AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Sometimes an understudy will become famous when they unexpectedly have to perform instead of the usual lead person.
Lady Anne Hyde
Lady Anne Hyde, Duchess of York (22 March 1638 – 31 March 1671) was the first wife of James, Duke of York (the future King James II of England and VII of Scotland). She was also and the mother of two queens, Mary II of England and Scotland and Anne of Great Britain.
She was born on 12 March 1638 (Old Style) or 22 March 1638 (New Style), at Windsor, Berkshire of the Hyde family.
The royal family stayed in exile after the English Civil War. Anne's father served as the Royalist chief adviser to the future King Charles II of England, James's older brother. Anne was Maid of Honour to Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange, sister of Charles and James. It was during this time that James seduced Anne while she was in his sister's service and Charles forced James to marry Anne. He said that her strong character would be a good influence on his weak-willed brother.
The couple went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660, in London, after the English Restoration of the monarchy. Anne was not a beautiful woman. In fact, Samuel Pepys slights her as being quite plain. However, the French Ambassador described her as having "courage, cleverness, and energy almost worthy of a King's blood".
Bill of Rights 1689
The Bill of Rights (a short title) is an act of the Parliament of England. Its full name is The Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown. It is often called the English Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was passed by Parliament in December 1689. It provides many of the rights requested in the Petition of Right in February after the overthrow of James II of England in the Glorious Revolution, and is still in effect today.
Wilhelm Steinitz
Wilhelm (later "William") Steinitz (Prague, 17 May 1836 – New York, 12 August 1900) was an Austrian chess grandmaster who emigrated first to London, then to the USA.
He was the first undisputed World Chess Champion and held it from 1886 to 1894, unoficially from 1872.
Steinitz won the title by beating Johannes Zukertort in a match in 1886. He lost it to Emanuel Lasker in 1894. He also lost a rematch with Lasker in 1897.<ref name="H/W">Hooper D. and Whyld K. 1992. "The Oxford companion to chess". 2nd ed, Oxford University Press.</ref>
Born a Jew in Bohemia, Steinitz studied mathematics at the Vienna Polytecnic, and won the Vienna chess championship in 1861 with a score of 31/32. After playing in the London 1862 tournament, he stayed in London as a professional player in clubs and coffee houses. He won a series of matches against all the best English and other players living in London. This established him as one of the best player in the world.
Steinitz beat Adolf Anderssen in 1866 and some think he should be regarded as world champion from this date however at the time Zukertort was the stronger player.
Apart from the chess, this match was a landmark in chess organisation. It was the first event to be timed by clocks. The time for each move was recorded by hand. The totals for each player could then be added. This was the first practical step taken to make sure each player had the same total thinking time available. It had always been a problem that some players took much longer than others, unfairly so. Timing also helped to keep the total time for play within bounds. Eventually, special chess clocks were designed, and the idea has spread to other two-person games such as Go.
Steinitz beat Johannes Zukertort in 1872, and again later in 1886. This last match all agree was for the world championship. Zukertort was a brilliant and boastful player, who was also resident in London for many years. Both the men wrote for chess magazines, and there was a good deal of rivalry.
Steinitz did not win a really strong tournament until London 1872, and did not finish above Andersson until Vienna 1873. He came equal first at Vienna 1882, and second (to Zukertort) in London 1883, both top-class events. In general, his tournament play was not so outstanding as his match play. In match play he was the best of his day: he won 24 matches running until Lasker beat him.
As a younger man, Steinitz played in the all-out attacking style that was common in the 1860s. Later, he developed a new positional style of play and demonstrated that it was superior to the previous style. His new style was controversial, and some even branded it as 'cowardly'. Some of Steinitz's games showed that it could also set up attacks as ferocious as those of the old school.
Steinitz was argumentative, and was often in disputes with other chess writers. He was a prolific writer in chess magazines, and defended his ideas vigorously. The debate was bitter and sometimes abusive: it became known as the 'Ink War'. By the early 1890s, Steinitz' approach was more widely accepted and the next generation of top players acknowledged their debt to him, especially his successor as world champion, Emanuel Lasker.
Lasker summed up the new style as:
Steinitz left England for the United States in 1886, and became an American citizen in 1888.
He was given an enthusiastic reception, played several exhibitions, many casual games, a match for stakes of £50 with a wealthy amateur, and slightly more serious matches with New World professionals. The match with the Cuban champion Celso Golmayo Zúpide was abandoned when Steinitz was leading (eight wins, one draw, one loss). His hosts even arranged a visit to New Orleans, where Paul Morphy lived.
While based in New York he played matches against Zukertort (St Louis 1883), twice against Russia's Mikhail Chigorin (Havana 1889 & 1892), Isidor Gunsberg (New York 1890/91). Finally, there were the two losing matches against Emanuel Lasker, (Philadelphia/New York/Montreal 1894 and Moscow 1896/97). These were all for the world championship. There were also a dozen matches against lesser masters, including four against J.H. Blackburne, the leading English professional.
Steinitz died in poverty, having spent some of his last years in a New York mental institution. His second wife and their two young children survived him, and a fund of $1050 was raised to help them.
Steinitz
Steinitz is the surname of several notable people:
Emperor Seimu
Seimu is almost certainly a legend; but the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki" record his name.
The limited information about Seimu does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Seimu.
List of chess terms
List of chess terms: in alphabetical order.
When the game is paused temporarily. Less common today, as most games are played to a finish. If a game is adjourned, a sealed move is necessary so the player to move does not have any advantage.
Method to decide the result of an unfinished game. It is done by an expert who judges the position on the board. The expert is often appointed before the tournament or match starts. The method is only used if games are not played to a finish, and there are no adjournments.
See "J'adoube"
System of chess notation in which each square has one name. From White's left to right, each file is labelled from a to h. From White's bottom to top, each rank is labelled 1 to 8. Thus the left bottom square is a1, and the right top square is h8.
Commentary on a game using a combination of written comments and chess notation.
An assault on part of the opponent's position. May be short-term (e.g., after 1.e4 Nf6, Black attacks White's pawn on e4), or long-term. Examples of long-term attacks: a sustained mating attack against the enemy king or a minority attack against the opponent's queenside pawn structure. See also: defence and initiative
Pawn on an otherwise open file, on the 2nd or 3rd rank, which cannot be supported by another pawn, or advanced.
Bishop blocked long-term by pawns on squares of its own colour.
Endgames with few pawns or pieces. Set positions and ideas which can be taught to learners, and which every player should know.
A bind is a hold on the opponent's position which stops him from freeing it. Usually by means of pawns; a severe type of restraint.
The term used to describe the retention of both bishops. This term is usually used after one of both knights has been exchanged for one of both bishops. The player with the 'bishop pair' theoretically has the advantage over an opponent with two knights, or a bishop and a knight.
Chess played by a strong player without being able to see the board. The player is not blind, but sits with his back to the boards, or wears a blindfold. Moves are called out in notation.
Defined by FIDE (Appendix C) as a game where all the moves must be made within a set time of less than 15 minutes for each side. They are always played with clocks. Some special rules are required. Players need not write down the moves; touch & move does not apply. Instead, a move is completed only when the player starts the opponent's clock. There is usually a provision for a player to stop the clock and claim a draw when there is no way for the opponent to win. Wins on time must be claimed by the player; games are drawn if both flags fall.
The obstruction of an enemy pawn by placing a piece in front of it so that it cannot move.
Also, more generally, the severe restraint of an opponent's position so that it is difficult for him to find active play.
A type of chess played by four players on two boards. Pieces can be moved from one board to another. A checkmate on either board wins the game.
A simultaneous move (the only one in chess) whereby king and rook move past each other. See page for details.
The earliest form of chess. See History of chess.
Any deliberate violation of the Laws of Chess. The most frequent accusations of cheating include violations of the touch and move law (Article 4) and 'no outside help' (Article 12) rules.
A move which attacks the opposing king.
A move which attacks the opposing king, and which the opponent cannot get out of.
Clocks control the timing of chess games. They show separately the time taken by each player. Electronic clocks can also count the moves made, and apply the set time limits for a game.
Chess960, also called Fischer Random Chess, is a variant of chess invented and advocated by former world chess champion Bobby Fischer, announced publicly on June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
A forcing sequence of moves, usually has a sacrifice, to gain the advantage. In the diagram White wins with 1.Nh6+ Kh8 2.Qg8+ Rxg8 3.Nf7#. This is both a combination and a smothered mate.
Chess with moves sent by mail. Once popular, especially in remote areas, but now not so popular. It has been hurt by the invention of computer chess engines.
Where a player defends by attacking his opponent instead of making defensive moves. Example: when players castle on opposite wings, both attack each other's king, making as few defensive moves as possible.
A bishop which moves on the dark squares.
An older form of notation, each half of the board describes its squares based in relevance to prices of the board. An E4 opening could be described as King’s Pawn 4 or Queen’s Knight to queen’s Bishop 3. Although this method is very uncommon and superseded by Algebraic Notation, it is still encountered in several chess books.
A fundamental concept of opening theory. The number of pieces in active play. Can be assessed comparatively, by counting the number of active pieces developed by each side. To some extent, development is reactive. What one player does is affected by what the opponent does. Therefore, development proceeds differently in different openings.
The squares on which bishops move, at 45 to the ranks and files.
A check given by a line-piece when a shielding piece or pawn is moved out of the way.
The basis of all tactics. It occurs when one move attacks two places at the same time, as might happen with a discovered check, or a fork.
Two pawns of the same colour on the same file which do not have a pawn of the same colour on either of the adjacent files.
Two pawns of the same colour on the same file. Can only happen after a capture by one of the pawns.
One of three potential outcomes of a chess game, the others being Win and Loss. Draws may occur by agreement, by stalemate, or by the expiration of a player's time when the opponent does not possess sufficient material to cause checkmate, i.e. a lone king. In tournament play, a draw results in a score of 0.5 for each player; otherwise the players score 1.0 for a win, and 0.0 for a loss.
A style of play which is "double-edged". Typically, long-term pawn weaknesses may be counterbalanced by piece activity. Dynamism stemmed from the teachings of the 'Hypermodern movement', which challenged the dogma found in more classical teachings, such as those of Wilhelm Steinitz and Siegbert Tarrasch.
The rating system invented by the late Professor Arpad Elo, and used by FIDE since 1970. The system gives a four-figure number which shows how well a player has scored in those games which have been entered into the database. It is an estimate of strength based on results, and is widely used to place players into categories. 2500 and above is grandmaster level.
The stage of the game with few pieces or when queens are exchanged and the middle game is over.
A special method of capturing, only available to a pawn on its fifth rank. See "En passant" rule.
When neither player has an advantage.
May mean:
Developing the bishop at the squares b2, g2, b7 or g7. Also, moving a pawn one square forward to allow this. It is a hallmark of the hypermodern openings: the bishops there do not occupy the centre, but influence it.
"Fédération Internationale des Échecs": the International Chess Federation. The overall governing body of the game.
The game is drawn if 50 moves are played "with no captures and no pawn moves". This is to prevent a player forcing his opponent to play on in a position where no win is possible, yet where three-fold repetition has not happened. The rule is ancient: the Arabic version of the game, Shatranj, had a 70-move rule.
There is an exception to the 50-move rule. There are some positions which require more than 50 moves to win, yet have no captures or pawn moves. They are rare, and many players never see such an event in their lifetime. The circumstance is as follows. Suppose a computer study has shown that a particular position can be won in 58 moves (without pawn moves or captures), but not fewer. This is proved because a computer can try out every alternative. Then the case is published (so FIDE can list it for arbitrators). The cases listed by FIDE in 1988 were:
What FIDE did for these cases was to extend the 50-move rule to 75 moves. However, still more cases were found, many with far more moves needed. At that, FIDE decided to cancel the extension. Now the 50-move rule applies to all games without exception.
Little images of pieces used in diagrams and printed chess scores (moves). Software is available which permits chess authors to compose text with diagrams and figurines. Together with standard symbols, this makes texts available for international sale. For this to apply, the text should have little or no prose, or use a widely understood language like English.
The eight vertical columns on the board, numbered a to h. The phrase "open file" is used when no pawn blocks a file. The phrase "semi-open file" is used when only one pawn blocks a file.
A double attack when one piece, such as a knight, attacks two or three pieces at once.
A method for recording positions. The board is read from a8 to h8, and rank by rank from the black side to the white side. Then the result is written down by hand, putting numbers for blank squares.
Upper case letters (capitals) are used for white pieces; lower case letters for black pieces. * rnbqkbnr/pppppppp/8/8/8/8/PPPPPPPP/RNBQKBNR is the starting position.
A chess opening in which a player offers a pawn (or more) for fast development and an attack. Examples:
Grading or rating: a number which indicates how likely one player is to beat another. A competitive ranking list based solely on results.
The situation where a player, in error, moves a piece to where it can be captured without an exchange. For instance, player A. just hung his or her bishop.
A group of players in the early 1920s who had new ideas on openings; and any of the openings they promoted.
The situation where one player is making threats, and his opponent must respond to them. The attacking player is said to "have the initiative" and can often dictate the way the game develops.
Isolated pawns do not have a pawn of the same colour on either of the adjacent files. An Isolated Queens Pawn, or 'IQP' for short, is one of the most common types of Isolated Pawns. Openings with an IQP lead to distinctive <nowiki>middlegame</nowiki> strategies.
Means 'I adjust'; said before adjusting a piece on the board during a game. Usually occurs when a player has made a move, and carelessly left the piece overlapping the square.
Kriegspiel ('War game') is an unorthodox chess game in which the players only know for certain the moves of their own pieces. They have to deduce where the opponent's pieces are by questioning an umpire. It is played on three boards with partitions between them. The umpire sits with the middle board with the true position. Players are permitted to ask two kinds of question. "Can I move here?" and "Are there any?" (meaning pawn captures). The umpire replies accordingly. Checks and captures are announced by the umpire, and provide more clues. The game was invented by Henry Michael Temple (1862–1928).
Chess played with human beings as pieces on a giant board. A spectacle which has been performed since the 15th century. Usually, masters or other celebrities decide the moves, and a steward with a stick instructs the 'pieces' where to move.
Luft, the German word for "air" (sometimes also "space" or "breath"), is sometimes used for a space made by a pawn move. Especially it means a space made for the king to avoid a back rank checkmate.
Queen or rook.
Not a game, but a series of games. Used of team events or a series of games between two players.
Material refers to the chess pieces other than the king, and their respective values. Traditional material values given to the pieces are: Queen (9); Rook (5); Bishop and Knight (3.0); Pawn (1.0), although the values are the subject of substantial discussion.
The part of the game which follows the opening. Plans are formed, based on the position, and put into action.
Bishop or knight.
The method of writing down chess moves. See also Forsyth notation.
The start of the game, about a dozen moves. Openings have names, and extensive theory has been worked out by masters. Traditionally, the opening ends when minor pieces (knights and bishops) have been developed, and players have castled. However, modern openings go much further, into the early middlegame. See development.
A line in a particular opening. For example, in the Sicilian defence there are many different lines which are called variations.
A position on the chess board where a piece is close to the enemy but difficult for the opponent to remove. There is no reason it has to be a knight, nor does it have to be protected by a pawn.
Overworked, also known as overloaded, is a tactical weakness in chess where a piece is tasked to defend multiple threats at the same time. In many cases, this results in the overworked piece being unable to move and/or being forced to prioritize which task it can preform in order to mitigate loses.
A situation arising from opposite-side castling. One, or both players, advance their pawns towards their opponent's king. This is usually not done on same-side castling, as advancing the pawns in front of one's own king is generally unsafe.
Checking someone seemingly infinitely, forcing a draw by checking someone indefinitely with no way of avoiding the checks.
When a piece does not move because to do so would expose a more valuable piece to capture. Pins against the king are absolute because it is illegal to move the pinned piece.
Play dominated by long-term manoeuvring, not short-term attacks and threats. It needs judgement more than calculation. The term is contrasted with tactics.
A chess problem is an artificial construction, not part of the game, but using a board and pieces. It is a separate intellectual activity. Chess problems have a history as long as the game itself, and their own terminology. The Arabs (9th/10th centuries) used specially composed positions ("mansurbat") as teaching devices; the idea of specifying a set number of moves to mate is European. Problem solving tournaments are held, and there is a World Championship for problem solvers. There are also international prizes for problem composers.
Promotion is what happens when a pawn reaches the other side of the board (that is, the 8th rank) and cannot move further. Then it becomes any other piece on the board, except the king. Players usually promote their pawns to a queen (called "queening") because it is the most powerful piece on the board. There are cases where a player might want to promote a pawn to a knight, rook, or bishop instead. This is called an "underpromotion", but they almost never happen, as almost all promotions are made to a queen.
A key concept of positional chess. It is a move, or sequence of moves, to deal with an opponent's plan before it starts. Sometimes one can completely stop the threat; sometimes one just makes the plan relatively harmless. The idea was spelled out in detail in Nimzovich's books "My system" and "Chess praxis". Prophylactic moves are often seen in games by Capablanca, Petrosian and Karpov.
The idea of choosing the layout of the pieces on the back row at random. The point is to avoid opening knowledge. White picks the pieces out of a bag and places them left to right; Black places his pieces on the corresponding squares. Alternatively, each player places his own pieces at random, producing two different arrays. The idea has been tried several times in the last 200 years, but has never caught on. There are problems. Usually special rules are needed for the king (castling?) and the bishops (no two bishops on the same colour squares). More serious is the great difficulty players experience in getting the pieces to work together.
The horizontal eight lines on the board, labelled 1 to 8.
Rapidplay (FIDE Laws, Appendix B) is a game where each player has a set time for all the moves. That time can be from 15 to 60 minutes. Players need not record the moves. The touch & move rule is usually put aside by the organiser; if so starting the opponent's clock is the official end of a move. In other words, a player can change his mind so long as his own clock is running.
Removing the Defender, also known as removing the guard is a chess tactic where a chess piece is either captured or forced to move in order to eliminate the protection of an opponent's piece.
To concede loss of the game. A resignation is usually done by stopping the clock, and sometimes by offering a handshake or saying "I resign".
The intentional loss of material to get a more important result. Often the start of a combination.
The intentional exchange of piece of greater value for a piece of smaller value in order to get a more important result. For instance, the exchange of a rook for a minor piece (bishop or knight), or the exchange of a queen for a rook.
The sheet of paper used to write down the moves of a game in progress. During formal games both players must record the game using a score sheet.
Made when a game is adjourned. Score sheet with move and position are placed in an envelope, and played on the board when the game is resumed.
When a master plays a number of opponents at the same time. Usually arranged as a ring of tables, with the master moving round inside, and the opponents outside. Players move when the master arrives at their board, master replies and moves on.
Like a pin, but the valuable piece is in front. So black B, white K and white R on a diagonal in that order wins the rook.
Unlike the fork, a skewer only works with a line piece (B, R, Q).
Where a player is not in check, but has no legal moves. It is a draw in modern chess.
A chess or endgame study is a position which is made to show an interesting point. It is usual for studies to be endgame positions. Unlike chess problems, studies are connected to the game.
A term in positional chess, where a player loses ground because he/she has to make a move. See Zugzwang.
A series of symbols are in wide use. They help annotate games of chess.
Short-term attacks requiring exact calculation, sometimes called 'forcing sequences'. It is contrasted with positional play, which is long-term strategy.
In chess, a single move. A loss of a tempo would be taking two moves where one would do. This may, or may not, be critical in the early stages of a game.
Article 4 of the Laws of Chess. If the player to play touches a piece, it must be moved if possible. If there is no legal move, then the player may make any legal move. See also J'adoube, which permits adjustment of pieces without penalty.
To arrive at the same position from different move orders. Common in certain openings, such as the Modern defence.
A trebuchet is a type of reciprocal zugzwang occurring in pawn endgames, where each King is attacking the others pawn and whoever it is to move loses.
A position, usually in an ending, where the player to move loses because he/she must move. A more complex definition is given by Hooper:
An "in between move", where a player, instead of playing the expected move, first inserts a move which the opponent must answer, before making the expected move.
Emperor Chūai
Chūai is almost certainly a legend; but the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki" record his name. He was a grandson of Emperor Keikō.
Chūai's wife is known as Empress Jingū. Her son would become known as Emperor Ōjin.
The limited information about Chūai does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Chūai.
The actual site of his grave is not known. According to the Imperial Household Agency, this emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Fujiidera of Osaka Prefecture.
Empress Jingū
, also known as was a legendary empress of Japan. Although her name was once included in the traditional order of succession, she is now considered as a regent.
Historians consider details about the life of Empress Jingū to be mythical; and the name Jingū"-tennō" was created for her posthumously by later generations.
No certain dates can be assigned to this empress's life or reign. The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.
Jingū is almost certainly a legend; but the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki" record her name.
Jingū was the principle wife of Emperor Chūai Her son would become known as Emperor Ōjin. The "Gukanshō" mentions her, but she is not included on the list of persons born within the line of Imperial descent.
The limited information about Jingū does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
After the death of Chūai, Jingū also served as regent, according to the oracle of Sumiyoshi-jinja, until her son was old enough to be emperor.
This empress' official name after her death (her posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Jingū.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the empress's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus ("kofun"). Jingū is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Nara.
In the centuries before the Meiji period, Jingū was known as the 15th Japanese imperial ruler, according to the traditional order of succession. However, Jingū's name is now removed from the official list of emperors of Japan. Jingū's son, Emperor Ōjin, is today considered to have been the 15th emperor in the order of succession.
Hypermodern
The hypermoderns were a school of chess players who set out to rethink some of the principles of chess openings. The name was given to them by the Polish-French grandmaster Tartakower.
The key idea was, in reaction to the older ideas of Siegbert Tarrasch, to dispute control of the centre by more subtle methods. Whereas old theory was to occupy the centre with two or three pawns immediately, the hypermoderns concentrated more on attacking the opponent's centre. A characteristic first move was 1Nf3 with White, or 1...Nf6 with Black, especially in reply to 1d4. To 1e4 they favoured an asymmetric defence such as 1...e6 or 1...c5 rather than the classical reply 1...e5.
Nimzovich was the founder, and Alekhine, Tartakower, Réti, Grünfeld, and Bogolyubov all took part. All were top grandmasters of the 1920s and 30s. Several modern openings owe their popularity to this group: Alekhine's Defence (1e4 Nf6); Réti's Opening (1Nf3); the King's Indian Defence (1d4 Nf6 2c4 g6 3Nc3 Bg7); the Grünfeld Defence (1d4 Bf6 2c4 g6 3Nc3 d5) and the Modern Defence (1...g6).
Confidence interval
In statistics, a confidence interval, abbreviated as CI, is a special interval for estimating a certain parameter, such as the population mean. With this method, a whole interval of acceptable values for the parameter is given instead of a single value—together with a likelihood that the real (unknown) value of the parameter will be in the interval. Thus, if we're not sure of the exact number of vehicles that crossed a bridge, we can say 400 plus or minus 10 instead of just saying 400.
The confidence interval is based on the observations from a sample, and hence differs from sample to sample. The likelihood that the parameter will be in the interval is called the confidence level, and the end points of the confidence interval are referred to as confidence limits.
Very often, this is given as a percentage (for example, the 95% confidence interval). The confidence interval is always given together with the confidence level. For a given estimation procedure in a given situation, the higher the confidence level, the wider the confidence interval will be.
The calculation of a confidence interval generally requires assumptions about the nature of the estimation process, since it is primarily a "parametric" method. One common assumption is that the distribution of the population from which the sample came is normal. As such, confidence intervals as discussed below are not robust statistics, though changes can be made to add robustness.
The term "confidence" has a similar meaning in statistics, as in common use. In common usage, a claim to 95% confidence in something is normally taken as indicating near certainty. In statistics, a claim to 95% confidence simply means that the researcher has seen one possible interval from a large number of possible ones, from which 19 out of 20 intervals contain the true value of the parameter.
A machine fills cups with margarine. It is adjusted so that the content of the cups is 250g of margarine. As the machine cannot fill every cup with exactly 250g, the content added to individual cups shows some variation, and is considered a random variable X.
This variation is assumed to be normally distributed around the desired average of 250g, with a standard deviation of 2.5g. To determine if the machine is adequately calibrated, a sample of "n" = 25 cups of margarine is chosen at random, and the cups are weighed. The weights of margarine are "X", ..., "X", a random sample from "X".
To get an impression of the expectation μ, an estimate is needed. The appropriate estimator is the sample mean:
The sample shows actual weights "x", ...,"x", with mean:
If we take another sample of 25 cups, we could easily expect to find values like 250.4 or 251.1 grams. A sample mean value of 280 grams, however, would be extremely rare if the mean content of the cups is in fact close to 250g.
There is a whole interval around the observed value 250.2 of the sample mean within which, if the whole population mean actually takes a value in this range, the observed data would not be considered particularly unusual. Such an interval is called a confidence interval for the parameter "μ".
To calculate such an interval, the endpoints of the interval have to be calculated from the sample, so they are statistics, functions of the sample "X", ..., "X", and hence are random variables themselves.
In our case, we may determine the endpoints by considering that the sample mean from a normally distributed sample is also normally distributed, with the same expectation "μ", but with standard error "σ"/√"n" = 0.5 (grams). By standardizing, we get a random variable
which depends on the parameter μ to be estimated, but with a standard normal distribution independent of the parameter "μ". Hence it is possible to find numbers −"z" and "z", independent of "μ", where "Z" lies in between with probability 1 − α, a measure of how confident we want to be. We take 1 - α = 0.95. So we have:
The number "z" follows from the cumulative distribution function:
and we get:
This might be interpreted as: with probability 0.95, we will find a confidence interval in which we will meet the parameter "μ" between the stochastic endpoints
This does not mean that there is 0.95 probability of meeting the parameter μ in the calculated interval. Every time the measurements are repeated, there will be another value for the mean of the sample. In 95% of the cases, "μ" will be between the endpoints calculated from this mean, but in 5% of the cases, it will not be. The actual confidence interval is calculated by entering the measured weights in the formula. Our 0.95 confidence interval becomes:
As the desired value 250 of "μ" is within the resulted confidence interval, there is no reason to believe the machine is wrongly calibrated.
The calculated interval has fixed endpoints, where μ might be in between (or not). Thus this event has probability either 0 or 1. We "cannot" say: "with probability (1 − α), the parameter "μ" lies in the confidence interval." We only know that by repetition in 100(1 − α) % of the cases, μ will be in the calculated interval. In 100α % of the cases, however, it does not. And unfortunately we do not know in which of the cases this happens. That is why we say: "with confidence level 100(1 − α) %, "μ" lies in the confidence interval."
The figure on the right shows 50 realisations of a confidence interval for a given population mean μ. If we randomly choose one realisation, the probability that it contains the parameter is 95%. However, it is also possible that we may have unluckily picked the wrong one as well.
Emperor Richū
Some scholars identify him with King San in the Book of Song. King San sent messengers to the Song Dynasty at least twice in 421 and 425; and this historical person was succeeded by his younger brother.
According to "Nihonshoki" and "Kojiki", he was the first son of Emperor Nintoku.
Richū had two sons; but he was followed on the throne by his brother, who would become known as Emperor Hanzei. The enthronement of Hanzei by-passed Richū's two sons. Few other details have survived.
Two of Richū's grandsons would attain the throne as Emperor Kenzō and as Emperor Ninken.
Very little is known about the events of Richū's life and reign. Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
In his sixth year of his reign, Richū died.
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Richū.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the emperor's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus ("kofun") at Sakai. Richū is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") which is associated with the burial mound.
Jacobitism
Jacobitism was (and, to a much smaller extent, is) the political movement that tried to put the Stuart kings back onto the thrones of England, Scotland, and Kingdom of Ireland. The movement took its name from the Latin form "Jacobus" of the name of King James II and VII.
Jacobitism began after the deposition of James II and VII in 1688. He was replaced by his daughter Mary II jointly with her husband and first cousin William of Orange. The Stuarts lived on the European mainland after that, sometimes trying to get back the throne with the help of France or Spain. The most important places of Jacobitism were Ireland and Scotland, especially the Scottish Highlands. In England, Jacobitism was strongest in the north, and some support was also in Wales.
A great number of Catholic people liked Jacobitism. They hoped the Stuarts would end bad laws. Lots of different helped the military campaigns for all sorts of reasons. In Scotland the Jacobite cause became a lasting romantic memory.
Tadao Horie
Horie was born in Hamamatsu on September 13, 1913. He played for Waseda WMW, which was consisted of players from his alma mater, Waseda University. At that club, he played with many futures Japan national team players, such as Motoo Tatsuhara, Yasuo Suzuki, and others.
In May 1934, when Horie was a Waseda University student, he was selected by the Japan national team for the Far Eastern Championship Games in Manila. At that competition, on May 15, he debuted against Philippines. In 1936, he was also selected by Japan for the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. At the 1936 Summer Olympics, he played against Sweden, and Japan completed a come-from-behind victory. It was the first victory in the Olympics for Japan and a historic victory over one of the powerhouses, the team became later known as the "Miracle of Berlin" () in Japan. In 2016, the team was selected for the Japan Football Hall of Fame. However, he fractured his right arm in the match, and could not play in the next game against Italy. He played three games for Japan until 1936.
After 1936 Summer Olympics, Horie retired from his playing career and joined the Asahi Shimbun. In 1951, he became a professor at his alma mater, Waseda University. He also became a manager for Waseda University and instructed many international players like Shigeo Yaegashi, Saburo Kawabuchi, Masakatsu Miyamoto, Kunishige Kamamoto, and others.
On March 29, 2003, Horie died of pneumonia in Nakano, Tokyo at the age of 89.
Maksim Shatskikh
Maksim Shatskikh (born 30 August 1978) is a Uzbekistani football player. He plays for Arsenal Kyiv and Uzbekistan national team.
84||23
213||97
15||9
312||129
!Total||46||30
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (26 May 1650 – 16 June 1722) was an important English soldier and statesman. He lived through the rules of five monarchs through the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Rising from a lowly page at the court of the House of Stuart, he faithfully served the Duke of York through the 1670s and early 1680s. This gave him military and political advancement through his brave, clever skill. Churchill helped secure James on the throne.
However, just three years later he left his Catholic teacher for the Protestant Dutchman, William of Orange. For his help in the Glorious Revolution, William at his coronation made him Earl of Marlborough (pronounced /'mɔ:l bɹə/). He served in the early years of the Nine Years' War and became famous. However, charges of Jacobitism made him fall from office. For some time, he was imprisoned in the Tower. When Queen Anne came to throne in 1702, however, Marlborough secured his fame and lots of money.
His marriage to the quick-tempered Sarah Jennings – Anne's close friend – helped Marlborough's rise. He first became the Captain-Generalcy of British forces. Then he became a duke. Later, he became the richest of all Anne's subjects. Although in the end he could not completely crush his enemies, his victories allowed Britain to rise to very great power. Through him, the country grew more and more rich through the 18th century.
Pierre Njanka
Pierre Njanka (born 15 March 1975) is a Cameroonian football player. He has played for Cameroon national team.
120||0
Rigobert Song
Rigobert Song Bahanag (born 1 July 1976) is a former Cameroonian football player. He played for Trabzonspor and the Cameroonian national team. He is the first African who has played in four World Cups.
186||6
136||4
399||11
!Total||131||4
Wolfgang Feiersinger
Wolfgang Feiersinger (born 30 January 1965) is a former Austrian football player. He has played for Austria national team.
Wolfgang Feiersinger started playing football at his local club 1. Saalfeldner SK. 1986 he went to Austria Salzburg, now known as FC Red Bull Salzburg. With this club he became runner up of the Austrian Bundesliga in 1992 and 1993. His first championship he reached 1994. He was part of the team which reached the UEFA Cup final in the 1993/94 season. In 1996 he went on to Borussia Dortmund where he played in the Championsleague due to the injury of Matthias Samer. But in the final he was not even part of the team which won the UEFA Championsleague. Then he came back to Austria playing for LASK Linz and again for Austria Salzburg. In 2002 he finished his professional career but played for the amateur squad of PSV Schwarz-Weiß Salzburg.
He played 46 matches for the national football team as defender but also as offensive midfielder. He was member of Austrias teame for the FIFA World Cup 1998 in France. Since 2009 he works as host in an alpine hut (Hochwildalmhütte Aurach). His daughter Laura plays for FC Bayern München in the German women league.
248||7
305||7
Ernst Happel
Ernst Franz Hermann Happel (29 November 1925 – 14 November 1992) was a former Austrian football player and football coach. He has played for SK Rapid Wien, RC Paris and the Austria national team.
Happel started professionally at the age of 17 with SK Rapid Wien as defender. He played only from 1955 till 1956 for another club. In 1999 he was elected for Rapids team of the century.
He made his first match for Austria in September 1947 against Hungary and was member of the squad for the 1954 World Cup in Switzerlandand and the 1958 World Cup in Sweden.His last match was in September 1958 against Yugoslavia. He played 51 times in the team and shot 5 goals.
240||25
42||9
282||34
!Total||51||5
Baboons are monkeys of the genus Papio. They are one of the largest kinds of monkey. It is an intelligent Old World monkey. It lives on the ground in groups called troops. Troops can be as small as a few baboons or as big as several hundred members.
Baboons live in forests and on savannahs in Africa and on the Arabian Peninsula. As they move into the open land, the family groups come together into groups several hundred strong, led by adult males that work together to protect the others from predators.
Baboons are omnivores (they eat both plants and meat). They eat grasses, roots, insects and other small animals, like lizards, small mammals, fish, birds, and snakes. In some places, they steal food from humans.
Leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, lions, hyenas and people hunt the baboon. To scare the predator away, baboons can show their eyelids, show their teeth, chase the predator, and make noise.
To understand their lives, one must see them in their natural environment.
Friedrich Koncilia
Friedrich (Friedl) Koncilia (born 25 February 1948) is a former Austrian football player mainly for FK Austria Wien. He has also played for Austria national team.
At the age of 14 he came to KAC, an icehockeyclub, but the coach of the football department brought him to football. He played in Austria for Austria Klagenfurt, SSW Innsbruck and Austria Wien. Abroad he played for RSC Anderlecht. He is one of the most successful goalkeepers in Austria. During his career he was 8 times Austrian Champion and six times Cup winner and played 526 league matches, 76 Cup matches and 51 matches in European cups.
For Austria he played 85 matches, his first international match was on 27 September 1970 versus Hungary. His last match was in 1985. For Austria he played in the FIFA World Cup 1978 where he played in the legendary match versus Germany in Cordoba and 1982.
He was chosen as goalkeeper for a FIFA-selection playing versus Argentinia on 25 June 1979 He was goalkeeper in the 2nd half time. He was also goalkeeper in an UEFA-team playing versus CSSR, which celebrated the 70th anniversary.
After the end of his playing career he became coach for Austria Wien, Gamba Osaka and Brandl-Bau Ischl.
459||0
467||0
Toni Polster
Toni Polster (born 10 March 1964) is a former Austrian football player. He has played for Austria national team.
159||121
171||83
189||94
546||307
!Total||95||44
Daisuke Saito (born in 1980)
Daisuke Saito (born 29 August 1980) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Vegalta Sendai.
254||8||11||0||17||0||282||8
Daisuke Saito can refer to:
Naohito Hirai
Hirai retired in 2010.
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Emperor Nintoku
According to "Nihon Shoki", Nintoku was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and the father of three emperors — Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō .
Very little is known about the events of Nintoku's life and reign. Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
Nintoku's reign is marked by Japan's first large-scale engineering projects.
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Nintoku.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the emperor's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus ("kofun") at Sakai. Nintoku is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") which is associated with the burial mound.
Irukandji jellyfish
The Irukandji Jellyfish, "Carukia barnesi", is a species of jellyfish. It lives in the waters of northern Australia. It is a very deadly jellyfish. The Irukandji is only 2.5 centimeters (with bell and tentacles) in diameter. This makes it hard to find. The Irukandji is believed to be the most poisonous creature in the world. Some people are not sure if that is true.
The Irukandjis' name comes from an Australian Aboriginal tribe. The tribe lived in the Palm Cove region of North Queensland. When the Irukandji people were stung by the Irukandji, there are many symptoms. This includes:
Sometimes, people may also get fluid on their lungs (pulmonary oedema), hypertension, and heart failure.
The Irukandji has killed at least two swimmers in Australia. In 2002, Richard Jordon came to Australia as a tourist. He was a 58 year old British man. He was stung while swimming off Hamilton Island. Jordon died a few days later. There may have been more deaths which doctors did not know were caused by the jellyfish.
The Irukandji is related to another jellyfish. This is the box jellyfish, "Chironex Fleckeri". Irukandji was identified in 1964 by a Cairns doctor, Jack Barnes. Because of this, its scientific name is named after him. When people were getting hurt in the sea, Barnes was sure it was because of a jellyfish. He put on diving equipment and lay on the sea floor for six days until he discovered it. When Barnes discovered the Irukandji jellyfish, he tested its sting on himself, his son, and a lifeguard. They all had to be taken to the hospital.
Irukandji has stingers – not only on its tentacles, but also on its bell. It is very small and weak. Because of this, sudden force may kill it. So, it cannot be kept in a normal aquarium. The first Irukandji jellyfish in captivity was born in Townsville, Queensland.
Emperor Yūryaku
According to the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki", Yūryaku was the fifth and youngest son of Emperor Ingyō.
He was the brother of Emperor Ankō.
Yūryaku was followed on the throne by his son, who would come to be known as Emperor Seinei.
Very little is known about the events of Yūryaku's life and rule. Only limited facts can be studied before the rule of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
After Ankō's death, Yūryaku overcame others in the struggle for power. He became the new emperor.
Yūryaku is known as a patron of silk. It is said that he encouraged growing mulberry bushes for silkworms to eat.
Poems that are said to be Yūryaku's are included in the "Manyōshū". A number of his verses are kept in the "Kojiki" and the "Nihonshoki."
He is credited with bringing many artisans from Korea to Japan.