AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Elros was the son of Eärendil and Elwing, and brother of Elrond. Elros and his brother were born at the end of the First Age. They were Half-Elven, and Elrond chose to be an elf, while Elros chose to become a mortal human. Elros became the first King of Númenor, and took the ruling name Tar-Minyatur. He died in 442 in the Second Age, at age 500. His son Vardamir Nólimon and his grandson Tar-Amandil became Kings after him.
Elladan and Elrohir are the twin sons of Elrond Half-elven and Celebrían. They are of the Half-elven who lived during the Third Age.
Arwen Undómiel ("Arwen Evenstar"), is the daughter of Elrond and Celebrían, granddaughter of Celeborn and Galadriel, youngest of Elrond and Celebrian's three half-Elven children and is one of the Half-Elven who lived during the Third Age. She is a character in "The Lord of the Rings". At the end of the Third Age she falls in love with the human Aragorn. They marry after the War of the Ring. Arwen becomes Queen of Arnor and Gondor, and gives birth to her son Eldarion, and several daughters.
Elendil, son of Amandil, was the last Lord of Andúnië, and founder of Arnor. He was also known as Elendil the Tall and Elendil the Faithful.
Elendil was born in Númenor, and became Lord of Andúnië after his father. He had two sons, Isildur and Anárion. After the destruction of Númenor, Elendil fled to Middle-earth. He and his ships landed in the northern part of Middle-earth, where he founded the realm of Arnor. Elendil led the humans in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" to fight Sauron. Elendil was killed by Sauron. His son Isildur and grandson Valandil became Kings of Arnor after him.
Isildur, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.
After the destruction of Númenor, Isildur and his brother Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Isildur fought in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" under the command of his father Elendil. Isildur cut off the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Elrond and Círdan told Isildur to destroy the One Ring, but Isildur did not want to and kept it. It was decided that Isildur would rule the northern kingdom Arnor afer his father. When Isildur journeyed north, he and his company were attacked by Orcs. Isildur was killed and the One Ring was lost. His oldest sons Elendur, Aratan, and Ciryon were also killed. Isildur's youngest son Valandil became King of Arnor after him.
Anárion, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.
After the destruction of Númenor, the brothers Isildur and Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Anárion fought in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" under the command of his father Elendil, and was killed. His son Meneldil became king of Gondor after him, while Isildur went to rule the northern kingdom Arnor.
Aragorn II, son of Arathorn, is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". He is the son of Arathorn II and Gilraen. After his father's death he becomes "Chieftain of the Dúnedain".
He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". After the War of the Ring, at the end of the book, Aragorn becomes King Elessar Telcontar of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. Aragorn marries Arwen, and becomes the father of a son named Eldarion, and several daughters. His son Eldarion becomes king after him.
Boromir is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". Boromir is the son of Denethor II, the Steward of Gondor. Boromir led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron, before he went to Rivendell. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". At Amon Hen, he goes slightly insane over the Ring. He dies after protecting Merry and Pippin from Saruman's Orcs.
Denethor II is the Steward of Gondor, and rules Gondor at the time of the "War of the Ring". He married Finduilas of Dol Amroth, and is the father of Boromir and Faramir. During the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" he goes insane and burns himself, thinking they would lose the war and get killed anyway.
Eldarion is the son of Aragorn II and Arwen Undómiel. After his father's death he becomes King of Arnor and Gondor.
Faramir son of Denethor II, brother of Boromir. Faramir also led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron's Orcs and Men, and did so often in Ithilien. He became Steward of Gondor after his father's death. After the War of the Ring, Aragorn made him Prince of Ithilien. He married Éowyn.
Théoden was King of Rohan at the time of the "War of the Ring". He died at the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields". His nephew Éomer became king after him.
Éomer, son of Éomund, brother of Éowyn, was the nephew of King Théoden. In the War of the Ring, Éomer fought in the Battle of the Hornburg, the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, and the Battle of the Morannon. Éomer became the next King of the Rohirrim after Théoden.
Éowyn, daughter of Éomund, sister of Éomer, was the niece of King Théoden. With the help of the hobbit Meriadoc Brandybuck, she killed the Witch-king of Angmar in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields". After the War of the Ring she married Faramir, and became the Lady of Ithilien.
Gríma, son of Galmod, called Wormtongue, was at first servant of King Théoden. But then he secretly worked for Saruman. Gríma became Théoden's advisor, and worked to weaken him. When Gandalf made the King better, Gríma fled to Isengard. In the end, he goes with Saruman to the Shire. After the hobbit uprising, Gríma kills Saruman; Gríma is killed by hobbit archers.
In The Lord of the Rings movie series, Gríma kills Saruman in Isegard, then he is shot and killed by Legolas.
Bard the Bowman was a man from Lake-town. He was an archer. In "The Hobbit" he shoots the dragon Smaug and kills him. Afterwards, Bard becomes King of Dale, and old city at the foot of the Lonely Mountain that had been abandoned because of the dragon.
Balin son of Fundin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the elder brother of Dwalin.
Dáin II Ironfoot was King under the Mountain in the dwarven realm Erebor after Thorin Oakenshield. Dáin was killed during the War of the Ring. His son, Thorin III Stonehelm, became king after him.
Gimli son of Glóin, is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".
Glóin son of Gróin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the younger brother of Óin. Glóin's son is Gimli.
Fíli and Kíli were the nephews of Thorin Oakenshield. They were the sons of Dís, Thorin's sister. They went with their uncle on the Quest of the Lonely Mountain, told in "The Hobbit". They were killed in the "Battle of Five Armies", while they were defending Thorin.
Thorin II Oakenshield, son of Thráin II, was leader of Durin's folk and "King under the Mountain". He is the leader of the group that tries to take back the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug in "The Hobbit". He is wounded in the "Battle of Five Armies" and dies. Dáin II Ironfoot becomes "King under the Mountain" after him. Thorin has a sister, Dís, who has two sons Fíli and Kíli.
"See also": Hobbit
Bilbo Baggins is a main character in the books "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Bilbo goes on an adventure with the dwarves, the Quest of Erebor. During this journey he finds the One Ring. He also gets a small sword which he names "Sting", and a small Mithril-shirt. Bilbo later adopts Frodo Baggins. On his 111th birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire and goes to Rivendell, giving the Ring to Frodo.
At the end of the Third Age, Bilbo left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with Frodo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.
Frodo Baggins is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". Frodo is adopted by his uncle Bilbo Baggins. He inherits Bilbo's home "Bag End" and the One Ring from Bilbo. Frodo is the Ring-Bearer and a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". With the Fellowship, Frodo goes on the quest to destroy the One Ring.
At the end of the Third Age, Frodo left Middle-earth for the Undying Lands, together with Bilbo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.
Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". At the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" he helps Éowyn kill the Witch-king of Angmar. He becomes a Knight of Rohan. After the war he marries Estella Bolger, and becomes Master of Buckland.
Samwise Gamgee, called Sam, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's gardener and servant. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".
When the Fellowship breaks at Amon Hen, Sam is the only one who goes on with Frodo on their journey to Mordor. If not for Samwise Gamgee, Frodo would not have made it into Mordor or destroyed the Ring. After the War of the Ring, Sam marries Rose Cotton and lives in Bag End.
Peregrin Took, called Pippin, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".
Gollum is an important character in "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Originally he was a hobbit named Sméagol, who found the One Ring after Isildur lost it. Gollum went to live under the Misty Mountains; there he kept the Ring for over 500 years, and in that time the Ring changed him to look less like a hobbit. He often called the Ring his "precious". Gollum lost the One Ring, which was then found by Bilbo Baggins in "The Hobbit".
In "The Lord of the Rings", it is told that after this Gollum left the Misty Mountains to search for the "thief Baggins" who had stolen his Ring. Sauron learned from Gollum that the One Ring was in the Shire and owned by a Baggins. Gollum was released by Sauron. Gollum then again went to search for his Ring. Gollum found the Fellowship in Moria and followed them. Frodo and Sam captured Gollum, and Gollum promised to lead them into Mordor. He later tried to trick them, leaving them with the spider Shelob. Gollum attacked Frodo on Mount Doom, and took back the Ring. But Gollum was careless and fell into the volcano, which killed him and destroyed the One Ring.
Ancalagon the Black is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Ancalagon was made by Morgoth, and was the biggest and most powerful of all dragons. He was killed by Eärendil, in the War of Wrath in the First Age. When he fell, he crushed the Towers of Thangodrim, heralding the end of Morgoth's tyranny.
Glaurung is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Glaurung was a dragon made by Morgoth. He was the first dragon ever created, and he was extremely powerful. He was killed in the First Age by Túrin Turambar.
Smaug is a dragon. He appears in "The Hobbit". Smaug attacked the Lonely Mountain, killed the dwarves living there, and took their treasure and home. Later in the book Smaug was killed by Bard the Bowman.
Beorn is a shape-shifter. He usually is like a big man, but he can change to become a bear. He lives between the Misty Mountains and Mirkwood. He helped at the "Battle of the Five Armies".
The Nazgûl, Ringwraiths or Úlairi are servants of Sauron. They were human kings and leaders in the Second Age. Sauron gave to them nine of the Rings of Power. With time they became like undead ghosts. They are invisible, but their eyes can sometimes be seen as a red light. They wear black cloaks, and usually ride black horses. Later in the "Lord of the Rings" they ride winged creatures called "fell beasts". When riding a fell beast they are also called "Winged Nazgûl".
The Witch-king of Angmar, also known as Lord of the Nazgûl or the Black Captain is the leader of the Nazgûl. He was the commander of Minas Morgul. He was killed in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" by Éowyn and Meriadoc Brandybuck.
Khamûl is one of the Ringwraiths, and the only Ringwraith whose name is given by Tolkien. He was called the Black Easterling, and was the commander of the fortress Dol Guldur.
Shelob is a giant spider-like creature. She appears in "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers". Shelob stings Frodo Baggins, but is wounded by Samwise Gamgee.
Treebeard is an "Ent", a tree-like being. He and other Ents live in the forest Fangorn. In the War of the Ring Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took come to Fangorn and meet Treebeard. This causes the Ents to go out and fight against the wizard Saruman in his fortress Isengard. The Ents are accompanied by an army of "Huorns" (normal trees that have come alive). After Isengard is conquered, the Huorns go to Helm's Deep, to help the Rohirrim there fight and win against Saruman's army.
There have been many adaptations of Tolkien's books, for example films like The Lord of the Rings movie series. In them characters appear that were newly created and are not in Tolkien's works.
Tauriel is an elf from Mirkwood that appears in The Hobbit movie series.
Feudalism is a system of land ownership and duties. It was used in the Middle Ages. With feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was the king's. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him, called vassals. These gifts of land were called fiefs.
Under feudalism, taxes were not paid with money. They were paid in products and services. Presents and taxes had to be given to the lords by their vassals. At harvest time, the vassals gave shares of their crops to the lords. The vassals would grind their grain at the noble's granaries. They would give part of the grain to their lord. When animals were killed for food, part of the meat was given to the lords. The lords promised to give protection, peace, and safety to their vassals.
Manors were completely owned by the nobles. They were given from one generation to another. The noble's firstborn son took it all when his father died. Each manor had its own pasture lands, mill, wine press, church, and village. A manor had to let many people live there. Lords gave their servants food and a place to sleep, but they did not pay their servants money.
The villein was in a poorer class. They had to serve the lords, but were free in other ways. They had work to do for the lord or the town. Then they went back to their little houses with floors made of earth and a thatched roof. On the walls of their houses, the villeins hung meats, tools, and dried vegetables.
A villein was more free than slaves or serfs, but they still were not completely free. They could not move or marry if the lord didn't say yes. They also could not leave the manor lands if the lord said no. If they escaped, they could run away to a town where they could try to live quietly without being known, until he is discovered. If they did this, they become a free men. If they wanted to help the Catholic Church, they needed special permission. As a member of the church, their position could get higher. However, if this did not work, they could join a band of outlaws.
The serfs were in the lowest class. They were only a little better than slaves. They could not be sold away from the land, but were always sold "with" the land.
But villeins and serfs had rights as well. They could cultivate grain and vegetables for sale, and the lord had duty to protect them and provide them land to cultivate. If they got wealthy enough, they could buy their freedom from the lord. They also did not need to serve in levy (that is: army mustered up by conscription) and they did not need to pay state taxes. They usually paid 10% of their income to the Church and 10% to the feudal lord, which was called a tithe.
According to Karl Marx, feudalism was the stage of society before capitalism and after slavery. When the lords and the serfs fought, feudalism ended and capitalism came into being. However, instead of the lords exploiting the serfs, now it was the bourgeoisie exploiting the proletariat.
Leo III of Armenia
Leo (or Leon) III of Armenia (c.1236-1289) was king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, ruling from 1270 to 1289. He was the son of Hethum I of Armenia and Queen Isabella of Armenia.
In 1262 Leo married Keran (Kir Anna), the daughter of Prince Hethum of Lampron.
In 1266 Leo was captured and his younger brother Thoros killed while fighting the Mamluk invaders. Leo was ransomed by his father, who gave up the throne for him shortly after. He was known as a pious king, devoted to Christianity.
In 21 years of marriage Leo had 15 children by his wife Keran, eight sons and seven daughters. Two sons and two daughters died at an early age:
5 of his 15 children, Hethum, Thoros, Sembat, Constantine, and Oshin, later became the Armenian kings, who often fought each other to gain the throne.
He was succeeded by his son Hethum II.
Armens
Armens (Armenian: Արմեններ, Առամեններ), were Armenian tribes, the people are called Arman, Armenic or Armanen. They correspond with the Hayasa-Azzi Tribes. The Armans united with the tribes of Hayasi. Recent linguistic studies present strong evidence that the Indo-European language group originates in Anatolia. According to most accounts, the Armens were generally tall, blond-haired, and blue-eyed in appearance, in contrast to their Urartian cousins who tended to be slighter with black hair and black eyes. The Urartian state, which existed there prior to the coming of the
Indo-European-speaking "Armen" tribes from the west, was a federation of many peoples.
At the end of the second millennium BC, another Indo-European ethnic group, closely related to Thracians and Phrygians and referred to by the Greeks as Armens, migrated to the Armenian Highland from Northern Balkans.
One theory suggests that the Armens were of Thracian origin, and related to the Phrygians. The Armens were near the head waters of the Halys, to the west of the Euphrates. The Armens seemed to have mixed blood with another Asiatic element whose patronymic Hai, became in time their national designation. The country where the Armens settled were a mountainous region, traversed by deep valleys and smiling plains.
The word Armani, (mentioned in Akkadian inscriptions as early as 2400 BC) an early form of Armen-Armin or Arman denotes the national affiliation, as with many cultures standing for the particular nation thus, the God AR being the primary deity in the Indo-European (aka Aryan) pantheon - thus AR MAN denotes—Men of Ar or Children of Ar, again initially AR standing for ARAREL-ARARICH [hence Ar-Ar-At the Place of ARAR] -- Create-Creator, also Sun, Light, Life and Love.
The history of Armenia and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups.
Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands.
Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean.
The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia.
First Republic of Armenia
The First Republic of Armenia, 1918–1920, was the first modern establishment of an Armenian republic. The country was created after the Russian Tsarist empire that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917 that lost power. Its creation with borders were the Democratic Republic of Georgia in the north, the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Persian Empire to the south, and Azerbaijan Democratic Republic to the east.
Armenia gave way to communist power in late 1920. In September 1920, the Turkish revolutionaries moved in on the capital. First an armistice was concluded, on November 18, and then a full peace treaty - Treaty of Alexandropol on 2nd and/or 3rd of December 1920.
During that time, the Soviet 11th Red Army invasion started on the 29th of November 1920. The actual transfer of power took place on December 2 in Yerevan. Armenian leadership approved an ultimatum, presented to it by the Soviet plenipotentiary Boris Legran - who was at work as one of major Russian diplomats on Caucasus at that time. Armenia decided to join the Soviet sphere, while the Soviet Russia agreed to protect its remaining territory from the advancing Turkish army. Soviets also pledged to take steps to rebuild the army, protect the Armenians, not to pursue non-communist Armenians. None of these promises were kept.
On December 4, 1920, the Red Army entered Yerevan, the government of Armenian Republic effectively stopped working. On December 5, the Armenian Revolutionary Committee (Revkom; made up of mostly Armenians from Azerbaijan) also entered the city. Finally, on the following day, December 6, Felix Dzerzhinsky's dreaded secret police, the Cheka, entered Yerevan, thus effectively ending the existence of the Democratic Republic of Armenia.
The rest of Armenia was under control of the communist government. The part by Turkey remained for the most part theirs - by the subsequent Treaty of Kars. Soon, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed, under the leadership of Aleksandr Miasnikyan. It was to be included into the newly created Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic.
Smaug
Smaug is a fictional dragon from "The Hobbit". He is the main villain of the J.R.R. Tolkien book and it's adaptations. The author called him a "most specially, greedy, strong and wicked worm".
Smaug is one of the most feared dragons on Middle-earth. He decided to sleep in a pile of gold until Bilbo Baggins woke him up. Smaug knows that Bilbo is after the Arkenstone. He left the area and decided to fly to Lake-town and ravage it with fire. He was killed by Bard the Bowman with an arrow.
In The Hobbit movie trilogy, Smaug's motion capture and voice were done by Benedict Cumberbatch. He is digitally created by Weta Digital and is considered one of the most impressive features of the trilogy, specifically the end of the second movie. In the third movie, his death helped Sauron let his armies roam free.
Smaug, voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch became an interviewed guest for a December 2014 episode of The Colbert Report with clips from the third movie.
Georgian language
Georgian (Ⴕⴀⴐⴒⴓⴊⴈ Ⴄⴌⴀ, "khartuli ena") is the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.
Georgian is the primary language of about 3.9 million people in Georgia itself (83 percent of the population), and of another 500,000 abroad (chiefly in Turkey, Iran, Russia, the United States and Europe). It is the literary language for all ethnographic groups of Georgian people, especially those who speak other South Caucasian languages (or "Kartvelian languages"): Svans, Megrelians, and the Laz. Gruzinic, or "Kivruli", which is sometimes considered a separate Jewish language, is spoken by an additional 20,000 in Georgia and 65,000 elsewhere (primarily 60,000 in Israel).
Mount Ararat
Mount Ararat (Turkish: Ağrı Dağı; Armenian: Արարատ) is the tallest peak in the Armenian Highlands and modern-day Turkey. The mountain is always capped with snow, and it is a dormant volcano. It is in Iğdır Province, near the northeast corner of Turkey, 16 km west of Iran and 32 km south of the Armenian border.
The people and area who lived in this area was the Armenian kingdom of Ararat (in Assyrian: Urartu). The former lived here for nearly 3000 years. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne put Ararat placed in the administration of Turkey. It is a national symbol of Armenia and an object of irredentism.
South Caucasus
South Caucasus, also referred to as Transcaucasia or Transcaucasus, is the southern area of the Caucasus region between Europe and Asia, going from the Greater Caucasus to the Turkish and Iranian borders, between the Black and Caspian Seas.
All of Armenia is in Transcaucasia; the majority of Georgia and Azerbaijan, including the exclave of Naxçıvan, fall within this area. The countries in the region produce oil, manganese ore, tea, citrus fruits, and wine.
The region is one the most complicated in the post-Soviet area, and has three heavily disputed areas – Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan.
The region was combined togerther twice – during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936.
The area of Transcaucasia, which is where modern day Azerbaijan,Georgia and Armenia are located, is one of areas where the wine producing vines "vitis vinifera" grow. Some experts think that this may be where wine was produced for the first time. Archeological excavation and carbon dating of grape pips from the area have dated back to 7000-5000BC.
The name Mongols (Mongolian: "Mongol") explains one or more ethnic groups. A hard definition includes the Mongols proper (self-designation "Monggol"), which can be split into eastern and western Mongols. In a bigger sense, the Mongol peoples also people who speak a Mongolic language but use other self-designations, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
The name "Monggol" has its meaning in the Tungusic languages and usually means "the invincible ones". At first it was applied to a small and still insignificant tribe in the area of the Onon river. In the 13th century it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.
The polytheistic (believing in many gods) Mongols thought that good and evil spirits controlled the world. They also believed in a sky god, who ruled all the spirits. They called him "Tengri" (TENG gree), which means, "the great god of heaven". The Mongols lived in fear of the spirits and hoped for blessings from them.
Every yurt had small idols made of felt. The wives and daughters of the nobles made these idols at sewing parties. The Mongols believed that these idols protected their families and animals. Before every meal they put food and drink on the idols' lips. They also prayed to them.
The Mongols believed that some men, called "shamans" (SHAH muns), had power over the spirits. The shamans were the priests of the traditional Mongol religion, called "shamanism" (SHAH muh NIZ um). The shamans were medicine men and witch doctors who used a special language when doing their magical . The Mongols talked to their shamans before making big choices and followed their advice.
The later empire of the Mongols had many people with many religions, including Christians. The most important Christian group in the Mongol Empire was the Nestorian Church, sometimes called the Church of the East. These Christians were named for Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople.
La Liga
La Liga, commonly known La Liga Santander for sponsor reasons, is a football league which is the top division in Spain.
Stanley Marcus
Stanley Marcus (April 20, 1905 – January 22, 2002) was the president of the Neiman-Marcus company, a store in the United States that sells expensive clothing and . He became famous for inventing many new ways to sell products and new ways to tell people about his store.
Mr. Marcus created an award for people who designed clothing. He also began art shows in his store, to make people want to visit the store to see the art. In 1939, the company started a catalog, which is a book that shows all the products that people can buy from the store. In 1951, the catalog listed unusual gifts for people to buy. Many people started to read the catalog every year to see the unusual gifts.
In the 1940s, at the time of the Second World War, the government of the United States asked Mr. Marcus for help. The government wanted to make sure there would be enough fabric to make clothes for the military, so they asked Mr. Marcus to make rules about clothes for ordinary people. He made rules for companies that made clothes so that popular styles for women and men would not change every year. With these rules, people would not need new clothes so often. Also, he said that men's socks should not use rubber to make elastic to hold the socks in place. This rule made sure the government could use rubber for military products that were needed for the war.
Mr. Marcus married Mary "Billie" Cantrell in 1932. When he met her, Billie was working in the Neiman-Marcus store. She continued to work for four years. She retired in 1936 after she gave birth to a baby; they named the baby Jerrie. In 1938, she gave birth to twins, Richard and Wendy.
Mr. Marcus collected art and books. His favorite artists from Mexico were Rufino Tamayo, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Diego Rivera, and Antonio Ruíz. He became friends with Rivera and Tamayo. Mr. Marcus also liked American artists, such as Alexander Calder, who made sculptures, and Georgia O'Keeffe, who was a painter. He gave large amounts of money to a museum that showed O'Keeffe paintings.
The Degolyer Library at Southern Methodist University has a collection of things related to Mr. Marcus. The collection includes photographs, letters, and newspaper articles. Mr. Marcus also gave the library a collection of more than 5,000 miniature books. (Miniature books are very small books, small enough for a doll.)
Collectivity of Saint Martin
Saint Martin (French: "Saint-Martin"), officially the Collectivity of Saint Martin (French: "Collectivité de Saint-Martin"), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It is in the northern parts of the island of Saint Martin and nearby small islands. The southern half of the island is a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
The French part of the island has a land area of . At the 2011 census, the population in the French part of the island was 36,286 (up from only 8,072 inhabitants at the 1982 census), which means a population density of in 2011.
Saint Martin was for many years a French commune. It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas "région" and overseas "département" of France. Because of this, it is in the European Union. In 2003 the population of the French part voted for a split from Guadeloupe. They wanted to make a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 9, 2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both the French part of Saint Martin and neighbouring Saint-Barthélemy. The new took effect when the law was published in the Official Journal.
Saint Martin remains governed as it was when a commune within Guadeloupe—by a mayor and a municipal council elected by the European citizens living on the French side of the island. As is the case in metropolitan France since the promulgation of the Maastricht Treaty, nationals of any member state of the European Union are allowed to vote at the municipal elections. Nationals from countries not part of the European Union, which represent a large part of the population on the French side of the island, are not allowed to vote in the elections. In 2003, the people of the French part of the island voted to seperate from Guadeloupe. In 2007, the French Parliament voted to make Saint Martin a overseas collectivity (COM) of France. The new status took effect on 15 July 2007, once the local assemblies were elected,
Saint Martin remains part of the European Union. The official currency in Saint Martin is the euro (though the United States dollar is also widely accepted).
Sint Maarten (or Saint Martin) is a country that is part of the Netherlands. It is on the southern half of the island of St. Martin in the Caribbean.
The "Island area of St. Martin" () was part of the Netherlands Antilles, until the Antilles was dissolved in October 2010, when Sint Maarten became a "country" ("land") within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Government of the Netherlands is responsible for defence, foreign affairs and nationality law. Although part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the territory of Sint Maarten is not part of the European Union; however, its people are citizens of the European Union.
French overseas collectivities
The Overseas collectivities (French: "collectivité d'outre-mer" or "COM"), are an administrative division of France. These territories include some former overseas territories and other French overseas holdings with a particular status. All of these were given the name "collectivités d'outre-mer" because of a constitutional reform on March 28, 2003.
As of March 31, 2011, there are five of these communities:
Saint Barthélemy
Saint-Barthélemy, officially the Collectivity of Saint-Barthélemy (French: "Collectivité de Saint-Barthélemy"), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It consists of the island of Saint-Barthélemy and neighboring small islands.
The island of Saint-Barthélemy, also known as Saint Barts, Saint Barths, or Saint Barth, is in the Caribbean among the Leeward Islands. Its land area is 21.0 km² (8.1 sq. miles). Administratively, the whole island of Saint-Barthélemy was a French copmmune ("commune de Saint-Barthélemy"). It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas "région" and overseas "département" of France. For this reason, it is part of the European Union. In 2003, the people voted in favour of becoming independent from Guadeloupe. They wanted to form a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 7, 2007 the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both Saint-Barthélemy and neighbouring Saint-Martin. The new status took effect on 22 February 2007, when the law was published in the Official Journal.
St. Barts has long been considered a playground of the rich and famous and is known for its beautiful pristine beaches, gourmet dining in chic bistros and high-end designer shopping.
Saint-Barthélemy is about 150 miles east of Puerto RicoIt is near the islands of Saint Martin, Saba and Anguilla.
Gustavia, which is the main town of the island, was named after King Gustav III of Sweden, and remains as a reflection of the Swedish period.
The oldest settlement still remaining is the village of Lorient (or L'Orient), although scattered in every cemetery on the island are Swedish grave markers. Lorient's sister village on the French mainland is the city of Lorient on the northern coast of Brittany.
Of the 20 beaches on the small island, several are seen as especially inviting. On the southern side of the island, Saline and Governor beaches are pristine beaches with no development on them. On the western edge of the island is Colombier beach. This beach is only reachable by boat or a hike. St. Jean, Flammands and Grand-Cul-de-Sac beaches are also popular and attractive beaches which have hotels and other establishments on them. Shell Beach is popular for families with kids as it has little surf, and lots of tide pools.
St. Barths has a tidal difference of only 3 - 5 inches. The beaches vary according to ocean currents—the weather travels onto the island following the sun from the East. One of the main surfing beaches (Toiny) is known for its riptide, while Grand Fond is one of the island's only non-swimming beaches. Although tourism does not allude to it, there are a small variety of warm water sharks in the Caribbean. So, swimming at dusk and dawn or in murky waters is not recommended. Otherwise, scuba and snorkeling are a great way to see the nurse sharks, lobsters, conch and green sea turtles that abound in the waters surrounding St. Barths.
The beach of Grand Cul-de-Sac is the easiest beach in the Caribbean to learn to sail, windsurf or kitesurf on, as it has a reef which closes off the entire bay. The current that passes outside the reef here also carries the migrating whales and dolphins.
Saint-Barthélemy was first claimed by France in 1648. It was sold to Sweden in 1784. Sweden sold it back to France in 1878. The Swedish period left its mark in the names of many of the streets and the town (in honor of King Gustav III). It also left its national arms, the three crowns along with the grey heron, in the island's coat of arms.
At the 1999 census, Saint-Barthélemy had 6,852 people. There were 326 people per square kilometer. Unlike most Caribbean islands, most of the people are white.
Many of the people who live there all the time are French citizens who work at the various establishments on the island. French is the primary language spoken, but many locals also speak English, particularly at the hotels and restaurants.
Saint Barts has a small airport (IATA identifier SBH) is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters. Most visiting aircraft carry fewer than twenty passengers, such as the Twin Otter, a common sight around Saint Barths and throughout the northern West Indies. The short airstrip is at the base of a steep hill ending directly on the beach. The arrival descent is extremely steep over the hilltop traffic circle and departing planes fly right over the heads of sunbathers (although small signs advise sunbathers not to lie directly at the end of the runway). The nearest commercial jet airport is on the neighboring island of Saint Martin.
There are also charters to St. Barths from San Juan, Puerto Rico available through Tradewind Aviation. The current mayor's airline, called St. Barths Commuter, offers non-prohibitive cost one-way/roundtrip travel between both of St. Maarten's airports and St. Barths. It is also an excellent service for charters. A favorite island business for an extra fee is via St. Barths Services, as they offer full-service attention.
Ferries to and from Saint Martin are the only other real option (although the passage from St. Maarten to St. Barths is often rough), unless one is arriving by private charter boats/yachts.
St. Barts has about 25 hotels, most of then with 15 rooms or fewer, and the largest, the Guanahani has just 70 rooms. Hotels are classified in the traditional French manner 3 Star, 4 Star and 4 Star Luxe.
Villa vacations are extremely popular and there are hundreds of villas terraced into the hillsides throughout the island as well has many beachfront locations. Villas here by definition can range from one-bedroom bunglalows to large luxurious homes. St. Barth Properties and Wimco are the two main villa rental agencies on the island.
Singer Jimmy Buffett is a frequent visitor on the island, and owns a house there. He also owned a hotel, the Author de Rocher, before it burned down.
Saint-Barthélemy has its own bobsled team. To date the team has not achieved competitive success. The island also competes in carotchie.
The junior national French surf champion was named recently in the winter of 2006, and he is from Lorient.
Hispaniola
Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It is the second largest island (after Cuba) of the West Indies, east of Cuba and west of Puerto Rico.
The Republic of Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, the Dominican Republic the rest. Hispaniola is one of two Caribbean islands in which there are two countries; the other is Saint Martin.
When Columbus arrived to America, some groups of native people, coming from northern South America, had lived in the Caribbean Islands since a very long time. That movement from South America to the Caribbean islands was not continuous but it happened in several waves during almost twelve centuries.
Archeological studies suggests that those people from South America came to the Caribbean islands during four periods.
The first period began around 5000 B.C. For most Caribbean islands, this period ended around 2000 years ago except in Cuba and Hispaniola where there were some small populations in western Cuba and southwestern Hispaniola when the Europeans arrived to these islands. They were called Ciboney or Siboney by the Taínos, meaning "man that lives among rocks" ("Ciba" means stone and "eyeri" man).
The second group was the Igneri, the first Arawak Indians to come to the Caribbean Islands. They displaced the Ciboney people and, later, they were displaced by another group of Arawak Indians, the Taínos. Taínos occupied all the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) and they developed a culture different from the culture of the Arawaks of South America. They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.
The fourth and last group was the Carib. The Carib were also Arawaks but with a different language. Even if they used to go to Puerto Rico and the Hispaniola to fight against the Taínos, they lived only in the Lesser Antilles when Columbus got to America.
At the moment when the Spanish came to the Hispaniola, most of the island was occupied by Taínos; only in the western tip of the Southern Peninsula (in modern Haiti), there were some small groups of Ciboney In the northeastern part of the island (Samaná Peninsula and north of the Northern mountain range), there was a group called Ciguayos, and sometimes Macorix, with the same culture of the Taínos but a different language. It seems that they were Carib that took the Taíno culture. They were the first Indians that fought against the Europeans.
Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492, naming it as La Española, meaning "The Spanish Island". When Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote in latin about this island, he wrote "Hispaniola", meaning "Small Spain"; that was not correct. Because the book of Anghiera was translated into English very soon, the name Hispaniola is the most used in English-speaking countries and in scientific works.
For centuries, other names were used for the island. The most common were "Santo Domingo Island" (the Dominican constitution still uses that name) and "Haiti".
Hispaniola was the only island that Columbus visited in all his four travels to the Americas. He saw the island for the first time on December 5, 1492 but he stayed on his ship during the night; the next day, he went to land. The Spaniards spent the rest of December traveling along the north coast of Haiti; on December 12, Columbus took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain and named the island as "La Española".
On Christmas Eve, December 24, the main ship ("Santa María") was badly damaged. The next day, Christmas Day, Columbus gave orders to use the wood of the ship to build a small fort on what is now Môle Saint-Nicolas, Haiti. That fort was named "La Navidad" ("Navidad" means Christmas) and was the first European building on American soil. Columbus left 39 men there because there was not space in the other two ships for all the people.
From "La Navidad", they traveled east along the north coast of the island and in Samaná they had a small fight with some natives ("Ciguayos", not Taíno Indians) and named the bay as "Golfo de las Flechas" (Gulf of the Arrows), but now is called "Samaná Bay". From there, they went back to Spain.
In 1493, Columbus found, when he returned in his second trip, that "La Navidad" was destroyed by the Indians and all Spaniards killed. Then he went to the east, founding the first European city in the American continent, near the present city of Puerto Plata; he named the city "La Isabela" in honor of Queen Isabella of Castile. The first Catholic mass in America was celebrated at La Isabela on January 6, 1494. From La Isabela, Columbus sent groups of persons to explore and take control of the island.
Because La Isabela was an unhealthy site, Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher, established a new city, "La Nueva Isabela" (The New Isabela) on the south coast of the island, on the left side of the Ozama river. Because a hurricane destroyed the city, it was built again but on the right side of the river and with the new name of Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European city in the Americas.
The Taíno population of the island decreased very fast because a combination of new diseases, like smallpox, and abuses by the Spaniards. Even if some black slaves were brought from Spain since 1501, the colony began to import African slaves when the colony began to grow sugar cane, around 1516, to produce sugar.
Spain kept conquering new regions of the Americas and, for the Spanish people, those new regions were more interesting because there was more gold; the population of the island grew very slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors (above all, the Tortuga island) became places often visited by Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the king of Spain gave the order that all inhabitants of Hispaniola had to move close to the city of Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates and Protestant people. This resulted in French, British and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the abandoned north and west coasts of the island.
In 1665, the presence of French people on the island had the official approval of the French king Louis XIV and he named Bertrand d'Ogeron as the governor of the western part of Hispaniola (in French, Saint-Domingue). By the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain gave the western third of the island to France and kept the eastern part. The development of the French "Saint-Domingue" was very fast, both in wealth and population, and it became the richest colony in the Caribbean. The eastern, Spanish colony of "Santo Domingo" remained poor and with a very low population.
The island of Hispaniola has an area of . There are two countries: the Republic of Haiti is in the western part of the island and the Dominican Republic in the eastern part. These two countries are separated by an artificial border, except in the northern and southern extremes where they are separated by the rivers Dajabón and Pedernales, respectively.
The island is separated from Cuba by the Windward Passage (81 km from Punta Maisí in Cuba to Cape Saint-Nicolas in Haiti), from Jamaica by the Jamaica Channel ( from Point Morante in Jamaica to Cape Irois in Haiti) and from Puerto Rico by the Mona Channel, as from Punta Higüero in Puerto Rico to Punta de Agua in the Dominican Republic.
The maximun length, east to west, is from Cape Engaño to Cape Irois. The maximum width, north to south, is from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The highest point of the island, and of the Caribbean is Duarte Peak ("Pico Duarte") in the Dominican Republic with ; the lowest point is in the Enriquillo Lake, which is about under sea level.
There are many smaller islands around the Hispaniola. The largest are:
The Hispaniola is an island with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.
From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are:
The sources of the longest rivers of Hispaniola are in the mountains of the "Cordillera Central" (Dominican Republic) - "Massif du Nord" (Haiti).
The 10 longest rivers of the island are:
The largest lake of the Hispaniola, and of the West Indies, is the "Lake Enriquillo". It is in the "Hoya de Enriquillo" with an area of 265 km². There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level and is a saline lake with a higher concentration of salt than the sea water.
The second largest lake, "Étang Saumâtre" (also known as "Lake Azuei"), is close to Lake Enriquillo but in Haiti, in the "Cul-de-Sac". It is also a saline lake with an area of around 170 km².
Others lakes are "Rincón" (fresh water, area of 28.2 km²), "Oviedo" (brackish water, area of 28 km²), "Redonda" "Limón", "Étang de Miragoâne".
Hispaniola has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean). At sea level, the average temperature is 25 °C, with small changes from one season to another. In the highest mountains, the temperature in winter can be as low as 0 °C.
There are two wet seasons: April-June and September-November. The most dry period is from December to March.