regime.
Otto Konrad (born 1 November 1964) is a retired Austrian football goalkeeper. He now works as goalkeeping coach for SV Grödig in Austria's First League.
He started his professional career with his local club SK Sturm Graz. He stayed 11 years and then went to SV Austria Salzburg. With this team he reached 3 national titles and played in the 1994 UEFA Cup Final which Salzburg lost to Inter Milan. In the 1994/95 season he even scored a goal for Salzburg. This goal was voted "Goal of the year 1994". 1997 to 1998 he became goalkeeper of Real Zaragoza in Spain but returned to Austria where he played for GAK, DSV Leoben and PSV Salzburg.
He played 12 matches for the Austrian national football team and was member of the squad for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. At all his international career was not as successful as the club career because at that time there was a lot of competition among goalkeepers in Austria.
Electrocyclic reaction
In organic chemistry, an electrocyclic reaction is a type of pericyclic rearrangement reaction. The reaction is electrocyclic if the result is one pi bond becoming one sigma bond or one sigma bond becoming a pi bond. Electrocyclic reactions share the following properties:
The torquoselectivity in an electrocyclic reaction refers to the direction that the substituents rotate. For example, the substituents in a reaction that is conrotatory can still rotate in two directions. It produces a mixture of two products that are the mirror image of each other (enantiomeric products). A reaction that is torquoselective restricts one of these directions of rotation (partially or completely) to produce a product in enantiomeric excess (where one stereoisomer is produced much more than the other).
Chemists are interested in electrocyclic reactions because the geometry of the molecules confirm a number of predictions made by theoretical chemists. They confirm the conservation of molecular orbital symmetry.
The Nazarov cyclization reaction is an electrocyclic reaction that closes a ring. It converts divinylketones to cyclopentenones. (It was discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (1906–1957).)
An example is the thermal ring-opening reaction of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene. The cis isomer only yields "cis,trans-2,4-hexadiene". But the trans isomer gives the trans,trans diene:
The frontier-orbital method explains how this reaction works. The sigma bond in the reactant will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the product (a butadiene). This can only happen with a conrotatory ring-opening that results in opposite signs for the two lobes at the broken ends of the ring. (A disrotatory ring-opening would form an anti-bond.) The following diagram shows this:
The stereospecificity of the result depends on whether the reaction proceeds through a conrotatory or disrotatory process.
The Woodward–Hoffmann rules address the conservation of orbital symmetry in electrocylic reactions.
Correlation diagrams connect the molecular orbitals of the reactant to those of the product having the same symmetry. Correlation diagrams can be drawn for the two processes.
These correlation diagrams indicate that only a conrotatory ring opening of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene is "symmetry allowed" whereas only a disrotatory ring opening of 5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene is "symmetry allowed". This is because only in these cases would maximum orbital overlap occur in the transition state. Also, the formed product would be in a ground state rather than an excited state.
The Frontier Molecular Orbital Theory predicts that the sigma bond in the ring will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the HOMO of the product.