AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Mathematical analysis is a part of mathematics. It is often shortened to analysis. It looks at functions, sequences and series. These have useful properties and characteristics that can be used in engineering. Mathematical analysis provides a rigorous logical foundation to calculus, which studies continuous functions, differentiation and integration. Mathematical analysis is a short version of its old name "infinitesimal analysis", with some of its key subfields including real analysis, complex analysis, differentiation equation and functional analysis.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Isaac Newton developed most of the basis of mathematical analysis.
A foundational concept in mathematical analysis is the concept of limit. Limits are used to see what happens very close to things. Limits can also be used to see what happens when things get very big. For example, formula_1 is never zero, but as "n" gets bigger, formula_1 gets closer and closer to zero. The limit of formula_1 as "n" gets bigger is zero. This is described by "The limit of formula_1 as "n" goes to infinity is zero", and written as formula_5.
The counterpart would be formula_6. When the formula_7 gets bigger, the limit goes to infinity. It is written as formula_8.
The fundamental theorem of algebra can be proven from some basic results in complex analysis. It says that every polynomial formula_9 with real or complex coefficients has a complex root (where a root is a number "x" satisfying the equation formula_10, and some of these roots may be the same).
The function formula_11 is a line. The formula_12 shows the slope of the function and the formula_13 shows the position of the function on the ordinate. With two points on the line, it is possible to calculate the slope formula_12 with:
A function of the form formula_16, which is not linear, cannot be calculated like above. It is only possible to calculate the slope by using tangents and secants. The secant passes through two points and when the two points get closer, it turns into a tangent.
The new formula is formula_17.
This is called difference quotient. The formula_18 gets now closer to formula_19. This can be expressed with the following formula:
The result is called derivative or slope of f at the point formula_21.
The integration is about the calculation of areas.
The symbol formula_22
is read as "the integral of "f" with respect to "x" from "a" to "b"", and refers to the area between the x-axis, the graph of function "f", and the lines "x"="a" and "x"="b". The formula_23 is the point where the area should start, and the formula_24 where the area should ends.
Locust are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Such swarms are usually made of a great number of locusts. They do a lot of damage to the places where they pass, by eating the crops.
These are species which breed rapidly under suitable conditions. The migratory locust is the best-known example. They become gregarious and migratory when their populations become dense enough. They form bands as nymphs and swarms as adults. Both the bands and the swarms are nomadic and rapidly strip fields and greatly damage crops. The adults are powerful fliers; they can travel great distances, consuming practically all green material wherever the swarm settles.
The origin and apparent extinction of certain species of locust—some of which grew to in length—are unclear.
Locusts are edible insects, and are considered a delicacy in some countries. There have been references to their consumption as food throughout history.
In the Book of Joel in the Old Testament locust swarms are described as a plague.
More detailed information on locusts can be found at the pages of the Australian Plague Locust Commission .
Grasshoppers are the suborder Caelifera, including locusts. There are 11,000 species, of which 10,000 are in the family Acrididae.
To distinguish grasshoppers from bush-crickets or katydids, they are sometimes referred to as the "short-horned grasshopper". Species which change colour and behaviour at high population densities are called locusts.
Grasshoppers prefer to eat grasses, leaves and cereal crops, but many grasshoppers are omnivorous. Many grasshoppers eat from several host plants in one day, while others stay on one host plant. One of the 8000 species of grasshopper eats only a single species of plant.
Grasshoppers make good food for some. As an example, in southern Mexico, "chapulines" (grasshoppers of the genus "Sphenarium") are often eaten. They are high in protein, minerals and vitamins.
They are usually collected at dusk, using lamps or electric lighting, in sweep nets. Sometimes they are placed in water for 24 hours, after which they can be boiled or eaten raw, sun-dried, fried, flavoured with spices, such as garlic, onions, chilli, drenched in lime, and used in soup or as a filling for various dishes. They are abundant in Central and Southern Mexican food and street markets.
Olive oil
Olive oil is a vegetable oil. It is made by getting the juice of the fruits of the olive tree. These are called olives. The oil is used in cooking, as well as cosmetics, traditional medicine, and as a fuel for oil lamps. Refined olive oil uses heat and chemicals to get the fat out the olives.
Olive oil quality is defined by some parameters that are measured by chemical analysis. One of the most important is acidity. The highest quality olive oil (Extra-Virgin) must feature an acidity lower than 0.8%.
People see it as a healthy addition to their diet because of the high level of monounsaturated fats (mainly oleic acid) and polyphenols. Olive oil is popular in Mediterranean countries. It is a big part of the Mediterranean diet as a primary fat source.
Spain has more than a third of the world's olive trees, and is the top producer of olive oil in the world.
Oil lamp
An oil lamp is a lamp used for lighting by burning oil. Usually, it produces a flame by burning olive oil, or another vegetable oil, or whale oil during the 1700s and 1800s. They burned cleaner, with less smoke, than candles and other sources of light before electricity.
The lamps were usually made of pottery or metal or glass. An old story in the 1001 Nights has Aladdin cleaning (rubbing the lamp) and making a Genie appear.
Late in the 19th century, those lamps were mostly replaced by kerosene lamps.
Conjugations are forms of verbs that are changed to agree with the subject that is doing the action described by the verb. Usually most of the word stays the same, but the endings change. Most conjugation systems follow some sort of pattern within the language.
Example: French verb for 'to eat'- "manger" (stem: mang)
("manger" is the Infinitive of the verb. The infinitive is the un-conjugated form of the verb, literally the "to do" something form such as "to" walk, "to" play, "to" eat. In English one does not say "I like eat" one must say "I like "to" eat". In both English and French ("J'aime "manger"") the infinitive form of the verb would be used in this case.
The pattern here is that the "er" is removed from the verb and replaced with a different ending depending on the subject(who's doing the eating). This pattern is good for many French conjugations, but not all, and in other languages, conjugation patterns are going to be very different.
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (7 March 1850 - 14 September 1937) was the first President of Czechoslovakia. He led the country between years 1918 and 1935.
He was a scientist, philosopher, pedagog, politician, and journalist.
He studied in Brno, Vienna, and Leipzig, and he spoke many languages (Latin, French, Polish, German and English).
He worked as a teacher at a university in Prague and Vienna.
He had a big persona with huge charisma and he is called "President liberator" and "Daddy".
Edvard Beneš was the next president after him.
Arachne is a character from Greek mythology.
She was the daughter of Idmon of Colophon, in Lydia (Greece). Her father earned his living with dyeing (coloring) cloth. She learned to be a weaver. A weaver makes cloth, or textiles, from single strands. She was good at what she did, and she claimed that her skill was greater than that of Athena. Athena was the young Greek goddess of weaving (amongst other things).
Athena appeared to the girl as an old woman, and warned her not to offend the gods. Arachne did not take the advice, she wanted a weaving contest to prove her skill.
Athena revealed herself, and let the contest begin. Athena wove her scene where she won over Poseidon, the god of the sea. Arachne wove scenes about Zeus being unfaithful, with different women: Leda, Europa, and Danae.
Athena saw Arachne's work was without error, but she did not like the subject of Arachne's weaving. Athena lost her temper, and destroyed what Arachne had created. She also hit Arachne on the head. Arachne then realized what she had done. She ran away and hanged herself. Athena however had pity with Arachne, so before Arachne was dead, she changed the rope into a cobweb, and Arachne into a spider.
Ovid tells the story in "Metamorphoses". Book 6, 5-54, 129-145. The story is typical of tragedy in Ancient Greek theatre, where pride in thinking oneself better than the gods – "ὕβρις" (hubris) – brings punishment from the gods.
The Greek word for spider is "arachne" (αραχνη), from which derive the mythological woman's name, the class name Arachnida in biology, and the name for fear of spiders, arachnophobia.
A phobia (from the ) is a strong fear about a specific thing or situation. In psychology, phobia is considered an anxiety disorder. Phobia is different than just being scared of something. The fear is so strong that it affects, and often damages, the sufferer's life. For example, the person will usually do everything they can to avoid the thing they fear. If they cannot avoid that thing, they will suffer from very strong anxiety which can damage their social relationships, their ability to work, and other areas of their everyday life.
There are two basic types of phobias: specific phobias and social phobias. People with specific phobias fear a certain thing, for example spiders (this is called arachnophobia) or high places (acrophobia). People with social phobias fear social situations (for example speaking in public, being in crowded areas, or being around other people).
Fear is a normal human emotion. A phobia is different from normal fear in many ways:
It is hard to tell how many people suffer from phobias. Researchers think that between 5 and 13 percent of people seem to have a phobia. Women suffer from phobias about twice as often as men.
Every child is afraid of something. For most children, these fears eventually disappear.
Normal fears in children include:
These fears would only be called phobias if they caused problems in the child's daily life, or if they caused the child to suffer from severe anxiety or emotional distress.
Causes and risk factors phobias is very.
It can be caused by:
also psychological phobias. These include hundreds of types phobias. Some:
When a person with a phobia is exposed to their fear (encounters with the stimulus, think of it, sees the object of fear in the picture...) occur at these physical and psychological symptoms. Intensity depends on the degree of fear.
Psychological symptoms are symptoms that take place within a human. These include the:
There are different ways to help people with phobias. There is treatment available; it focuses on making the patient less sensitive to the fear they suffer from, or showing him or her how the cycle of fear works. There is also medication available (mostly sedatives) that help people cope. Finally there are self-help groups.
List of phobias
John le Carré
John le Carré (19 October 1931 – 12 December 2020) was an English novelist. He was born in Poole, Dorset. He wrote many spy novels. The name is a pseudonym. His real name is David John Moore Cornwell.
Le Carré graduated from Lincoln College, Oxford with a Bachelor of Arts degree.
Le Carré died from pneumonia at Royal Cornwall Hospital in Truro, England on 12 December 2020, at age 89.
Sexually transmitted disease
A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is a disease which spreads by having sex. STDs can spread through oral sex or anal sex, or when two people's genitals touch. Today, STDs are usually called sexually transmitted infections (STIs). In the past, they were called venereal diseases (VD).
STDs can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites. Examples of the most common STDs are listed on this page.
HIV causes the immune system - the system in the body that is supposed to fight off infection - to not work as well as it should. This makes people with HIV more likely to get infections and some other diseases, like some cancers. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS.
There are about 40 different kinds of HPV that can be spread through sex and affect the anus and genitals. Examples of diseases that HPV can cause include:
Hepatitis is an infection of the liver. There are three common types of hepatitis: hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C.
Hepatitis A causes a short-term liver infection. It can be spread by having sex, though this is not the most common way to get hepatitis A.
Hepatitis B and hepatitis C cause much more serious, long-lasting liver problems. Both can cause very bad liver disease, like cirrhosis, and death. They are more likely than hepatitis A to be spread by having sex.
The herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes genital herpes. Genital herpes can cause painful blisters on the genitals and anus. Herpes can also cause sores on the mouth.
There is no cure for herpes.
Chlamydia is one of the common STDs in the world. In humans, it is the most common STD caused by bacteria. In the United States alone, about 2.8 million more people get chlamydia infection every year.
If chlamydia is not treated, it can cause serious problems, like diseases of the genitals and eyes. It can even cause blindness. Chlamydia can also cause permanent damage to a woman's reproductive system if it is not treated.
Gonorrhea can infect the genitals, rectum, mouth, throat, and eyes. In bad cases, it can spread through the blood to infect the body's joints. In the worst cases, it can spread through the blood and infect the heart (causing endocarditis, an infection of the heart's valves) or the spinal cord (causing meningitis).
Syphilis can cause many serious problems if it is not treated. It makes a person much more likely to get HIV, because it causes sores on the genitals that make it easier for HIV (and other STDs) to get spread. After a few years, if people with syphilis do not get treated, they can have serious problems with the organs in their body. Eventually - without treatment - syphilis infects the brain and causes death.
Trichomoniasis is the most common STD in the world that is not caused by a virus. It can cause inflammation swelling of the vagina (vaginitis, urethra (urethritis), or penis. It can also cause more serious problems. If it is not treated, it can cause permanent damage to a woman's reproductive system. It can also cause prostate cancer, and makes a woman more likely to give birth to a premature baby.
The only way for a person to be sure they will not get an STI is for that person not to have sex. This includes sex of any kind.
There are some things that a person can do to make it less likely to get an STI:
Atacama Desert
The Atacama Desert is a desert. It is on the Tropic of Capricorn in northern Chile, and is one of the driest places on earth. In some places, less than an inch (25mm) of rain falls every ten years. Only one of the rivers from the Andes mountains reaches the ocean through the desert. The rest disappear into the dry soil.
The Atacama is a desert not because mountains make a rain shadow, but because the ocean does. The water on the west part of Chile is quite cold, because it came from Antarctica. Moisture cannot stay in the cold air above the cold water, so mainly fog reaches the land, but very little rain. The people of Chile have learned how to get water from the fog to help them live. They "harvest" the clouds by putting up plastic sheets with pans underneath. The fog collects on the plastic and drips into the pans, giving the people water for crops and drinking. In parts of this desert it has not rained for over 400 years. Even though the Atacama is the driest place in the world that does not mean it is the hottest. The Atacama Desert is actually a really cold place with temperatures ranging from 0 to 30 degrees.
Three countries fought the War of the Pacific in the 1880s for control of the desert. They both wanted its Sodium nitrate mines. Chile won.
The oldest known artificially prepared mummies come from this desert. They are called the Chinchorro mummies.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is a spin-off organisation from the United Nations. It was created as an autonomous (self-governing) organization on July 29, 1957. The organization is intended to monitor and promote the peaceful and safe use of nuclear energy with protection from harmful radiation and, also, to prevent the use of this energy to build nuclear weapons.
International Atomic Energy Agency and its former Director General, Mohamed ElBaradei, were both awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on 7 October 2005 for their role in trying to prevent the invasion of Iraq by a US-led coalition of troops.
The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria. Additional facilities are in Seibersdorf (near Vienna), Monaco, Toronto, and Tokyo.
Roger Ebert
Roger Joseph Ebert (June 18, 1942 – April 4, 2013) was an American movie critic. Ebert's reviews appear in newspapers such as the "Chicago Sun-Times" from April 3, 1967 until his death.
Ebert was born on June 18, 1942 in Urbana, Illinois to a Catholic family.
Ebert and Chicago Tribune critic Gene Siskel helped make nationally-televised movie reviewing popular. They co-hosted the PBS show "Sneak Previews". It was followed by "At the Movies" which made both of them popular across the country. The two fought and made jokes while talking about movies. They created and trademarked the phrase "Two Thumbs Up," used when both hosts thought the same movie was very good. After Siskel died in 1999, Ebert continued hosting the show with various co-hosts and then, starting in 2000, with Richard Roeper.
Ebert lived with thyroid cancer since its diagnosis in 2002. He continued to publish his reviews both online and in print until April 2, 2013. Just two days later, on April 4, 2013, Ebert died from the disease in Chicago, Illinois. He was 70 years old.
Ebert was born Roger Joseph Ebert on June 18, 1942 in Urbana, Illinois. His parents were Annabel (née Stumm) and Walter H. Ebert. His ancestry was German, Dutch, and Irish. He was raised Roman Catholic, attending St. Mary's elementary school and serving as an altarboy in Urbana. Ebert studied at Urbana High School, at the University of Chicago, and at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Ebert was raised in Chicago, Illinois.
Ebert began his professional critic career in 1967, writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times". That same year, Ebert's first book, a history of the University of Illinois titled "Illini Century: One Hundred Years of Campus Life", was published by the University's press.
In 1969, his review of "Night of the Living Dead" was published in "Reader's Digest".
Ebert co-wrote the screenplay for the 1970 Russ Meyer movie "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls" and likes to joke about being responsible for the movie, which was poorly received on its release but is now regarded as a cult classic. Ebert and Meyer also made "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens", "Up!", and others, and were involved in the ill-fated Sex Pistols movie "Who Killed Bambi?" In April 2010, Ebert posted his screenplay of "Who Killed Bambi?" aka "Anarchy in the UK" on his blog.
From the 1970s, Ebert worked for the University of Chicago as a guest lecturer, teaching a night class on movies. His fall 2005 class was on the works of the German director Rainer Werner Fassbinder.
In 1975, Ebert and Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" began co-hosting a weekly movie review television show, "Sneak Previews", which was locally produced by the Chicago public broadcasting station WTTW. The show was picked up by PBS in 1978 for national distribution. In 1982, the critics moved to a television program named "At the Movies with Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert", and in 1986 they left to create "Siskel & Ebert & The Movies" with Buena Vista Television (part of the Walt Disney Company).
The duo was known for their "thumbs up/thumbs down" review summaries. When Siskel died in 1999, the producers retitled the show "Roger Ebert & the Movies" with rotating co-hosts. In September 2000, fellow "Chicago Sun-Times" columnist Richard Roeper became the permanent co-host and the show was renamed "At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper".
Ebert was the co-host of the television show "Ebert and Roeper" (originally "Siskel and Ebert"), where he and another critic, originally Gene Siskel (1946-1999) and after Siskel's death, Richard Roeper, appear in and talk about new movies.
His name stayed in the title, but Ebert did not appear on the show after mid-2006, because of problems after surgery for thyroid cancer which left him unable to speak.
Ebert ended his association with the show in July 2008, but in February 2009 he said that he and Roeper would continue their work on a new show. Ebert was on a show called, "Ebert Presents at the Movies", premiered on January 21, 2011, with Ebert appearing in a brief segment called "Roger's Office".
On September 13, 2013, it was announced that fellow co-star critic Richard Roeper was to replace Ebert as the main movie critic for the Chicago Sun-Times.
Ebert said that his favorite movie was "Citizen Kane", joking, "That's the official answer", although he liked to keep saying it as "the most important" movie. He kept saying that his real favorite movie was "La Dolce Vita". His favorite actor was Robert Mitchum, and his favorite actress was Ingrid Bergman. He expressed his general dislikes for "top ten" lists, and all movie lists in general, but contributed a top ten list to the 2012 Sight and Sound Critics' poll. Listed alphabetically, those movies were ""; "Aguirre, the Wrath of God"; "Apocalypse Now"; "Citizen Kane"; "La Dolce Vita"; "The General"; "Raging Bull"; "Tokyo Story"; "The Tree of Life"; and "Vertigo".
Ebert compiled "best of the year" movie lists beginning in the 1960s, thereby helping provide an overview of his critical preferences. His top choices were:
Ebert revisited and sometimes revised his opinions. After ranking "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" third on his 1982 list, it was the only movie from that year to appear on his later "Best Films of the 1980s" list (where it also ranked third). He made similar revaluations of 1981's "Raiders of the Lost Ark", and 1985's "Ran". "The Three Colors trilogy" ("", "", and ""), and "Pulp Fiction" originally ranked second and third on Ebert's 1994 list; both were included on his "Best Films of the 1990s" list, but their order had reversed.
In 1975 Ebert became the first movie critic to win a Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. In 2005, Ebert became the first movie critic to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Ebert's home town of Champaign, Illinois are trying to raise money for a statue in Ebert's honor.
In July 2014, a documentary about Ebert's life, "Life Itself", was released to very positive reviews.
Ebert was married to Chaz Hammelsmith from July 18, 1992 until his death in 2013. They had no children. Ebert lived with Chaz in his hometown of Chicago, Illinois. He was a supporter for the Democratic Party. Ebert was an agnostic. On April 25, 2011, he accomplished one of his long-time goals: winning one of the weekly caption contests in "The New Yorker" after more than 100 tries. Ebert's personal net worth was U.S. $9 million.
In early 2002, Ebert was diagnosed with papillary thyroid cancer. In February, surgeons at Northwestern Memorial Hospital successfully removed the cancer with clean margins. He later underwent surgery in 2003 for cancer in his salivary gland, and in December of that year, underwent a four-week follow-up course of radiation to his salivary glands, which altered his voice slightly. Ebert continued to be a dedicated critic of film, not missing a single opening while undergoing treatment. The cancer would eventually lead Ebert to be left in a wheelchair and unable to speak after having the total of three surgeries. Later on, experts created a translator that allowed Ebert to speak whatever he typed. He called his machine "Sir Olivier," because he thought its voice sounded like actor Laurence Olivier.
On April 18, 2008, it was announced that Ebert had fractured his hip in a fall, a result of the weakening of his body following the unsuccessful tissue transplants, and had undergone surgery to repair it. In December 2012, Ebert was hospitalized with a fractured hip, which his wife Chaz jokingly blamed on "tricky disco dance moves".
On April 4, 2013, Ebert died of cancer at age 70 at the Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago according to the Chicago Sun-Times. His wife Chaz said that "We were getting ready to go home today for hospice care, when he [Ebert] looked at us, smiled, and passed away." He battled cancer for 11 years. The closing sentence on his final blog post, two days before his death, said, "So on this day of reflection I say again, thank you for going on this journey with me. I'll see you at the movies."
Hundreds attended including Pat Quinn, Rahm Emanuel, and Richard Roeper in the April 8, 2013 funeral Mass held at Chicago's Holy Name Cathedral, where Ebert was celebrated as a film critic, newspaperman, advocate for social justice, husband and father. In his eulogy, the Rev. John F. Costello sought to dispel the notion that Ebert was an either non-believer, or agnostic, by invoking the movie "The Hours" and its observations on lives cut short; and saying that Ebert, raised Catholic, wrestled with "the mystery of faith" not as someone who rejected God but, rather, as someone forever seeking further understanding. Father Michael Pfleger concluded the service with: "the balconies of heaven are filled with angels singing `thumbs up.'" Ebert was later buried at the Graceland Cemetery in Chicago's north side.
A 2-hour-and-45-minute public tribute, entitled "Roger Ebert: A Celebration of Life", was held at 7 p.m. on Thursday, April 11, 2013 at the Chicago Theatre. It featured in-person remembrances, video testimonials, video and film clips, gospel choirs, and was, according to the "Chicago Tribune"'s Mark Caro, "a laughter- and sorrow-filled send-off from the entertainment and media worlds."
Ebert's death prompted wide reaction from celebrities both in and out of the entertainment industry. President Barack Obama wrote, "Roger was the movies ... [he could capture] the unique power of the movies to take us somewhere magical ... The movies won't be the same without Roger". Robert Redford called Ebert "one of the great champions of freedom of artistic expression" and said "His personal passion for cinema was boundless, and that is sure to be his legacy for generations to come." Oprah Winfrey called Ebert's death the "end of an era", as did Steven Spielberg, who also said that Ebert's "reviews went far deeper than simply thumbs up or thumbs down. He wrote with passion through a real knowledge of film and film history, and in doing so, helped many movies find their audiences... [he] put television criticism on the map".
Seibersdorf
The Russian Revolution was a series of revolutions in the Russian Empire during 1917. The events destroyed the Tsarist autocracy, and helped to create the Soviet Union.
The first revolution was on 8 March 1917, but in Russia it was recorded as 28 February 1917. This happened because Russia still used the Julian calendar instead of the Gregorian calendar, which is what we use for measuring dates today. After the February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to step down and was replaced with a socialist provisional government. This government was meant to rule for a short time until the country became stable again.
The second revolution, the October Revolution, was in October of the Julian calendar. Communist Bolsheviks replaced the provisional government, and created the Soviet Union. The royal family was put under house arrest, but later shot and killed. The term "Red October" is used to describe the events of this month.
During the 1890s, improvements in Russian industry put more jobs in cities. This made the cities larger as people moved there. The workers in the cities, with increasing levels of education, began to develop an interest in politics and the creation of political parties in order to try and change their lives for the better. The conditions that they lived and worked in were horrible. Poor people from other parts of the Russian Empire, like Poland and Ukraine, also created their own parties to try and stop the Russians oppressing them.
This added to the people's anger, and after the Tsar's guards fired at a peaceful protest of workers, a rebellion began. It did not really change anything, but it meant that Nicholas promised to create an elected Parliament, or Duma.
The Duma was elected for the first time in March 1906. However, there were both left-wing and right-wing opponents to it, including socialists and people who were very loyal to the Tsar. There were also arguments over whether or not to take power from the Tsar and give it to more ordinary people. Nicholas eventually stopped the Duma three times, and because that meant they could not say anything against Nicholas, people became angry.
In 1914, Russia joined World War I. At first, people thought this was a good decision, and the country was united by patriotism. But there were huge problems with supplies, and by 1915 many soldiers were being sent to fight without any guns. Communication was bad, and Army officers argued a lot. That meant that they did not make plans well. The soldiers became unhappy, and over 3,000,000 Russians died. St. Petersburg was also renamed to Petrograd by the tsar in 1914 because he thought St. Petersburg sounds too German, especially for a capital.
In 1915, the Tsar took personal control of the Russian Army, and moved to the Army headquarters. This was a mistake. Not only did he not improve the situation, he began to be blamed for it. The fact that he was not near the government also meant that his wife Queen Alexandra was left in charge. Whenever the Duma tried to warn her that the people were angry, she would say they were lying, so she would ignore them. She even ignored a report by the secret police, the Okhrana, which said that a revolution might happen if things did not get better for ordinary people.
The first revolution began with a series of strikes in early February 1917. People in food queues in Petrograd, began a demonstration. They were joined by thousands of women, who left the fabrics factories where they worked. The strike spread through the capital. By February 25, most of St. Petersburg's factories had to close.
On the evening of February 25, Nicholas II sent the chief of the army in Petrograd a telegram. It told him to use his soldiers to stop the strikes. The army chief did that, but the soldiers joined the workers instead of stopping them. The police also joined them. The government's power collapsed.
On March 15, Nicholas abdicated. The control of Russia was given to a socialist provisional (temporary) government.
After the February Revolution, the Provisional Government was challenged by a large group of workers in St. Petersburg - the Petrograd Soviet. The Government leader, Alexander Kerensky, tried to improve things by allowing freedom of speech and letting political prisoners go, but people were becoming more unhappy. There was not enough food. Wages went down. The national debt grew to 10 million rubles.
Vladimir Lenin arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. He was a Communist while the provisional government was Socialist. He had been exiled to Switzerland by the Tsar, but the Provisional Government had allowed him to come back. He began to lead a Communist group called the Bolsheviks.
In July, the Bolsheviks spent four days demonstrating against the Government. The military attacked them. Lenin was forced to escape to Finland until August, when the Bolsheviks were asked to help defend the government against a takeover by the army. The result of this was that their reputation improved. The government gave them weapons.
The Provisional Government's reputation kept getting worse as time went on. The Bolsheviks' reputation got better because they refused to work with them until both sides could compromise.
On October 10, the Bolshevik's Central Committee voted to start a revolution. One began in Estonia on October 23. Another started in St. Petersburg two days later. This time the revolution was mostly peaceful. The Bolsheviks' Red Army took over many government buildings without a fight - only two people were killed. It ended with the takeover of the Tsar's old Winter Palace on the morning of October 26, when the Provisional Government was arrested.
The Soviets took power and formed a Congress (a new Government) which began on October 25. Some members who were not Bolsheviks walked out during its first few meetings, but this made little difference to its decisions. The people who left were taunted by Leon Trotsky on their way out. He told them to go "where you belong... the dustbin of history!" All parties who opposed the Bolsheviks were eventually broken up, and their leaders were arrested.
The Congress began to get rid of private property. This meant that all land and money was to be owned by the people, and control of factories was given to their workers.
Several countries that had been in the Russian Empire before the Revolution, such as Estonia and the Ukraine, had been asking for independence since February. As the new government formed they declared independence, and were allowed it.
In Russia, the revolution was severely challenged by countries that were not Communist and by the invading White Armies. In July 1918, countries including the United States, the United Kingdom and France sent more than 15 armies to fight the Bolsheviks. The ex-Tsar and his family were shot to stop them from being freed by the White Armies. In order to win the war, Lenin began a plan to divert food and supplies to the Communist Army. The plan worked. The Bolsheviks won the war, but the lack of food meant that between 3 and 10 million people died of hunger.
The Third Russian Revolution was an anarchist revolution against the Bolsheviks and the White Army. It lasted from 1918 to 1922.
Some European countries recognized the Soviet Union as a proper country in the early 1920s. The United States refused to until 1933.
Baguettes are long thin of bread popular in France, but now common in many other countries. Usually, they are made of white bread. Baguettes usually have a hard crust on the outside but soft white bread on the inside.
French traditions say that bread may only contain the following four things: flour, water, yeast and salt. Anything containing more than those things must not be called bread.
A baguette is about 5-6 cm wide, 3 to 4 cm high, and about 65 cm long. Such a baguette usually weighs about 250 grams. It is common to dip the bread into olive oil when it is eaten.
The baguette is thought as to have come from France, but it actually came from Vienna. In the middle of the nineteenth century, steam ovens had just been brought into use. This allowed loaves to be made with a crispy crust and the white centre, similar to today's baguettes.
Later, in 1920, a law was passed that did not let bakers work before 4am. This made it impossible to make a larger loaf in time for their customers' breakfasts. The longer, thinner baguette helped solve this problem because it could be prepared and baked much faster. However, since the French had been making long thin loaves for a long time, what exactly was invented in 1920? It seems to be just the use of the word "baguette" for those thin loaves.
Outside France, the baguette is also called a 'French stick'. It is a loaf of bread, up to a metre long but only about four to five centimetres in diameter. The baguette is a symbol of France.
Baguettes are eaten as a sandwich cut in half lengthwise. They are also eaten for breakfast (usually with jam or chocolate spread).
A loaf the same length as a baguette but thicker (about 8-10 centimetres diameter) is known as 'pain'. A thin version of the baguette is called 'ficelle'.
Even in France there is a difference between a traditional baguette and a 'supermarket' baguette.
Baguette has the same texture as the Greek bread Tsoureki.
A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure. The "barometer" measures air pressure in various kinds of units including hectopascals (hPa).
There are various types of "barometers" such as the water barometer, aneroid barometer, and the mercury barometer. The mercury barometer, the earliest barometer, was created by an Italian mathematician named Evangelista Torricelli in 1643.
They are used for measuring altitude, or height above the ground, such as the height of a mountain, and they were often used to measure altitude aboard a hot air balloon. Barometers are also used in modern aviation. Miners sometimes use them to determine the depth of a mine. The most used purpose of the barometer was measuring air pressure. This helps meteorologists in predicting weather.
A barograph is a device which records barometric readings on paper.
Nokia Corporation is a Finnish telecommunications company with its main office in Espoo, a suburb of Helsinki.
The company began in 1865 as a wood pulp mill in Finland and began making paper. The paper was sold to Russia, the UK, and France. The company merged with the Finnish Rubber Company which wanted to use its hydroelectricity plant. After World War Two, Nokia bought a large part of the Finnish Cable Works. In 1967 the three companies joined to form the Nokia Group.
They began making electronic products, and for a few years early in the 21st century were the world's biggest maker of mobile phones. Some of its phones, such as the Nokia 1100 and 1110, have sold over 250 million units around the world, and a few others, like the Nokia 3210 and Nokia 3310, sold more than 100 million units.
In 2011, Nokia and Microsoft began a partnership which created Nokia Lumia, a series of smartphones that use the Windows Phone operating system and was meant to replace Symbian as the OS on Nokia's smartphones. Not many of these phones were sold and because of this, Nokia was losing money. Finally, in 2013, Microsoft bought out Nokia's mobile phone business, which became a division of Microsoft called Microsoft Mobile. Microsoft continued to make feature phones with the Nokia brand, but began using the Microsoft brand for its Lumia smartphones. Nokia's other phones, including the Nokia X which used Android, were discontinued, or no longer made.
Nokia also bought the mapping company Navteq in 2011, and changed its name to HERE. Its apps were first available only on Windows Phone as part of the company's deal with Microsoft, but they later became available for Android and iOS. HERE was sold to Volkswagen, BMW, and Daimler in 2015.
Also in 2011, Nokia started a music streaming service called MixRadio. It became part of Microsoft Mobile in 2014, was sold to a Japanese company in 2015, and was eventually shut down in 2016.
In 2013, Nokia bought out the share of its telecommunications division that was held by Siemens of Germany, and this division is now known as Nokia Networks. The French company Alcatel-Lucent was bought by Nokia and merged into Nokia Networks early in 2016, which also included taking over the famous Bell Labs.
Microsoft Mobile sold its feature phone business to HMD Global in 2016, which is licensing the Nokia brand for its own phones. They include the Android-based Nokia 3, Nokia 5, and Nokia 6, and a new version of the popular Nokia 3310 made in 2000.
Research is a way of looking for new information, new understanding, and new facts. A person who does research is called a researcher. Some researchers work in academia. Other researchers work for businesses, for organisations, or for the government. Research is often used for solving problems or increasing available knowledge. This can be done by testing theories and making observations. Research usually prefers to be systematic, organised, and objective. Research is used in many different fields of study such as science, mathematics, and the humanities.
Researchers take part in field or laboratory experiments, reading relevant books, journals or websites, taking notes and making conclusions. Teaching and lecturing is only part of the job of a professor or researcher. When they are not directly teaching classes they are often working on academic research. Learning institutions can vary widely in what they expect from members of their faculty. Most expect faculty members to set up their own laboratories. They hire their own lab employees and obtain their own funding, often from more than one source. Academic researchers often compete for grants to fund research at their own university. The more money researchers can attract, the higher the prestige of that university.
The scientific method is the usual way of doing this kind of research. It is meant to improve understanding of biology, engineering, physics, chemistry and many other fields. With this kind of research, scientists can understand the world, and discover useful things.
Money for research comes from governments, private corporations, and charities. Some of these organizations combine research and development of new products and ways of doing their work.
Any research should be:
Research must be published so the world can learn from it. "Nature", "Science" and "Proceedings of the Royal Society", are general scientific journals. Many special journals are published. Research must pass the peer review process in order to be published.
Electronic Entertainment Expo
The Electronic Entertainment Expo (Exposition) or E3 , first held in 1995, is one of the biggest conferences for video games. Every year in late May or early June, game developers and other professional people gather to show new video games, computer hardware, and features. It is only open to people who have been invited and people visiting must be over eighteen years old. In 2019, personal information of more than 6000 people were leaked. As a result, people were harassed.
Prince Edward Island (PEI; ) is a province of Canada. It is the smallest of Canada's ten provinces. Most of the people on Prince Edward Island speak English. Prince Edward Island was named for the son of King George lll of Britain, and it joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873.
This province is long and 4 to 60 kilometers (2.5 to 37 miles) wide. The capital, and also the largest city, is Charlottetown.
Prince Edward Island is known for being the location for novels written by Lucy Maud Montgomery including "Anne of Green Gables". It is also important for being the "Birthplace of Confederation", because the Charlottetown Conference in 1864 was in Prince Edward Island.
The government of Prince Edward Island is a parliamentary government, with a constitutial monarchy. The monarch (king or queen) right now is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also the monarch for the rest of Canada. The person who represents the Queen is called the Lieutenant Governor.
An antigen is a molecule (usually a protein) expressed by a bacterium or virus that is recognized by the adaptive immune system as foreign which can stimulate the production of antibodies and combine specifically with them.
Usually an antigen is a molecule, perhaps on the cell surface of a bacterium or virus.
Antigens are always 'foreign' and trigger an attack. The system is normally tolerant of its own molecules, which don't start an attack. Autoimmune diseases are caused when this safeguard fails.
When an antigen is introduced into the body it causes the production of antibodies. Antigens include bacteria, cells of transplanted organs, plant pollen and toxins.
Antigens "stimulate" the production of antibodies: they do not produce them directly.
Vaccines are examples of antigens in an immunogenic form, which are intentionally administered to a recipient to induce the memory function of the adaptive immune system towards antigens of the pathogen invading that recipient. Vaccines for the seasonal flu virus is a common example.
The first time that a new antigen comes into contact with the body the response of the immune system will be a complete immune response. During this first response, the antigen will cause antibodies to be made.
The next time the same antigen contacts the body, a full-scale immune response is not needed as the body already has a specific antibody available instantly for that antigen.
This means that the body can begin fighting an infection much sooner for illnesses it has encountered before, and takes more time to begin to fight an infection in new illnesses.
Vaccinations usually contain dead bacteria or antigen so the antibodies can familiarise themselves and kill it.
Antigen-presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cells selectively recognize the antigens; depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide must be processed into small fragments inside the cell and presented by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The antigen cannot elicit the immune response without the help of an immunologic adjuvant. Similarly, the adjuvant component of vaccines plays an essential role in the activation of the innate immune system.
An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.
At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's paratopes. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that changes the structure of an antigenic epitope. In order to induce an immune response, it needs to be attached to a large carrier molecule such as a protein (a complex of peptides). Antigens are usually carried by proteins and polysaccharides, and less frequently, lipids. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells.
Information entropy
Information entropy is a concept from information theory. It tells how much information there is in an event. In general, the more certain or deterministic the event is, the less information it will contain. More clearly stated, information is an increase in uncertainty or entropy. The concept of information entropy was created by mathematician Claude Shannon.
Information and its relationship to entropy can be modeled by:R = H(x) - Hy(x)"The conditional entropy Hy(x) will, for convenience, be called the equivocation. It measures the average ambiguity of the received signal."
The "average ambiguity" or Hy(x) meaning uncertainty or entropy. H(x) represents information. R is the received signal.
It has applications in many areas, including lossless data compression, statistical inference, cryptography, and sometimes in other disciplines as biology, physics or machine learning.
The information gain is a measure of the probability with which a certain result is expected to happen. In the context of a coin flip, with a 50-50 probability, the entropy is the highest value of 1. It does not involve information gain because it does not incline towards a specific result more than the other. If there is a 100-0 probability that a result will occur, the entropy is 0.