AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The middle part of the walls has 12 large paintings called frescoes, done by famous artists in 1481. The artists' names were Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Perugino, Cosimo Rosselli, Pinturicchio, Benedetto Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli and Bartolomeo della Gatta.
The frescoes show stories from the Bible. On the north side, the stories are about the life of Moses. On the south side, they are about the life of Jesus.
Above the stories, near the windows, are painted pictures of Popes.
The ceiling is the most famous part of the Sistine Chapel, and many thousands of visitors go to see it.
In 1505 Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling. Michelangelo was a famous sculptor. He did not want to be a painter. Three years later, he agreed to paint the ceiling. He worked from 1508 to 1511, standing on a high platform with his arms stretched above his head.
(Although some people think that he lay down to paint, this is not true.) Because he painted onto wet plaster, the smell and the heat was terrible. He wrote a poem about how sick he was.
Along the center of the ceiling are painted nine pictures that tell stories from the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament of the Bible. The stories start with three pictures of God making light, making the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, and making the Sea and Sky.
The next three pictures tell the story of the first man and woman, Adam and Eve. In the first scene, God has just made Adam. He reaches out his hand and touches his finger to give him Life.
In the next picture, Adam is asleep and God makes Eve from one of Adam's ribs.
In the third picture there are two scenes. Adam and Eve are tricked by the Devil to eat fruit from the tree that they have been told not to touch. In the other scene, an angel chases them out of God's Garden of Eden. This story tells how sin came into the world.
The last three pictures are about Noah's Ark. They tell about a sad and sinful world. Because of human sin and unkindness, God sends a flood. Only Noah and his family escape in the large boat that they build. When the flood has ended, they make an altar and kill a sheep as a sacrifice to God. But then Noah grows grape vines, makes wine and gets drunk. One of his sons sees Noah lying naked and laughs at his father. Noah is ashamed and curses his son. These stories show how people keep acting the wrong way, even when they get a second chance.
All around the wall, Michelangelo painted twelve big figures of wise men and women. These were the prophets and sibyls who told people that God would send Jesus Christ to save them from sin.
Also painted on the ceiling are 20 beautiful young men called the "ignudi". No-one knows what they are for sure, but perhaps they are angels.
When the ceiling was finally uncovered, everyone was amazed. Giorgio Vasari, who wrote Michelangelo's life story, says that hundreds of people came every day to stare and stare.
Michelangelo was happy to get back to his sculpture. But in 1537 Pope Paul III ordered him to paint another large fresco. This time it was on the wall above the altar. It was finished in 1541.
Michelangelo painted "The Last Judgement" which shows Jesus judging the people of the Earth and sending some to Hell while others are welcomed into Heaven by Saints. He painted most of the figures naked. This made some of the priests in the church very angry. They paid another artist to paint clothes onto the Blessed Virgin Mary and many of the other figures.
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III (; February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 221st Pope from 1534 to 1549.
Alessandro Farnese was born in an ancient Roman family. His grandfather was commander-in-chief of the papal troops under Pope Eugenius IV.
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI made Farnese a cardinal.
Cardinal Farnese was elected Pope in 1534; and he chose to be called Paul III.
Pope Paul was involved in Italian and European political disputes.
He convened the Council of Trent in 1545.
Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV (; 21 July 1414 - 12 August 1484), originally "Francesco della Rovere", was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 213th Pope from 1471 until his death in 1484.
He is known for beginning construction of the Sistine Chapel.
Della Rovere was born in Celle Ligure, a town near Savona in Liguria. His family was important.
As a young man, he joined the Franciscan Order. He rose in the order to head of the Franciscans in Liguria.
Della Rovere studied philosophy and theology at the University of Pavia; and he lectured at Padua, Bologna, Pavia, Siena, and Florence.
In 1467, Pope Paul II raised della Rovere to the rank of Cardinal.
He was elected pope on August 9, 1471. He took the name Sixtus because the first day of the conclave which elected him pope was the Feast Day of St. Sixtus.
Pope Sixtus was involved in Italian and European political disputes.
Sixtus ordered the building of the Ponte Sisto (Sistine Bridge) across the Tiber River.
The Vatican Library was enlarged during the reign of Sixtus; and the number of manuscripts grew ten times larger—from 360 during the reign of Pope Nicholas V to 3650.
Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II (; December 5, 1443 - February 21, 1513), originally "Giuliano Della Rovere", was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 217th Pope from 1503 until his death in 1513. He was known as "the Warrior Pope."
He was the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.
Giuliano della Rovere was the son of Rafaello della Rovere.
His uncle would become Pope Sixtus IV.
In 1471, Sixtus made della Rovere a cardinal.
Della Rovere was elected pope in 1503; and he chose to be called Julius II.
Pope Julius was involved in Italian and European political disputes.
In 1506, Pope Julius he established the Swiss Guard.
Donato Bramante
Alexandre Dumas, père
Alexandre Dumas (born 24 July, 1802 at Villers-Cotterêts, died 5 December 1870 at Dieppe) was a French writer of Haitian descent. He is famous for writing "The Three Musketeers" (1844), "Queen Margot", "The Count of Monte Cristo" (1844-1845) and about the Man with the iron mask.
Dumas was the son of a general, who fought in the French Revolution. His father died and his mother raised him. They didn't have much money when he was growing up.
Dumas wrote his first plays in 1825 and 1826 after reading Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Friedrich von Scholler and Lord Byron.
Dumas was also a gourmand (lover of food), and wrote Le Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine, an encyclopædia of food and cooking with 1152 pages. He finished it weeks before his death. It is not thought very reliable, because it relies on Dumas' opinions rather than fact.
Dumas was a member of the Club des Hashischins, or Hashish Club. This group of French writers experimented with hashish to get ideas.
The Beastie Boys were an American rap group. According to an interview with Charlie Rose, the word "Beastie" is the backronym of "Boys Entering Anarchic States Towards Internal Excellence". They formed in 1981 as a punk rock band. Their most famous albums are probably "Licensed To Ill" (1986) and "" (1989). "Licensed To Ill" is their first album, and it is an album that is given credit for starting the type of music "rap rock", which is rapping done over rock guitar or beats. "Paul's Boutique" is an album famous for its use of samples, or snippets of music, and the fact that the samples were put together in creative, interesting ways.
Adam Yauch (1964-2012) was one of the founding members of the band until his death on May 4, 2012 after a near 3-year battle with cancer of the parotid salivary gland. Former original guitarist, John Berry (1963-2016), died on May 19, 2016 from dementia at 52.
"Not to be confused with the king of Scotland Macbeth of Scotland"
Macbeth is a play by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote three types of plays; histories, comedies and tragedies, and Macbeth is the shortest tragedy written by Shakespeare. It was written between 1603 and 1607, during the reign of King James I of England.
Shakespeare based some characters in the play (Macbeth, Macduff, and Duncan) roughly on records of real people in "Holinshed's Chronicles", a history book from 1587. However, the things that happen in the play are very different from what happened in real life.
The first characters we see in the play are the three Witches. They talk to each other in a mysterious way, and agree to meet with Macbeth on the heath. This scene includes the famous line "fair is foul, and foul is fair", a subject which becomes a main part of the play.
In Act 1 Scene 2, there is a war going on. King Duncan is at a camp, listening to reports from the battlefield. An injured officer (some scripts say a captain, others a sergeant) is brought in. He saved Malcolm's life. The officer tells Duncan about the battle. He says that it was going badly, until Macbeth fought his way to the rebel leader Macdonald and disembowelled him. But as soon as that happened, the Norwegians, led by their king Sweno, also attacked. They were joined by a traitor, the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo fought bravely until they were defeated. Duncan is pleased by the news. He orders that the Thane of Cawdor be executed and his title given to Macbeth.
In I.iii, the Witches appear again. They talk about using their powers on humans, and it becomes clear that they have a lot of power, but they cannot kill people. Macbeth and Banquo are returning from the battlefield to Forres, and meet the witches. Banquo is amazed by the way the witches look, because they look like women but they have beards. Macbeth is not afraid and asks them what they are. They do not answer him, but greet him as the Thane of Glamis, the Thane of Cawdor and the future King. Macbeth is surprised, because he knows that he is not the Thane of Cawdor, and does not think he will ever become the King. Banquo asks the witches what his future will be like. They answer in riddles, saying that he will be "lesser than Macbeth, and greater", "not so happy, yet much happier", and that he will be the father to a line of kings. Then the witches disappear.
Ross and Angus come to find Macbeth, and tell him that the King has given him the title of Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is surprised and happy, but he starts thinking of ways to become king. This frightens him, because he thinks that the only way he can become king is to murder Duncan.
In I.iv, Macbeth and Banquo return to Forres and Duncan thanks them for their courage and hard work. He also says that his son Malcolm will be his heir. Macbeth realizes that he will have to get past both Duncan and Malcolm to become king. Duncan says he is going to Macbeth's castle for the night.
In I.v, Lady Macbeth is reading a letter from Macbeth that tells her about the witches and their prophecy. She is very excited, and starts planning to murder Duncan. A messenger tells her that Duncan will be staying at their castle that night. She calls on evil spirits to make her strong and evil so that she can murder Duncan. Macbeth comes in and she tells him of her plans.
I.vi shows Duncan, Banquo, Donalbain, Malcolm, Macduff and some of the thanes entering Macbeth's castle. Duncan and Banquo agree that the castle is sweet and pleasant. Lady Macbeth enters and greets them.
I.vii is the last scene in Act I. Macbeth is talking to himself about why it is wrong to kill the king. He knows that it is a bad thing to do, especially because he is the host and Duncan trusts him. Lady Macbeth enters and scolds him for being a coward and says that he is not brave enough to be a man. She works out how they are going to kill Duncan, and convinces Macbeth to do it.
Act II starts with Banquo and his son Fleance walking in a courtyard in Macbeth's castle. They meet Macbeth, who lies to Banquo and says that he has not thought about the witches' prophecy. When they leave, Macbeth sees a hallucination of a knife. He knows it is not real, but before his sight it changes and becomes covered in blood. He leaves to kill Duncan.
Lady Macbeth enters in scene ii. She has already made Duncan's guards drunk. Macbeth comes in with his hands covered in blood, carrying the knifes of the guards. He is very troubled. Lady Macbeth comforts him and tells him to wash his hands and cover the guards with blood, so it looks like they did it. But Macbeth is afraid, so Lady Macbeth does it instead.
In II.iii, the porter is very drunk. He pretends to be the porter of the gate of hell, and takes a long time to open the gate for Macduff and Lennox. Macbeth greets them. Macduff says that he is there to wake the king, and Macbeth leads him to the king's room. Macduff is shocked to see the king murdered on his bed. He runs out shouting and wakes everybody up. Macbeth pretends he did not know about the murder, as everyone comes to see what is happening. He admits that he killed the guards, and says that he did it because he was so angry that they killed Duncan. Lady Macbeth faints and they rush to help her. Malcolm and Donalbain think that somebody is lying. They know it is not safe for them to stay in Scotland, so they run away. Malcolm goes to England, and Donalbain to Ireland.
Scene iv is a talk between Ross and an old man. They talk about how strange the night was. Nature seems to have turned into a mess now that Duncan is dead. Macduff comes in and says that Macbeth is going to become king. He does not trust Macbeth, and is not going to the coronation.
Banquo is alone on stage at the start of Act III. He realizes that Macbeth has become everything the witches said he would become. He thinks that Macbeth did wrong to get the crown, but he does not want to say anything. He hopes that his son will also be king, as the witches said. Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, and the lords enter. Macbeth asks Banquo if he is going riding that afternoon, and if Fleance is going with him. Banquo says yes to both. Two men come to see Macbeth, and he goes to meet them. He is angry that he has risked everything to become king, but that Banquo's sons will be kings after him. The men are actually murderers.
Macbeth tells them that Banquo is the reason they are unhappy and have bad lives, and orders them to kill Banquo and Fleance.
Macbeth talks to Lady Macbeth in scene ii. He says that he has nightmares and cannot sleep. He is jealous of Duncan, because he is dead and does not need to worry anymore. Macbeth also says that he is worried about Banquo being alive, but he does not tell his wife about the murderers.
In III, the two murderers meet another one, also sent by Macbeth. They kill Banquo, but Fleance escapes.
In Scene iv Macbeth has a banquet with the nobles. The murderers come in and inform him of Banquo's death and Fleance's escape. He returns to the table where the nobles are eating, and looks for a seat. Even though there is one empty, he cannot see it. He has a vision of the murdered Banquo sitting in his seat, and becomes hysterical talking to the vision. Lady Macbeth explains it to the nobles as an illness, and asks them to leave as Macbeth becomes more and more upset.
Many editors say that scene v of Act III, along with a song in IV.i, is not written by Shakespeare. This is because the writing is different to the way Shakespeare usually writes. It has a witch called Hecate in it, who is not previously mentioned in the play. She seems to be in charge of the other witches and is scolding them for dealing with Macbeth without informing her.
In the final scene, Lennox is talking to another lord. They find out that Macduff has gone to England to convince Malcolm to return and claim his throne, and to ask for the help of King Edward of England.
Scene (i) starts with the witches, who are standing in a circle around their cauldron, throwing things in, like the tongue of a dog. Then suddenly Macbeth arrives and asks them to tell him some more prophecies. As the first prophecy they tell him to be careful of Macduff, Thane of Fife. As the second prophecy they say he can't be killed by anyone who was born of a woman and as the third prophecy the witches say if Birnam Wood stays at its current position Macbeth is okay but if the wood moves he will have problems. Macbeth is happy because he thinks that all of these things are impossible. He wants to know a fourth thing but suddenly the witches dance crazily and then run away.
Next Lennox enters and tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders Macduff's castle to be seized.
In scene ii Macbeth’s men arrive at Macduff’s castle and kill Macduff´s family and everybody else in the castle.
In scene iii Macduff finds out what Macbeth did to his family. He is very sad and angry, so he decides to go back to Scotland with Malcolm and they plan to kill Macbeth.
Scene i takes place in Macbeth’s castle. A doctor and a servant are talking about Lady Macbeth. They’re talking about Lady Macbeth’s sickness. She is sleepwalking and while she sleepwalks she says that she regrets having told her husband to kill Duncan and Banquo.
In scene ii Lennox and other Scottish thanes think that Macbeth is crazy and that he is killing too many people. Together they go to Malcolm and king Edward of England and tell them that they want to fight against Macbeth with the English army.
Scene iii takes place in Macbeth’s castle. He is told that Malcolm and Macduff are coming with the English army and want to kill him. The doctor tells him that his wife is ill. She has become crazy and is sleepwalking.
In scene iv Malcolm, Macduff and the English army hide in Birnam Wood. They don’t want to be seen, so they cut off some branches and cover themselves with them.
In scene V, the doctor comes to Macbeth and tells him that his wife is dead. Macbeth is depressed, and then he has a monologue about how meaningless life is. After that, a servant says that Birnam Wood is moving, but Macbeth doesn't believe him, so the servant shows him.
In scene VI, Macduff, Malcolm and the English army are planning to attack Macbeth.
In scene VII, Macbeth and an English Lord fight, and Macbeth says he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macbeth then kills him. Meanwhile, Macduff is looking for Macbeth.
Scene VIII shows the fight between Macduff and Macbeth, who says again that he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macduff replies that he was cut out of his mother‘s stomach (Caesarean). He then kills Macbeth. In the last scene Malcolm is declared king.
Many actors think it is bad luck to say the word "Macbeth", and will not say the play's name. Instead, they call it "The Scottish Play". One theory about where this superstition came from is that the play deals with witchcraft.
Love's Labour's Lost is a comedy play by William Shakespeare which was written between 1588 and 1597.
The play contains a lot of wordplay and many characters are based off real kings and noblemen from around those years. This makes the play harder to understand for modern audiences, which is why it is less famous than most of Shakespeare's plays. However, it has been performed more often since the 20th century.
Ferdinand, the King of Navarre, and three of his men meet together and talk about their intellectual plans. Their plans then go wrong when the Princess of France and three of her ladies arrive. The men find that they are in love with the ladies and cannot hide it.
The exact original title is unknown. In early written versions of the script, it varied as to how many apostrophes were used in the title. In the first quarto, it is called "Loues labors lost", as a "u" was often used for a "v" sound back then. The title is now most often given as "Love's Labour's Lost".
Titus Andronicus (c. 1589–1592) is the first tragedy play by William Shakespeare. Most of its theme, structure and language comes from "The Spanish Tragedy" by Thomas Kyd. It is believed to be Shakespeare's first play, and also the most bloodiest and less respected of his works.
The Comedy of Errors (c. 1589–94) is one of the first plays by William Shakespeare. It is a comedy. Shakespeare's sources were "Menaechmi" by Plautus and "Amphitruo" by Plautus.
Pieta (Michelangelo)
The Pieta is a statue by Michelangelo. It is now in the first temple on the right of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City.
Raffaello Sanzio, usually known as Raphael (April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520) was a Renaissance painter and architect. With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he is one of the three greatest painters of the High Renaissance.
He is best known for his paintings of the Madonna and Christ Child and for his paintings in the Vatican in Rome, Italy.
Raphael was born in Urbino, in the region of Umbria, Italy. He was the son of Giovanni Santi (d. 1494), who was also a painter, and Magia di Battista Ciarla (d. 1491). Giovanni Santi was Raphael's first teacher, but he died when Raphael was only eleven.
While about 15, Raphael became an apprentice at the workshop of the painter Pietro Perugino, called by that name because he was the most famous painter in the town of Perugia. Perugino was famous, not only in Umbria, but also in Rome and in Florence, the home of Leonardo and Michelangelo. He had been one of the artists given the important job of painting the Pope's large chapel in the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel.
Perugino was known to have expert ways of painting (technique), and was good at getting paintings finished on time which made him popular with his patrons. He painted some portraits of people alive in his day, but most of his pictures are of religious figures of the past. Some of his paintings are small pictures of the Madonna and Child that could be used in a family chapel for private worship. Because he was famous, Perugino also got lots of work from wealthy patrons and from churches, so he painted many very large pieces to go above the altars in churches. To do this, he needed the help of his "apprentices".
Raphael was able to learn a great deal from Perugino - drawing, the anatomy of the human figure, paint chemistry, and the technique of putting the paint onto the picture in smooth layers. The figures in Perugino's paintings often have very sweet gentle faces. Many of Raphael's paintings are also sweet and gentle. Some painters, such as Leonardo, were quick to change their style and make their paintings show their own touch. But Raphael continued to paint in the style that Perugino taught him. He added new ideas that he learned by looking at the work of other artists. Unlike Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael did not give the world anything new in the Art of Painting. He is famous simply because he was so expert at what he did, and because people loved his paintings so much.
The painting that is thought to be his earliest known work is a small picture called "The Vision of a Knight". In this painting a knight lies asleep. In his dream there are two beautiful women. One woman, dressed in soft flowing clothes, offers him flowers. The other woman, dressed in dark clothing, offers the knight a sword and a book. The path behind the pretty woman runs beside a river. The other path leads up a steep mountain. Raphael was thinking about choices. Should the knight take the easy road, or should he try to change things?
Other early pictures by Raphael are "Three Graces", and "Saint Michael".
Raphael's first major work was "The Marriage of the Virgin" which was painted in 1504. It was influenced by Perugino's painting for the Sistine Chapel of "Jesus giving the Keys to Saint Peter". It is now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, Italy.
In about 1504 Raphael went with another painter, Pinturicchio, to Florence, Italy. Florence was famous for its artworks, its artist's workshops, its new Renaissance buildings and its huge cathedral. Raphael wanted to see the work of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and other important painters and sculptors.
Florence had a very strong tradition of making images of the Madonna and Child because the city was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. On almost every street corner there was a painting or a brightly-coloured statue of the Madonna and Child.
While he was in Florence, Raphael painted many of his famous "Madonna" paintings. The most famous of these paintings are:
In 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II. He became so popular whilst he was in Rome that he was known as the "Prince of Painters". He spent the last 12 years of his life in Rome and created many of his most famous paintings.
While he was in Rome he was "commissioned" (given a job), to paint a fresco of the Prophet Isaiah in the Church of Sant'Agostino. While he was working on the painting, he went to visit his friend, the architect, Donato Bramante. Bramante was at the Vatican while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Of course Raphael wanted to see what the famous master was doing. While Michelangelo was away, Bramante took Raphael into the Chapel. When Raphael saw the way that Michelangelo had painted the prophets, he was so excited that he went back to Sant'Agostino's Church, scraped his painting off the wall and started all over again. It is easy to see that Raphael's painting is in the style of Michelangelo. Raphael was not ashamed of this. He did it to give honour to the great master.
Among Raphael's most famous paintings are the frescos that are painted on the walls of Julius II's own rooms in the Vatican Palace, known as the "Stanze". The paintings in the "Stanza della Segnatura" and the "Stanza d'Eliodoro" were created by Raphael himself, whilst the "Stanza dell'Incendio" was designed by Raphael and painted by his assistants.
One of the frescoes in the "Stanza della Segnatura" is of the greatest importance. This painting is called "The School of Athens". It shows a group of learned people from Ancient Greece, philosophers, poets, dramatists, mathematicians and others. They are listening to the central figure, who is the philosopher, Plato. The painting is meant to show that at that time, the early 1500s, there was a new birth of ideas and learning among the people of Rome that was equal to the learning of Ancient Athens.
To make this message clear, Raphael used the faces of the people that he knew. Michelangelo, with his broken nose, is sitting with his chin on his hand. The tall figure of Plato with long hair and flowing beard is a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.
One of the excellent things about this painting is the way that Raphael has painted the building in which the figures are standing. The architecture looks as if it is opening up from the real room.
In the 1500s, painters were often asked to design architecture. Raphael's first work as an architect was the funeral chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo. Pope Leo X also chose Raphael to help design Saint Peter's Basilica alongside Donato Bramante. After Bramante died, Raphael took over the designing of the basilica and changed its groundplan from a Greek Cross to a Latin Cross. Michelangelo went back to Bramante's plan but made it simpler. Then another architect, Maderna, made the building longer, as Raphael had planned.
Raphael's last work of art was a painting of the "Transfiguration". This was an altarpiece, but Raphael died before he could complete it. It was instead finished by Giulio Romano, who was one of Raphael's assistants.
Raphael died on his 37th birthday. He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome. His funeral was a mass devastation at the Vatican. His "Transfiguration" altarpiece was put at the head of Raphael's funeral carriage.
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a group of people from different countries acting together, but not connected with the government of any country. Usually non-governmental organizations are non-profit - that is, they are trying to do something other than make money for the people who run them. They include organisations such as 'Oxfam' and 'World Vision'.
Non-governmental organization (NGO) is a term that has become widely accepted as referring to a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status and excludes government representatives from membership in the organization.
Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according David Rieff, writing in "The New Republic", "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter."
Unlike the term intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental organization" is a term in general use but is not a legal definition. In many jurisdictions these types of organization are defined as "civil society organizations" or referred to by other names.
NGO’s work for uplifting the poor and backward sections of the community. Moreover, the main function which is performed by NGOs is to bridge the gap of inequalities and unfair treatments.
Wikipedia () is a free online encyclopedia website in 320 languages. People can freely use it, share it and change it, without having to pay. It's also one of the biggest wiki organizations. People can choose to donate to the Wikimedia Foundation to fund Wikipedia and its sister projects. It's "open content". This means anyone can copy it, and make changes to it if they follow the for copying or editing.
Wikipedia is owned by an American organization, the Wikimedia Foundation, which is in San Francisco, California.
Wikipedia's name is a portmanteau of two words, "wiki" and "encyclopedia."
Wikipedia was started on January 10, 2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger as part of an earlier online encyclopedia named Nupedia. On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia became a separate website of its own. It's a wiki that runs using the software MediaWiki (like all other Wikimedia Foundation projects).
Anyone who wishes to can change the pages in Wikipedia, or even make new ones. Wikipedia has a standard page layout for all pages in the encyclopedia.
As of September 2011, Wikipedia had about 18 million pages in about 300 languages and more than 3.50 billion words across all Wikipedias. The regular English Wikipedia is the largest Wikipedia edition.
Wikipedia began as a related project for Nupedia. Nupedia was a free English-language online encyclopedia project. Nupedia's articles were written and owned by Bomis, Inc which was a web portal company. The main people of the company were Jimmy Wales, the guy in charge of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, the editor-in-chief for Nupedia. Nupedia was first licensed under the Nupedia Open Content License which was changed to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia was founded and made their first article when Richard Stallman requested them.
Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales are the ones who started Wikipedia. Wales is credited with defining the goals of the project. Sanger created the strategy of using a wiki to reach Wales' goal. On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001. It was launched as an English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com, and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view" was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier "nonbiased" policy. Otherwise, there weren't very many rules initially, and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia.
Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot, and also from search engines. It grew to about 20,000 articles, and 18 languages by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had 26 languages, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the end of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia both existed until Nupedia's servers were stopped in 2003. After this, its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the 2 million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, even larger than the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which had held the record for exactly 600 years.
The English Wikipedia reached 3 million articles in August 2009. The numbers of articles and contributors appeared to be growing less quickly around spring 2007.
In October 2014, the Wikipedia Monument was unveiled to the public in Poland to honor all the contributors of Wikipedia.
According to the TechCrunch website, on 23 January 2020, Wikipedia had surpassed more than 6 million articles on the English Wikipedia.
On January 15, 2011, Wikipedia celebrated its 10th anniversary. It used a special logo "(pictured)" to celebrate its 10 years since it opened on January 15, 2001. The logo was used for the whole day on the sidebar of English Wikipedia.
Wikipedia is a free site where anybody can start or change a page. It's a global site that is available in many languages. While people can use any searching engine, the Wikipedia page will come out in the first results of many searches. To use Wikipedia better, people should understand the basic function of the page. The page is organized while they are looking up the page. As Wikipedia users, they should have a good understanding of Wikipedia.
Conservation law
A conservation law is a statement used in physics that says that the amount of something does not change in time. That thing could be as simple as mass or charge, or something that has to be calculated, like energy, or angular momentum.
For example, the "law of conservation of mass" is the conservation law that says that the amount of mass is always conserved, even if it is changed into another form. This means that if the mass of the universe could be measured right now, its mass would be known tomorrow because it will not change.
For a long time, people thought that these laws were true for the amount of mass and energy in the universe. Later on, Albert Einstein said that they were not completely true. He said that mass could change into energy (or the other way around). If this happened, it would be against the conservation laws because if mass was changed into energy, the total amount of mass goes down, and the total amount of energy goes up.
Einstein said that conservation laws could still be used if all the mass and all the energy were combined. He said that even though the mass changes or the energy changes, the sum when they are added together does not change. So now there is just one conservation law for mass and energy together.
Of course, mass is measured in kilograms, and energy is measured in joules. They cannot be added together directly, but Einstein found a way to add them together. He created the equation formula_1. This equation means is that before adding the amount of mass to the amount of energy, the mass must be multiplied by the speed of light and then by the speed of light again.
Some of the things that are thought to be conserved are:
Conservation laws are helpful for people when they do problems in Physics. This is because if they know that a thing is conserved, it gives them more mathematical information about the thing they are doing the problem about.
Emmy Noether showed that conservation laws can be said to arise from symmetries in the laws of physics. This theorem, called Noether's theorem gives physicists an extremely powerful tool to try and solve complicated problems.
Conservation laws can come in two types, global, or local.
A global conservation law just says that the total amount of something in the universe does not change in time.
A local conservation law says a little bit more than that. It says that if the amount of something changed in one place, it is because it moved into or out of that place, and we can measure that movement.
Animal rights is a term used for the general belief that non-human animals have certain natural rights. Most animal rights promoters believe that non-human animals have the natural right not to be used by humans for any means, including food, clothing, experimentation, and entertainment. Just as human rights are gained simply because someone is a human, animals have animal rights simply because they are an animal.
Aaron Sorkin
Aaron Benjamin Sorkin is an American screenwriter. He was born on June 9, 1961 in New York City, New York. He is most famous for creating and writing "The West Wing", a television series about the lives of people who work in the White House. He also wrote the movies "The American President" and "A Few Good Men" (which he took from a play he had written with the same name), and created and wrote the television series "Sports Night".
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30s BC
Aristophanes (born around 450/445 BC – died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people.
His most famous play, "Lysistrata", is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended.
Ancient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make any comparisons.
George Grote said of Aristophanes:
40s BC
The California Institute of Technology (called "Caltech" for short) is a major American research university in the city of Pasadena in the state of California. Caltech specializes - is especially good, or especially interested - in the study of engineering, computer science, and the physical sciences (some physical sciences are physics and chemistry, as well as others). Caltech is also in charge of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, also called JPL. JPL is part of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which is the part of the United States government that explores space. Caltech is not owned or run by the United States, or NASA, but NASA pays Caltech to run JPL for them. By most measures, it is the most selective college/university in the world and has one of the highest faculty-to-student ratios in the world.
Caltech's mascot is the beaver. Many schools that specialize in engineering have beavers for their mascot, because in the wild, beavers are known for making dams, and so people think that they are the animal most like engineers.
A secret is information or facts that only one person or group knows about. There are many reasons for not telling or sharing the truth with others.
Some secrets are good. These are ones that should be kept secret. An example of a good secret is respect for a citizen's privacy. But some secrets are bad, if keeping facts hidden causes harm. An example of a bad secret is child abuse. Some things might be kept secret only for a short time, such as a surprise party. Other things may need to be kept secret forever. Sometimes things might be kept secret from someone because it is believed that it would upset them to know.
Some things need to be kept secret for security reasons. If a person has a bank account they must keep their password secret. No one else should know it. Espionage is snooping for someone else's secrets. Criminals like to keep their crimes secret.
In a business, some information is kept secret. This is also called "confidential". Conversations at meetings are sometimes confidential. People who were at the meeting cannot go telling everyone else what was discussed. Usually, managers will make this a rule for an employee. Trade secrets are protected by law.
Another type of secret is Cryptography. These are codes that unlock other secrets. So, secrets are being used to protect secrets.
The Chicago Cubs are the professional baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB). The Cubs became World Series Champions in 2016, ending a 108-year drought.
The Cubs were started in 1870. They originally wore all-white uniforms and were called the Chicago White Stockings. (The current Chicago White Sox got their nickname from the Cubs' original nickname.) By the 1890s the team was called the "Colts". In the early 1900s, the nicknames "Colts" and "Cubs" were both used. The name "Cubs" became official in 1906.
The team was very successful in its early years. They won the first National League championship in 1876. They won several pennants in the 1880s and then again in the early 1900s. After they won their second World Series in 1908, they went into the longest championship drought in the history of North American sports. They won the World Series in 1907, 1908, and 2016. They won the pennant but lost the World Series in 1906, 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945.
The Wrigley family, founders of the Wrigley Gum Company, owned the team from about 1920 to about 1980. The Chicago Tribune bought the team and operated them for close to 30 years. They were sold to the Ricketts family in 2009.
When playing home games in Chicago, the Cubs play at Wrigley Field. The stadium was built in 1914 and has been the home playing field of the Cubs since 1916.
During games, the stadium is filled with Cubs fans, who are known for always cheering for their team, even if they are not winning. Even when the Cubs held the record for the longest championship dry spell in all of American professional sports (until they won the World Series in 2016), their fans remain loyal to them.
The name "Billy Goat " comes from a bar known as the Billy Goat Tavern, located on lower Wacker drive in downtown Chicago. By the time the story of this "curse" started to get out, all the main characters were conveniently dead.
The story is:
During the 1945 World Series, a man by the name of Vasili "Billy Goat" Sianis attended Game 4 of the series with his pet goat. During the 7th inning of the game, the Stadium's security guards asked Sianis to leave the stadium because his goat was bothering other fans. Sianis became angry and cursed the Cubs, saying that they would never win or even play in a World Series as long as they played at Wrigley Field. Although the curse is often seen as a joke for most Cubs fans, some fans thought it could be the reason for the Cubs' championship drought between 1908 and 2016. The drought ended and the "curse" was reversed in 2016 when the team won their third World Series title.
In the 2016 World Series, the Cubs beat the Cleveland Indians. They fell 3 games to 1 to the Indians, but then, on the brink of elimination, won the next three games, and thereby won the series. Game 7 went down as a classic. It was an exciting back-and-forth game, in which the Cubs won in 10 innings to win their first World Series since 1908. The Cubs became sixth team to win a World Series after trailing 3 games to 1.
Herpes simplex
The herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a virus. It causes two common diseases. Both diseases have painful, watery blisters in the skin or mucous membranes (such as the mouth or lips) or on the genitals.
The disease is contagious, particularly when the disease is active. "Contagious" means that it can spread from one person to another. It is not possible to stop this disease completely after it has started in a person. However, there are some medical treatments that stop the disease for a little while.
An infection on the lips is commonly known as a cold sore or fever blister. A cold sore is not the same as a canker sore, which appears inside the mouth and is caused by something else.
Władysław Reymont
Władysław Stanisław Reymont, born as Stanisław Władysław Rejment, (May 7, 1867 in Kobielce Wielkie, Poland - December 5, 1925 in Warsaw, Poland) was a well-known Polish writer, who won the Nobel Prize in 1924 for his four-volume epic novel "Chłopi" ("The Peasants"). This novel was about life of this part of the society. He also wrote "Ziemia obiecana" ("The Promised Land"), about industrial capitalism in 19th century Łódź.
Many people say he is one of the greatest and most prominent Polish writers of all time and one of the greatest in 20th century.
Reymont was born in the family of the organist. His father, Józef Rejment, well-read man, had a musical education and in tuszyńskiej performed the parish duties of the organist, and also carried on Civil Status Registers and the correspondence of the parish priest with Russian authorities. Mother, Antonia from Kupczyńskich, had talent for a story. She came from the impoverished Cracow gentry; in mature years the writer has often emphasized this fact.
Introversion and extraversion
Introversion and extraversion is a personality dimension. It was promoted by Carl Jung in the 1920s. Individual people differ on this scale. According to the theory, introverts get energy from inside themselves (ideas and concepts in their own minds), while extroverts get energy from outside of themselves (interacting with other people). There are many ideas about introversion and extroversion which are false, such as the idea(s) that all introverts are shy, antisocial and non-emotional.
The idea of introversion and extroversion has been used in many different personality tests and is a key determining factor for many things. Those who follow this way of looking at the world say that everyone has some parts of both traits in them, although one will usually dominate over the other.
At one time, extroverts were thought to make up almost three quarters of American society. In more modern times, however, researchers have been able to ascertain that the number of introverts almost equals the number of extroverts in the country. Interestingly, also, the prevalence of both types varies from country to country, with certain nations (Scandinavian countries, Japan) favouring introversion and others (most notably America) favouring extroversion.
Sartell, Minnesota
Sartell is a city in the U.S. state of Minnesota. The 2000 census said 9,641 live in the city. Newer information says 12,629 people live in the city. Sartell is in both Stearns County and Benton County.
Sartell started as a small town near the Mississippi River. It was first named "The Third Rapids" because it was the third rapids that French fur traders came to as they went north from St. Anthony Falls in Minneapolis.
One of the first people to live in this young town was Joseph B. Sartell. He came in 1854 and worked as a millwright at a local sawmill. In 1877, he started a flour mill at the nearby Watab River. In 1884, he started the Sartell Brothers Lumber Company with his sons.
In 1905, some people started to build the Watab Pulp and Paper Company. They also started to build the Sartell Dam across the Mississippi near the "third rapids". Both of these things were finished in 1907. Seven people died when building the dam. Since that time, Watab Pulp and Paper was rebuilt several times and many people bought and sold it. Now a company called International Paper owns it.
It was in 1907 that residents of the town decided it was time to incorporate. Several influential people felt the town ought to be named "Wengert" after a local businessman. Another man lobbyied to have the town named "Oberly" after himself. However, because of his many relatives and generous contributions to the community, the town was incorporated as "The Village of Sartell" in honor of Joseph B. Sartell. From 1907 until 1973, there was a Sartell on nearly every City Council, the most prominent being Ripley B. "Rip" Sartell who was mayor for 31 years.
The town continued to grow slowly and developed a number of businesses and a "downtown" on the east side of the Mississippi along U.S. Highway 10. In the 1960s, the highway was re-routed, greatly contributing to the demise of the downtown area. The later construction of a new bridge over the Mississippi in the early 1980s replaced the remaining businesses. This and Sartell’s nearby location to St. Cloud, Minnesota's major retail center account for Sartell's lack of a traditional "downtown".
Because residents wanted to educate their children locally, Independent School District #748, Sartell-St. Stephen, was created in 1969. Despite not having a downtown the city continued to grow and the pace of the growth increased in the 1970s. From 1970 to the present, the population of the city has grown from 700 to over 10,000.