AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Presles used to be a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it became part of the new commune of Valdallière.
Proussy
Proussy is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. Proussy had about 400 inhabitants in 2006. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Condé-en-Normandie.
Préaux-Bocage
Préaux-Bocage is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Préaux-Saint-Sébastien
Préaux-Saint-Sébastien is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Prêtreville
Prêtreville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Putot-en-Auge
Putot-en-Auge is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Putot-en-Bessin
Putot-en-Bessin is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Thue et Mue.
Périers-en-Auge
Périers-en-Auge is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Périers-sur-le-Dan
Périers-sur-le-Dan is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Périgny, Calvados
Périgny, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Quetteville
Quetteville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Ranchy
Ranchy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Ranville
Ranville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rapilly
Rapilly is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Repentigny, Calvados
Repentigny, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Reux
Reux is a commune. It is in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Reviers
Reviers is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rocquancourt
Rocquancourt is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Castine-en-Plaine.
Rocques
Rocques is a commune that is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rosel
Rosel is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rots
Rots is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, the former communes of Lasson and Secqueville-en-Bessin were merged into Rots.
Roucamps
Roucamps is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Les Monts d'Aunay.
Roullours
Roullours is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Rouvres, Calvados
Rouvres, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rubercy
Rubercy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Rucqueville
Rucqueville is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Moulins en Bessin.
Rully, Calvados
Rully, Calvados is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into (it became part of) the new commune of Valdallière.
Rumesnil
Rumesnil is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Russy, Calvados
Russy, Calvados is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aure sur Mer.
Ryes
Ryes is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Agnan-le-Malherbe
Saint-Agnan-le-Malherbe is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Malherbe-sur-Ajon.
Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil
Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Le Castelet.
Saint-André-d'Hébertot
Saint-André-d'Hébertot is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-André-sur-Orne
Saint-André-sur-Orne is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Arnoult, Calvados
Saint-Arnoult, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Aubin-d'Arquenay
Saint-Aubin-d'Arquenay is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Aubin-des-Bois, Calvados
Saint-Aubin-des-Bois, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, Calvados
Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Benoît-d'Hébertot
Saint-Benoît-d'Hébertot is a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Saint-Charles-de-Percy
Saint-Charles-de-Percy is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valdallière.
Saint-Contest
Saint-Contest is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Cyr-du-Ronceray
Saint-Cyr-du-Ronceray is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valorbiquet.
Saint-Côme-de-Fresné
Saint-Côme-de-Fresné is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Denis-Maisoncelles
Saint-Denis-Maisoncelles is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Saint-Denis-de-Mailloc
Saint-Denis-de-Mailloc is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Denis-de-Méré
Saint-Denis-de-Méré is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Désir
Saint-Désir is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Gabriel-Brécy
Saint-Gabriel-Brécy is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Creully sur Seulles.
Saint-Gatien-des-Bois
Saint-Gatien-des-Bois is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Georges-d'Aunay
Saint-Georges-d'Aunay is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Seulline.
Saint-Georges-en-Auge
Saint-Georges-en-Auge is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
Saint-Germain-Langot
Saint-Germain-Langot is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Germain-d'Ectot
Saint-Germain-d'Ectot is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aurseulles.
Saint-Germain-de-Livet
Saint-Germain-de-Livet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Germain-de-Montgommery
Saint-Germain-de-Montgommery is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Val-de-Vie.
Saint-Germain-de-Tallevende-la-Lande-Vaumont
Saint-Germain-du-Crioult
Saint-Germain-du-Crioult is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Condé-en-Normandie.
Saint-Germain-du-Pert
Saint-Germain-du-Pert is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe
Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Germain-le-Vasson
Saint-Germain-le-Vasson is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Hymer
Saint-Hymer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Jean-de-Livet
Saint-Jean-de-Livet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers
Saint-Jean-des-Essartiers is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Val de Drôme.
Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, Calvados
Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, Calvados is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Terres de Druance.
Saint-Jouin
Saint-Jouin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Julien-de-Mailloc
Saint-Julien-de-Mailloc is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valorbiquet.
Saint-Julien-le-Faucon
Saint-Julien-le-Faucon is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Mézidon Vallée d'Auge.
Saint-Julien-sur-Calonne
Saint-Julien-sur-Calonne is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Lambert, Calvados
Saint-Lambert, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Laurent-de-Condel
Saint-Laurent-de-Condel is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Laurent-du-Mont
Saint-Laurent-du-Mont is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. In 2016, 189 people lived there. On 1 January 2019, it became a part of the commune Cambremer.
Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer
Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Louet-sur-Seulles
Saint-Louet-sur-Seulles is a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Saint-Loup-Hors
Saint-Loup-Hors is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Loup-de-Fribois
Saint-Loup-de-Fribois is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Belle Vie en Auge.
Saint-Léger-Dubosq
Saint-Léger-Dubosq is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Manvieu-Bocage
Saint-Manvieu-Bocage is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Noues de Sienne.
Saint-Manvieu-Norrey
Saint-Manvieu-Norrey is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Marcouf, Calvados
Saint-Martin-Don
Saint-Martin-Don is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Saint-Martin-aux-Chartrains
Saint-Martin-aux-Chartrains is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-de-Bienfaite-la-Cressonnière
Saint-Martin-de-Bienfaite-la-Cressonnière is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
The cuckoos are a family of near-passerine birds. They are the main part of the order called Cuculiformes. The family is famous for its "nest-parasite" members, but has a range of other types of bird. The cuckoo family, in addition to those species named as such, also includes the roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis.
The family is notable for its subfamily, the Cuculinae. Many of them have a unique kind of parasitism called brood parasitism. This means it lays its eggs in the nests of other kinds of birds, who then rear the baby cuckoo instead of their own.
The common cuckoo, "Cuculus canorus", (usually just called “cuckoo” in countries where it lives) is a spring migrant to Europe and northern Asia. It winters in Africa and southern Asia. It is a greyish bird with a slender body, long tail and strong legs. It looks a little bit like a small bird of prey when it flies. The male is dark grey above with a blackish brown tail, spotted and tipped with white and unevenly barred in black. The female is similar but a bit more reddish on the upper breast. It likes to eat hairy caterpillars. It is often found where woods border on to open land.
The cuckoo gets its names because the male Common Cuckoo sings two notes which sound like the word “cu – ckoo”. The female does not make this sound. She has a loud bubbling call.
The common cuckoo does not make a nest of its own, and they do not bring up their own young. Instead, the female lays her eggs in the nests of other birds. Each female cuckoo specialises in just one host species, and lays camouflaged eggs in that bird's nest. For example, a cuckoo which lays its eggs in reed warbler nests will lay eggs that look like those of a reed warbler.
The female cuckoo spends a lot of time watching the birds at the nest where she wants to lay an egg. She has to work out the exact time to go and lay her egg while the 'host' parents are not looking. If the cuckoo lays her egg in the nest before the other bird lays, the reed warbler will notice and knows it is not her egg, and so she will get rid of it. If the cuckoo lays her egg too late, when the reed warbler has finished laying, this will be noticed, too.
When the female cuckoo thinks it is the right moment she will fly down to the reed warblers' nest, pushes one reed warbler egg out of the nest, lays her egg and flies off. This only takes about 10 seconds. The reed warbler does not notice, and carries on looking after the eggs. When the cuckoo chick hatches it soon grows very fast. It pushes the other eggs or reed warbler chicks out of the nest. At 14 days old, it is about 3 times the size of the adult reed warblers. The chick has a huge mouth which it opens very wide. It also makes a very fast “cheeping” sound which sounds like a nest full of reed warbler chicks. This makes the parents behave as if they had a nest full of their own chicks.
About 56 of the Old World and 3 of the New World cuckoo species are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds. These species are obligate brood parasites, meaning that "they only reproduce in this fashion". The shells of the eggs of brood-parasites is thick. They have two distinct layers with an outer chalky layer that is believed to provide resistance to cracking when the eggs are dropped in the host nest.
Female parasitic cuckoos specialize and lay eggs which look like the eggs of their chosen host. This has been produced by natural selection, as some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own. This leads to those eggs least like the host's being thrown out of the nest.
Host species may take direct action to stop cuckoos laying eggs in their nest. Birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo-eggs often mob cuckoos and drive them out of the area.
Parasitic cuckoos are grouped into gentes: each gens specializes in a particular host species. This permits each gens to evolve a particular egg colouring. Thus, the species as a whole parasitizes a wide variety of hosts, but "each line of females specializes in a single host species".
Genes regulating egg colour are passed down only along the maternal line, no doubt on the sex chromosome. This allows females to lay mimetic eggs in the nest of their host species.
Females are thought to imprint on the host species which raised them; later they only parasitize nests of that species. Male cuckoos fertilize females of all lines, so gene flow takes place between the different maternal lines.
The detail and near-perfection of the cuckoo nest parasitism, and the defences of the host birds, are extraordinary. Many of the host species can spot and throw out almost perfect cuckoo eggs. This system is a fine example of an evolutionary arms race, a type of co-evolution. There are other birds which practice nest parasitism (such as the cowbirds) but these other systems are much less specialized.
The males and grey females in flight look a bit like a sparrowhawk. That may protect them from other birds' mobbing (Batesian mimicry). The advantage of the rufous-coloured females is not known. It may be that, being less common, they are less recognised by other bird species.
The cuckoo only stays in its summer location for about 10 weeks. In Britain, for example, it arrives in April and the adults start for Africa by the end of June or early July. They arrive in Africa (or Asia) in August.
They moult twice a year, changing feathers partially in summer, and completely in winter.
Saint-Martin-de-Blagny
Saint-Martin-de-Fontenay
Saint-Martin-de-Fontenay is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-de-Mailloc
Saint-Martin-de-Mailloc is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-de-Mieux
Saint-Martin-de-Mieux is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-de-Sallen
Saint-Martin-de-Sallen is a former commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Le Hom.
Saint-Martin-de-la-Lieue
Saint-Martin-de-la-Lieue is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-des-Besaces
Saint-Martin-des-Besaces is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Saint-Martin-des-Entrées
Saint-Martin-des-Entrées is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Martin-du-Mesnil-Oury
Saint-Martin-du-Mesnil-Oury is a former commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Saint-Michel-de-Livet
Saint-Michel-de-Livet is a former commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Saint-Omer, Calvados
Saint-Omer, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Ouen-des-Besaces
Saint-Ouen-des-Besaces is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Saint-Ouen-du-Mesnil-Oger
Saint-Ouen-du-Mesnil-Oger is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Ouen-le-Houx
Saint-Ouen-le-Houx is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Saint-Ouen-le-Pin
Saint-Ouen-le-Pin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pair
Saint-Pair is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Paul-du-Vernay
Saint-Philbert-des-Champs
Saint-Philbert-des-Champs is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-Azif
Saint-Pierre-Azif is a commune. It is in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Saint-Pierre-Canivet
Saint-Pierre-Canivet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-Tarentaine
Saint-Pierre-Tarentaine is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Saint-Pierre-de-Mailloc
Saint-Pierre-de-Mailloc is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valorbiquet.
Saint-Pierre-des-Ifs, Calvados
Saint-Pierre-des-Ifs, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-du-Bû
Saint-Pierre-du-Bû is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-du-Fresne
Saint-Pierre-du-Fresne is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-du-Jonquet
Saint-Pierre-du-Jonquet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-du-Mont, Calvados
Saint-Pierre-du-Mont, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Pierre-la-Vieille
Saint-Pierre-la-Vieille is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Condé-en-Normandie.
Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives
Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
Saint-Rémy, Calvados
Saint-Rémy, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Samson, Calvados
Saint-Samson, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Sever-Calvados
Saint-Sever-Calvados is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Noues de Sienne.
Saint-Sylvain, Calvados
Saint-Sylvain is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Vaast-en-Auge
Saint-Vaast-en-Auge is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Vaast-sur-Seulles
Saint-Vaast-sur-Seulles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Vigor-des-Mézerets
Saint-Vigor-des-Mézerets is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Terres de Druance.
Saint-Vigor-le-Grand
Saint-Vigor-le-Grand is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Saint-Étienne-la-Thillaye
Saint-Étienne-la-Thillaye is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sainte-Croix-Grand-Tonne
Sainte-Croix-Grand-Tonne is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Thue et Mue.
Sainte-Croix-sur-Mer
Sainte-Croix-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery
Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Val-de-Vie.
Sainte-Honorine-de-Ducy
Sainte-Honorine-de-Ducy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes
Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aure sur Mer.
Sainte-Honorine-du-Fay
Sainte-Honorine-du-Fay is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sainte-Marguerite-d'Elle
Sainte-Marguerite-d'Elle is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sainte-Marguerite-de-Viette
Sainte-Marguerite-de-Viette is a former commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
Sainte-Marguerite-des-Loges
Sainte-Marguerite-des-Loges is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Sainte-Marie-Laumont
Sainte-Marie-Laumont is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Sainte-Marie-Outre-l'Eau
Sainte-Marie-Outre-l'Eau is a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
The name translates to "Saint Mary beyond the Water".
The village is small today. Up to the early 20th century it was a group of farms. Until a few years ago, there was no road connecting the village to Pont-Farcy. So, it was very isolated.
The village is 1 kilometer from Pont-Farcy. It is along the D307 Road. The village is a collection of farm houses. It also has a church. The total population is just 81. However this probably includes the neighbouring farms as well. Other nearby settlements are Pont-Bellanger and Beaumesnil. The nearest large towns are Villedieu-les-Poeles and Vire.
The village is close to the Calvados tourist spot "Grotte de Bion".
Sallen
Sallen is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sallenelles
Sallenelles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sannerville
Sannerville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saline, but this merger was undone on 31 December 2019.
Saon
Saonnet
Saonnet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sassy, Calvados
Sassy, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Secqueville-en-Bessin
Secqueville-en-Bessin is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the commune of Rots.
Sept-Frères
Sept-Frères is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Noues de Sienne.
Sept-Vents
Sept-Vents is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Val de Drôme.
Soignolles
Soignolles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Soliers
Soliers is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sommervieu
Sommervieu is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Soulangy
Soulangy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Soumont-Saint-Quentin
Soumont-Saint-Quentin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Subles
Subles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Sully, Calvados
Sully is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Surrain
Surrain is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Surville, Calvados
Surville, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tessel is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Thaon
Thaon is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Thiéville
Thiéville is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
The growth of the population of this commune is shown here:
Thury-Harcourt
Thury-Harcourt is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Le Hom.
Tierceville
Tierceville is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Ponts sur Seulles.
Tilly-la-Campagne
Tilly-la-Campagne is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Castine-en-Plaine.
Tilly-sur-Seulles
Tilly-sur-Seulles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tordouet
Tordouet is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valorbiquet.
Torteval-Quesnay
Torteval-Quesnay is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Aurseulles.
Tortisambert
Tortisambert is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Livarot-Pays-d'Auge.
Touffréville
Touffréville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Touques, Calvados
Touques, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tour-en-Bessin
Tour-en-Bessin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tourgéville
Tourgéville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tournay-sur-Odon
Tournay-sur-Odon is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Val d'Arry.
Tournebu
Tournebu is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Cesny-les-Sources.
Tournières
Tournières is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tourville-en-Auge
Tourville-en-Auge is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tourville-sur-Odon
Tourville-sur-Odon is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tracy-Bocage
Tracy-Bocage is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Tracy-sur-Mer
Tracy-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Troarn
Troarn is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saline, but this merger was undone on 31 December 2019.
Trois-Monts
Trois-Monts is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2019, it was merged into the new commune of Montillières-sur-Orne.
Trouville-sur-Mer
Trouville-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Trungy
Trungy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Truttemer-le-Grand
Truttemer-le-Grand is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Truttemer-le-Petit
Truttemer-le-Petit is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Tréprel
Tréprel is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Trévières
Trévières is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Urville, Calvados
Urville, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Ussy
Ussy is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vacognes-Neuilly
Vacognes-Neuilly is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Valsemé
Valsemé is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Varaville
Varaville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vassy, Calvados
Vassy, Calvados is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Valdallière.
Vaubadon
Vaubadon is a former commune. It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Balleroy-sur-Drôme.
Vaucelles
Vaucelles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vaudeloges
Vaudeloges is a former commune. It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department. This is in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
Vaudry
Vaudry is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Vauville, Calvados
Vauville, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vaux-sur-Aure
Vaux-sur-Aure is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vaux-sur-Seulles
Vaux-sur-Seulles is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vendes
Vendes is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vendeuvre
Vendeuvre is a commune. It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Ver-sur-Mer
Ver-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Versainville
Versainville is a commune. It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department. This is in northwest France.
Verson
Verson is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vicques, Calvados
Vicques, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Victot-Pontfol
Victot-Pontfol is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vienne-en-Bessin
Vienne-en-Bessin is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vierville-sur-Mer
Vierville-sur-Mer is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Viessoix
Viessoix used to be a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it became part of the new commune of Valdallière.
Vieux, Calvados
Vieux, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vieux-Bourg
Vieux-Bourg is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vieux-Fumé
Vieux-Fumé is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Mézidon Vallée d'Auge.
Vieux-Pont-en-Auge
Vieux-Pont-en-Auge is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.
Vignats
Vignats is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villers-Bocage, Calvados
Villers-Bocage, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villers-Canivet
Villers-Canivet is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villers-sur-Mer
Villers-sur-Mer is a commune in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Villerville
Villerville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villiers-le-Sec, Calvados
Villiers-le-Sec is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Creully sur Seulles.
Villons-les-Buissons
Villons-les-Buissons is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villy-Bocage
Villy-Bocage is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Villy-lez-Falaise
Villy-lez-Falaise is a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Vimont, Calvados
Vimont, Calvados is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Vire
Vire is a former commune in Lower Normandy in the Calvados department in northwestern France. On 1 January 2016, it became a part of the new commune of Vire-Normandie.
Vouilly
Vouilly used to be a commune. It is in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it became part of the commune of Isigny-sur-Mer.
Écrammeville
Écrammeville is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune of Formigny La Bataille.
Émiéville
Émiéville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Épaney
Épaney is a commune. It is in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Épinay-sur-Odon
Épinay-sur-Odon is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Épron
Épron is a commune. It is found in the Basse-Normandie region in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Équemauville
Équemauville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Éterville
Éterville is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Étouvy
Étouvy is a former commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Souleuvre-en-Bocage.
Étréham
Étréham is a commune. It is found in the region Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in the northwest of France.
Évrecy
Évrecy is a commune in Basse-Normandie in the Calvados department in northwest France.
Southern Railway (UK)
The Southern Railway (SR), was one of the Big Four British railway companies from 1923 to 1948. It was established under the Railways Act 1921. The railway was formed by the amalgamation of smaller companies. The largest of these were the London and South Western Railway, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, and the South Eastern and Chatham Railway.
The SR contained notable examples of civil engineering, linking London with the Channel ports, South West England and Kent. Construction of what was to become the Southern began in 1838 with the opening of the London and Southampton Railway, which was renamed the London and South Western Railway.
Electric multiple unit
An electric multiple unit or EMU is a multiple unit train consisting of many carriages using electricity as the motive power.
List of British Rail modern traction locomotive classes
This page lists every locomotive allocated a TOPS classification and all modern traction (e.g. diesel, electric, gas turbine, petrol) stock used on the mainline network since 1948 (i.e. British Railways and post-privatisation).
The 1955 diesel locomotive classes are given in brackets where applicable.
A large number of different shunter types were purchased by British Rail and its predecessors, many of which were withdrawn prior to the introduction of TOPS. The tables below attempt to list the different types and the different classifications used to describe them as clearly as possible:
Shunter classes are listed by 1955 class, which puts TOPS classes in ascending order, and generally puts 1948 and 1962 classes in ascending order. Unclassed shunters are placed at the start of the table; TOPS class 07 has been placed so its 1962 class is in the logical place.
Locomotive class are listed by TOPS class. Locomotives for TOPS classes 24 and 26 have their original sub-classes shown, as each wholly comprised locomotives from a distinct 1962 class.
When British Rail implemented the TOPS system for managing their operating stock, part of their shipping fleet was incorporated into the system as Class 99, in order to circumvent some of the restrictions of the application software.
These were locomotives built and owned by private firms, but used by British Rail to test them.
A number of TOPS class numbers were allocated to proposed locomotives, both diesel and electric, which for many reasons were not proceeded with.
List of British Rail diesel multiple unit classes
This is a list of British Rail diesel multiple unit classes.
TOPS classes
List of British Rail electric multiple unit classes
This page lists every electric-powered multiple unit allocated a TOPS classification or used on the mainline network since 1948 (i.e. British Railways and post-privatisation). British Rail operated a wide variety of electric multiple units for use on electrified lines.
These use electrical switching devices (thyristors and transistors) and have electronic power control.
The Southern Railway and its successor, the Southern Region of British Rail, used three letter codes to classify their DC EMU fleets, as shown after the TOPS class numbers.
The 500 series classes were reserved for DC (third/fourth rail) EMUs not from the Southern Region. This included the DC (third/fourth rail) lines in North London, Merseyside and Greater Manchester. The DC electric network around Tyneside had been de-electrified by the time TOPS was introduced, and the stock withdrawn or transferred to the Southern Region.
Pre-TOPS classes
This was a one-off unit, withdrawn before the introduction of TOPS.
List of British Rail departmental multiple unit classes
The 900 series classes were reserved for multiple units in departmental stock, most of which were converted from old passenger units. In broad terms, classes 930-935 were allocated to Southern Region multiple units (ex-200 and 400 series), 936 & 937 to other EMUs (ex-300 and 500 series) and 960 to other DMUs (ex-100 series). In recent years, this has been less rigidly adhered to.
The original use for the Southern Region (SR) classes are included in brackets; these designations have been less rigidly applied in recent years.
British United Traction
British Rail Derby Lightweight
British Rail Metro-Cammell