AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Flood basalts start at between 100 and 400 km depth, in the asthenosphere. To get a partial melting as large as that of the traps, expelling huge quantities of lava, it is necessary to have a large heat input. Such melting can take place near a hotspot, resulting in a mixture of magma from the depths of the hotspot with superficial magma produced by a mantle plume.
A lava plateau is a flat, wide surface (plateau) that is formed when lava comes out of the ground and spreads out very quickly. The layers of lava can build up over time to form a lava plateau. Here are the general properties of lava plateaux:
The Emeishan Traps in southwestern China, around Sichuan province, the Deccan Traps of central India, the Siberian Traps, and the Columbia River Plateau of western North America are four large regions covered by prehistoric flood basalts. The two largest flood basalt events in historic time have been at Eldgjá and Lakagigar, both in Iceland. The largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth is part of the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province in Canada. The maria on the Moon are additional, even more extensive, flood basalts. Flood basalts on the ocean floor produce oceanic plateaus.
The surface covered by one eruption can vary from around 200,000 km² (Karoo) to 1,500,000 km² (Siberian Traps). The thickness can vary from 2000 metres (Deccan Traps) to 12,000 m (Lake Superior). These are smaller than the original volumes due to erosion.
Another example of a lava plateau is the Giant's Causeway, in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. This is was originally part of a great volcanic plateau called the Thulean Plateau.
Monterrey is a city in northern Mexico. It is the capital of the state Nuevo León. It is the third largest city in Mexico. It has 2,056,538 people.
Siberian Traps
The Siberian Traps form a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in the Russian region of Siberia.
The large eruptions which formed the traps were one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth history. They continued for a million years and spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 251 to 250 million years ago. It was the same time as the Permian–Triassic extinction event, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time. The eruption of the Siberian Traps is a possible cause of this "Great Dying".
The term "traps" is derived from the Swedish word for stairs ("trappa", or sometimes "trapp"), referring to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region, which is typical of flood basalts.
Vast volumes of basaltic lava paved over a large expanse of primaeval Siberia in a flood basalt event. Today the area covered is about 2 million km² – roughly equal to western Europe in land area – and estimates of the original coverage are as high as 7 million km². The original volume of lava is estimated to range from 1 to 4 million km³.
The source of the Siberian Traps basalt was, probably, a mantle plume at the base of the crust which erupted through the Siberian craton (the oldest part of the Siberian continental plate). Helium isotope analysis from the basalts indicates a plume origin. The scientific debate continues. There is a minority controversial theory which argues that the traps were caused by a large asteroid impact.
This massive eruptive event spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 250 million years ago, and is widely cited as a cause of the Permian-Triassic extinction event. This extinction event, also called the Great Dying, affected all life on Earth, and is estimated to have killed 90% of species living at the time. Life on land took 30 million years to recover from the environmental disruptions caused by the eruption of the Siberian Traps.
The Siberian Traps are considered to have erupted through numerous vents over a period of a million years or more, probably east and south of Norilsk in Siberia. The giant Norilsk nickel-copper-palladium deposit formed within the magma flows in the main Siberian Traps. The presence of extensive tuff and pyroclastic deposits suggests that a number of large explosive eruptions occurred during or before the eruptions of basaltic lavas. The presence of silicic volcanic rocks such as rhyolite is also indicative of explosive eruptions.
College of Marin
Tellurium(II) chloride
Tellurium(II) chloride, also known as tellurium dichloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeCl. It contains tellurium in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.
Tellurium(II) chloride is a black solid. It absorbs water. It can be oxidized to tellurium(IV) chloride. It reacts with water.
Tellurous acid
Tellurous acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is HTeO. It contains hydrogen and tellurite ions. It can be made by reacting tellurium dioxide with water. It is not made as easily as telluric acid.
It is a weak oxidizing agent and a weak reducing agent. It easily turns back into tellurium dioxide and water. It is a weak acid. It reacts with bases to make tellurites.
Tellurium(IV) chloride
Tellurium(IV) chloride, also known as tellurium tetrachloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeCl. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.
Tellurium(IV) chloride is a pale yellow solid. It melts easily to a red liquid. It evaporates easily. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It is toxic and corrosive.
Tellurium(IV) chloride is made by reacting tellurium powder and chlorine.
It is used in making organic compounds.
Tellurium chloride
Tellurium chloride may refer to either of these chemical compounds:
U.S. Route 78
U.S. Route 78 is an east–west highway. It goes from Memphis, Tennessee to Charleston, South Carolina.
Kim Clijsters
U.S. Route 25
Asheville is the county seat of Buncombe County, North Carolina. It is located where the Swannanoa River and the French Broad River meet. The population of Asheville was counted in 2000 as 74,543 and 83,393 in 2010. Asheville is the largest city in the North Carolina mountains.
June Cleaver
June Cleaver is a literary reference meaning "the perfect stay-at-home mom" referring to the mother in the U.S. television show "Leave it to Beaver" which was released from 1957 to 1963. Women writers viewing the show sometimes had difficulty living up to or agreeing with such a feminine mystique. June Cleaver is often referred to in remarks justifying a messy home such as “June Cleaver made having a spotless house look so effortless . . .” The character was played by actress Barbara Billingsley, a lifelong resident of Los Angeles county, California, U.S.A.
Jack Tweed
Jack’ Tweed (born 9 June 1987) is a British television personality.
Tweed started his career as Jade Goody's partner. He became widely known in 2007 after being on "Celebrity Big Brother UK". He caused controversy when he called housemate Shilpa Shetty a "cunt" and "Paki" and said that she should remove objects from the toilet with her teeth. After "Celebrity Big Brother", Goody miscarried his child in 2007. He married her on 22 February 2009 and she died of cervical cancer a month later. He appeared in 2010 ITV2 programme "The Only Way Is Essex". In 2010, he had a relationship with Chanelle Hayes.
Tweed has had several legal issues. These include an 18-month prison sentence in September 2008 for assault occasioning actual bodily harm for attacking a 16-year-old boy with a golf club in December 2006. In March 2009, he was found guilty of common assault for attacking a taxi driver in May 2008. He was charged with the rape of a 19-year-old woman. In January 2011 he punched a man, for which he was convicted of common assault in August 2011.
Quadrilateral
In Euclidean plane geometry, a quadrilateral is a polygon with four edges (or sides) and four vertices (or corners). Sometimes, the term quadrangle is used (similar to the term "triangle"), while other times, the term tetragon is used (similar to pentagon, 5-sided polygon, and hexagon, 6-sided polygon). A quadrilateral with vertices formula_1, formula_2, formula_3, formula_4 is sometimes written as formula_5.
The origin of the word quadrilateral is the two Latin words "quadri", a variant of four, and "latus", meaning "side".
Quadrilaterals can be either complex, also called crossed (self-intersecting), or simple (not self-intersecting). Simple quadrilaterals are either convex or concave.
All the sides of a quadrilateral are straight, and the interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°.
This is a special case of the "n"-gon interior angle sum formula: ("n" − 2) × 180°.
All non-self-crossing quadrilaterals tile the plane, by repeated rotation around the midpoints of their edges.
There are 6 special kinds of quadrilaterals; square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, kite, and trapezoid. Technically, squares, rectangles, and rhombuses are types of parallelograms.
Yangchuanosaurus
Yangchuanosaurus was a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Jurassic of China. It was a fairly typical carnosaur, with a large head, sharp, serrated teeth, and relatively short arms (though not as short as those of "Tyrannosaurus"). It was the largest predator in its part of the world. "Yangchuanosaurus" probably preyed on sauropods, such as "Mamenchisaurus", or stegosaurs, such as "Tuojiangosaurus".
There are two species. "Y. zigongensis" is from the Middle Jurassic, and "Y. shangyouensis" is from the Upper Jurassic. Specimens were collected from the Dashanpu Dinosaur Quarry of Zigong, Sichuan.
The Middle Jurassic "Y. zigongensis" is known from four incomplete specimens. There are two specimens of the Upper Jurassic "Y. shangyouensis", which were at first put into separate species. Later analysis showed they were probably different ages or variations of the same species.
The first skull is 82 cm (2.7 ft) long, and its total body length about 8 m (26 ft). The other specimen was even larger. It had a skull length of 1.11 m (3.6 ft). It may have been up to 10.8 m (35.4 ft) long, and weighed as much as 3.4 metric tons (3.7 short tons). There was a bony knob on its nose and multiple hornlets and ridges, similar to "Ceratosaurus". It had a massive tail that was about half its length.
Pelorosaurus
Pelorosaurus conybeari is the name given to a few sauropod dinosaur bones from the Lower Cretaceous period, about 138–112 million years ago.
Bones of "Pelorosaurus" have been found in England and Portugal. It was a Brachiosaur, with front legs that were longer than its hind legs.
The name has been challenged, and has been the subject of long-lasting dispute. Some palaeontologists prefer the name Cetiosaurus brevis.
The taxonomic status of "Pelorosaurus" is as a result very problematic. Technically, "Cetiosaurus brevis" is its type species. The position of "Pelorosaurus" is further undermined by the fact that several researchers hold that the genus is a "nomen dubium" ('doubtful name').
"Pelorosaurus" was one of the first dinosaurs described, and the naming procedures were not so well-developed at the time. Its life-style is assumed to be similar to other brachiosaurs, eating from the higher branches of tall conifer trees.
Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X (; 11 December 1475 – 1 December 1521), born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 218th Pope from 1513 to his death in 1521.
Giovanni de Medici was born in Florence. He was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
He studied theology and canon law at Pisa from 1489 to 1491.
Six days after his election as pope in 1513, Medici was ordained as a priest.
Two days after his ordination and eight days after his election as pope in 1513, Medici was made a bishop.
At the age of 13, Pope Innocent VIII named Medici cardinal in 1489.
Cardinal Medici was elected pope on 9 March 1513. On the 15 March he was ordained priest, and he was consecrated as bishop on March 17. He was crowned Pope on 19 March at the age of 37.
Pope Leo was involved in Italian and European political disputes.
Leo was a patron of Michelangelo and Raphael.
Crumpet
A crumpet is a kind of flat, small round bread that is raised by yeast. They are about the same size as an English muffin. They are made in crumpet rings that are four inches wide and usually one inch deep. Crumpets are usually baked on a griddle and served toasted. A well-baked crumpet has a brown bottom and a spongey top that has many tiny holes. Crumpets are toasted whole, while English muffins are split and then toasted. After the baking, crumpets are spread with butter or cream and jam.
The word of crumpet may come from the Middle English word "crompid" (cake), or "curled" (cake). Or it may come from the past participle of the Middle English verb "crumpen", which means to curl up. It could also have come from "crumb", "crump", or "crooked", all Old English. Crumpet is also used as British slang for a particularly sexually attractive woman. It Australian slang, it is part of the expression: "not worth a crumpet", meaning that somebody or something is useless.
The first recipe for crumpets was long ago, referred to frequently as the "crompid cake" by many. The Oxford English Dictionary traced the history back to 1382.
The Oxford Companion to Food also says that the earliest published recipe for crumpets was by Elizabeth Raffald, in 1769. There, the "crompid cake" is mentioned as well with buckwheat griddle cakes so it is believed that there is a connection between crumpets and the buckwheat pancake.
Elizabeth Raffald mentions it in her book of "The Experienced English Housekeeper". Her recipe is very similar to the modern crumpet recipe, especially in the baking, buttering, and serving.
Edam cheese
Taylor Chorney
Taylor Chorney (born April 27, 1987) is a Canadian-born American professional ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Edmonton Oilers and St. Louis Blues.
He was drafted by the Edmonton Oilers with the 36th overall pick in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. He previously played at the University of North Dakota. He also was on Team USA at the 2006 World Junior Championships. Chorney represented the USA again in the 2007 World Juniors, where he was team captain. He made his NHL debut on April 10, 2009 against the Calgary Flames. He recorded his first NHL point in his first game of the 2009-10 season, by assisting one of Zack Stortini's two goals on October 12, 2009 on the road against the Nashville Predators.
His father, Marc, played 210 games in the NHL for the Pittsburgh Penguins and Los Angeles Kings.
On July 1, 2014, Chorney signed one-year, two-way contract with the Pittsburgh Penguins.
A homologous trait is any characteristic which is derived by evolution from a common ancestor. This is contrasted to analogous traits: similarities between organisms that were evolved separately.
The term existed before 1859, but got its modern meaning after Darwin established the idea of common descent.
The pre-Darwinian naturalists Cuvier, Geoffroy and Richard Owen, also used the idea.
A homologous trait is often called a homologue (also spelled homolog). In genetics, the term "homologue" is used both to refer to a homologous protein, and to the gene (DNA sequence) encoding it.
According to Russell, we owe to Richard Owen the first clear distinction between homologous and analogous organs. Owen's definitions were:
The distinction is made clear by examples such as the ear ossicles of mammals. These little bones have, in the course of several hundred million years of evolution, made their way from the gill covers of fish to the rear jaw bones of Synapsids to their present position in the ear of mammals. In the fossil record is evidence of this, and also in embryology. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone. Later in development, tiny bone structures break loose from the jaw and migrate to the inner ear area. The ear ossicles are homologous with the jaw bones and the gill covers, but not analogous.
This rather extraordinary story was first proposed in 1818 by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who looked at fish and tried to discover the homologies of their bones with that of land vertebrates.
"A trait may be both homologous and analogous", depending on the level at which the trait is examined. For example, the wings of birds and bats are homologous as "forearms" in tetrapods. However, they are not homologous as "wings", because the organ served as a forearm (not a wing) in the last common ancestor of tetrapods.
By definition, any homologous trait defines a clade–a monophyletic taxon in which all the members have the trait (or have lost it secondarily); and all non-members lack it.
Conserved sequences of DNA, RNA and proteins can be used to decide homologies between organisms.
In evolutionary developmental biology, the concept of deep homology is used to describe cases where growth and differentiation are controlled by genetic mechanisms that are homologous and deeply conserved across a wide range of species. Textbook examples common to metazoa include the homeotic genes that control differentiation along the body, and pax genes (especially PAX6) involved in the development of the eye and other sensory organs.
An algorithm identifies deeply homologous genetic modules in unicellular organisms, plants, and non-human animals based on phenotypes (such as traits and developmental defects). The technique aligns phenotypes across organisms based on the homology of genes involved in the phenotypes.
Discovery Channel
The Discovery Channel is a cable television channel about science, history, and nature. It has programs such as "Man vs. Wild", "A Haunting", "The Last Day of the Dinosaurs", "MythBusters", and "Dirty Jobs".
The Last Day of the Dinosaurs
The Last Day of the Dinosaurs is a 2010 Discovery Channel television documentary about the extinction of the dinosaurs. It portrays the asteroid as the cause of the extinction.
In the Pacific Northwest of North America, a "Quetzalcoatlus" is flying above the landscape, looking for food. It finds a nest of "Tyrannosaurus" babies that have just hatched. It picks them up in its beak and starts eating them. Suddenly, the father appears and starts fighting the "Quetzalcoatlus". He grabs it by the wing, but it manages to escape.
Meanwhile, the asteroid is getting closer to Earth. The narrator says that it was caused by the collision of two asteroids 150 million years ago. One of the fragments is heading towards Earth.
In the Pacific Northwest, two male "Triceratops" fight for mating rights. One of them wins. The loser walks away. Suddenly, two "T. rexes" attack and kill the "Triceratops". They start feeding on its carcass.
In what is today central Mexico, a herd of "Alamosaurus" is roaming the plains in search of food. They are giants, even by dinosaur standards. They are 60 feet long and 40 feet tall, and they weigh 30 tons. Their huge size demands that they eat a lot of vegetation to maintain their bulk. Meanwhile, the asteroid enters the Earth's atmosphere. It is burning brighter than a million suns. The scorching light sears the "Alamosaurus"' eyeballs, blinding them.
Then the asteroid hits the Earth in the Gulf of Mexico, near the Yucatan Peninsula. In a fraction of a second, it disentegrates into the planet. The air temperature near the crash site now reaches 600 degrees Fahrenheit. The "Alamosaurus" are burned alive. In the Pacific Northwest, the "Quetzalcoatlus" can see the impact.
Meanwhile, Mongolia is 8,000 miles away from the point of impact. A herd of "Charonosaurus" is drinking at a watering hole. They are protecting their eggs. Suddenly, a "Troodon" appears. Its brain-to-body weight ratio is among the highest of any dinosaur. It steals an egg, but is seen by the mother. It runs into a cave. A second "Saurornithoides" is in the cave. The two predators start chasing the "Charonosaurus". They jump on its neck and slash with their retractable toe claws, killing their prey. Then they start feasting on the carcass.
Millions of tons of dust and rock were thrown up into the air by the asteroid's impact. This is the ejecta cloud. In Mongolia, the ejecta cloud causes the temperature to become hotter. As the air temperature reaches 120 degrees, the "Troodons" run inside the cave. The temperature ticks upward every second. The "Charonosaurus" go into the cave. Inside the cave, it is cooler. However, the "Charonosaurus" and "Troodon" are forced to share the cave with each other, even though they are enemies.
Back in the Pacific Northwest, fires burn across the forest floor at 9 miles per hour. The "Tyrannosaurus" and the "Triceratops" are running to get away from the fire. The panicked animals race up the valley slopes.
In Mongolia, the temperatures are finally starting to decrease. The "Troodon" run outside and start feeding on a "Charonosaurus" corpse. Soon, the "Charonosaurus" follow. However, one stays near the protection of the cave. However, the dinosaurs are not safe yet. The ejecta cloud has caused a huge sandstorm. As it hits, the "Troodons" are small enough to crouch for cover. But the "Charonosaurus" are out in the open. The harder they struggle and the deeper they gasp for oxygen, the more sand fills their lungs, until finally, they can't breathe. It's hours before the winds die down. The last "Charonosaurus", protected once again by the cave, finds that it's the last of the herd. But it's not the last remaining dinosaur in the neighborhood. The "Troodons" were sheltered from the worst of the storm. They have survived.
Instinct drives the "Troodon" back to their prime hunting spot, the watering hole, where the last remaining "Charonosaurus" is drinking. The "Troodon" are desperate for food. One of them has the confidence to attack. The "Troodon" runs to the"Charonosaurus" and leaps on it. It starts slashing at its neck. The "Charonosaurus" is still too exhausted to run. Suddenly, the "Charonosaurus" crashes to the ground, crushing the "Troodon" to death under its weight. The remaining "Troodon" starts eating the dead body of its companion.
A week after impact, food is in very short supply across the entire planet. In the Pacific Northwest, two "Triceratops" are searching for food. Their hunger drives them to the Pacific coast. They see an island. Protected from the fires by the surrounding ocean, the island is lush and green. It has all the food that the "Triceratops" need. But when the asteroid hit the Earth, it caused an earthquake under the ocean. This causes a huge tsunami. The ocean is dragged back hundreds of feet. The path to the island is suddenly dry land. The "Triceratops" walk across the land bridge to the island. However, the tsunami crashes down on them, flooding the land. The "Triceratops" drown.
In the days and weeks that follow, few dinosaurs remain. In Mongolia, the starving "Charonosaurus" stays close to the cave that has saved it twice in the past. Suddenly, it collapses, but not from starvation. Bubbling to the surface from hot springs is one of nature's most toxic gases; Hydrogen Sulfide. The "Troodon" runs up to the dead "Charonosaurus". Then it too dies from inhaling the poisonous gas.
In the Pacific Northwest, only a handful of dinosaurs patrol the gray wasteland. An "Ankylosaurus", severely weakened by hunger, is searching for food. All it can find is a small bush. But even that won't come without a fight. A "Triceratops" roars at the "Ankylosaurus". Suddenly, a "T. rex" appears. It roars at the herbivores. Then it kills the "Triceratops". The "Ankylosaurus" tries to defend itself with its heavy tail club, but it's too weak to fight. The "Tyrannosaurus" flips the "Ankylosaurus" over and bites its soft underbelly, killing it. Then the "Tyrannosaurus" collapses from hunger. It falls on the "Triceratops"' horn and is impaled by it after tripping over the Ankylosaurus.
In Mexico, the first region to be hit by the asteroid, life still remains. Buried in the cool ground inside its egg, an "Alamosaurus" baby has survived. And so has an adult "Alamosaurus". All around the world, small handfuls of dinosaurs try to start over. But their species are already considered extinct. In order to survive, any species needs to maintain a critical mass of population. If it falls below that threshold, then there's no way to climb back from certain extinction.
But life on Earth is not completely destroyed. Out of the ruins, nature starts over. A group of animals that have long been limited in success by the dinosaurs now become the new rulers of the Earth: mammals. Eventually, they multiply and diversify. 10,000 species explode across the planet. And one species, humans, branches off from its relatives and comes down from the trees. They walk on two legs, evolve bigger brains, and eventually, they rule the planet. They build cities that touch the sky, vehicles that can leave the planet, and weapons that can destroy it.
In the end, the narrator says that humans would never have existed if a chance collision in space 150 million years ago had not occurred, sending an asteroid hurtling towards Earth and dooming the dinosaurs to extinction.
Charonosaurus
Charonosaurus was a genus of hadrosaur that lived at the very end of the Upper Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago. Its remains were found in China.
The partial skull resembles that of "Parasaurolophus" from North America. This does "not" suggest a Bering land bridge existed during the Cretaceous period, since at that time North America was far away from Eastern Asia. Instead, it is likely that this group of hadrosaurs all had a similar long, backward-projecting hollow crest. It may have been used for trumpeting their calls. In other words, their skull shape was a basal feature.
"Charonosaurus" was a very large lambeosaurine hadrosaur (estimated around 13 m (42.5 ft) long), known from a partial skull found in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China. Adult and juvenile hadrosaur remains were found in the same area. They give information on the rest of the skeleton; the femur length was up to 1.35 m. (4.5 ft).
"Charonosaurus" was featured in the Discovery Channel television documentary The Last Day of the Dinosaurs, where it was the prey of "Troodon".
Dinosaur brains and intelligence
Dinosaur brains and intelligence are interesting topics. Dinosaurs were once regarded as stupid animals, but it is now realised that some of the smaller carnivores had above average intelligence for reptiles. This idea led to exaggerated portrayals in films like Jurassic Park.
The idea that "Stegosaurus" had a "brain the size of a walnut" (an oft-repeated phrase), was not quite accurate. It had a brain the size of a dog's, but in proportion to its body, the brain was very small. In the 1880s a well-preserved "Stegosaurus" braincase allowed Othniel Charles Marsh to get a cast of the brain cavity, which gave an idea of the brain size. The endocast showed that the brain was indeed small: relative to body size, maybe the smallest among the dinosaurs. The fact that an animal weighing over 4.5 metric tonnes (5 short tons) could have a brain of no more than 80 grams (2.8 oz) led to the idea that dinosaurs were unintelligent, an idea now largely rejected.
Marsh also noted a large canal in the hip region of the spinal cord, which could have accommodated a structure up to 20 times larger than the famously small brain. This may have been used to coordinate the hind region in defence against theropod attack. This function for the "second brain" is not proved by any direct evidence.
Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated). That means large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals. The relationship is not linear however. Generally, small mammals have relatively larger brains than big ones. Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (1/40), while elephants have comparatively small brain/body size (1/560), though elephants are obviously quite intelligent animals.
The formula for the curve varies, but is usually given as Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body). As this formula is based on data from mammals, it should be applied to other animals with caution. For some of the other vertebrate classes the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of invertebrates the formula may give no meaningful results at all.
Intelligence in animals is hard to establish, but the larger the brain is relative to the body, the more brain weight might be available for complex cognitive tasks. Rather than simply measuring raw brain weight, the EQ formula makes for a ranking of animals. The ranking coincides better with the observed complexity of behaviour. Mean EQ for mammals is around 1, with carnivorans, cetaceans and primates above 1, and insectivores and herbivores below. It also puts humans at the top of the list. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity of behaviour is not perfect, because other factors also influence intelligence. These factors include the evolution of the recent cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding. This increase the surface of the cortex, which is positively correlated to intelligence in humans.
Traditional comparisons of brain volume to body mass in dinosaurs have estimated brain size as the volume of the endocast. However, the brain of the modern reptile genus "Sphenodon" fills only about half of its endocranial volume. Some paleontologists used this fifty percent estimate in their estimates of dinosaur brain volume. Other workers have observed that details on the endocranial surface indicates that some fossil reptiles had brains that occupied a much larger portion of the endocranium. Larsson notes that the transition from reptiles to birds prevents using a set ratio from being a valid approach to estimating the volume of the endocranium occupied by a dinosaur's brain.
Adding difficulty is the wide range of estimates for live mass. One study estimated that the live masses for many dinosaur genera had a four-fold range. Larsson laments that "[t]he broad ranges of body mass estimates, combined with the ambiguous ratio of endocranial volume occupied by the brain, present a high degree of uncertainty for [creating an] index of brain size". Consequently, he attempted to minimize errors by making a different kind of comparison.
While it is difficult to estimate the absolute volume of the brain, the proportions of its various regions of the brain should be the same in the endocast as it was in the live brain. Larsson's study compared the ratio of the cerebrum, which is clearly marked on the inside of skulls, to the rest of the endocast's volume. According to Larsson, his technique is superior to traditional comparisons of brain volume to estimated live body mass.
Most dinosaurs, and most theropods, had brains no better than present-day reptiles, so far as can be estimated. In a 2001 study of a "Carcharodontosaurus saharicus" endocast, Hans Larsson found that both "C. saharicus" and "Allosaurus" had a ratio of cerebrum to brain volume that was very similar to non-avian reptiles. By contrast, the "Tyrannosaurus" ratio was slightly in the direction of a more bird-like proportion. Since tyrannosaurs are relatively basal coelurosaurs, this is evidence that the advent of the Coelurosauria marks the beginning of a trend in theropod brain enlargement.
"Troodon"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio was 31.5% to 63% of the way from a nonavian reptile proportion to a truly avian one.
"Archaeopteryx" had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds.
The method used for Larsson's comparison was not the EQ, but a ratio of the size of the cerebrum to the whole brain. The cerebrum is chiefly responsible for what might be called 'intelligent behaviour'.
The brains of dinosaurs were generally much like other reptiles in their proportions. The exception is the coelurosaurs, which had cerebra proportionately larger than most reptiles, but proportionately smaller than modern birds.
Tellurium(IV) iodide
Tellurium(IV) iodide, also known as tellurium tetraiodide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeI. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains iodide ions.
Tellurium(IV) iodide is a black solid. It breaks down when heated to tellurium(II) iodide and iodine. It is a weak reducing agent. It conducts electricity when melted.
It is made by reacting tellurium with iodine or by reacting tellurium with iodomethane, CHI.
Tellurium(IV) fluoride
Tellurium(IV) fluoride, also known as tellurium tetrafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions.
Tellurium(IV) fluoride is a white solid. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with many metals when heated.
It is made by reacting tellurium dioxide with sulfur tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting cold fluorine with tellurium. Another way is reacting selenium tetrafluoride with warm tellurium dioxide. Fluorine can also react with tellurium(II) chloride or tellurium(II) bromide to make tellurium(IV) fluoride.
Tellurium(IV) oxide
Tellurium(IV) oxide, also known as tellurium dioxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeO. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.
Tellurium(IV) oxide can be yellow or white. The white form is the manmade form. The yellow form is natural, also known as tellurite. The manmade form is most common in chemical reactions. At high pressure, the manmade white form turns into the yellow form. It melts at a high temperature to make a red liquid.
Tellurium(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid. It can react with many strong acids and powerful oxidizing agents. It can also react with strong bases. It makes one's breath smell like garlic when it is eaten.
Tellurium(IV) oxide is made by burning tellurium in air.
It is used in devices that can convert light into sound. It can make glass with special properties.
It can cause birth defects. It also makes bad breath.
Tellurium oxide
Tellurium oxide can refer to either of these chemical compounds.
Tellurium(VI) fluoride
Tellurium(VI) fluoride, also known as tellurium hexafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF. It contains tellurium in its +6 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions. It is the oldest known tellurium fluoride.
Tellurium(VI) fluoride is a colorless gas. It condenses to a white solid when made cold. It has a very bad smell. It is very toxic. It is similar to selenium hexafluoride, even though it is less volatile (not as easily evaporated). It reacts with water to make telluric acid and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with tellurium under to make tellurium tetrafluoride.
It is made by reacting hot fluorine with tellurium. Cold fluorine gas makes tellurium tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting fluorine with tellurium trioxide. Another way to make it is reacting selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium dioxide to make tellurium tetrafluoride, which is heated above to make tellurium hexafluoride and tellurium.
Tellurium fluoride
Tellurium fluoride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:
Avram Glazer
Avram Glazer is the joint-chairman of Manchester United Football Club with his brother Joel.
Glazer lives in New Orleans with his wife and their two children. He is a son of Malcolm Glazer.
Telluric acid
Telluric acid is a chemical compound. It is an acid. Its chemical formula is HTeO. It contains hydrogen and tellurate ions. It contains the TeO form of the tellurate ion.
Telluric acid is a weak acid. It reacts with strong bases to make tellurates. It is a powerful oxidizing agents. It can be dehydrated to make tellurium trioxide. The metatelluric acid, HTeO, does not exist.
Telluric acid can be made by reacting tellurium dioxide with chromium trioxide or hydrogen peroxide.
It is used to make other tellurates such as sodium tellurate.
Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity is a concept in electrical engineering. It is a measure of how much a material stops the flow of electric current through it. Most metals have very low electrical resistivity.
More precisely, "the resistivity of a material of conductor is the resistance of its unit area of cross section and per unit of its length" The International System of Units uses the ohm metre for measuring how much electrical resistivity there is. Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity. This term is more used for semiconductors and insulators.
The resistivity of a substance is equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre long and 1 square metre in cross-section. This can be a 1 cubic Metre cube. So we can also say that the resistivity of a substance is equal to he resistance between the opposite faces of a 1 metre cube of the substance. The resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends on the nature of the substance and temperature.Manzanar
Philip Gunawardena
Don Philip Rupasinghe Gunawardena (11 January 1901 – 26 March 1972) was a Sri Lankan politician. He introduced Trotskyism to Sri Lanka. He studied in the United States and picked up liberal ideas there.
Hurricane Diane
Hurricane Diane was really devastating to the East Coast of the US during 1955. The storm caused severe destruction and an unusually severe death toll. Diane was among several hurricanes which bashed the East Coast during 1955, the others being Connie and Ione. The name Diane was later retired.
Martha Stewart
Martha Stewart (born Martha Helen Kostyra, August 3, 1941) is an American entrepreneur, author, and media personality. Stewart is famous for the "Martha Stewart Living" TV show and magazine. She was born in Jersey City, New Jersey to Polish-American parents.
In 2004, Stewart was convicted of obstructing justice and lying to investigators about a stock sale. She served five months in a West Virginia prison. She was on ABC but moved to another channel. In May 2018, President Donald Trump said he was thinking about pardoning Stewart for her charges.
Paul Edwards (composer)
Paul Christison Edwards (born ) is an English organist and composer of music for the Anglican Church.
Paul Edwards spent his childhood in the village of Turvey in Bedfordshire. He liked church music, especially the sound of the big organ in the church at Turvey. He became a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral for four and a half years and then spent the same amount of time as lay clerk at Peterborough Cathedral. He has been organist and choir master at several churches in Bedfordshire, including All Saints, Turvey and St. Paul's Church, Bedford. He works as a teacher, piano accompanist and choral singer.
Edwards has made a series of recordings of interesting old organs of North Bedfordshire. He has transcribed and edited ten volumes of 18th century "English Organ Music". The list of all his compositions has 450 opus numbers. They include about 150 hymn tunes and a large number of anthems. Many of these works have been published in collections including "Hymns for Today’s Church", "Psalms for Today" and "Carols for Today". His carol "No Small Wonder", written in 1983 was published in "Carols for Today" in 1986 and was recorded on LP by Canterbury Cathedral Choir. It was sung at the famous Nine Lessons and Carols service broadcast on the BBC Television by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge in 2000. His music has been recorded on several CDs.
Edwards finds inspiration for his compositions in the English countryside, especially that of Norfolk He also enjoys driving and photographing busses and coaches.
Lay clerk
A lay clerk, also known as a lay vicar, is a term used in the United Kingdom to describe a male singer who sings in a cathedral choir or a choir belonging to a college of one of the large traditional universities. A lay clerk is usually paid for the job. When he is called "lay vicar" the term "vicar" comes from the Latin word "vice" (meaning "deputy"). A lay vicar is not in holy orders (he is not a priest). Today there are a few female lay clerks, e.g. in Dublin.
The term "layman" was used in the Middle Ages for a chorister who sings some of the music that was too difficult for the priests to sing. Today many of the lay clerks in places such as Oxford or Cambridge combine their work as layclerk with studying at University. It is similar to a scholarship for studying.
Richard Owen
Sir Richard Owen KCB (Lancaster, 20 July 1804–18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and palaeontologist.
Owen is probably best remembered today for coining the word "Dinosauria" (meaning 'Terrible Reptile'), and for his outspoken opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
Owen was the driving force behind the establishment, in 1881, of the British Museum (Natural History) in London.
Owen's technical descriptions of vertebrates were important. His "Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates" (3 vols. London 1866–1868) was a standard reference work for many years.
His career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it under his own name.
Owen credited himself and Georges Cuvier with the discovery of the "Iguanodon", completely excluding any credit for the original discoverer of the dinosaur, Gideon Mantell. This was not the first or last time Owen would deliberately claim a discovery as his own, when in fact it was not. Owen was finally dismissed from the Royal Society's Zoological Council for plagiarism.
Owen was highly critical of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", in part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution. Instead, Darwin compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.
Owen, in Darwin's opinion, was "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever; the Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about". "It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which Owen hates me".
Owen was also a party to the threat to end government funding of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew botanical collection (see Joseph Dalton Hooker):
In the first part of his career Owen was regarded rightly as one of the great scientific figures of the age. In the second part of his career his reputation slipped. This was not solely due to his underhanded dealings with colleagues; it was also due to the serious errors of scientific judgement which were discovered and publicized. A fine example was his decision to classify man in a separate sub-class of the Mammalia (see Thomas Henry Huxley). In this Owen had no supporters at all. Also, his unwillingness to come off the fence concerning evolution became increasingly damaging to his reputation as time went on.
Owen continued working after his official retirement at the age of 79, but he never recovered the good opinions he had got in his younger days.
Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd
Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd is a 2011 case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. It was a civil lawsuit filed in federal court. It argued that holding Muslim-Americans after the September 11 attacks was unconstitutional.
A young man named Lavoni T. Kidd was a prominent football player at the University of Idaho. He is an American citizen. While at college, Kidd converted to Islam and took the name Abudulla al-Kidd.
In 2003, the police arrested Al-Kidd as he was boarding a flight to Saudi Arabia, where he planned to study. He was held for 15 nights under the federal material witness statute (a law that allows police to hold people who are going to testify in court) because he was going to testify in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen. FBI Director Robert S. Mueller told Congress that al-Kidd's capture was one of the FBI's "success" stories. Al-Kidd was never charged with a crime or called as a witness. He was later released.
Al-Kidd went to court, suing John Ashcroft, who was United States Attorney General from 2001 to 2005. Al-Kidd said he was strip-searched, shackled, interrogated without having a lawyer with him, and treated as a terrorist. The American Civil Liberties Union lawyers who represented al-Kidd claimed he was one of 70 Muslim men who were treated this way.
Aschroft claimed that he had "absolute immunity" from civil lawsuits like al-Kidd's. In other words, because his actions were part of his duties as Attorney General, nobody can sue him about those actions. Ashcroft also claimed that he had "qualified immunity" that prevents such lawsuits unless the official violated someone's constitutional rights.
In 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful holding of al-Kidd. On October 18, 2010, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear Ashcroft's appeal.
On May 31, 2011, the Supreme Court ruled against al-Kidd by a vote of 8-0. (Usually there are nine Supreme Court Justices, but Justice Elena Kagan did not participate in the al-Kidd case.)
To show that Ashcroft could be sued, al-Kidd's lawyers had to meet a very high burden of proof. They needed to prove that Ashcroft was directly involved in holding al-Kidd, or that he knew what was happening to al-Kidd. The Court ruled that al-Kidd's lawyers had not proved these things. They suggested that al-Kidd's detention was handled mostly by people who were much less powerful than Ashcroft.
All eight Supreme Court Justices agreed that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed. However, the Justices reached this decision for different reasons.
Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a majority opinion. He was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Samuel Alito. Scalia wrote that a Magistrate Judge had issued a valid arrest warrant for al-Kidd based on specific information about him. Al-Kidd was not arrested in a general effort to sweep a large group of Muslims into jail he was specifically arrested because he was suspected.
In a footnote in his opinion, Scalia argues with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg about what type of "individualized suspicion" is needed to justify arresting a person. Scalia wrote that a person does not need to be suspected of "wrongdoing" he just needs to be suspected. Scalia found that Ashcroft was protected from any possible lawsuits for ordering this group of arrests:
The objectively reasonable arrest and detention of a material witness pursuant to a validly obtained warrant cannot be challenged as unconstitutional on the basis of allegations that the arresting authority had an improper motive.
Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion. He was joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor for Part I of his opinion. He also wrote that al-Kidd's lawsuit should be dismissed.
Kennedy wrote the second part of his opinion alone. In this part, he described his concern that the Attorney General of the United States cannot be personally sued just because lower courts in some parts of the United States have made legal decisions opposing his policies.
Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Breyer and Sotomayor, wrote that it was "uncertain" just how powerful the Material Witness Statute was. For example, she/ questioned whether a "law-abiding citizen" who was not suspected of wrongdoing could be sent to jail if he saw "a crime during the days or weeks before a scheduled flight abroad." Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor were also concerned about how al-Kidd was treated in jail. The Court did leave al-Kidd with the right to sue his jailers for mistreating him.
Justice Sotomayor, joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer, wrote that the Court did not have to think about Constitional questions to decide this case.
Brit milah
Brit milah is the Jewish ritual circumcision ceremony performed on eight-day-old male babies. The foreskin is cut off from the end of the penis. The operation is carried out by a person called a "mohel", a ritual circumciser, who has been trained and qualified for this task.This ceremony is important for many Jewish people as it is a symbol of the covenant that God made with Abraham. Abraham is a patriach.
Lithium nitrate
Lithium nitrate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is LiNO. It contains lithium and nitrate ions.
Lithium nitrate is a colorless solid. It makes a red flame when heated. It is an oxidizing agent. It breaks down when heated into lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.
This metal can be made by reacting lithium, lithium hydroxide, lithium oxide, or lithium carbonate with nitric acid.