AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Hawking talks about the expanding universe. The universe is getting bigger over time. One of the things he uses to explain his idea is the "Doppler shift". The Doppler shift happens when something moves toward or away from another object. There are two types of things that happen in Doppler shift - "red shifting" and "blue shifting". Red shifting happens when something is moving away from us. This is caused by the wavelength of the visible light reaching us increasing, and the frequency decreasing, which shifts the visible light towards the red/infra-red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Red-shift is linked to the belief that the universe is expanding as the wavelength of the light is increasing, almost as if stretched as planets and galaxies move away from us, which shares similarities to that of the Doppler effect, involving sound waves. Blue shifting happens when something is moving toward us, the opposite process of red-shift, in which the wavelength decreases and frequency increases, shifting the light towards the blue end of the spectrum. A scientist named Edwin Hubble found that many stars are red shifted and are moving away from us. Hawking uses the Doppler shift to explain that the universe is getting bigger. The beginning of the universe is thought to have happened through something called the "Big Bang". The Big Bang was a very big explosion that created the universe.
The uncertainty principle says that the speed and the position of a particle cannot be found at the same time. To find where a particle is, scientists shine light at the particle. If a high frequency light is used, the light can find the position more accurately but the particle's speed will be unknown (because the light will change the speed of the particle). If a lower frequency light is used, the light can find the speed more accurately but the particle's position will be unknown. The uncertainty principle disproved the idea of a theory that was deterministic, or something that would predict everything in the future.
How light behaves is also talked more about in this chapter. Some theories say that light acts like particles even though it really is made of waves; one theory that says this is Planck's quantum hypothesis. A different theory also says that light waves also act like particles; a theory that says this is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Light waves have "crests" and "troughs". The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can interfere with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called "light interference". When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.
Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different "flavors" of quarks: the up quark, down quark, strange quark, charmed quark, bottom quark, and top quark. Quarks also have three "colors": red, green, and blue. There are also anti-quarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of anti quarks. Quarks are known as the "building blocks of matter" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the universe.
All elementary particles (for example, the quarks) have something called "spin". The "spin" of a particle shows us what a particle looks like from different directions. For example, a particle of spin 0 looks the same from every direction. A particle of spin 1 looks different in every direction, unless the particle is spun completely around (360 degrees). Hawking's example of a particle of spin 1 is an arrow. A particle of spin two needs to be turned around halfway (or 180 degrees) to look the same. The example given in the book is of a double-headed arrow. There are two groups of particles in the universe: particles with a spin of 1/2, and particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2. All of these particles follow "Pauli's exclusion principle". Pauli's exclusion principle says that particles cannot be in the same place or have the same speed. If Pauli's exclusion principle did not exist, then everything in the universe would look the same, like a roughly uniform and dense "soup".
Particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2 move force from one particle to another. Some examples of these particles are "virtual gravitons" and "virtual photons". Virtual gravitons have a spin of 2 and they represent the force of gravity. This means that when gravity affects two things, gravitons move to and from the two things. Virtual photons have a spin of 1 and represent electromagnetic forces (or the force that holds atoms together).
Besides the force of gravity and the electromagnetic forces, there are weak and strong nuclear forces. "Weak nuclear forces" are the forces that cause radioactivity, or when matter emits energy. Weak nuclear force works on particles with a spin of 1/2. "Strong nuclear forces" are the forces that keep the quarks in a neutron and a proton together, and keeps the protons and neutrons together in an atom. The particle that carries the strong nuclear force is thought to be a gluon. The gluon is a particle with a spin of 1. The gluon holds together quarks to form protons and neutrons. However, the gluon only holds together quarks that are three different colors. This makes the end product have no color. This is called "confinement".
Some scientists have tried to make a theory that combines the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. This theory is called a "grand unified theory" (or a GUT). This theory tries to explain these forces in one big unified way or theory.
Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a "singularity".This singularity is a point of space-time which rotates at a high speed.That is the reason that black holes have no time. Black holes suck things into their center because its gravity is very strong. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called "super-giants", are big enough to become a black hole. The star must be one and a half times the mass of the sun or larger to turn into a black hole. This number is called the "Chandrasekhar limit". If the mass of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it will not turn into a black hole; instead, it will turn into a different, smaller type of star. The boundary of the black hole is called the "event horizon". If something is in the event horizon, it will never get out of the black hole.
Black holes can be shaped differently. Some black holes are perfectly spherical - like a ball. Other black holes bulge in the middle. Black holes will be spherical if they do not rotate. Black holes will bulge in the middle if they rotate.
Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes. Hawking talks about his bet with another scientist, Kip Thorne. Hawking bet that black holes did not exist, because he did not want his work on black holes to be wasted. He lost the bet.
Hawking realized that the event horizon of a black hole could only get bigger, not smaller. The area of the event horizon of a black hole gets bigger whenever something falls into the black hole. He also realized that when two black holes combine, the size of the new event horizon is greater than or equal to the sum of the event horizons of the two other black holes. This means that a black hole's event horizon can never get smaller.
Disorder, also known as "entropy", is related to black holes. There is a scientific law that has to do with entropy. This law is called the "second law of thermodynamics", and it says that entropy (or disorder) will always increase in an isolated system (for example, the universe). The relation between the amount of entropy in a black hole and the size of the black hole's event horizon was first thought of by a research student (Jacob Bekenstein) and proven by Hawking, whose calculations said that black holes emit radiation. This was strange, because it was already said that nothing can escape from a black hole's event horizon.
This problem was solved when the idea of pairs of "virtual particles" was thought of. One of the pair of particles would fall into the black hole, and the other would escape. This would look like the black hole was emitting particles. This idea seemed strange at first, but many people accepted it after a while.
Most scientists believe that the universe started in an explosion called the Big Bang. The model for this is called the "hot big bang model". When the universe starts getting bigger, the things inside of it also begin to get cooler. When the universe was first beginning, it was infinitely hot. The temperature of the universe cooled and the things inside the universe began to clump together.
Hawking also talks about how the universe could have been. For example, if the universe formed and then collapsed quickly, there would not be enough time for life to form. Another example would be a universe that expanded too quickly. If a universe expanded too quickly, it would become almost empty. The idea of many universes is called the "many-worlds interpretation".
Inflationary models are also discussed in this chapter, and so is the idea of a theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity.
Each particle has many histories. This idea is known as Feynman's theory of sum over histories. A theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity should have Feynman's theory in it. To find the chance that a particle will pass through a point, the waves of each particle needs to be added up. These waves happen in imaginary time. Imaginary numbers, when multiplied by themselves, make a negative number. For example, 2i X 2i = -4.
Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 - August 2, 1922) was a teacher, scientist, and inventor. He was the founder of the Bell Telephone Company.
Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family was known for teaching people how to speak English clearly (elocution). Both his grandfather, Alexander Bell, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, taught elocution. His father wrote often about this and is most known for his invention and writings of Visible Speech. In his writings he explained ways of teaching people who were deaf and unable to speak. It also showed how these people could learn to speak words by watching their lips and reading what other people were saying.
Alexander Graham Bell went to the Royal High School of Edinburgh. He graduated at the age of fifteen. At the age of sixteen, he got a job as a student and teacher of elocution and music in Weston House Academy, at Elgin in Morayshire. He spent the next year at the University of Edinburgh. While still in Scotland, he became more interested in the science of sound (acoustics). He hoped to help his deaf mother. From 1866 to 1867, he was a teacher at Somersetshire College in Bath, Somerset.
In 1870 when he was 23 years old, he moved with his family to Canada where they settled at Brantford, Ontario. Bell began to study communication machines. He made a piano that could be heard far away by using electricity. In 1871 he went with his father to Montreal, Quebec in Canada, where he took a job teaching about "visible speech". His father was asked to teach about it at a large school for deaf mutes in Boston, Massachusetts, but instead he gave the job to his son. The younger Bell began teaching there in 1872. Alexander Graham Bell soon became famous in the United States for this important work. He published many writings about it in Washington, D.C.. Because of this work, thousands of deaf mutes in the United States of America are now able to speak, even though they cannot hear.
In 1876, Bell was the first inventor to patent the telephone, and he helped start the Bell Telephone Company with others in July 1877. In 1879, this company joined with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. In 1880, they formed the American Bell Telephone Company, and in 1885, American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), still a large company today. Along with Thomas Edison, Bell formed the Oriental Telephone Company on January 25, 1881.
Bell married Mabel Hubbard on July 11, 1877. He died of diabetes at his home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia in 1922.
Bell's genius is seen in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve that he shared with others. These included fifteen for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aeronautics, four for hydrofoils, and two for a selenium cell. In 1888, he was one of the original members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president.
He was given many honors.
His past experience made him ready to work more with sound and electricity. He began his studies in 1874 with a musical telegraph, in which he used an electric circuit and a magnet to make an iron reed or tongue vibrate. One day, it was found that a reed failed to respond to the current. Mr. Bell desired his assistant, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the magnet. His assistant, Thomas Watson complied, and to his surprise, Bell heard the corresponding reed at his end of the line vibrate and sound the same - without any electric current to power it. A few experiments soon showed that his reed had been set in vibration by the changes in the magnetic field that the moving reed produced in the line. This discovery led him to stop using the electric battery current. His idea was that, since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into currents, which in turn would reproduce the speech at a distance.
Bell, with his assistant, devised a receiver, consisting of a stretched film or drum with a bit of magnetised iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. This apparatus was completed on June 2, 1875. On July 7, he instructed his assistant to make a second receiver which could be used with the first, and a few days later they were tried together, at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor's house at Boston to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. The inventor spoke into his instrument, ""Do you understand what I say?"" and Mr. Watson rushed back into the upstairs and answered ""Yes."" The first successful two-way telephone call was not made until March 10, 1876 when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson answered back and came into the room to see Bell. The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876 by Bell from the family home in Brantford, Ontario to his assistant in Paris, Ontario, some 16 km (10 mi.) away.
On March 7, 1876, the U.S. Patent Office gave him patent #174465 for the "telephone".
Bell is also credited with the invention of an improved metal detector in 1881 that made sounds when it was near metal. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked, but did not find the bullet because of the metal bedframe the President was lying on. Bell gave a full description of his experiments in a paper read before the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" in August, 1882.
Bell was an active supporter of the eugenics movement in the United States. He was the honorary president of the "Second International Congress of Eugenics" held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York in 1921.
As a teacher of the deaf, Bell did not want deaf people to teach in schools for the deaf. He was also against the use of sign language. These things mean that he is not appreciated by some deaf people in the present day.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.
Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.
He died from blood poisoning in 1894.
1687
Year 1687 was a common year that started on a Wednesday when using the Gregorian calendar.
Deep house
Cytokine
Cytokines are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.
Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.
Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.
Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.
Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary.
It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council.
The Bristol name means "the place where the bridge is" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth.
It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton.
Bristol was a centre for the slave trade. During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour.
Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here.
It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop., with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky.
Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include:
List of cities and towns in England
This is a link page for towns and cities in England. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, a town is any settlement which has received a charter of incorporation, more commonly known as a town charter, approved by the monarch. Cities are indicated in bold.
Abingdon, Accrington, Acton, Adlington, Alcester, Aldeburgh, Aldershot, Aldridge, Alford, Alfreton, Alnwick, Alsager, Alston, Alton, Altrincham, Amble, Amersham, Amesbury, Ampthill, Andover, Appleby-in-Westmorland, Arundel, Ashbourne, Ashburton, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Ashford, Ashington, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, Askern, Aspatria, Atherstone, Attleborough, Axbridge, Axminster, Aylesbury, Aylsham.
Bacup, Bakewell, Baldock, Banbury, Barking, Barnard Castle, Barnet, Barnoldswick, Barnsley, Barnstaple, Barnt Green, Barrow-in-Furness, Barton-upon-Humber, Barton-le-Clay, Basildon, Basingstoke, Bath, Batley, Battle, Bawtry, Beaconsfield, Beaminster, Bebington, Beccles, Bedale, Bedford, Bedlington, Bedworth, Beeston, Belper, Bentham, Berkhamsted, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Beverley, Bewdley, Bexhill-on-Sea, Bicester, Biddulph, Bideford, Biggleswade, Billericay, Bilston, Bingham, Birmingham, Bishop Auckland, Bishop's Castle, Bishop's Stortford, Bishop's Waltham, Blackburn, Blackpool, Blandford Forum, Bletchley, Blyth, Bodmin, Bognor Regis, Bollington, Bolsover, Bolton, Bordon, Borehamwood, Boston, Bottesford, Bourne, Bournemouth, Brackley, Bracknell, Bradford, Bradford-on-Avon, Bradley Stoke, Bradninch, Braintree, Brentford, Brentwood, Bridgnorth, Bridgwater, Bridlington, Bridport, Brierley Hill, Brigg, Brighouse, Brightlingsea, Brighton, Bristol, Brixham, Broadstairs, Bromley, Bromsgrove, Bromyard, Brownhills, Buckfastleigh, Buckingham, Bude, Budleigh Salterton, Bungay, Buntingford, Burford, Burgess Hill, Burnham-on-Crouch, Burnham-on-Sea, Burnley, Burntwood, Burton Latimer, Burton-upon-Trent, Bury, Bury St Edmunds, Buxton, Blackburn
Caistor, Calne, Camberley, Camborne, Cambridge, Camelford, Cannock, Canterbury, Carlisle, Carnforth, Carterton, Castle Cary, Castleford, Chadderton, Chagford, Chard, Charlbury, Chatham, Chatteris, Chelmsford, Cheltenham, Chesham, Cheshunt, Chester, Chesterfield, Chester-le-Street, Chichester, Chippenham, Chipping Campden, Chipping Norton, Chipping Ongar, Chipping Sodbury, Chorley, Christchurch, Church Stretton, Cinderford, Cirencester, Clacton-on-Sea, Cleckheaton, Cleethorpes, Clevedon, Cleveleys, Clitheroe, Clun, Coalville, Cockermouth, Coggeshall, Colchester, Coleford, Colne, Congleton, Conisbrough, Corbridge, Corby, Cotgrave, Coventry, Cowes, Cramlington, Cranfield, Crawley, Crayford, Crediton, Crewe, Crewkerne, Cromer, Crowborough, Crowle, Crowthorne, Croydon, Cuckfield, Cullompton, connor town
Dagenham, Dalton in Furness, Darley Dale, Darlington, Dartford, Dartmouth, Darwen, Daventry, Dawlish, Deal, , Denton, Derby, Dereham, Desborough, Devizes, Dewsbury, Didcot,
Dinnington, Diss, Doncaster, Dorchester, Dorking, Dover, Downham Market, Driffield, Dronfield, Droitwich Spa, Droylsden, Dudley, Dukinfield, Dunstable, Durham, Dursley
Ealing, Earley, Easingwold, Eastbourne, East Grinstead, East Ham, Eastleigh, Eastwood, Edenbridge, Egham, Ellesmere, Ellesmere Port, Ely, Enfield, Epping, Epsom, Epworth, Erith, Esher, Eton, Evesham, Exeter, Exmouth, Eye
Failsworth, Fairford, Fakenham, Falmouth, Fareham, Faringdon, Farnborough, Farnham, Farnworth, Faversham, Featherstone, Felixstowe, Fenny Stratford, Ferndown, Ferryhill, Filey, Filton, Fleet, Fleetwood, Flitwick, Folkestone, Fordingbridge, Fordwich, Fowey, Framlingham, Frinton-on-Sea, Frodsham, Frome, Foxley
Gainsborough, Gateshead, Gillingham, Gillingham, Glastonbury, Glossop, Gloucester, Godalming, Godmanchester, Goole, Gosport, Grange-over-Sands, Grantham, Gravesend, Grays, Great Dunmow, Great Torrington, Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Guildford, Guisborough
Hackney, Hadleigh, Hailsham, Halesworth, Halewood, Halifax, Halstead, Haltwhistle, Harlow, Harpenden, Harrogate, Harrow, Hartlepool, Harwich, Haslemere, Hastings, Hatfield, Havant, Haverhill, Hawley, Hayle, Haywards Heath, Heanor, Heathfield, Hebden Bridge, Hedon, Helston, Hemel Hempstead, Hemsworth, Henley-in-Arden, Henley-on-Thames, Hendon, Hereford, Herne Bay, Hertford, Hessle, Heswall, Hetton-le-Hole, Heywood, Hexham, Higham Ferrers, Highworth, High Wycombe, Hinckley, Hitchin, Hoddesdon, Holmfirth, Holsworthy, Honiton, Horley, Horncastle, Hornsea, Horsham, Horwich, Houghton-le-Spring, Hounslow, Hoylake, Hove, Hucknall, Huddersfield, Hugh Town, Hull, Hungerford, Hunstanton, Huntingdon, Hyde, Hythe
Ilchester, Ilford, Ilfracombe, Ilkeston, Ilkley, Ilminster, Ipswich, Irthlingborough, Ivybridge
Jarrow
Keighley, Kempston, Kendal, Kenilworth, Kesgrave, Keswick, Kettering, Keynsham, Kidderminster, Kidsgrove, Killingworth, Kimberley, Kingsbridge, King's Lynn, Kingston-upon-Hull, Kingston upon Thames, Kington, Kirkby, Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirkham, Knaresborough, Knottingley, Knutsford, Kingsteignton
Lancaster, Launceston, Leatherhead, Leamington Spa, Lechlade, Ledbury, Leeds, Leek, Leicester, Leigh, Leighton Buzzard, Leiston, Leominster, Letchworth, Lewes, Lewisham, Leyland, Leyton, Lichfield, Lincoln, Liskeard, Littlehampton, Liverpool, Lizard, London, London, Long Eaton, Longridge, Looe, Lostwithiel, Loughborough, Loughton, Louth, Lowestoft, Ludlow, Luton, Lutterworth, Lydd, Lydney, Lyme Regis, Lymington, Lynton, Lytchett Minster, Lytham St Annes, Lofthouse
Mablethorpe, Macclesfield, Maghull, Maidenhead, Maidstone, Maldon, Malmesbury, Maltby, Malton, Malvern, Manchester, Manningtree, Mansfield, March, Margate, Market Deeping, Market Drayton, Market Harborough, Market Rasen, Market Weighton, Marlborough, Marlow, Maryport, Marston Moretaine, Matlock, Melksham, Melton Mowbray, Mexborough, Middleham, Middlesbrough, Middleton, Middlewich, Midhurst, Midsomer Norton,
Milton Keynes, Minehead, Morecambe, Moretonhampstead, Moreton-in-Marsh, Morley, Morpeth, Much Wenlock
Nailsea, Nailsworth, Nantwich, Needham Market, Nelson, Neston, Newark-on-Trent, Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, Newbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Newcastle upon Tyne, Newent, Newhaven, Newmarket, New Mills, New Milton, Newport, Newport, Shropshire, Newport Pagnell, Newquay, New Romney, Newton Abbot, Newton Aycliffe, Newton-le-Willows, Normanton, Northallerton, Northam, Northampton, North Walsham, Northwich, Norton Radstock, Norwich, Nottingham, Nuneaton
Oakham, Okehampton, Oldbury, Oldham, Ollerton, Olney, Ormskirk, Orpington, Ossett, Oswestry, Otley, Ottery St Mary, Oundle, Oxford, Outwood
Paddock Wood, Padstow, Paignton, Painswick, Peacehaven, Penistone, Penrith, Penryn, Penzance, Pershore, Peterborough, Peterlee, Petersfield, Petworth, Pickering, Plymouth, Pocklington, Pontefract, Polegate, Poltimore, Poole, Portishead, Portland, Portslade, Portsmouth, Potters Bar, Potton, Poulton-le-Fylde, Prescot, Preston, Princes Risborough, Prudhoe, Pudsey
Queenborough, Quintrell Downs
Ramsgate, Raunds, Rayleigh, Reading, Redcar, Redditch, Redhill, Redruth, Reigate, Retford, Richmond, Richmond-upon-Thames, Rickmansworth, Ringwood, Ripley, Ripon, Rochdale, Rochester, Rochford, Romford, Romsey, Ross-on-Wye, Rothbury, Rotherham, Rothwell, Rowley Regis, Royston, Rugby, Rugeley, Runcorn, Rushden, Rutland, Ryde, Rye
Saffron Walden, Selby, St Albans, St Asaph, St Austell, St Blazey, St Columb Major, St Helens, St Ives, Cambridgeshire, St Ives, Cornwall, St Neots, Salcombe, Sale, Salford, Salisbury, Saltash, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Sandbach, Sandhurst, Sandown, Sandwich, Sandy, Sawbridgeworth, Saxmundham, Scarborough, Scunthorpe, Seaford, Seaton, Sedgefield, Selby, Selsey, Settle, Sevenoaks, Shaftesbury, Shanklin, Sheerness, Sheffield, Shepshed, Shepton Mallet, Sherborne, Sheringham, Shildon, Shipston-on-Stour, Shoreham-by-Sea, Shrewsbury, Sidcup, Sidmouth, Sittingbourne, Skegness, Skelmersdale, Skipton, Sleaford, Slough, Smethwick, Snodland, Soham, Solihull, Somerton, Southall, Southam, Southampton, Southborough, Southend-on-Sea, South Molton, Southport, Southsea, South Shields, Southwell, Southwold, South Woodham Ferrers, Spalding, Spennymoor, Spilsby, Stafford, Staines, Stainforth, Stalybridge, Stamford, Stanley, Stapleford, Staunton, Staveley, Stevenage, Stockport, Stocksbridge, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Stone, Stony Stratford, Stotfold, Stourbridge, Stourport-on-Severn, Stowmarket, Stow-on-the-Wold, Stratford-upon-Avon, Streatham, Street, Strood, Stroud, Sudbury, Sunderland, Sutton, Sutton Coldfield, Sutton-in-Ashfield, Swadlincote, Swaffham, Swanage, Swanley, Swindon, Swinton
Tadcaster, Tadley, Tamworth, Taunton, Tavistock, Teignmouth, Telford, Tenbury Wells, Tenterden, Tetbury, Tewkesbury, Thame, Thatcham, Thaxted, Thetford, Thirsk, Thong, Thornaby, Thornbury, Thorne, Tickhill, Tilbury, Tipton, Tiverton, Todmorden, Tonbridge, Torpoint, Torquay, Totnes, Tottenham, Totton, Towcester, Tring, Trowbridge, Truro, Tunbridge Wells, Twickenham
Uckfield, Ulverston, Uppingham, Upton-upon-Severn, Uttoxeter, Uxbridge
Ventnor, Verwood
Wadebridge, Wadhurst, Wakefield, Wallasey, Wallingford, Walmer, Walsall, Waltham Abbey, Waltham Cross, Walthamstow, Walton-on-Thames, Walton-on-the-Naze, Wandsworth, Wantage, Ware, Wareham, Warminster, Warwick, Washington, Watchet, Watford, Wath-upon-Dearne, Watton, Wednesbury, Wellingborough, Wellington, Wells, Wells-next-the-Sea, Welwyn Garden City, Wem, Wendover, West Bromwich, Westbury, Westerham, West Ham, Westhoughton, West Kirby, West Mersea, Westminster, Weston-super-Mare, Westward Ho!, Wetherby, Weybridge, Weymouth, Whaley Bridge, Whiston, Whitby, Whitchurch, Whitehaven, Whitley Bay, Whitnash, Whitstable, Whitworth, Wickford, Widnes, Wigan, Wigston, Willenhall, Wimbledon, Wimborne Minster, Wincanton, Winchcombe, Winchelsea, Winchester, Windermere, Winsford, Winslow, Wisbech, Witham, Withernsea, Witney, Wivenhoe, Woburn, Woking, Wokingham, Wolverhampton, Wombwell, Woodbridge, Woodstock, Wooler, Woolwich, Wootton Bassett, Worcester, Workington, Worksop, Worthing, Wotton-under-Edge, Wymondham
Yarm, Yarmouth, Yate, Yateley, Yeadon, Yeovil, York, Yoxall
Bright Eyes (band)
Bright Eyes is an American indie rock music band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA.
Oberst's singing style and the words to the songs are called desperate or on the verge of tears. Many people think his songs are always about himself, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, "Padraic My Prince", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions.
A honeycomb is a container made by bees out of wax that they produce. The bees make a honeycomb as a place to keep their honey. Bees make honey from nectar that they collect from flowers. After bees collect nectar from flowers, and make it into honey, the bees then put the honey in the small six sided areas of the honeycomb. Each hexagonal section tessellates with the rest.
Honeycomb wax can be used for making soap and candles. Some people eat honey that is still in the honeycomb. A worker bee grows wax in its abdomen. The wax appears as little spots. The bee pulls it off with its legs and chews it until it becomes soft. The wax is then used to make cells for the honeycomb. Smaller cells are used to raise worker bees. We can use honey present in honeycombs as remedy for cough etc.
The Greek language is an Indo-European language. It is the official language of Greece (Hellas) and Cyprus.
It was first spoken in Greece and was also once spoken along the coast of Asia Minor (now a part of Turkey) and in southern Italy. It was also widely used in Western Asia and Northern Africa at one time. In Greek, the language is called Ελληνικά (elliniká).
Greeks write their language using the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet (used to write English and many other languages) came from the Greek alphabet. Many other alphabets around the world also came from the Greek one.
Greek has an unbroken history of being a written language for over 3,000 years. This is longer than any other Indo-European language spoken today. This history is often divided into three parts, ancient Greek, medieval Greek, and modern Greek. The years 330-1453 are called medieval Greek because that's the time of the Byzantine Empire.
Over 15 million people in the world speak Greek now. These speakers mostly live in Greece and Cyprus. There are also people in other countries around the world who speak the language. This is largely because people left Greece and emigrated, meaning they moved to other countries. Countries like the United States and Australia have a large Greek diaspora.
Kamishibai
Kami-shibai (Japanese: 紙芝居) is a storytelling performance with picture cards, and is a traditional Japanese entertainment for children. In Japanese "Kami" means paper and "shibai" means drama or enternainment. The performer tells a story and shows pictures from scene to scene. Kami-shibai is a bidirectional media which is comprised of actions and reactions between a performer and audiences. With the spread of television, kami-shibai went out of date.
Murasaki Shikibu
Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname; her real name is unknown.
Murasaki was born in Kyoto. She was born into the Fujiwara family. Her father, Fujiwara Tametoki, was not a very nice father and when Murasaki got older he confessed that he regretted she was not a boy.
In the year 997, Murasaki married her second cousin, Fujiwara Nobutake, at age 20. In 999, they had a daughter, Kenshi, who also became a poet. Fujiwara Nobutake died about 1001.
Murasaki started as a writer soon after her husband's unexpected death. She was recognized immediately, and she was asked to the imperial court as a tutor to Empress Shoshi ( Joto Mon'in, 988–1074), daughter of the statesman Fujiwara Michinaga (966–1027). Murasaki joined the court of Empress Shōshi in 1006, probably for her skills as an author.
Murasaki started writing her diary in 1008, and finished in 1010. Her diary describes her Chinese lessons with her brother Nobunori (980?–1011), daily life and how much she missed her husband after his death.
She died in Kyoto, around the year 1020.
"The Tale of Genji" is split into 54 different books, and is made up of 795 different poems. It is one of the earliest novels in Japanese, and is often thought of as the first novel in the world. It is a classic of Japanese literature. The masterpiece was about the court life of Prince Genji, and his wife, Aoi in 10th-century Japan. Prince Genji was the illegitimate son of an emperor, and the text is about his relationships in court. "The Tale of Genji" included many beautiful scroll paintings.
Pepsin
Pepsin is an enzyme. It acts on proteins in the stomach, which has a low pH because of the Hydrochloric acid. It works best at a pH of about 1.5. It will not work at a pH above 6.
It was the first animal enzyme to be discovered. Theodor Schwann discovered it in 1836.
Pepsin is used to make cheese.
pH is a scale of acidity from 0 to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.
Acids have a pH that is less than 7. Alkalis have a pH that is greater than 7.
pH is a measure of the of protons (H) in a solution. introduced this concept in the year 1909. The p stands for the German "potenz", meaning power or concentration, and the H for the hydrogen ion (H).
The most common formula for calculating pH is:
[H] indicates the concentration of H ions (also written [HO], the equal concentration of ions), measured in moles per litre (also known as molarity).
However, the correct equation is actually:
where formula_3 indicates the activity of H ions. But, this equation in most cases provides the same value as the more common formula, so in introductory chemistry the previous equation is given as the definition of pH.
Most substances have a pH in the range of 0 to 14, although "extremely" acidic or alkaline substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.
Alkaline substances have, instead of hydrogen ions, a concentration of hydroxide ions (OH).
Certain dyes change colour depending on whether they are in an acid solution or an alkaline solution . pH indicator is a chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be seen. The pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (HO) or hydrogen ions (H). Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH.
Typical indicators are , , , , and . They each change colour at different points on the pH scale, and can be used together as a universal indicator.
Another way is to use litmus paper, which is based on a natural pH indicators. The paper can tell you how strong the chemical is, whether it is a stronger acid or a stronger base.
Neutralization can be summed up by the equation:
Tapeworms are the class Cestoda of segmented flatworms (Platyhelminthes). They are normally found in off the truck meat which means that they need another larger creature as an animal or human to be the host.
Tapeworms symptoms may cause weight loss and the host will become weaker.
Tapeworms can be up to 30 or 36 feet (10–12 metres) long. They eat by absorbing material directly through their epidermis (outside layer). The head of a tapeworm has four suckers and two rings of hooks. The body of a tapeworm is in segments (pieces that are like each other). Each segment can produce eggs. Little segments of the tapeworm sometimes break off and pass out through the stool of the host, with the eggs. Little segments of its body fall off. They go out of the host body, and are eaten by the next host, which is another type of vertebrate.
Tapeworms are hermaphrodite, with both sexes. Cross-fertilization occurs between two tapeworms in the same intestine. They have a life cycle with a secondary or intermediate host. For example, human tapeworms have cows or pigs as intermediate hosts. The 'definitive' host (humans in this case) is the one where fertilization takes place.
Tapeworms don't have a gut, so they have to absorb nutrients directly across their skin.
An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria.
Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle. They are sometimes called "life-history omnivores", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered.
Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another. Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae, eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature.
All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example).
Humans, many pigs, many bears, some primates, some rodents, opossums, rails, rheas, most seagulls, and other animals are omnivores.
Herbivore
Herbivores are animals that only eat plants. They are "herbivorous" animals.
Herbivores (such as deer, elephants, horses) have teeth that are adapted to grind vegetable tissue. Many animals that eat fruit and leaves sometimes eat other parts of plants, for example roots and seeds. Usually, such animals cannot digest meat. But some herbivorous animals will eat eggs and occasionally other animal protein.
Some animals are frugivores because they eat mainly fruit. Browsers eat mostly leaves and sometimes small tree branches. Animals that eat mostly grass are grazing animals.
The diets of some herbivorous animals change with the seasons. In the temperate zones of the Earth, some seasons are hot and some are cold, so different plants are available at different times of the year.
Humans are omnivores, because they eat meat as well as plants. People who eat mostly plants are usually called vegetarian or vegan.
Plant cell walls are mostly made up of cellulose. No animal can digest cellulose by itself. They make use of gut flora, some of which produce an enzyme called cellulase. This is an example of symbiosis.
According to the theory of predator-prey interactions, the relationship between herbivores and plants is cyclic. When prey (plants) are numerous their predators (herbivores) increase in numbers, reducing the plant population, which in turn causes herbivore number to decline. The prey population eventually recovers, starting a new cycle. This suggests that the population of the herbivore fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the food source, in this case the plant.
There will always be pockets of plants not found by herbivores. This is important for specialist herbivores which feed on only one species of plant: it prevents these specialists from wiping out their food source. Eating a second plant type helps herbivores’ populations stabilize. Alternating between two or more plant types provides population stability for the herbivore, while the populations of the plants oscillate. When an invasive herbivore or plant enters the system, the balance is thrown off and the diversity can change or even collapse.
In some ways it is easier to be an herbivorous animal than a carnivorous (meat-eating) animal. Carnivorous animals have to find and catch the animals that they eat, and sometimes the animals that they want to eat fight them. Herbivorous animals have to find the plants that they want to eat, but they do not have to catch them. Many plants have some defence against herbivores, such as spines, toxins (poisons), or a bad taste. There are many more herbivorous animals living in the world than carnivorous animals.
Herbivores' effects on plant diversity vary across environmental changes. Herbivores could increase plant diversity or decrease plant diversity.
People used to think herbivores increase plant diversity by avoiding dominance. Dominant species tend to exclude subordinate species as competitive exclusion. However, the effects on plant diversity caused by variation in dominance could be beneficial or negative. Herbivores do increase bio-diversity by consuming dominant plant species, but they can also prefer eating subordinate species according to plants’ palatability and quality. In addition to the preference of herbivores, herbivores' effects on plant diversity are also influenced by other factors, defense trade-off theory, the predator-prey interaction , and inner traits of the environment and herbivores.
One way that plants could differ in their susceptibility to herbivores is through defense trade-off. Defense trade-off theory is commonly used to be seen as a fundamental theory to maintain ecological evenness. Plants can make a trade-off response to resource allocation, such as between defense and growth. Defenses against herbivory on plant diversity can vary in different situations. It can be neutral, detrimental or beneficial for plant fitness. Even in the absence of defensive trade-offs, herbivores may still be able to increase plant diversity, such as herbivores prefer subordinate species rather than dominant species.
The predator-prey interaction, especially the “top-down” regulation. The predator-prey interaction encourages the adaptation in plant species which the predator prefers. The theory of “top-down” ecological regulation disproportionately manipulates the biomass of dominant species to increase diversity. The herbivore effect on plant is universal but still significantly distinguish on each site, can be positive or negative.
In a highly productive system, the environment provides an organism with adequate nutrition and resources to grow. The effects of herbivores competing for resources on the plant are more complicated. The existence of herbivores can increase plant diversity by reducing the abundance of dominant species, redundant resources can then be used by subordinate species. Therefore, in a highly productive system, direct consumption of dominant plants could indirectly benefit those herbivory-resistant and unpalatable species. But the less productive system can support limited herbivores because of lack of nutrients and water. Herbivory boosts the abundance of most tolerant species and decreases the less-tolerant species’ existence which accelerates the plant extinction. Mediate productive system sometimes barely has long-term effects on plant diversity. Because the environment provides a stable coexistence of different organisms. Even when herbivores create some disturbances to the community. The system is still able to recover to the original state.
Light is one of the most important resources in environments for plant species. Competition for light availability and predator avoidance are equally important. With the addition of the nutrients, more competition arises among plant species. But herbivores could buffer the diversity reduction. Especially large herbivores can enhance the bio-diversity by selectively excluding tall, dominant plant species, and increase light availability.
Body size of herbivores is a key reason underlying the interaction between herbivores and plant diversity, and the body size explains many of the phenomena connected to herbivore-plant interaction. Small herbivores are less likely to decrease plant diversity. Because small non-digging animals may not cause many disturbances to the plant and the environment. Intermediate-sized herbivores mostly increase plant diversity by consuming or influencing the dominant plant species, such as herbivore birds, that can directly use dominant plant species. While some herbivores enhance plant diversity by indirect effects on plant competition. Some digging animals at this size local community environmental fluctuations. And the adaptation of plant species to avoid predators can also adjust the vegetation structure and increase diversity. Larger herbivores often increase plant diversity. They use competitively dominant plant species, and disperse seeds and create disorder of the soil. Besides, their urine position also adjusts the local plant distribution, and prevent light competition.
Therefore, the mechanisms of herbivores’ effects on plant diversity are complicated. Generally, the existence of herbivores increases plant diversity. But varies according to different environmental factors, multiple factors combined together to affect how herbivores influence plant diversity.
Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the main language in India. about 800 million people speak hindi in India. The Devanāgarī script is used to write Hindi. Previously Hindi was known as "Hindui".
Hindi is widely written, spoken and understood in North India and some other places in India. In 1997, a survey found that 45% of Indians can speak Hindi. It has taken words from the Dravidian languages of South India, as well as the Arabic, Persian, Chagatai, English and Portuguese languages.
Hindi and Urdu were considered the same language but have evolved into separate dialects. However, to this day, both languages are mutually intelligible, meaning their speakers can understand each other without knowing the other language. Urdu, however, is written in the completely different Arabic alphabet.
Hindi developed from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Hindi started to develop in the 7th century as "Apabhramsha" and became stable by the 10th century. Some famous Hindi poets are Tulsidas and Kabir.
Dialects of Hindi include: Avadhi, Braj, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri and Marwari.
Hindi is also spoken with regional accents like Haryanvi and Rajasthani. Bombay Hindi is spreading because Bollywood films use it.
Hindi Diwas is an annual celebration on 14th September. It commemorates the law of 1949 that made Hindi the legal language of the Republic.
Ludwig van Beethoven (baptized 17 December 1770 in Bonn – 26 March 1827 in Vienna; pronounced "LUD-vig vahn BAY-TOH-ven") was a German composer. He wrote classical music for the piano, orchestras and different groups of instruments. His best-known works are his third ("Eroica"), fifth, sixth ("Pastorale") and ninth ("Choral") symphonies, the eighth ("Pathetique") and fourteenth ("Moonlight") piano sonatas, two of his later piano concertos, his opera "Fidelio", and also the piano piece "Für Elise". Beethoven lived when the piano was still a new instrument, and when he was a young man, he was a talented pianist. Beethoven was popular with the rich and important people in Vienna, Austria, where he lived.
In 1801, however, he began to lose his hearing. His deafness became worse. By 1817, he was completely deaf. Although he could no longer play in concerts, he continued to compose. During this time he composed some of his greatest works. He is said to be one of the greatest classical composers who has ever lived. When Beethoven died, he was surrounded by friends on his death bed. His funeral was held at the Church of the Holy Trinity. Between 10,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have attended. Franz Schubert was a pall bearer at his funeral, even though the two were never close.