AcharyaChanakya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some of these "ejecta".
Eruptions can come from side branches or from the top of the volcano. Some eruptions are terrible explosions that throw out huge amounts of rock and volcanic ash and can kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen. Some volcanoes may show only one type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may show a range of types in a series.
The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions. It is used by the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program to assess historic and prehistoric lava flows. It works in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes: each interval in value is a tenfold increase in magnitude (it is logarithmic). Most volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2.
Volcanic eruptions by VEI index
Remetschwil
Remigen
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
Rietheim, Switzerland
Rietheim is a municipality of the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
Cascade Range
The Cascade Range is a mountain range in western North America. It goes from Northern California, through Oregon and Washington, and ends in British Columbia, Canada. The range includes the Western Cascades in northern California and the North and Canadian Cascades in Washington State and Canada.
The highest mountain in the cascades is Mount Rainier at 14,411 feet or 4,392 metres.
The Cascade range was formed by thousands of small, short-lived volcanoes that built a platform of lava and volcanic debris. Rising above this volcanic platform are a few strikingly large volcanoes, like Mount St. Helens, that dominate the landscape.
The fundamental reason for all these mountains on the western side of the Americas is the steady movement of the great landmasses away from Eurasia and Africa. The process of continental drift is fuelled by the production of sea-floor material at the mid-Atlantic trench. The landmasses of the Americas have buckled the edges of the Pacific plates, resulting in the continual volcanic build-up of mountains on the western side of the continents. The Cascade Volcanic Arc made its first appearance 36 million years ago. The major volcanic peaks today were born in the last 1.6 million years. More than 3,000 vents erupted during the most recent volcanic episode that began 5 million years ago. As long as subduction continues, new Cascade volcanoes will continue to rise.
As the oceanic slab sinks deep into the Earth's interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma rises toward the Earth's surface to erupt, forming a chain of volcanoes.
Riniken
Rohr could mean any of the following:
Rohr, Aargau
Rohr is a former municipality of the district of Aarau in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. Since 2009 Rohr is a part of the municipality and city of Aarau.
Rothrist
Rottenschwil
Rudolfstetten-Friedlisberg
Rüfenach
Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival
Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, best known as just Coachella, is an annual three-day music festival held in Indio, California. It has taken place every year since the first year in 1999, except in the year 2000. It has had artists ranging from Rage Against the Machine to Nickel Creek. The 2014 festival will have 184 artists.
Rümikon is a municipality of the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
Welwel
Archers of Loaf
Arctic Cordillera
Fort Banks
Fort Banks (also known as the Eastern Command Fixed Defences), is an old World War II fort that was used to protect the entrance to Botany Bay. The fort is located north of Cape Banks in La Perouse, New South Wales Australia.
Just before WWII, a small section of land on the Cape Banks Headland that was owned by the New South Wales Golf Club was used by the Australian Army to build a fort. The fort was made so that it could protect Sydney from an attack by a foreign navy ship. The fort had two BL 9.2 inch Mark 10 cannons that were put into concrete gun emplacements (pictured) and barracks that were finished just before the start of WWII. During WWII the Henry Head Battery was also reopened and had two BL 6 inch cannons.
Rupperswil
Safenwil
Schafisheim
Scherz
Scherz is a former municipality of the district of Brugg in canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
Schinznach-Bad
Schinznach-Bad was a municipality in Brugg in canton of Aargau in Switzerland. On 1 January 2020 Schinznach-Bad became part of Brugg.
Schinznach-Dorf
Schinznach-Dorf is a former municipality of the district of Brugg in canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
On 1 January 2014 the former municipalities of Schinznach-Dorf and Oberflachs merged into the new municipality of Schinznach.
Schlossrued
Schmiedrued
Schneisingen
Schöftland
Schupfart
Black-eyed Susan
Black-eyed Susan "Rudbeckia" is one of at least four genera within the flowering plant family Asteraceae whose members are commonly known as coneflowers.
Blackeyed Susan is a common Missouri native wildflower which typically occurs in open woods, prairies, fields, roadsides and waste areas throughout the State.
The name was given by Carolus Linneaus in honor of his teacher at Uppsala University, Professor Olof Rudbeck the Younger (1660-1740), and his father, Professor Olof Rudbeck the Elder (1630-1702), both of whom were botanists.
Schwaderloch
Seon, Switzerland
Lenzburg (disambiguation)
Lenzburg is a town in Switzerland. The term may also refer to:
Lenzburg
Lenzburg is a municipality in the district of Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland. It is the capital city of the district. The town was founded in the Middle Ages. It is in the Seetal valley, about south of the Aare delta. Lenzburg and the municipalities of Niederlenz and Staufen have merged over time. The city name refers to the name of the castle which can be translated as "spring castle".
As of 31 December 2010, Lenzburg about 8,341 people lived in Lenzburg. Lenzburg is about west of Zürich. Many people living in Lenzburg go to Zürich to work.
The district of in area is in a valley between two ranges of minor limestone mountains which rise about above the otherwise flat valley. The two major mountains are Während der Schlossberg at above sea-level with a diameter of only , and the nearby Goffersberg at above sea-level which is only long and has a broad plateau wide. Lenzburg grew together with the nearby communities into a regional area
Nearby municipalities are Rupperswil in the northwest, Niederlenz and Möriken Wildegg in the north; Othmarsingen in the northeast, Hendschiken in the east, Ammerswil in the southeast, Egliswil the south, Seon in the southwest as well as Staufen in the west.
The area has a long history. A neolithic cemetery with 16 chambered tombs built about 3,800 years ago was found near the castle in 1959.
A Roman theatre was uncovered when the motorway was built in 1964. It was built about 100 AD. It could seat an audience of about 4,000 people. It was part of a small village of 400 to 600 people that existed for about 200 years. The village was built on either side of the road for a distance of about 400 metres. There were shops, taverns, and small factories making wood and leather products. Behind these building were houses and farms. It is possible that there was a small fort in the village. The first buildings were wooden but these were destroyed in a fire at the end of the first century. The new buildings were made of stone. The village was abandoned in the 3rd century.
In the 5th and 6th centuries, an Alamanni village existed. The oldest registered usage of the name "Lencis" (from which Lenzburg derives) is from 893. In 1036, Castle Lenzburg became the seat for the count of Lenzburg, then an important lord. The family died out in 1173, and the castle was then owned by emperor Frederick Barbarossa. After this, it was mainly used by the Kyburger house. The Habsburgs took over the castle in 1273.
City rights were granted in 1306. Lenzburg was conquered by Bern in 1415, along with the western part of what is now Aargau. Bern did not take away its city rights. In 1433, the city of Bern bought the castle and used it to govern the area from 1444 to 1798. A major fire ruined the town in 1491. Only fifteen houses were not destroyed. The reformation was carried out at the same time with the rest of the region in 1528. The economy started to move slowly from a farming economy to a more industrial one in the 16th century. A textile factory was founded in 1732.
In 1798, the Helvetian Republic was made and the lords from Bern were removed. The canton of Aargau was founded and Lenzburg became the capital of the district in 1803. The canton gained the castle in 1804. Lenzburg became the economic center of the area in the 19th century. In 1875, Lenzburg was added to the railway system. Competition for trade became too much and Lenzburg became bankrupt only one year later. The town recovered from bankruptcy during the next 10 years.
In 1886, the German playwright, Frank Wedekind lived in the castle which his father had bought. It was sold in 1892 to August Edward Jessup from Philadelphia who spent a lot of money restoring the castle. He sold it to a Chicago banker, James W. Ellsworth in 1911. Ellsworth's son, Lincoln Ellsworth and Roald Amundsen used the castle to plan their polar explorations in the 1920s.
The main place to see in the town is the Lenzburg castle. It was built in the 11th century and has been added onto several times. Lenzburg is among the oldest and most important high-castles in Switzerland. Some of the city wall has been kept and is now under protection. Some interesting buildings are in the old part of town. These include:
Lenzburg is an important economic centre. It contains over 800 companies. Most of the businesses are small to medium sized, but some worldwide companies are established in Lenzburg, for example the global Asea Brown Boveri (ABB). About 6,000 people work in Lenzburg.
Lenzburg is a good place for transportation. It is about from Zürich with access to the A1, Switzerland's most important motorway. Two main axes of traffic cross in Lenzburg, one running from Waldshut to Lucerne and the other running from Zurich to Berne.
Some of the trains from Zurich to Berne stop in Lenzburg. Lenzburg is part of the Suburban rail system of Zurich. Other trains connect the city to Brugg, Lucerne, Zofingen and Zug. The line to Wettingen was closed, because of low traffic. The trains were replaced by a commuter line from Zurich (which runs to Aarau).
Zürich International Airport is close to the town of Lenzburg. The local bus "Regionalbus Lenzburg" leads to the municipalities of Brunegg, Dintikon, Möriken-Wildegg, Schafisheim and Seengen. Lenzburg has an urban bus system as well.
For over 400 years, the youth celebration ("Jugendfest") is the largest event in Lenzburg. It takes place every year on the second Friday of July. In August, the "Gauklerfestival" takes place in the streets of the old part of town with food and entertainment on the streets of the city.
Aurora (aircraft)
The Aurora (supposedly called the SR-91 Aurora) is a possible surveillance aircraft. No one knows if it ever existed. Supposedly, it was meant for trying out hypersonic flight, or speeds above 5 times the speed of sound. The name "Aurora" was used for the aircraft because in 1985, it appeared on an American military funding list. It might have been to replace the SR-71 Blackbird.
In 1989, a man named Chris Gibson was working on an oil rig when he saw a KC-135 Stratotanker, two F-111 Aardvarks, and a triangle-shaped craft refueling. He did not know what it was. During 1991 in Southern California, there were a lot of sonic booms being heard. There was also a pulse coming out of the engine. The most recent sighting was in 2006.
The Oprah Winfrey Show
The Oprah Winfrey Show was an American talk show which had Oprah Winfrey as the host. It began on September 8, 1986, and has since become one of the most famous talk shows in the world. The show ended on May 25, 2011 after 25 seasons. It won 47 Daytime Emmy Awards.
Notable guests on her show were:
Rheinfelden, Switzerland
Rheinfelden is a city and municipality of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland, seat of the district of Rheinfelden. It is east of Basel. The name means the fields of the Rhine, as the town is on the Hochrhein. It is home to Feldschlösschen, the most popular beer in Switzerland. The city is across the river from Rheinfelden in Baden-Württemberg; the two cities were joined until Napoleon Bonaparte fixed the German–Swiss border on the Rhine in 1802 and are still socially and economically tied.
The old town of Rheinfelden is on the Rhine river. The Rhine can be traveled down by ship from Rheinfelden all the way to the North Sea.
The area around Rheinfelden was already settled about 10,000 years ago. At that time, people lived in the "Hermitage", a small natural cave next to the current highway. In the year 45 BC, a few kilometers west, the village Augusta Raurica was made, the first Roman town in Switzerland, near modern Kaiseraugst. Towards the end of the 4th century, a fort was built at the western settlement.
During the 17th century, there was very little time during which the city enjoyed peace. During the Rappenkrieg (a peasant uprising that lasted from 1612 until 1614), the city was ruined. Between 1633 and 1638, the Thirty Years' War reached Fricktal, where Rheinfelden played a big role. On 15 July 1633, Swedish and French troops ruined the city. On 5 February 1638, the city was put under attack by Protestant troops sent by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. On 28 February, the Battle of Rheinfelden began, as the city was attacked by the bigger Imperial and Bavarian troops sent by Johann von Werth and Federigo Savelli. The Protestants lost this battle and moved on. Bernhard brought them weapons, but in the second passage on 3 March they were defeated, as he and his men unexpectedly re-appeared on the battlefield, with Savelli and Werth falling into captivity.
By the end of the Thirty Years' War, the Austrians had built a fortress on the island to secure the southwestern border of the Breisgau. In 1678, French troops sent by François de Créquy fired at the city. In 1745, during the War of the Austrian Succession, the French made a fortress on the same ground and also ruined part of the city wall. On 17 July 1796, Rheinfelden was again occupied and looted by the French.
Because of the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, the Fricktal became a protectorate of the French, making the front line between the French Revolutionary and the Austrian troops in the War of the Second Coalition. On 20 February 1802, Rheinfelden was made the capital city of the new Canton of Fricktal, joining the Helvetic Republic in August, the point at which the city became mostly Swiss. The seat of the cantonal government was here instead of in Laufenburg. With the beginning of the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" (the German Mediatisation), Napoleon Bonaparte removed the canton of Fricktal. Since 19 March 1803, Rheinfelden has been the capital of the district of the same name, in the canton of Aargau.
Arzo
Arzo was a municipality of the district Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 5 April 2009 the former municipalities of Arzo, Capolago, Genestrerio, Mendrisio, Rancate and Tremona merged into the municipality of Mendrisio.
Astano
Lugano (district)
Lugano is a district of the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
The district of Lugano has 98 municipalities divided in 12 circles:
Locarno (district)
Locarno is a district of the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
The district of Locarno has 40 municipalities divided in 7 circles:
Vallemaggia (district)
Bellinzona (district)
Bellinzona is a district of the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
Riviera (district)
Blenio (district)
Leventina (district)
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is a linguistic idea which claims that the language people speak changes the way they think and act.
An icosahedron is a Platonic solid that is made of triangles and has twenty sides.
There are many kinds of icosahedra, with some being more symmetrical than others. The best known is the Platonic, convex regular icosahedron.
There are two objects, one convex and one concave, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have icosahedral symmetry. The term "regular icosahedron" generally refers to the convex variety, while the nonconvex form is called a "great icosahedron".
The convex regular icosahedron is usually referred to simply as the "regular icosahedron", one of the five regular Platonic solids, and is represented by its Schläfli symbol {3, 5}, containing 20 triangular faces, with 5 faces meeting around each vertex.
Its dual polyhedron is the regular dodecahedron {5, 3} having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex.
The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. Its Schläfli symbol is {3, }. Like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges.
Its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron (, 3), having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex.
Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron. It is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure.
In their book "The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra", Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron.
Of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them.
Other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are often referred to as such.
An Octahedron is a polyhedron made of eight faces. in the case of the regular octahedron, these faces are triangles. The ocahedron looks like two pyramids, which share the same base.
In chemistry, octahedra are common: diamonds and fluorite are examples of crystals that are octahedra.
If the edge length of a regular octahedron is "a", the radius of a circumscribed sphere (one that touches the octahedron at all vertices) is
and the radius of an inscribed sphere (tangent to each of the octahedron's faces) is
while the midradius, which touches the middle of each edge, is
The "octahedron" has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on an edge, vertex, face, and normal to a face. The second and third correspond to the B and A Coxeter planes.
The octahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.
An octahedron with edge length can be placed with its center at the origin and its vertices on the coordinate axes; the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are then
In an "x"–"y"–"z" Cartesian coordinate system, the octahedron with center coordinates ("a", "b", "c") and radius "r" is the set of all points ("x", "y", "z") such that
The surface area "A" and the volume "V" of a regular octahedron of edge length "a" are:
Thus the volume is four times that of a regular tetrahedron with the same edge length, while the surface area is twice (because we have 8 rather than 4 triangles).
If an octahedron has been stretched so that it obeys the equation
the formulas for the surface area and volume expand to become
Additionally the inertia tensor of the stretched octahedron is
These reduce to the equations for the regular octahedron when
The interior of the compound of two dual tetrahedra is an octahedron, and this compound, called the stella octangula, is its first and only stellation. Correspondingly, a regular octahedron is the result of cutting off from a regular tetrahedron, four regular tetrahedra of half the linear size (i.e. rectifying the tetrahedron). The vertices of the octahedron lie at the midpoints of the edges of the tetrahedron, and in this sense it relates to the tetrahedron in the same way that the cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron relate to the other Platonic solids. One can also divide the edges of an octahedron in the ratio of the golden mean to define the vertices of an icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. There are five octahedra that define any given icosahedron in this fashion, and together they define a "regular compound".
Octahedra and tetrahedra can be alternated to form a vertex, edge, and face-uniform tessellation of space, called the octet truss by Buckminster Fuller. This is the only such tiling save the regular tessellation of cubes, and is one of the 28 convex uniform honeycombs. Another is a tessellation of octahedra and cuboctahedra.
The octahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in having an even number of faces meeting at each vertex. Consequently, it is the only member of that group to possess mirror planes that do not pass through any of the faces.
Using the standard nomenclature for Johnson solids, an octahedron would be called a "square bipyramid". Truncation of two opposite vertices results in a square bifrustum.
The octahedron is 4-connected, meaning that it takes the removal of four vertices to disconnect the remaining vertices. It is one of only four 4-connected simplicial well-covered polyhedra, meaning that all of the maximal independent sets of its vertices have the same size. The other three polyhedra with this property are the pentagonal dipyramid, the snub disphenoid, and an irregular polyhedron with 12 vertices and 20 triangular faces.
There are 3 uniform colorings of the octahedron, named by the triangular face colors going around each vertex: 1212, 1112, 1111.
The octahedron's symmetry group is O, of order 48, the three dimensional hyperoctahedral group. This group's subgroups include D (order 12), the symmetry group of a triangular antiprism; D (order 16), the symmetry group of a square bipyramid; and T (order 24), the symmetry group of a rectified tetrahedron. These symmetries can be emphasized by different colorings of the faces.
The octahedron is the dual polyhedron to the cube.
The uniform tetrahemihexahedron is a tetrahedral symmetry faceting of the regular octahedron, sharing edge and vertex arrangement. It has four of the triangular faces, and 3 central squares.
Rounder Records
Columbia Records
Columbia Records is an American record label that formed in 1888. It is the oldest existing record company in the world.
Its parent company is now Sony BMG. Over the years, some of the artists and bands that have been signed to the label include Aretha Franklin, System of a Down, Johnny Cash, Bob Dylan, Bela Fleck, Janis Joplin, Paul McCartney, John Lennon, Prince, Willie Nelson, Dolly Parton, and hundreds of other artists.
List of Columbia Records artists
A partial list of artists who have recorded for Columbia Records or EMI's Columbia label include:
Origin of life
The origin of life on Earth is a scientific problem which is not yet solved. There are many ideas, but few clear facts.
Most experts agree that all life today evolved by common descent from a single primitive lifeform. It is not known how this early life form evolved, but scientists think it was a natural process which happened about 3,900 million years ago. This is in accord with the philosophy of naturalism: only natural causes are admitted.
It is not known if metabolism came first or genetics. The main hypothesis which supports genetics first is the RNA world hypothesis, and the one which supports metabolism first is the protein world hypothesis.
Another big problem is how cells developed. Melvin Calvin, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, wrote a book on the subject, and so did Alexander Oparin. What links most of the early work on the origin of life is the idea that before life began there must have been a process of chemical change. Another question which has been discussed by J.D. Bernal and others is the origin of the cell membrane. By concentrating the chemicals in one place, the cell membrane performs a vital function.
What we call life has only been verified in things that include RNA, mechanisms for encoding and decoding RNA, and mechanisms for building proteins from amino acids. The search for a verifiable theory of biogenesis is a separate field of research.
The earliest claimed lifeforms are fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils). They were found in iron and silica-rich rocks which were once hydrothermal vents in the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of Quebec, Canada.
These rocks are as old as 4.28 billion years. The tubular forms they contain are shown in a report. If this is the oldest record of life on Earth, it suggests "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago. According to Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth… then it could be common in the universe".
A scientific study from 2002 showed that geological formations of stromatolites 3.45 billion years old contain fossilized cyanobacteria. At the time it was widely agreed that stromatolites were the oldest known lifeforms on Earth which had left a record of its existence. Therefore, if life originated on Earth, this happened sometime between 4.4 billion years ago, when water vapor first liquefied, and 3.5 billion years ago. This is the background to the latest discovery discussed above.
The earliest evidence of life comes from the Isua supercrustal belt in Western Greenland, and from similar formations in the nearby Akilia Islands. This is because a high level of the lighter isotope of carbon is found there. Living things take up lighter isotopes because this takes less energy. Carbon entering into rock formations has a concentration of elemental δC of about −5.5. of C, biomass has a δC of between −20 and −30. These isotopic fingerprints are preserved in the rocks. With this evidence, Mojzis suggested that life existed on the planet already by 3.85 billion years ago.
A few scientists think life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores. This idea, now known as panspermia, was first put forward by Arrhenius.
Until the early 19th century many people believed in the regular spontaneous generation of life from non-living matter. This was called spontaneous generation, and was disproved by Louis Pasteur. He showed that without spores no bacteria or viruses grew on sterile material.
In a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker on 11 February 1871, Charles Darwin proposed a "natural process" for the origin of life.
He suggested that the original spark of life may have begun in a "warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, lights, heat, electricity, etc. A protein compound was then chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes". He went on to explain that "at the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed".
No real progress was made until 1924 when Alexander Oparin reasoned that atmospheric oxygen prevented the synthesis of the organic molecules. Organic molecules are the necessary building blocks for the evolution of life. In his "The Origin of Life", Oparin argued that a "primordial soup" of organic molecules could be created in an oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of sunlight. These would combine in ever-more complex fashions until they formed droplets. These droplets would "grow" by fusion with other droplets, and "reproduce" through fission into daughter droplets, and so have a primitive metabolism in which those factors which promote "cell integrity" survive, those that do not become extinct. Many modern theories of the origin of life still take Oparin's ideas as a starting point.
Around the same time J.B.S. Haldane also suggested that the Earth's pre-biotic oceans, which were very different from what oceans are now, would have formed a "hot dilute soup". In this soup, organic compounds, the building blocks of life, could have formed. This idea was called "biopoiesis", the process of living matter evolving from self-replicating but nonliving molecules.
There is almost no geological record from before 3.8 billion years ago. The environment that existed in the Hadean era was hostile to life, but how much so is not known. There was a time, between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years ago, which is known as the Late Heavy Bombardment. It is so named because many lunar craters are thought to have formed then. The situation on other planets, such as Earth, Venus, Mercury and Mars must have been similar. These impacts would likely sterilize the Earth (kill all life), if it existed at that time.
Several people have suggested that the chemicals in the cell give clues as to what the early seas must have been like. In 1926, Macallum noted that the inorganic composition of the cell cytosol dramatically differs from that of modern sea water: "the cell… has endowments transmitted from a past almost as remote as the origin of life on earth". For example: "All cells contain much more potassium, phosphate, and transition metals than modern ... oceans, lakes, or rivers". "Under the anoxic, CO-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of inland basins at geothermal fields would [be like the chemistry inside] modern cells".
If life evolved in the deep ocean, near a hydrothermal vent, it could have originated as early as 4 to 4.2 billion years ago. If, on the other hand, life originated at the surface of the planet, a common opinion is it could only have done so between 3.5 and 4 billion years ago.
Lazcano and Miller (1994) suggest that the pace of molecular evolution was dictated by the rate of recirculating water through mid-ocean submarine vents. Complete recirculation takes 10 million years, so any organic compounds produced by then would be altered or destroyed by temperatures exceeding 300 °C. They estimate that the development of a 100 kilobase genome of a DNA/protein primitive heterotroph into a 7000 gene filamentous cyanobacterium would have required only 7 million years.
Originally, the Earth's atmosphere had almost no free oxygen. It gradually changed to what it is today, over a very long time (see Great Oxygenation Event). The process began with cyanobacteria. They were the first organisms to make free oxygen by photosynthesis. Most organisms today need oxygen for their metabolism; only a few can use other sources for respiration.
So it is expected that the first proto-organisms were chemoautotrophs, and did not use aerobic respiration. They were anaerobic.
There is no "standard model" on how life started. Most accepted models are built on molecular biology and cell biology:
The origin of the basic biomolecules, while not settled, is less controversial than the significance and order of steps 2 and 3. The basic chemicals from which life is thought to have formed are:
Molecular oxygen (O) and ozone (O) were either rare or absent.
Bernal suggested that evolution may have commenced early, some time between Stage 1 and 2.
There are three sources of organic molecules on the early Earth:
Estimates of these sources suggest that the heavy bombardment before 3.5 billion years ago made available quantities of organics comparable to those produced by other energy sources.
In 1953 a graduate student, Stanley Miller, and his professor, Harold Urey, performed an experiment that showed how organic molecules could have formed on early Earth from inorganic precursors.
The now-famous Miller–Urey experiment used a highly reduced mixture of gases – methane, ammonia and hydrogen – to form basic organic monomers, such as amino acids. We do know now that for more than the first half of the Earth's history its atmosphere had almost no oxygen.
In the 1950s and 1960s, Sidney W. Fox studied the spontaneous formation of peptide structures under conditions that might have existed early in Earth's history. He demonstrated that amino acids could by itself form small peptides. These amino acids and small peptides could be encouraged to form closed spherical membranes, called microspheres.
Some scientists have suggested special conditions which could make cell synthesis easier.
A clay model for the origin of life was suggested by A. Graham Cairns-Smith. Clay theory suggests complex organic molecules arose gradually on a pre-existing non-organic platform, namely, silicate crystals in solution.
In the 1970s, Thomas Gold proposed the theory that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface. The discovery in the late 1990s of nanobes (filamental structures that are smaller than bacteria, but that may contain DNA in deep rocks) might support Gold's theory.
It is now reasonably well established that microbial life is plentiful at shallow depths in the Earth (up to five kilometers below the surface) in the form of extremophile archaea, rather than the better-known eubacteria (which live in more accessible conditions).
Gold asserted that a trickle of food from a deep, unreachable, source is needed for survival because life arising in a puddle of organic material is likely to consume all of its food and become extinct. Gold's theory was that the flow of food is due to out-gassing of primordial methane from the Earth's mantle.
Self-organization and self-replication are the hallmark of living systems. Non-living molecules sometimes show those features under proper conditions. For example, Martin and Russel showed that cell membranes separating contents from the environment and self-organization of self-contained redox reactions are the most conserved attributes of living things. They argue that inorganic matter like that would be life's most likely last common ancestor.
In this hypothesis, RNA is said to work both as an enzyme and as a container of genes. Later, DNA took over its genetic role.
The RNA world hypothesis proposes that life based on ribonucleic acid (RNA) pre-dates the current world of life based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins. RNA is able both to store genetic information, like DNA, and to catalyze chemical reactions, like an enzyme. It may have supported pre-cellular life and been a major step towards cellular life.
There are some pieces of evidence which support this idea:
This idea suggests that proteins worked as enzymes first, producing metabolism. After that DNA and RNA began to work as containers of genes.
This idea also has some evidences which supports this.
In this scheme membranes made of lipid bilayers occur early on. Once organic chemicals are enclosed, more complex biochemistry is then possible.
This is the idea suggested by Arrhenius, and developed by Fred Hoyle, that life developed elsewhere in the universe and arrived on Earth in the form of spores. This is not a theory of how life began, but a theory of how it might have spread. It may have spread, for example, by meteorites.
Some propose that early Mars was a better place to start life than was the early Earth. The molecules which combined to form genetic material are more complex than the "primordial soup" of organic (carbon-based) chemicals that existed on Earth four billion years ago. If RNA was the first genetic material, then minerals containing boron and molybdenum could assist in its formation. These minerals were much more common on Mars than on Earth.
In Christianity, some people reject the idea of evolution. They believe that the Earth is only a few thousand years old. This is known as Young Earth Creationism. However, the Bible does not explicitly state the age of the Earth, only that 'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.' (Genesis 1:1)
God is portrayed as the creator of all things, and the originator of life on Earth (Genesis 1 & 2).
Timeline of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season
Below is a timeline of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season, listing all the storm formations, strengthening, weakening, landfalls, extratropical transitions, as well as dissipation. The 2006 Atlantic hurricane season was a season in which an El Niño event stopped much tropical cyclone activity, especially later in the season. The season officially began on June 1, 2006, and lasted until November 30. For convenience and clarity, in the timeline below, all landfalls are bolded. The timeline also includes information which was not operationally released, meaning that information from post-storm reviews by the National Hurricane Center, such as information on a storm that was not operationally warned on, have been included.
The graphical bar above gives a brief overview of storm activity during the season, and for convenience, the storm's maximum intensity is included as a color bar. Tropical Storm Zeta from 2005 persisted into 2006, therefore a January section has been included in the text timeline.
Atlantic Standard Time Zone
The Atlantic Standard Time Zone (AST) is a geographic region that keeps time by subtracting four hours from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), resulting in GMT-4 (UTC-4). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 60th degree meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.
The Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC. So does Bermuda, an island territory in the North Atlantic. In the summer, both places use daylight saving time. They keep "Atlantic Daylight Time (ADT)" (UTC-3) in the summer.
Other parts of the world that keep time by subtracting four hours from UTC include: many Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several South American countries, such as Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and parts of Brazil. Venezuela used AST until December 9, 2007, when it switched to , but switched back to AST on May 1, 2016, at 2:30 a.m. local time.
Figueirense FC
Figueirense Futebol Clube, also known as Figueirense, is a Brazilian football team in Florianópolis, Santa Catarina.
In 1921, the club was founded as Figueirense Football Club.
In 1932 the team won their first state championship.
From 1935 to 1937, Figueirense was three times in a row Catarinense champion.
In 1973, Figueirense was the first team of Santa Catarina state in Campeonato Brasileiro Série A.
In 1987, the club played at Campeonato Catarinense Second Division, and won the promotion to the First Division.
In 2001, the club was Campeonato Brasileiro Second Division runner-up, and was promoted to the following year's First Division.
From 2002 to 2004, Figueirense was three times in a row Campeonato Catarinense champion.
The stadium of Figueirense is Estádio Orlando Scarpelli. It was built in 1961. Its a maximum capacity is 19,908 people.
C Sharp (programming language)
C# (pronounced "see sharp") is a computer programming language. It is developed by Microsoft. It was created to use all capacities of .NET platform. The first version was released in 2001. The most recent version is C# 8.0, which was released in September 2019. C# is a modern language. C#'s development team is led by Anders Hejlsberg, the creator of Delphi.
Today, C# can be run on most platforms (Windows, Linux, etc.) without changing the source code. C# can be run on the Xbox 360 platform with a special framework.
C# code is similar to C++ and Java code. The CLR (Common Language Runtime) is needed in order to run a C# program.
/* This is a simple program in C#.
namespace HelloWorld
* This program asks for input from the user, i.e. a name. It then prints "Hello [name]", replacing [name] with whatever the person typed in.
C# can be edited in a number of IDEs (Integrated Development Environments), some of which are listed below:
Windows:
Mac OS X:
Unix/Linux:
Wilmington, North Carolina
Wilmington is a city in New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States.
The population was around at 96,000 during 2006;. It is the county seat of New Hanover County. It was named in honor of Spencer Compton, the Earl of Wilmington, who was Prime Minister at the same time as George II was King of England.
It was the site of the 1898 insurrection where many white people killed African-American politicians in the city. It is seen as the only coup d'état on American soil.
Plantation Key
Oak Island, North Carolina
Oak Island, North Carolina is a town mostly on Oak Island (which also contains the town of Caswell Beach and the North Carolina Baptist Assembly at Fort Caswell) in Brunswick County, North Carolina; a small part of the town extends onto the mainland north of the island's bridge. 6,571 people lived there at the 2000 census. It was founded in 1999 by the consolidation of the towns of Long Beach and Yaupon Beach. Its main industry is tourism; the town has about 30,000-40,000 people in the summer.
Avegno, Switzerland
Avegno was a municipality of the district of Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008, Avegno and Gordevio merged to form the new municipality of Avegno Gordevio.
In 1982, the Swiss Heritage Society gave the Wakker Prize to Avegno for the saving of its historical buildings.
Wakker Prize
The Wakker Prize (in German: "Wakkerpreis", in French "Prix Wakker") is given every year by the Swiss Heritage Society to a municipality of Switzerland for the making and saving of its historical buildings.
In 2005, the prize was given to the Swiss Federal Railways, rather than a municipality.
The prize is named for Henri-Louis Wakker.
Ehrendingen
Ehrendingen is a municipality of the district Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
Ehrendingen was created on 1 January 2006 from the former municipalities of Oberehrendingen and Unterehrendingen.
Barbengo
Barbengo is a former municipality until 2008, when it was moved to the municipality of Lugano and in the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.
Bedano
Bedigliora
Hurricane Fabian
Hurricane Fabian was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that hit Bermuda in early September during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season. Fabian was the sixth named storm, fourth hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season.
Fabian developed from a tropical wave in the tropical Atlantic Ocean on August 25. It moved west-northwestward under the influence of the subtropical ridge to its north, and steadily strengthened in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear. The hurricane attained a peak intensity of 145 mph (230 km/h) on September 1, and it slowly weakened as it turned northward. On September 5, Fabian made a direct hit on the island of Bermuda with wind speeds of over 120 mph (195 km/h). After passing the island, the hurricane turned to the northeast, and became extratropical on September 8.
Fabian was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since Hurricane Arlene in 1963. It was both the most damaging and the first hurricane to cause a death on the island since 1926. The hurricane's powerful winds resulted in moderate damage and destroyed roofs throughout the island. A strong storm surge associated with the hurricane killed four people crossing a causeway on Bermuda, temporarily closing the only link between two islands. The endangered Bermuda Petrel, better known as the Cahow, was threatened by the hurricane, which destroyed ten nests, although volunteer work transported the species to a safer location. Strong swells resulted in damage in northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, and also caused four people to drown along the United States' Atlantic coast. In all, Fabian caused around $300 million (2003 USD, $357 million in damage and eight deaths.
Because the devastating affects in Bermuda the name Fabian was retired. It was replaced by Fred in 2009.
Bedretto
High five
A high five is a hand gesture done with two people who want to express joy over an common achievement. The five refers to the five fingers on each hand.
It might mean "Good Job!". High fives are not done because a person is mad at someone else, even though doing one may hurt.
To do a high five, both people open one hand and raise it, and slap them together. It is morally wrong to slap someone in the face, instead of the hand. Sometimes this is confusing.
Depending on the situation, a high-five may be changed to a slap-n-slide of the palms.
One Person High Five: Clap/Clapping
Revolver (Beatles album)
Revolver is a 1966 album by British rock band The Beatles. It was their 7th album. Its front cover is a , designed by Klaus Voormann, an artist friend of the Beatles from Germany.
The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London, England. While most of the Beatles's records were made in Studio Two, it was being used for another project, so much of "Revolver" was made in Studio Three, which was much smaller and meant for use by soloists. Space was cramped, and the sound of the record was different from their earlier ones.
The album also got a different from earlier Beatles albums. The band felt free to "branch out" into new themes and ideas, that nobody had tried in a pop music recording before. "Taxman" commented on the tax system in England. "Eleanor Rigby" was about . "Yellow Submarine" became a hit with children. "Good Day Sunshine" and "Got to Get You Into My Life" were covered by other bands.
A few of the songs made references to drugs, particularly John Lennon's songs. "She Said She Said" was about a party in Los Angeles the Beatles had gone to, and had taken LSD. "Doctor Robert" was about a New York doctor (Charles Roberts) who sedatives and "feel-good" drugs for his patients. "Tomorrow Never Knows" came from Lennon's reading "The Psychedelic Experience", which adapted the "Tibetan Book of the Dead" as a drug-user's guide.
Beatles lead guitarist George Harrison was pleased to have three of his own songs included on "Revolver", "Taxman", "Love You To", and "I Want to Tell You". Most Beatles albums only had one or two Harrison songs. "Love You To" did not feature guitars, but Harrison instead played a sitar. World-famous sitarist Ravi Shankar heard the song, but did not like it, and offered to teach Harrison to play sitar properly. Shankar and Harrison went on to become lifelong friends.
Three songs from the album were "borrowed" by Capitol Records in the United States, and used on a compilation album, "Yesterday... and Today", which came out before "Revolver". The songs were "I'm Only Sleeping", "Doctor Robert", and "And Your Bird Can Sing". Capitol Records then released "Revolver" in a shortened version. The compact disc edition for sale today follows the original British version.
"Revolver" came out while the Beatles were on a concert tour. Bands normally perform songs from their latest album as a part of a concert. Strangely, the Beatles did not perform any "Revolver" songs on tour, but instead played the same music as on earlier tours. This got them criticism from some listeners. The tour also turned out to be the band's last. They played their final public concert in San Francisco, California on August 29, 1966.
Besazio
Rip current
A rip current is a strong surface flow of water returning outward from near the shore (not to be confused with an undertow). It is often mistakenly called a "rip tide" or "riptide", which is a flow of water out of an inland lagoon or channel during an ebb tide. Colloquially a rip current is known simply as a rip. Although rip currents would exist even without the tides, tides can make an existing rip much more dangerous (especially low tide). Typical flow is at 0.5 meters per second (1-2 feet per second), and can be as fast as 2.5 meters per second (8 feet per second). Rip currents can move to different locations on a beach break, up to tens of metres (a few hundred feet) a day. They can happen at any beach with breaking waves, including the world's oceans, seas, and large lakes such as the Great Lakes in Canada and the United States.
Bidogno