AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The rules say to only use the words in simplified English in approved ways. This decreases misunderstanding. For example, the rules approve the use of the verb "close" ("Do not close the door"). The rules approve the use of the adjective "closed", meaning "not open" ("The door is not closed"). The adjective "close" means near ("Do not go close to the door"). The rules disapprove the use of the adjective "close". The rules approve the use of the adjective "near" ("Do not go near the door") for this meaning. The rules specify the use of the adjective "near" instead of the adjective "close". This way, the reader can be sure if the instructions say to keep the door open or to stay far from the door.
People started developing simplified English in the 1970s. People continue developing simplified English today. AECMA is the "European Association of Aerospace Manufacturers". AECMA began work on simplified English. ASD is the "AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe". ASD has a Maintenance Group called STEMG that continues work on simplified English. STEMG is the "Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group". STEMG maintains the ASD-STE100, the latest simplified English.
Thymine
Thymine, or 5-methyluracil, is a pyrimidine base found in the nucleic acid DNA.
In RNA thymine is swapped for uracil to represent the same genetic information. In DNA, thymine (T) connects to adenine (A) by two hydrogen bonds. These pair bonds hold the two strands of the DNA double helix structure together.
Probability distribution
Probability distribution is a term from mathematics. Suppose there are many events with random outcomes. A probability distribution is the theoretical counterpart to the frequency distribution. A frequency distribution simply shows how many times a certain event occurred. A probability distribution says how many times it "should" have occurred in the long run (that is, its probability). The probability distribution of a random variable formula_1 is often written as formula_2 (or simply formula_3). Such a distribution can either be discrete, taking a discrete (or countable) amount of values, or continuous, taking an uncountable amount of values (as from a continuous interval).
As an example, the probability distribution for a single roll of a normal 6-sided dice can be presented by:
where result is the outcome of the dice roll, and the probability shows the chances of that result occurring. If we roll a dice 60 times, then in the long run, we should expect to have each side appear 10 times on average.
There are different probability distributions. Each of them has its use, its benefits and its drawbacks. Some common probability distributions include:
Exponential distribution
Binomial distribution
In probability and statistics, the binomial distribution is a probability distribution which models the probabilities of having a certain number of successes among "n" identical trials (each having "p" as the probability of success). It is also written as formula_1. The variables n and p are thus the two parameters of a binomial distribution.
The binomial distribution has discrete values. It counts the number of successes in yes/no-type experiments. Each of these experiment, also called Bernoulli trial, either results in success or failure. Examples of binomial distribution include:
In order to use the binomial distribution, the following must be true about the problem:
In probability and statistics, Poisson distribution is a probability distribution. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson. It measures the probability that a certain number of events occur within a certain period of time. The events need to be unrelated to each other. They also need to occur with a known average rate, represented by the symbol formula_1 (lambda).
More specifically, if a random variable formula_2 follows Poisson distribution with rate formula_1, then the probability of the different values of formula_2 can be described as follows:
Examples of Poisson distribution include:
Samaná Province
Samaná is a Dominican province. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It takes up the whole Samaná Peninsula. Its capital city is Santa Bárbara de Samaná, usually called just "Samaná". It is one of the main tourist regions of the country with several important resorts.
The word "Samaná", written as "Xamaná" centuries ago, is the Taíno name of the region. The meaning of the word is unknown.
Samaná was visited by Christopher Columbus in January 1493, during his first travel to the Americas. At that moment, Samaná was occupied by "Ciguayos", a tribe of Native Americans with the same culture of the Taínos but a different language. They were the first Indians that fought against the Europeans.
After the conquest of the Hispaniola island by the Spaniards, Samaná was occupied by different groups of Europeans, mainly French people. Some groups of "" (runaway slaves) lived in the mountains for many years.
To fight against those European groups, Spain brought galleys (a galley was a narrow war ship where prisoners and slaves were used to move the ship), and founded in 1756 the town of Santa Bárbara de Samaná on the northern coast of Samaná Bay, with people from the Canary Islands.
When the eastern part of the Hispaniola (the "Santo Domingo" colony) was given to France in 1795, the French government tried to develop the region, and many French families moved to Samaná to grow coffee; many places in Samaná have French names. Most of those French families left Samaná when Spain took again the colony in 1809.
During the Haitian Occupation (1822 - 1844), a fort was built in Los Cacaos (west of Santa Bárbara de Samaná) to control the Samaná Bay; another small fort was built in El Limón, on the northern coast.
Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, sent some Haitian families to live in Tessón, to the north of Santa Bárbara de Samaná. Boyer brought ex-slaves from Philadelphia to live in the country, and 200 of them were taken to live in Samaná. Both the Haitian and the American populations kept their languages and traditions.
After the Independence, several Dominican governments tried to sell or rent the Samaná Bay, with the peninsula, to several foreign governments but without any result.
In 1888, the railway from Sánchez to La Vega (in the La Vega province) began to run across the rich region of the Cibao. Sánchez became the most important port of the country during the rest of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. The railroad worked until 1966.
It was created as a Maritime District (a special administrative category that has been abandoned) on 4 June 1867. The 1907 Dominican Constitution changed its status to province with the municipalities of Samaná and Sánchez. In 1966, Las Terrenas was made the third municipality of the province.
El Limón became a municipal district in 2001, Arroyo Barril in 2003 and Las Galeras in 2005.
To the north and east of the peninsula (and province) is the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. To the south is the Samaná Bay. Samaná shares borders with the Duarte and María Trinidad Sánchez provinces (west). It also shares a short border with the Monte Plata province.
In (last national census), there were people living in the Samaná province, and 44,190 () living in towns and cities. The population density was persons/km².
Its population represents of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 22nd (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.
, the total estimated propulation of the province is 108,238 inhabitants.
The largest city of the province is Samaná, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in ) of 13,857 inhabitants.
More than 95% of the population is black.
A mountain chain called "Sierra de Samaná" runs across the province, from west to east; only in the western part, west of Sánchez, there is flat land because it is an estuary. The Sierra de Samaná gets to the coast, except in some places where there are very good beaches. The highest mountain in the province is in the eastern part of the peninsula and is called "La Meseta", high.
The altitude of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, provincial capital, is above sea level.
There are many rivers and creeks but all are very short because the mountains get very close to the coast. There are more rivers on the southern part of the province but the most important rivers ("Limón", "Cantón" and "San Juan") are on the northern part, flowing to the Atlantic Ocean;
In the southwestern part of the province is the "Yuna" river, one of the most important river of the country; it flows into the Samaná Bay.
Samaná has a wet tropical climate, with temperature of , on average. The yearly rainfall on the Sierra de Samaná is above .
There are 3 municipalities and 3 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.
The most important economic activity of the province is agriculture; Samaná is the biggest producer of coconut in the country but the demand for that product is diminishing. Cacao and rice are produced in the western part of the province.
Even if fishing was a very important activity, its importance has been reduced because the Yuna River has been filling the Samaná Bay with solid material.
Tourism is very important in the province because of the beautiful beaches in the province. Whale-watching is an important economic activity because many tourists come the province to watch the humpback whales that come in late winter and early spring to breed in the warm waters of the Samaná Bay.
Interpreter (computing)
In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that performs commands written in a computer programming language. Interpreters are one of the two most important ways a program can be run, the other being compilation.
The interpreter is a language processor which converts a HLL(High-Level Programming Language) program into machine language by "converting and executing it line-by-line." If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified.
Interpreter must always be present in the memory every time the program is executed as every time the program is run, it is first interpreted and then executed. For error debugging, interpreter is very much useful as it reports the error(S) at the same time. But once errors are removed, unnecessary usage of memory takes place as it has to be present in the memory always.
Flag of the United Arab Emirates
The flag of the United Arab Emirates () is used to represent, or show, the United Arab Emirates. It contains the Pan-Arab colors, which are red, green, white, and black, to show Arab unity. The Flag was designed by a Young Emirati boy named as Abdullah Mohammed Al Maainah in 1971.
Red represents hardiness, bravery, strength and courage. The vertical red band can also be interpreted as binding all the other meanings together in unity.
Green represents hope, joy, optimism, and love. It can also symbolize the countries prosperity.
White represents peace and honesty. White is the purest colour, and is interpreted by some to symbolise cleanliness.
The Donna Reed Show
The Donna Reed Show is an American sitcom television series. It aired on ABC from 1958 to 1966. The show stars Donna Reed as Donna Stone, a housewife, Carl Betz as Alex Stone, a pediatrician (baby doctor), Shelley Fabares as their teenage daughter Mary, and Paul Petersen as their son Jeff. Mary left for college in the show's fifth year and Paul Petersen's real life little sister Patty Petersen joined the show as Trisha, a child the Stones adopt. Bob Crane and Ann McCrea joined the show in its last years as Stone family friends Dave and Midge Kelsey.
The show focuses on an upper middle class American family. Donna is a somewhat idealized housewife who capably handles any problems or situations that come her way. The show had many famous guest stars: singers James Darren and Lesley Gore, actor George Hamilton, swimmer and actress Esther Williams, Lassie as her TV character, sports stars Don Drysdale and Willie Mays, Buster Keaton, and Jay North as his TV character Dennis the Menace. Reed won the 1963 Golden Globe Best Female TV Star Award.
Alien: Resurrection
Alien: Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction-horror-thriller movie. It was written by Joss Whedon and directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet. It opened on November 26, 1997. The movie is the fourth in the "Alien" series of movies. It was the first in the series that was not made in England. The music was composed by John Frizzell. It stars Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley.
The events of "Alien: Resurrection" take place two centuries after the events of "Alien³". Ellen Ripley has been cloned on the outer space military science vessel "Auriga". This is done so they can get the alien queen embryo that was inside her. After taking out the queen embryo, the scientists decide to keep the Ripley clone alive for further study. They raise the alien queen to adult size and collect its eggs for further use. Because of the cloning process, Ripley has several new abilities including enhanced strength, acidic blood, and a link with the aliens.
The "Betty", a ship full of mercenaries, comes to the "Auriga". It is bringing several kidnapped humans to be used in experiments. The mercenaries meet Ripley. Their youngest member Call (Winona Ryder) recognizes her name and tries to kill Ripley. Call thinks Ripley may be used to create more aliens. Call is too late. The adult aliens have already been created and quickly escape their confinement. Dr. Wren, one of the ship's scientists, tells them that, in an emergency, the "Auriga" will automatically return to Earth. Knowing that this will free the aliens on Earth, Ripley, the mercenaries, Wren, a surviving marine named DiStephano, and a surviving alien host, Purvis, set out to escape on the "Betty" and then destroy the "Auriga".
As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, several of them are killed by the aliens. The group finds out that Call is an android. Using her abilities to control the damaged ship's systems, they set it to crash into the Earth. They hope that the aliens will be destroyed when the ship crashes. The alien queen from inside Ripley has also gain a new ability. She can give birth to live offspring now. The offspring, which appears more humanoid, sees Ripley as its "mother" and kills the alien queen. Ripley escapes soon after and heads for the "Betty".
Ripley and the surviving mercenaries arrive at the "Betty". As they launch, the human/alien offspring attacks Ripley and Call. Ripley kills it by using her own acidic blood to burn a hole through part of the ship. This causes the creature to be pulled through the small hole and into the vacuum of space. The survivors escape in the "Betty" as the "Auriga" crashes through the atmosphere and down towards Earth.
Despite positive reviews for Sigourney Weaver's and Winona Ryder's performances, the movie is the least successful in the series and was not well liked by the critics. The movie cost $70 million to make, but it earned only $47.8 million in the US. It did earn a total of $161.3 million worldwide. However, Winona Ryder won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for her role in the movie.
Screenwriter Joss Whedon was extremely unhappy with the final version of movie. In a 2005 interview, when asked how the movie was different from the script he had written, Whedon said, "It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines... mostly... but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they’d changed the script... but it wasn’t so much that they’d changed the script; it’s that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable."
Dan Castellaneta
Daniel Louis Castellaneta (born October 29, 1957) is an Emmy award winning American Actor, Voice actor, Comedian and Screenwriter best known for providing the voice of Homer Simpson and other characters on the long-running FOX animated series "The Simpsons". As well as being a voice actor for The Simpsons, Dan Castellaneta has also written a few episodes of The Simpsons along with his wife, Deb Lacusta.
Team Milram
Team Milram is an Italian-registered UCI ProTeam established in 2006. The team is often called a German team because its main sponsor is Milram, part of the Nordmilch company from the German state of Bremen.
Milram took over the ProTeam licence of Domina Vacanze. Erik Zabel and Alessandro Petacchi are the team’s top cyclists. There are 25 other riders, mainly from Germany and Italy. Milram is the third team in the UCI ProTour with a German main sponsor.
The team manager is led by Italian Gianluigi Stanga, who has been a team manager in professional cycling since 1983. The directeurs sportifs ("Sports Directors") are the Italians Vittorio Algeri, Antonio Bevilacqua and Oscar Pellicioli . Gerry van Gerwen from the Netherlands is the commercial manager.
Milram only joined the UCI ProTour in 2006. Since then they have won 88 podium positions (that is, finished a race either first, second, or third) (24 first, 29 second, 35 third ).
Team MILRAM reorganised itself for its second season. Five new riders joined and eight riders left the team. The most prominent new rider is Igor Astarloa, 2003 World Champion from Spain. Additionally, the team added Brett Lancaster, the up-and-coming riders Marcel Sieberg and Niki Terpstra, as well as neo pro Sebastian Schwager. After breaking his kneecap in 2006, Alessandro Petacchi regained his top form and won some races.
There is a MILRAM Continental Circuit Team, and those young riders and those from other U23 teams are helped so they can develop their skills
As of January 5, 2007.
Perrierbambus
A Perrierbambus is a kind of bamboo that grows in Madagascar.
Chi-square distribution
In probability theory and statistics, the chi-square distribution (also chi-squared or formula_1  distribution) is one of the most widely used theoretical probability distributions. Chi-square distribution with formula_2 degrees of freedom is written as formula_3. It is a special case of gamma distribution.
Chi-square distribution is primarily used in statistical significance tests and confidence intervals. It is useful, because it is relatively easy to show that certain probability distributions come close to it, under certain conditions. One of these conditions is that the null hypothesis must be true. Another one is that the different random variables (or observations) must be independent of each other.
cdf =formula_4|
In statistics, a null hypothesis, often written as formula_1, is a statement assumed to be true unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt. The idea is that the null hypothesis generally assumes that there is nothing new or surprising in the population. The most common null hypothesis is the "no-change" or "no-difference" hypothesis (as in "there is no difference between a sample mean and a population mean"). When testing whether something works, one would start with the null hypothesis that it will not work. The term was first used by Ronald Fisher in his book "The Design of Experiments".
Every experiment has a null hypothesis. For example:
The opposite of a null hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis. Some examples of alternative hypotheses are:
Timothy Francis Leary, (October 22, 1920 – May 31, 1996) was an American writer and psychologist from Springfield, Massachusetts. He is seen as a modern pioneer. He was in favor of research on psychedelic drugs and their use. He was one of the first people whose remains have been sent into space. As an icon of the counterculture of the 1960s, he is most famous as a person who stood in for the therapeutic and spiritual benefits of using LSD. He coined and popularized the catch phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out."
Leary died of prostate cancer.
Ralph Metzner
Ralph Metzner (May 18, 1936 – March 14, 2019) was an American psychologist, and writer. He was born in 1936, in Germany. With Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert he was involved in a series of tests done at Harvard University, in the 1960s. These tests involved psychedelic drugs.
Rock band
The Book of the Dead is a name for an Egyptian text. It is also known as The Book of Coming [or Going] Forth By Day, or as the papyrus of Ani. It contains a number of texts, and spells. These allow the dead person to safely get to the place of the afterlife.
The book of the dead was most commonly written on a papyrus scroll. It was placed in the coffin of the dead person, or their burial chamber. The book of the dead in its most familiar form was first used in the New Kingdom, but many of the spells had their origins in the funerary texts of the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
The name "Book of the Dead" was the invention of the German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius, who published a selection of the texts in 1842.
Missing sections of the book were found in the Queensland Museum in 2012. Historians are hoping that the missing pieces will give them a copy of the complete book.
Team Gerolsteiner
Team Gerolsteiner ("UCI Team Code:" GST) is a German road bicycle racing team in the UCI ProTour. It is sponsored by the drinks company Gerolsteiner Brunnen and the bike company "Specialized".
The team was founded in 1998 with manager Hans-Michael Holczer and sports directors Rolf Gölz and Christian Henn. The contract with Georg Totschnig in 2001 helped make the team enter Division I. In 2003 the team participated in the Tour de France for the first time.
The Leader is Georg Totschnig, who has finished in the top 10 in the Tour de France and is an excellent climber. In 2005, Totschnig won stage 14 of the Tour, showing his skill on the 15km long climb up the Port de Pailhères (2000m at 8.2%). He was the first Austrian to win a tour stage since Max Bulla in 1931. In 2007, Georg Totschnig retired and Levi Leipheimer moved to the Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team. The team used youngsters Markus Fothen and Stefan Schumacher to captain the team in the 2007 Tour de France.
In September 2007 Gerolsteiner said it would not renew its sponsorship.
As of January 1, 2007
2006-2007 UCI Oceania Tour
The 2006-2007 UCI Oceania Tour is the third season of the UCI Oceania Tour of professional road bicycle racing held in various countries throughout the Oceania region. The season begins with the Jayco Herald Sun Tour stage race in October 2006 and runs until September 2007.
The points leader, based on the cumulative results of previous races, wears the UCI Oceania Tour cycling jersey. The final points leader is crowned the 2006-2007 UCI Oceania Tour champion. Gordon McCauley is the 2005-2006 champion of the UCI Oceania Tour.
The UCI Oceania Tour consists of the following one-day races and stage races:
Natural selection is a central concept of evolution. The English biologist Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, and is sometimes called the "survival of the fittest". Darwin chose the name as an analogy with artificial selection (selective breeding).
Natural selection is the process where organisms with favorable traits are more likely to reproduce. In doing so, they pass on these traits to the next generation. Over time this process allows organisms to adapt to their environment. This is because the frequency of genes for favourable traits increases in the population.
Members of a species are not all alike, partly because of differences in heredity (genetics). This is true even with children of the same parents. Some of these differences might make one organism better at surviving and reproducing than others in a particular habitat. When this organism reproduces, its children get the genes, which gave it the advantage. Some adaptations are extremely long-lasting, useful in many habitats. The evolution of wings in birds environment stays the same. If the environment changes enough, then another organism might do better.
"Natural selection" explains why living organisms change over time to have the anatomy, the functions and behaviour that they have. It works like this:
There are now quite a number of examples of natural selection in natural populations.
A well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment. The elimination of individuals which have no resistance is an example of natural selection.
Given enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. This leads to what is known as an evolutionary arms race, or co-evolution, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects, and with malarial resistance to quinine.
One famous case study is the study of peppered moth evolution, and there are many other examples. Most of these day-flying moths were light in colour, but just a few of the moths were dark. At first, the light coloured moths survived better because they were camouflaged against the light colour of the nearby trees. This made it hard for birds to see them.
When factories were built, the pollution made all the trees look black. Now the light coloured moths were obvious against the dark bark. The dark coloured moths had the advantage after the environment changed. The genes controlling dark colour spread through the population of moths. After the second world war, controls against pollution worked to make the environment cleaner. Then the lighter moths once again had the advantage, and are now much more common.
Mimicry is another example: Some harmless insects mimic other insects which are dangerous, or which taste foul. Mimicry evolves because "the better mimics survive better". They live to produce more offspring than the less good mimics. The genes of the better mimics become more common in the species. Over time, mimic species get closer to their models.
Sexual selection is a special kind of natural selection. It is a theory of Charles Darwin that certain evolutionary traits can be explained by competition "within" a species. Darwin defined sexual selection as the effects of the "struggle between the individuals of one sex, generally the males, for the possession of the other sex". It is usually males who fight each other. Traits selected by male combat are called secondary sexual characteristics (including horns, antlers, etc.) and sometimes referred to as 'weapons'. Traits selected by mate choice are called 'ornaments'.
Females often prefer to mate with males with external ornaments—exaggerated features of morphology. Genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may simply show off greater disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism—features that also benefit females. This idea is known as the 'good genes' hypothesis. Sexual selection is still being researched and discussed today.
Ernst Mayr said:
Devanagari
Devanāgarī (देवनागरी) is an abugida script used to write many North Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri, Nepal Bhasa and Nepali from Nepal and sometimes Kashmiri. About a hundred smaller languages also use Devanāgarī.
Continental circuits
The UCI ProTour is the series of races for the top cycling teams. The Continental circuits are for teams that are not so good.
Some teams, such as Team Milram, have one team on the ProTour, a team of younger riders on the continental circuit as well as being linked with U23 teams. In this way teams can spot talented riders.
There are five circuits, one each for
Usually organisers of a ProTour event can invite one or two teams from the continental circuit to compete. Also a ProTour team might decide to compete in a continental circuit race
Zachary David Alexander "Zac" Efron (18 October 1987) is an American actor and singer. He is most famous for his role in the "High School Musical" series. Other movies including "17 Again" and "Charlie St. Cloud".
His mother, Starla Baskett, is a former secretary and his father, David is engineer. He is the older of two sons. He has a little brother, Dylan. He was dating Vanessa Hudgens.
The word fiddle refers to a violin when used in folk music. Many people also use it simply as a fun word for "violin". Someone who plays the fiddle is a "fiddler". The bow is sometimes called a "fiddling stick". Fiddle playing, or fiddling, is a style of folk music.
The word "fiddle" is also used for instruments of several hundred years ago which developed into the violin. These instruments varied a lot from one country to another and one time to another. They were of different shapes and sizes, and even had many different names. Often they were held against the chest instead of being tucked under the chin. In the Middle Ages a small, narrow violin called a kit was often used by dancing masters. It was small enough to be put in a pocket. In south eastern Europe there was even a fiddle with a belly (the front of the instrument) made of skin. Fiddle strings were usually made of gut.
Many fiddles have bridges which are flatter on top than those of classical violins. The flatter bridges makes it easier to play chords and to bow quickly from one string to another. The strings are tuned in a variety of ways. A player might even change the tuning for playing different pieces of music. Tunings other than the regular G-D-A-E tuning, such as G-D-G-D or A-E-A-E, are common. One, two or three of the strings may have been used for a drone (continuous note) while playing the tune on the top string(s).
Many fiddlers have not received classical training but have learned by listening to other fiddlers and copying them. The music they play is dance music. Classical violin playing developed out of country fiddle playing. Most fiddlers use bows which are the same as violin bows, but in some countries such as Hungary they use shorter, heavier bows with horse hair that is tied around the frog (the heel of the bow). With this type of bow the player tightens the hair by squeezing it while playing.
Fiddles were played by people from all areas of society: from noble people to simple peasants. Many of them were minstrels who entertained important people. Some of them may have been able to read music, but many would have learned by copying other players and memorizing the music. At important feasts the minstrels may have played music while walking up to the high table when the food was brought in. They played to accompany dancers and singers, and even acrobats. We can see from old paintings that they sometimes played with other instruments such as trumpets, drums or percussion. We do not know the music they played because it was never written down, but some tunes we still hear today may have come from those old tunes, since some people still learn tunes by ear, from people who learned them by ear, and so on. Some American "old-time" tunes, and some Breton tunes may have come to us in this way, for example.
Hardanger fiddle
A Hardanger fiddle or hardingfele in Norwegian, is a traditional string instrument used mainly in the south west of Norway. It is similar to the violin, but it has eight or nine strings and the wood is thinner. Four of the strings are strung and played like a violin, while the other strings are sympathetic strings (they vibrate when the others are played).
The Hardingfele is used for dancing. The player stamps his foot loudly while playing. It was the Norwegian tradition for a bridal procession to be led to the church by a Hardanger fiddler.
The instrument has a lot of decoration, with a carved animal (usually the Lion of Norway) or a carved woman's head as part of the scroll at the top of the pegbox, mother of pearl in the tailpiece and fingerboard, and black ink decorations called 'rosing' on the body of the instrument. Sometimes pieces of bone are used to decorate the pegs and the edges of the instrument.
The earliest known instrument is dated 1651 although we do not know whether this date is correct. By 1850 it had developed into the Hardanger fiddle known today.
The Hardanger fiddle can be tuned in lot of different ways, depending on the music to be played. The Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg liked Norwegian folk music. When he wrote the famous tune “Morning” for the music for "Peer Gynt" he was thinking of the notes that would be played on the Hardanger fiddle.
In the 20th century the Hardanger fiddle has become very popular in Norway through competitions. The players have to play in the style of the area they come from.
Auguste Rodin (born François-Auguste-René Rodin; 12 November 1840 – 17 November 1917) was a French sculptor. Rodin was born in Paris. He made solid objects from stone or clay. His most famous works are 'The Thinker' and 'The Kiss'.
Although Rodin is generally considered the start of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past. His training was old-school. He took a craftsman-like approach to his work, but he was rejected three times to Paris's foremost school of art.
Rodin had a unique ability to model a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface in clay. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime. They clashed with the sculpture tradition, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic.
Rodin's most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory. He modelled the human body with realism, with individual character and physicality. Rodin refused to change his style. Gradually there came increasing favour from the government and the artistic community.
His statue of writer Honoré de Balzac for the "Société des Gens des Lettres" was heavily criticised. Rather than try to convince skeptics of its merit, Rodin repaid the Société his commission and moved the figure to his own garden. After this experience, Rodin did not complete another public commission. Only in 1939 was Monument to Balzac cast in bronze. It is now thought to be a masterpiece.
Rodin's reputation grew, and he became the top French sculptor of his time. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Rich private clients sought Rodin's work after his 1900 World's Fair exhibit. For example, a Japanese patron, Matsukata Kojiro, paid for some of Rodin's best castings, including "The Gates of Hell."
Rodin kept company with a variety of high-profile intellectuals and artists. He married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives.
His sculpture suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917.
Joe Cole
Joseph John "Joe" Cole (born 8 November 1981) is an English professional football player. Cole plays as a midfielder for
Coventry City. At his peak he played for
Chelsea and Liverpool in the Premier League and for the England national team.
Cole was born in Paddington. He was adopted. He was raised in Somers Town, London.
Joe Cole trained at West Ham United at the start of his career. He moved to Chelsea in 2003 for a prize of £6,600,00 and scored 10 goals for Chelsea in the 2004/05 season.
280||36||29||4||25||5||52||6||386||51
!Total||53||10
The rebec is a bowed string musical instrument that was played many hundreds of years ago. It was either held under the chin, like a violin, or held against the arm. The name “rebec” was spelt in a variety of ways.
The rebec dates back to the Middle Ages and was particularly popular in the 15th and 16th centuries. The instrument is European, but probably developed from the Afghan instrument called the “rebab”. Instruments like the rebec were being played in the 10th century.
The rebec can have any number of strings from one to five, although three is the most common number. The strings are often tuned in fifths. The instrument played high notes like the violin, but in later years bigger rebecs were made that played lower notes.
The rebec was mostly used for dance music. Dancing masters often used a kind of pocket-sized rebec called a “kit”.
The rebec was also used in folk music, especially in eastern Europe, Spain and North Africa.
In medieval and Renaissance times the rebec in Europe was played by minstrels. They dressed in special livery and played at important feasts and in processions. They were also played by cowherds. King Henry VIII has several rebec players at his court.
Today many Middle Ages re-enactors like to play rebec since it is an authentic Medieval instrument.
A resonator is something that resonates. This may make a particular frequency of a sound or other vibration become bigger.
In electromagnetics a cavity resonator is a resonator composed of a space that is usually surrounded by a dielectric or metal which allows standing wave patterns at particular frequencies, eigenmodes, correlated to their size, shape, and material.
Most musical instruments have resonators. They are the parts which makes the sound louder. A vibraphone, for example, has long tubes underneath the keys. It also has a special effect: a mechanism which, when it is turned on, opens and shuts the resonators very quickly so that a trembling sound is heard.
The body of a violin is a resonator: without the body the sound of the string vibrating would hardly be heard, just as the sound of an elastic band stretched between two fingers can hardly be heard.
Joshua Bell
Joshua David Bell (born 9 December 1967) is an American violinist. He is considered one of the greatest violinists of today.
Bell was born in Bloomington, Indiana, United States. His father was a psychologist and therapist. He began violin lessons at the age of four after his mother found that her son had taken rubber bands from around the house and stretched them across the handles of his dresser drawer to pluck out music he had heard her play on the piano. His parents got him a very small violin and started giving him lessons. He learned the violin very quickly, but also had time to enjoy things such as video games and sports.
Bell's first violin teacher suggested that he should learn with Josef Gingold. Bell says that Gingold was a great teacher. At the age of fourteen, Bell appeared as a soloist with the Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Muti. He studied the violin at the Indiana University's Jacobs School of Music, while managing to graduate from Bloomington High School North in 1984.
Joshua Bell first played in the Carnegie Hall, New York in 1985 with the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra. He has since performed with almost all of the world's major orchestras and conductors. He has played all the well known concertos as well as new works. In 1993 he gave the first performance of Nicholas Maw's violin concerto which was dedicated to him. The recording of this work won Bell a Grammy award. He performed the solo part on John Corigliano's Oscar-winning soundtrack for the movie "The Red Violin" and was also featured in "Ladies in Lavender". Bell also made an appearance in the movie "Music of the Heart", a story about the power of music, with other famous violinists.
Bell's violin is a 300-year-old Stradivarius violin called the Gibson ex Huberman, which was made in 1713, a time when Stradivarius was making his best instruments. This violin had been stolen twice from the previous owner, Bronislaw Huberman; the last time the thief confessed as he was dying to having stolen it. Bell had held and played the violin, and its owner at the time jokingly told Bell the violin could be his for four million dollars. Shortly afterwards, by chance, Bell came across the violin again and discovered it was about to be sold to a wealthy German to become part of a collection. According to the Joshua Bell website Bell "was practically in tears." Bell then sold the Stradivarius violin that he had at the time for a little more than two million dollars and bought the Gibson ex Huberman for a little under the four million dollar asking price. His first recording made with the Gibson ex Huberman was "Romance of the Violin". It sold more than 5,000,000 copies and remained at the top of classical music charts for 54 weeks. In September 2006 he made a CD called the "Voice of the Violin" and was released in September 2006. It has songs arranged for the violin. He played the song "Vocalise" by Rachmaninoff in the Royal Albert Hall at the Last Night of the Proms in 2007. He is a visiting professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London.
In an unusual experiment the Washington Post asked Bell to stand in the street and busk (play his violin) by the entrance to a Washington Metro station one cold morning in January 2007. During the 45 minutes that he played more than 1000 people passed him but only a few people stopped to listen, most of whom were children. Only one person recognized him and one other person realized he was a great violinist.
Bell lives in Manhattan. He is keen on sports such as golf and tennis. He has three children born by a former girlfriend, however married another woman on 5th October 2019.
Elastic modulus
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e. non-permanently) when a force is applied to it.
The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region:
where λ is the elastic modulus; stress is the force that causes the deformation divided by the area to which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change caused by the stress to the original state of the object.
If one specifies how stress and strain are to be measured, that allows for many types of elastic moduli to be defined.
ISO 3166-1
ISO 3166-1, is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It gives a code for the names of countries and dependent territories, and is published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The official name of the standard is "Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes". There are three sets of country codes:
ISO 3166-1 is not the only standard for country codes. Many international organizations use their own country codes, where some of them closely correspond to the ISO 3166-1 codes. For examples, see "country codes".
Currently, 244 countries and territories have official ISO 3166-1 codes. The only way to enter a new country name into ISO 3166-1 is to have it registered in one of the following two sources:
To be listed in the bulletin "Country Names", a country or territory must be any of the following:
Once a country name or territory name appears in either of these two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default.
The following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding code list in alphabetical order by the English short country names officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA), which uses country names from United Nations sources.
The table includes officially assigned codes only.
Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes.
Reserved code elements are codes which, while not ISO 3166-1 codes, are in use for some applications in conjunction with the ISO 3166 codes. They are reserved to add flexibility to the coding system. Usually, obsolete codes may be kept as reserved, while some overseas territories, international organizations, and special nationality status have reserved codes of their own. See the corresponding sections in "ISO 3166-1 alpha-2" and "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3" for their respective reserved codes (ISO 3166-1 numeric does not have reserved codes).
User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use them in the updating process of the standard. See the corresponding sections in "ISO 3166-1 alpha-2", "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3" and "ISO 3166-1 numeric" for their respective user-assigned codes.
A country or territory may get new codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. A country generally gets new alphabetical codes if its name changes, whereas a new numeric code is associated with a change of boundaries. Changes to ISO 3166-1 are announced in periodic newsletters, of which 12 have been released since the first edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 1997:
The second edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 2007, which comprises a consolidation of all changes to the lists as published in the newsletters above.
Information on reserved codes taken from "Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1" published by Secretariat of ISO/TC 46, ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, 2001-02-13, available on request from ISO 3166/MA.
Atlas (disambiguation)
Atlas, most commonly means a collection of maps, traditionally bound into book form.
Atlas can mean:
In physics:
Lira da braccio
The lira da braccio was a European string instrument that was played with a bow. It was used during the Renaissance. Italian poet-musicians in court in the 15th and 16th centuries often played it to accompany the poems they were reading. The lira da braccio was very similar to the medieval fiddle. Changes continued to be made to the way the lira da braccio was made until the end of the 16th century. In paintings it is often seen being played by the gods Orpheus and Apollo. Sometimes it was used in groups of instruments.
The instrument was a similar shape to a violin, but with a wider fingerboard and flatter bridge. It usually had seven strings, five of them tuned like a violin with a low D added to the bottom, and two other strings for drones. It is likely that the player often played the tune on the top strings and chords on the lower strings.
The lira da braccio was very popular at court. Later, in the 16th century, the madrigal became very popular and also the violin, so the lira da braccio was used less. It continued to be used in plays, especially when it was associated with Apollo. By the middle of the 17th century people no longer played it.
Atlas (missile)
Atlas was a missile built by the "Convair" Division of "General Dynamics".
It was originally designed as an ICBM in the late 1950s. It launched the Mercury project space capsules and became the foundation for a family of successful space launch vehicles now built by "United Launch Alliance". The Atlas rocket family is today used as a launch platform for commercial and military satellites, and other spacecraft.
The Atlas, first tested in 1957, was the United States' first successful ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile).
Atlas, named for the Atlas of Greek mythology, got its start in 1946 with the award of a United States Army Air Force research contract to Convair for the study of a 1,500 to 5,000 mi. (2,400 to 8,000 km) range nuclear armed missile.
The missile was originally given the military designation "XB-65", thus making it a bomber; from 1955 it was redesignated "SM-65" and, from 1962, it became "CGM-16". This letter "C" stood for "coffin" or "Container", because the rocket was stored in a semi-hardened container; it was prepared for launch by being raised and fueled in the open. The Atlas-F (HGM-16) was stored vertically underground, but launched after being lifted to the surface.
Flag of Dominican Republic
The Dominican Constitution says that the flag of the Dominican Republic has a white cross in the centre; the arms of the cross get to the sides of the flag and divides the flag into four rectangles —the left rectangles are blue (top) and red (bottom), and the right ones are red (top) and blue (bottom). The width of the white cross is half the height of one of the rectangles.