AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Over the six weeks of the massacre, the IJA killed a total of about 30,000 Chinese prisoners of war.
The Japanese Army left most of the buildings in Nanjing destroyed by looting and arson. They destroyed newly built government buildings as well as many civilians' homes. Soldiers also stole whatever they wanted. Because the Imperial Japanese Army was so much stronger than the Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanjing, the Chinese could not fight back. This meant the Japanese could take all of the city's valuable things for themselves.
In January 1938, the Imperial Japanese Army announced that Nanjing was in "order" again. In the first week of February, it created a government that would obey all of Japan's needs. After that, the IJA left. The massacre was over.
On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers. This ended World War II.
Soon after this, the Allied Powers began creating international military courts. To try Japan's leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity, they created the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE).
Three of the Japanese Imperial Army's leaders in Nanjing were put on trial at the IMTFE:
All three of these men were found guilty of "Class A" war crimes. This meant they had been found guilty of planning and being in charge of the war. All three were sentenced to death and were executed.
In 1946, the Chinese government created the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. This court tried General Matsui's lieutenant, Tani Hisao, for his part in the Nanjing Massacre. It found him guilty and sentenced him to death.
The Nanjing Massacre is still very controversial in Japan. Only a small number of Japanese writers say the Massacre never happened at all. Most of the argument over the massacre has to do with how many Chinese people died. Some scholars say that many fewer Chinese people died than most historians say. For example, Japanese writer Tanaka Masaaki says that only a few hundred civilians died in Nanjing.
As of 2014, Japan still honored fourteen "Class A" war criminalsincluding the three who were in charge of the Nanjing Massacreat a national shrine.
There is a lot of proof that the Nanjing Massacre happened the way most historians and survivors say it did. This proof includes:
Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas. Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Classic liberalism characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.
Alexander Rustow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society.
In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality.
Neoliberalism is antithetical to the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariffs or subsidies.
Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy.
Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the late 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.
In economics, a cartel is a group of formerly independent companies who overtly agree to work together. The objectives of cartels are to increase their profits or to stabilize market sales. They do this by fixing the price of goods, by limiting market supply or by other means. Monopolies are not cartels, because in a monopoly there is only one independent company. Cartels are bad for the economy in general and for their customers who are overcharged. Cartels usually occur in oligopolies, where there are a small number of players that control the majority of supply in a market.
Besides the sellers' cartel just described, buyers may also form cartels to suppress the price of a purchased input. Another type of cartel is the bidding ring. In bid rigging potential suppliers form an agreement as to which of them will win a supply contract at a price above the competitive price and, if one of them wins, then agree to a rule for sharing the extra profits among themselves. Bid rigging is most common among construction firms trying to get a government building project.
A survey was done of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities. It found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is 25%. Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price increase of 28%. Domestic cartels averaged 18%. Less than 10% of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.
In general, cartel agreements are difficult to negotiate because potential members typically have different ideal collusive prices. Once formed, cartels tend to be economically unstable, primarily because there is a profit incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the agreed price or selling more than the production quotas set by the cartel (see also game theory). Cheating on prices is difficult for cartel members to observe, so more successful cartels often agree to fix their market quotas, share verifiable information about those shares, and agree in advance on some mechanism to punish members that exceed their quotas. This has caused many cartels that attempt to set product prices to be unsuccessful in the long term. Empirical studies of 20th century cartels have determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years. However, once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form the cartel return and the cartel may be re-formed. Publicly-known cartels that do not follow this cycle include the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Price fixing is often practiced internationally. When the agreement to control price is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated. Examples of such price fixing include oil whose price is partly controlled by the supply by OPEC countries. Also international airline tickets have prices fixed by agreement with the IATA, a practice for which there is a specific exception in antitrust law.
International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of more than 100 countries. Examples of prosecuted international cartels are lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes and bulk vitamins.
Oligopoly
In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.
As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.
In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.
Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.
Market forms
In economics, market structure (also known as market form) describes the state of a market with respect to competition.
Most market forms given below talk about a "homogeneous product". This simply means that they all make the same . They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway.
The major market forms are:
The imperfectly competitive structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists, and duopolists exist and dominate the market conditions.
These somewhat abstract concerns usually determine some but not all details of a specific concrete market system where buyers and sellers actually meet and commit to trade.
The correct sequence of the market structure from most to least competitive is perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and pure monopoly.
The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market structures are: the number and size of producers and consumers in the market, the type of goods and services being traded, and the degree to which information can flow freely.
Perfect competition
In economics, perfect competition is a type of market form in which there are many companies that sell the same product or service and no one has enough market power to be able to set prices on the product or service without losing business. As the conditions for perfect competition are strict, there are only a few markets that are considered to be perfectly competitive and this market form only exists to compare with the other market forms.
Generally, a perfectly competitive market exists when every firm in the market are price takers and no one is able to charge a different price without losing business. Specific characteristics of perfect competition includes:
These characteristics are largely impossible to achieve in reality and there are not many markets that are perfectly competitive. For example, it is unlikely that there are absolutely no barriers to entry and exit as there are always costs involved in setting up a new firm. Also, information is always imperfect and it is not possible for buyers to know exactly the price set by all sellers, and sellers are not willing to share their production methods with their competitors. However, the study of perfect competition is important as it is used to compare with the other market forms.
In the short run, a perfectly competitive firm is not productively efficient as the output will not be at where the marginal cost equals to the average cost (MC = AC). However, a perfectly competitive firm will be allocatively efficient as the firm will be producing at the profit-maximising output where MC = MR, which is coincidentally the allocatively efficient point. In the long run, a perfectly competitive firm will be both allocatively and productively efficient.
A model can be used to show the perfectly competitive firm's price and output level for a given product. In the diagram shown, the cost curves of a perfectly competitive market is shown in its long run equilibrium.
For a perfectly competitive firm, the marginal cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the MC curve "(in blue)" whereas the average total cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the ATC curve "(in red)". As stated above, a perfectly competitive market has a large number of buyers and sellers and the demand does not change with output. Hence, the demand curve, the average revenue and marginal revenue curves are horizontal "(in green)". The point in which the demand curve intersects the vertical axis is the price of the product sold by the firm.
As firms are assumed to be profit-maximising, the firm will thus produce at the output level where the marginal cost equals to the marginal revenue (MC = MR). Hence, the firm will be producing an output of Q in the diagram. As the average total cost curve also meets at this point, the firm is thus earning normal profits in the long run.
A marjket where there's perfect competition is difficult to find in the real world, mainly because of the restrictions.
Monopolistic competition
Monopolistic competition is a market form. Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers. But the market is not perfect. This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences.
This market form is quite common. As an example, take a bakery. There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town.
Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices. If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product. This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.
Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics. It describes how a price is formed in a market economy. There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand. Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other. This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good. In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal. This happens at the equilibrium market price.
For normal goods, and a normal market, there are four basic laws that determine the change in the market, if either supply or demand changes:
When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily. When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it.
When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being. The greater the demand, the faster this happens. This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution.
One of the first to see this was Adam Smith. In his book "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good. He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price. David Ricardo published the book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above. Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras.
There are certain goods which violate the model above
The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price. If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently. Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly). When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought. The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price. If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.
Elasticity (economics)
In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.
If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.
If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.
Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.
Worcestershire (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated Worcs) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England. From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester.
The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, and Gloucestershire.
Worcestershire is a fairly rural county. The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago. For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.
Zlín
Zlín (from 1949 to 1990 Gottwaldov) is a town in the Czech Republic. It is on the Dřevnice River. The Bata Shoes company has developed this city. It is now famous for urbanism.
Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.
Animals that metamormetamorphosize include tadpoles into frogs, caterpillars into butterflys, bee larva into bees, and more
There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects:
simple metamorphosis or "hemimetabolism", and complete metamorphosis or "holometabolism".
Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called "instars", shedding its 'skin' ("epicuticle") at each stage ("ecdysis"). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.
Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called "naiads".
Some insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are:
Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons. When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.
Many insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult. Some of these insects are:
The monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development. Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult. This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a "J" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton. The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.
In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.
Many marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days. This increases their chance of reproductive success.
Then, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs. These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.
The need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood. A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96 kg). The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny. There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators. The larvae cannot even swim against the current. Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.
Their development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage. The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.
Resilience generally means the ability to recover from some shock or disturbance.
There are different meanings for
Resilience is a term used in psychology to describe the capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events. This psychological meaning of resilience is often contrasted with "risk factors".
In physics and engineering, resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress-Strain diagram.
Modulus of Resilience, formula_1, can be calculated using the following formula: formula_2, where formula_3 is yield stress, E is Young's modulus, and formula_4 is strain.
An example of a biomaterial which has a high resilience is articular cartilage, the substance lining the ends of bones in articulating joints such as the knee and hip.
In ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability.
One definition is the rate at which a system returns to a single steady or cyclic state following a perturbation. This definition of resilience assumes that behavior of a system remains within the stable domain that contains this steady state.
When a system can reorganize, that is shift from one stability domain to another, a more relevant measure of ecosystem dynamics is ecological resilience. It is a measure of the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures.
The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any steady-states, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior - i.e. to another stability domain. In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. This type of resilience has been defined as ecological resilience.
Economic resilence is the ability of a local economy to retain function, employment and prosperity in the face of the perturbation caused by the shock of the loss of a particular type of local industry or employer.
Within the broad domain of industrial safety, the term resilience has come into use to emphasise that safety must be proactive as well as reactive. Whereas conventional risk management approaches emphasise calculation of failure probabilities, resilience engineering looks for ways to strengthen the ability of organisations to create processes that are robust yet flexible.
Resilience is the ability of the network to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of various faults and challenges to normal operation.
Resilient networks aim to provide acceptable service to applications:
St Andrews
St Andrews is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf. It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee. It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the "University of St Andrews".
The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons. First, the "Royal and Ancient Golf Club", founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico. Second, the beautiful "links" (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships.
Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches.
The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building. It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159). It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29).
St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral. Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century.
The ruins of "St Andrews Castle" stand on a rock at the sea. It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence.
The University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone and a few others.
The University library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889 - 1890.
The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.
St Andrews (disambiguation)
The element St Andrew, St. Andrews or St. Andrew's is found in the names of many places and institutions. All of them are named after Saint Andrew, a Christian saint and one of the New Testament Apostles.
Other saints who share this name include:
British Isles and Europe
Australia, New Zealand, Japan
Other uses
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is one of the most famous editions of the "Encyclopædia Britannica". Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. The articles are still of value and interest to modern scholars as examples for the knowledge of the 19th and early 20th centuries. They contain, however, a number of problematic areas for the modern scholar using them as a source. The eleventh edition is no longer restricted by copyright and is available online, both in its original text and in part in other online encyclopaedias and works.
The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled under the leadership of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper, and edited by Hugh Chisholm. American marketing methods assisted sales. Some 11% of the contributors were American, and a New York office was established to run that side of the enterprise.
Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the day, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Prince Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, G. K. Chesterton, Edmund Husserl and William Michael Rossetti, and others well known to that era.
The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes to the format of the "Britannica". It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The content of the encyclopaedia was made up as follows:
The eleventh edition has become a commonly quoted source because of the reputation of the "Britannica" at that time and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. The "Encyclopædia Britannica" of 1911 has been used as a source for many modern projects, such as Wikipedia and the "Gutenberg Encyclopedia".
The "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia" is actually the eleventh edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica", renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns.
Pontiac
Pontiac was an automobile manufacturer, owned by General Motors. Pontiac was known for making affordable performance cars. It was established in 1926. In 2009 General Motors announced that it would shut down Pontiac.
Pontiac is named for Pontiac (Ottawa leader), an 18th-century war chief, and for the town of Pontiac, Illinois.
Buick is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. It is known for making near-luxury cars with excellent performance and value. After the discontinuation of the Saturn brand GM announced Buick's styling would be based off the German Opel's.
Cadillac, officially the Cadillac Division of the General Motors Company, is a luxury car maker, owned by General Motors. During the 20th century, Cadillacs were so highly thought of that the phrase "the Cadillac of x" was coined, meaning that something of excellent quality and better than everything else in its category.
The company is one of the oldest car companies and was founded in 1902. By the 1950s and 1960s, it had become famous for making high-quality and luxurious cars, often setting the standard for automotive styling. Cadillac had largely declined by the 1980s and lost much of its market to other companies. Since the early 2000s, Cadillac has regained some of its lost reputation. However, it is not the same company it once was. Cadillac is based in Detroit, Michigan. Many of its cars are available as a V-model, which is a sports package.
Chevrolet, also known as Chevy, and formally the Chevrolet Division of the General Motors Company, is a car company owned by General Motors. Chevrolet is known for producing popular, affordable cars. Chevrolet produces the Corvette, one of the most famous sports cars in the world.
Chevrolet was created in 1911 by Louis Chevrolet. Louis was a racing car driver. Chevrolet started using its "bow-tie" logo in 1913. It could have come from a wallpaper Chevrolet saw in a hotel. It could also be a version of the cross on the Swiss flag, due to Chevrolet having been born in Switzerland.
In 1917, Chevrolet combined with General Motors. In 2002, GM acquired the recently bankrupt Daewoo Motors company of South Korea, and in 2011, the brand was folded into Chevrolet making the marque global except for Australasia.
Some of these vehicles also come, or used to come in, hybrid-electric versions.
A sports car is a small, fast, quick-turning automobile. Most of them only have two seats or very small seats in the back.
A sports car is different from an automobile for racing. The sports car is allowed to drive on a normal road, whereas race cars cannot.
Since the invention of automobiles, people have tried to make them faster. The first sports cars were made to be raced by rich people.
There are different versions of sports cars. There are automobiles with the motor in the front and those with rear-wheel drive. Examples are the Chevrolet Corvette or the Honda S2000. There are also cars with the motor behind the passengers, in the middle of the car. One of the first cars like this was the Lamborghini Miura. Porsche uses a different layout. The motor in a Porsche 911 is in the back, behind the rear wheels. Since the 1980s, a lot of sports cars have four-wheel drive. The motor in the front and front-wheel drive is only used in a few sports cars.
Most sports cars only have two seats. There are some sports cars that also have small seats in the back. For example, the Porsche 911. The McLaren F1 has three seats, with driver sitting in the middle.
Sports cars are often fast and expensive cars.
These are some sports cars:
Oldsmobile
Oldmobile was an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. Oldmobiles were known for being affordable cars with good performance and new technologies. The company was closed in 2004, due to the company being less popular. The cars are still a popular GM car thanks to resale.
GMC is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. GMC is known for building trucks. Some of them are small, while others, like those promoted as "Professional Grade", are big. In the past, GMC was part of the "General Motors Diesel Division" which also made buses, motorhomes, and vehicles for the military.
The company was founded by Max Grabowsky in 1901. It was bought by General Motors in 1909. In 1989 GMC started to market the Suzuki Sidekick as the GMC Tracker in Canada. In 2006 GMC announced it would start selling unibody crossovers, its first was the GMC Acadia, replacing the Safari minivan, GMC Envoy XL SUV and the Pontiac Montana SV6 minivan.
Saturn was an automobile maker. It was owned by General Motors. It was established on January 7, 1985. Saturns are sold in the United States and Canada, some even being sold in Japan. They are currently known for European styling, and no-haggle pricing. IN the past, their most notable feature was plastic body panels.
General Motors tried to sell the company. Penske Automtive was going to buy it, but decided not to. Saturn Corporation went defunct on October 31, 2010 as part of General Motors downsizing due to its bankruptcy. The company was succeeded by Buick as GM's captive import brand. GM also decided to reuse some components of the brand's crossover for Chevrolet and GMC models.
Holden was an Australian car maker, owned by PSA Group. Holden was known for making rear-wheel drive cars with large, naturally-aspirated engines. The company closed down in 2020.
Hummer is a type of Sport utility vehicle. Hummer was first made by AM General who also made vehicles used by the United States Army. The design of the Hummer H1 is based on the military High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV – Humvee).
Hummer used to be made by General Motors. General Motors wanted to sell the brand, but they could not find a buyer, so the brand will stop being made.
Vauxhall Motors
Vauxhall is a car manufacturer. The company was founded in London in 1903 and was named after the area of the city where it was created. The company is based in Luton, Bedfordshire. They have 2 factories, 1 in Luton for production of the Vivaro van and 1 in Ellsmere Port for production of the Astra family car. In March 2017, Vauxhall and parent brand Opel were brought by PSA, the company who owns Peugeot and Citroen.
Battle of Dunkirk
The Battle of Dunkirk (French: Bataille de Dunkerque) (Also known as Operation Dynamo) was a major battle during World War II. It lasted from the 26 May until 4 June 1940. The Allied forces were split in two by a German armoured advance to the Channel coast at Calais. The British and French commanders had been taken by surprise at the speed of the advance. The northern part of the army was surrounded In Dunkirk, France, a port on the English Channel. There they made a perimeter and waited for an evacuation.
1971 Bangladesh atrocities
The 1971 Bangladesh atrocities refer to the murder of many people in Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) by the Pakistan National Army (PNA) during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. It began on March 26, 1971 with Operation Searchlight.
In 1947, the United Kingdom split British India into two countries: India and Pakistan. The idea was that Hindus would live in India and Muslims would live in Pakistan. But it was not so simple. Because Hindus and Muslims lived in so many different places, East Pakistan and West Pakistan were about 1000 miles apart, with all of India in between them. Also, not all Muslims are the same. The East Pakistanis and West Pakistanis did not speak the same language and did not always like each other.
There were fewer West Pakistanis than East Pakistanis, but West Pakistanis controlled most of the government. After the Bhola Cyclone damaged East Pakistan, West Pakistan did not send enough help. Because of these things, East Pakistanis started to want to be a separate country from East Pakistan. The government in East Pakistan started Operation Searchlight to stop this separatist movement.
East Pakistan would later become Bangladesh. The people who lived there called themselves Bengalis. Some of the Bengalis were not Muslims but Hindus.
In 1970, Pakistan held its first general election. Before this, the military had limited voters' rights. The West Pakistanis voted for many different political parties, but most of the East Pakistanis voted for the same political party, called the Awami League. This meant the East Pakistani candidates would have a majority in Pakistan's assembly. This East Pakistani political party was led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
General Yahya Khan, a West Pakistani and leader, did not want the East Pakistani candidates to run the country, so he declared martial law, meaning the army was in charge of the country. The East Pakistanis were angry. They did protests and riots in 1970 and 1971.
Khan and Mujibur met with each other to talk to try to solve the problems and stop the riots. It looked like they had made an agreement. But on March 25, 1971, Mujibur was arrested. Then, thousands of West Pakistani soldiers, 60,000 to 80,000 of them, began killing East Pakistanis. Bangladesh declared itself an independent country the next day.
West Pakistani soldiers killed Hindus, Bengali Muslims, smart people, students and politicians in order to kill them all. They went to schools and killed everybody there. The soldiers killed college professors at Dhaka University and other intellectual leaders because they thought they were the ones encouraging other East Pakistanis to want to be a separate country. They especially killed Hindu leaders. Then they killed young Hindu men because they thought young Hindu men would want to fight against them. A "TIME" magazine article said ""The Hindus are three-fourths of the refugees and most of the dead, have most disliked by the Muslim soldiers.""
More than 200,000 women were raped. Some of the women were raped in front of husbands or male relatives. Other women were captured to be slaves for the West Bengali soldiers.
Two Muslims called Al-Shams and Al-Badr were told by the Pakistanis to kill Bengali Hindus and traitory Bengali Muslims also. There are many graves with a lot of people in Bangladesh, and new graves with a lot of people are always being discovered.
A bad set of killings took place during Operation Searchlight, a series of killings which began on March 25, 1971 and ended on December 16, 1971 and led to death of 3 million Bengalis in East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh), and other things like rape and looting. Originally, the Pakistanis wanted to take over the big cities in Bangladesh and control everybody in one month. They did not expect that the Bengalis would fight back, which they did. Pakistanis got very angry and started to kill all the Bengalis.
Eventually, the Bengali freedom fighters under the Mukti Bahini would seek help from India to win against the Pakistanis. India sent its army in and fought the Pakistanis with the Bengalis until Pakistan was totally defeated and went away from Bangladesh on December 16, 1971.
People disagree about how many people died. According to the Heritage Foundation's Asian Studies Center, it could have been as few as 500,000 or as many as 3 million. This was during the Cold War, so different groups said more or fewer people died depending on what their own political ideas and goals were. The Soviets said it was 3 million. The United States CIA said it was 200,000. Pakistan was an ally of the United States at the time, and the West Pakistani soldiers used weapons that the United States had given them. India and Bangladesh also say that nearly 3 million were killed.
In 1997 R. J. Rummel wrote a book called "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", In Chapter 8 called "Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide - Estimates, Calculations, And Sources" he says:
Rummel says this was an act of killing specific groups of people. He writes that "Consolidating both ranges, I give a final estimate of Pakistan's democide to be 300,000 to 3,000,000, or a prudent 1,500,000."
Not everyone agrees that the atrocities were a genocide. Nationalist Bangladeshis call this a genocide. Islamic Fundamentalists Pakistan call that "Bengali Lies." Bangladeshi authorities and some independent organizations say that between 1-3 million people were killed. Another 10 million ran away from the country to be safe in Indias West Bengal province.
None of the people involved in the genocide were put on trial until 2011. Bangladesh's International Crimes Tribunals convicted 26 people for genocide and crimes against humanity. Some were executed. International organizations said that the accused were not treated fairly.
Iwao Takamoto
Iwao Takamoto (29 April 1925 - 8 January 2007) was a Japanese-American animator, television producer, and film director. He was a production designer for Hanna-Barbera Productions and the artist/character designer of Scooby-Doo.
Iwao Takamoto's father moved from Hiroshima to the United States for his health. He only went back to Japan once, and that was to marry his wife. Iwao Takamoto was born on April 19 1925 in Los Angeles, California. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Iwao Takamoto's family, like many Japanese-Americans, had to move to an internment camp. They spent the rest of World War II in the Manzanar internment camp. While he was there, Iwao Takamoto received basic illustration training from other people in the camp.
Iwao Takamoto first started doing cartoons professionally after the end of the war. He was hired as an assistant animator by Walt Disney Studios in 1947. Iwao Takamoto eventually became an assistant animator for the legendary Milt Kahl. He worked as an animator on such titles as "Cinderella", "Sleeping Beauty", "One Hundred and One Dalmatians", and "Lady and the Tramp".
Takamoto left Disney in 1961 and joined Hanna-Barbera shortly afterwards. He did many jobs there, but is probably best known as a character designer. He was responsible for the original character designs of such characters as Scooby-Doo, "The Jetsons'" dog Astro, and Penelope Pitstop. He worked as a producer at Hanna-Barbera, supervising shows such as "The Addams Family", "Hong Kong Phooey", and "Jabberjaw". He directed several feature-length animated films, including "Charlotte's Web" (1973) and "Jetsons: The Movie" (1990). The inspiration for Scooby-Doo's creation as a Great Dane came from an employee of the Hanna-Barbera company who bred this dog.
Takamoto was Vice-President of Creative Design at Hanna-Barbera, and was responsible for overseeing Hanna-Barbera's product-related merchandising. In 2005, he received the Golden Award from the Animation Guild, to honor his more than 50 years of service in the animation field.
He died on January 8, 2007 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles from heart failure at age 81.
Mussel
Mussels are several families of bivalve molluscs. Mussels live in lakes, rivers, and creeks. They sometimes also live in intertidal areas along coastlines worldwide. The freshwater mussels (several allied families, the largest being the Unionidae) and saltwater mussels (family Mytilidae) are not closely related, despite the fact that they may look similar. They are grouped in different subclasses. The freshwater Zebra mussels and their relatives (family Dreissenidae) live attached to rocks in a manner similar to marine mussels, but are classified with the Heterodonta, the taxonomic group including most bivalves referred to as "clams".
From archeology, it is known that humans have been eating mussels for thousands of years. They can be cooked or eaten raw. Care must be taken however as mussels quickly become poisonous after they die.
Gastropoda
Gastropods, or "univalves", are the largest and most successful class of molluscs. 60,000–75,000 known living species belong to it. Most of are marine, but many live in freshwater or on land. Their fossil record goes back to the later Cambrian.
Slugs and snails, abalones, limpets, cowries, conches, top shells, whelks, and sea slugs are all gastropods.
The gastropods are in origin sea-floor predators, though they did evolve into many other habitats. Many lines living today evolved in the Mesozoic era, taking advantage of the huge supply of food on the sea floor.
Snails have torsion, a process where the body coils to one side during development. The significance of this procedure is not yet clear.
They have a well-defined head with two or four sensory tentacles. They also have a head-foot, which it moves on. The eyes at the tip of the tentacles range from simple to more complex eyes.
Most members have a shell, which is in one piece and coiled or spiralled; it usually opens on the right hand side (viewed with the shell apex pointing up). Some species have an operculum, a lid or trapdoor to close the shell. In some, the slugs, the shell is absent, and the body is streamlined. The best-known gastropods are land slugs and snails, but more than half of all species live in a marine environment. Marine gastropods include herbivores, detritus feeders, carnivores and a few ciliary feeders, in which the radula is reduced or absent. The radula is usually adapted to the food that a species eats.
The simplest gastropods are the limpets and abalones, both herbivores that use their hard radulas to rasp at seaweeds on rocks. Many marine gastropods are burrowers and have siphons or tubes that extend from the mantle and sometimes the shell. These act as snorkels, enabling the animal to continue to draw in a water current containing oxygen and food into their bodies. The siphons are also used to detect prey from a distance. These gastropods breathe with gills. Some freshwater species and almost all terrestric species have developed lungs.
Gastropods from several different families are called sea slugs. They are often flamboyantly coloured. This may be either as a warning if they are poisonous or to camouflage them on the corals and seaweeds where many of them live. Their gills are often feathery plumes on their backs. This is what gives the name to the nudibranchs. Nudibranchs with smooth or warty backs have no visible gill mechanisms and respiration may take place directly through the skin. A few of the sea slugs are herbivores and some are carnivores. Many have distinct dietary preferences and regularly occur in association with certain species.
The taxonomy of the Gastropoda is under constant revision: two major revisions have been published in the last twenty years. There will certainly be other revisions using the data from DNA sequencing. At present, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda may differ from author to author.
According to modern cladism, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda should be written in terms of strictly monophyletic groups. That means only one lineage of gastropods in each group. It will be difficult to do this, and still have a practical taxonomy for working biologists. Classifying animals in practice means using morphology (what they look like). But there are differences between the older groupings got from morphology, and those based on genome sequences. Convergent evolution, which has occurred often in Gastropods, may account for this.
This was the traditional classification into four subclasses:
The first gastropods were exclusively marine. The first of the group appeared in the Upper Cambrian ("Chippewaella", "Strepsodiscus"). By the Ordovician period the gastropods were a varied group present in a few aquatic habitats. Commonly, fossil gastropods from the rocks of the early Palaeozoic era are too poorly preserved for accurate identification. Still, the Silurian genus "Poleumita" contains fifteen identified species. Fossil gastropods are less common during the Palaeozoic era than bivalves.
Most of the gastropods of that era belong to primitive groups. A few of these groups still survive today. By the Carboniferous period many of the shapes seen in living gastropods can be matched in the fossil record. Despite these similarities in appearance, the majority of these older forms are not directly related to living forms. It was during the Mesozoic era that the ancestors of many of the living gastropods evolved. One of the earliest known terrestrial (land-dwelling) gastropods is "Maturipupa" which is found in the Coal Measures of the Carboniferous period in Europe. In the case of the common fossil "Bellerophon", from Carboniferous limestones in Europe, it is not known whether it is a gasropod or not.